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Introduction To OB

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Introduction To OB

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phuongnm106
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OB - Introduction

1. Objectives of OB course Note/ Tham khả o thêm

- To improve management
and leadership skills and
interpersonal skills, and
fully develop capacity and
contribution

- Determine diverse and accurate information on individuals,


group and organizational behavior in organization
- Evaluate the key effects of individual, group and
organizational behavior on the performance of organization
- Demonstrate comparision of diverse perspective and analyze
the impact of individual and culturral differences on the
international business environment
- Master own behaviors and understand the relationship
between people and improve interpersonal and leadership
skills for better effectiveness of organization
- Develop sense of professional and social responsibility
- Master and apply fundemental organizational behavior and
change management theory to form a personal intergrated
knowledge framework to deal with practical management
and business issues
- Able to propose innovative solutions based on organizational
& change management understandings
-
2. Concepts -

2.1. Organization
- External environment:
+ Inputs: Raw materials, Human Resources, Information,
Financial Resources, Equipment
+ Outputs: Products/ services, Shareholder dividends,
Community support, Waste/ pollution

- Organization is considered as an open system System used to


transform Inputs to Outputs, consits of sub-system interacted to
each other.

2.2. Management functions -

- Planning: is the process of determining organization desired


future position and define the best way to get there
- Organizing: is the process of designing jobs, grouping jobs
into managerial units and establish patterns of authorities
among jobs/ group ob jobs
- Leading: is the most difficult function that manager has to do.
It is how to deal with people. Manager has to give directions,
guideline, inspire, motivate people, resolve conflicts in
organization
- Controlling: is the process of monitoring and correcting
direction of the orginazation/ people in oder to keep them
heading toward the goal

2.3. Managerial skills at different organizational levels - Technical skills: Kỹ nă ng chuyên


mô n - khô ng chỉ đơn thuầ n là về
vậ n hà nh má y mó c và phầ n mề m
mà cò n liên quan tớ i nhữ ng lĩnh
vự c khá c như khả nă ng là m tă ng
doanh số , thiết kế và tiếp thị
nhữ ng sả n phẩ m/ dịch vụ mớ i

- Conceptual skills: Kĩ nă ng tư
duy là khả nă ng suy nghĩ sá ng tạ o,
phâ n tích và hiểu nhữ ng ý tưở ng
phứ c tạ p và trừ u tượ ng. Nhà quả n
lý phả i hiể u đượ c toà n bộ khá i
niệm, phâ n tích, phá n đoá n đú ng
vấ n đề và tìm ra giả i phá p sá ng
tạ o. Điều nà y giú p nhà quả n lý
tiên đoá n trướ c đượ c nhữ ng khó
khă n mà cá c phò ng ban, thậ m chí
là toà n bộ doanh nghiệp, có thể
gặ p phả i.

- Interpersonal skills: Kỹ nă ng về
con ngườ i. là kỹ nă ng mà nhà quả n
lý cầ n để tương tá c, là m việ c và
kế t giao hiệu quả vớ i mọ i ngườ i
xung quanh. Kỹ nă ng nà y cho giú p
nhà lã nh đạ o tậ n dụ ng tiề m lự c
nhâ n sự trong cô ng ty và khích lệ
nhâ n viên củ a mình nhằ m đạ t
đượ c kết quả tố t hơn.

- Diagnostic skills go almost hand-


in-hand with the conceptual skills
listed above. While conceptual
skills are used to better understand
a problem, diagnostic skills are
used to find a way to effectively
solve the problem. In this way,
diagnostic skills and conceptual
skills are two sides of the same
managerial coin. Of course,
diagnostic skills aren't only used to
help find solutions do difficult
problems. Any issue that crops up
at a workplace can be easier to deal
with when a manager has strong
diagnostic skills. The key is to
develop the ability to use these
skills quickly and without the need
for long deliberation.
-
3. Organizational Behavior -
Study of behavior in 3 levels:
- Individual
- Group
- Organization

3.1. Analysis of OB Model -

- Inputs are the variables like personality, group structure,


and organizational culture that lead to processes.
- If inputs are like the nouns in OB, processes are like verbs.
Processes are actions that individuals, groups, and
organizations engage in as a result of inputs and that lead to
certain outcomes.
- Outcomes are the key variables that you want to explain or
predict, and that are affected by some other variables.
-
3.2. Type of Individual Behavior - Counterproductive work
behavior: hà nh vi là m việc phả n tá c
dụ ng – là hà nh vi đi ngượ c lạ i lợ i
ích hợ p phá t củ a mộ t tổ chứ c.
Nhữ ng hà nh vi nà y có thể gâ y tổ n
hạ i cho cá c tổ chứ c hoặ c ngườ i
trong cá c tổ chứ c bao gồ m nhâ n
viên và khá ch hà ng...
- Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB): Hà nh vi cô ng dâ n
tổ chứ c – là hà nh vi mang tính cá
nhâ n, tự nguyện, khô ng trự c tiếp
hoặ c rõ rà ng đượ c cô ng nhậ n bở i
hệ thố ng khen thưở ng củ a tổ chứ c
nhưng thú c đẩ y hiệu quả củ a tổ
chứ c

- Counter productive behavior: is employee behavior that goes


against the legitimate interest of an organization. These
behaviors can harm organizations or people in organizations
including employees and clients, customers, or patients
- Organizational citizenship: The discretionary behavior that
is not part of an employee’s formal job requirements, and
that contributes to the psychological and social environment
of the workplace
- Task performance: The combination of effectiveness and
efficiency at doing your core job tasks is a reflection of your
level of task performance. If we think about the job of a
factory worker, task performance could be measured by the
number and quality of products produced in an hour
- Maintaining attendance: Absenteeism at work
- Joining/ staying with the organization (withdrawal): is the
set of actions that employees take to separate themselves
from the organization. There are many forms of withdrawal,
ranging from showing up late or failing to attend meetings to
absenteeism and turnover. Employee withdrawal can have a
very negative effect on an organization
-
3.3. Outcomes variables of Group & Organizational Level -
a. Outcomes variable of Group level - Group cohesion: Gắ n kết nhó m
- Group functioning:
- Group cohesion: is the extent to which members of a group
support and validate one another at work. In other words, a
cohesive group is one that sticks together. When employees
trust one another, seek common goals, and work together to
achieve these common ends, the group is cohesive; when
employees are divided among themselves in terms of what
they want to achieve and have little loyalty to one another,
the group is not cohesive.
- Group functioning: refers to the quantity and quality of a
group’s work output. In the same way that the performance
of a sports team is more than the sum of each individual
player’s performance, group functioning in work
organizations is more than the sum of individual task
performances.
b. Outcomes variable of Organizational level
- Productivity: The highest level of analysis in OB is the
organization as a whole. An organization is productive if it
achieves its goals by transforming inputs into outputs at the
lowest cost. Thus productivity requires both effectiveness
and efficiency.
- Survival: is simply evidence that the organization is able to
exist and grow over the long term. The survival of an
organization depends not just on how productive the
organization is, but also on how well it fits with its
environment.

3.4. Why study OB?

Managers need to develop their interpersonal, or people, skills to be


effective in their jobs. OB investigates the impact that individuals,
groups, and structure have on behavior within an organization, and
then applies that knowledge to make organizations work more
effectively.

4. Individual behavior model


4.1. Inputs
a. Ability: ability is an individual’s current capacity to perform - Cognitive ability: khả nă ng nhậ n
the various tasks of a job. Overall abilities are essentially thứ c
made up of two sets of factors: - Cognitive ability description and
- Physical ability: The capacity to do tasks that demand example:
stamina (chỊu đự ng), dexterity (khéo léo), strength, and
similar characteristics. The manager needs to define which
physical ability is neccesary for specific job and ensure
employee with suitable physical ability is assgined
accordingly.
- Interlectual ability: are abilities needed to perform mental
activities—thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
+ Cognitive ability: Cognitive ability is defined as a general -
mental capability involving reasoning, problem solving,
planning, abstract thinking, complex idea comprehension,
and learning from experience.
7 dimensions of Cognitive ability: number aptitude (nă ng
khiếu số họ c), verbal comprehension (Nghe hiểu lờ i nó i),
perceptual speed (Tố c độ nhậ n thứ c), deductive reasoning
(suy luậ n), spatial visulization (Nhậ n biết khô ng gian),
memory
+ Emotional inteligence: is a person’s ability to: (1) perceive
emotions in him or herself and others; (2) understand the
meaning of these emotions; and (3) regulate his
or her own emotions accordingly
4 dimensions of Emotional inteligence:

b. Values: - Terminal value: giá trị cuố i cù ng


- Values represent basic convictions that “a specific mode of
conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or
end-state of existence (Cá c giá trị thể hiện niềm tin cơ bả n
rằ ng “mộ t phương thứ c ứ ng xử cụ thể hoặ c trạ ng thá i tồ n tạ i
cuố i cù ng là thích hợ p cho cá nhâ n hoặ c xã hộ i hơn mộ t
phương thứ c ứ ng xử đố i nghịch hoặ c trạ ng thá i tồ n tạ i cuố i
cù ng) – íu hiểu :)))
- Value system: A hierarchy based on a ranking of an
individual’s values in terms of their intensity

 Terminal values & Instrumental values


- Terminal values: Desirable end-states of existence; the goals
a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.
+ examples of terminal values are prosperity
and economic success, freedom, health and well-being, world
peace, and meaning in life
- Instrumental values: Preferable modes of behavior or means
of achieving one’s terminal values.
+ Examples of instrumental values are autonomy and self-
reliance (độ c lậ p & tự chủ ), personal discipline (kỷ luậ t cá
nhâ n), kindness, and goal-orientation (định hướ ng mụ c tiêu)

c. Personality

- The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and


interacts with others.
- Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions and help
managers forecast who is best for a job
 Factors that shape personality - Heredity: Di truyền đề cậ p đến
- Heredity (di truyền): refers to factors determined at cá c yếu tố đượ c xá c định khi thụ
conception. Physical stature, facial features, gender, thai. Tầ m vó c thể chấ t, đặ c điểm
temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, khuô n mặ t, giớ i tính, tính khí,
and biological rhythms are either completely or substantially thà nh phầ n cơ bắ p và phả n xạ , mứ c
influenced by parentage—by your biological parents’ nă ng lượ ng và nhịp điệu sinh họ c
genetic, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup. chịu ả nh hưở ng hoà n toà n hoặ c về
The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation cơ bả n bở i nguồ n gố c cha mẹ —
of an individual’s personality is the molecular structure of bở i cấ u tạ o di truyền, sinh lý và
the genes, located on the chromosomes tâ m lý vố n có củ a cha mẹ ruộ t củ a
- Environment: family, nuturing environment, social bạ n. Phương phá p di truyền lậ p
environment (friends, co-wokers) luậ n rằ ng lờ i giả i thích cuố i cù ng về
- Situation: tính cá ch củ a mộ t cá nhâ n là cấ u
trú c phâ n tử củ a cá c gen, nằ m trên
nhiễm sắ c thể.
Ví dụ : độ tin cậ y có xu hướ ng tă ng
dầ n theo thờ i gian, khi thanh niên
lậ p gia đình và lậ p nghiệp. Tính
cá ch cũ ng dễ thay đổ i hơn ở tuổ i
thiếu niên và ổ n định hơn ở ngườ i
lớ n.
 The big five personality model - Extroversion - hướ ng ngoạ i: chỉ
nhữ ng ngườ i có xu hướ ng hò a
đồ ng, quyết đoá n
- Agreeableness – Dễ chịu: chỉ
nhữ ng ngườ i tố t tính, hợ p tá c, đá ng
tin cậ y
- Consicientiousness – Tậ n tâ m: chỉ
nhữ ng ngườ i có trá ch nhiệm, có tổ
chứ c, đá ng tin cậ y và kiên trì
- Openness to experience – Cở i mở :
chỉ nhữ ng ngườ i sá ng tạ o, nghệ sĩ,
tò mò và nhạ y cả m về nghệ thuậ t
- Emotional stability – Ổ n định về
cả m xú c: chỉ nhữ ng ngườ i bình
tĩnh, tự tin, và an toà n (positive) và
lo lắ ng, tuyệt vọ ng, thiếu an toà n
(negative)
 The Myers-Briggs Type indicator • Extraverted (E) versus
Introverted (I). Extraverted
individuals are outgoing, sociable,
and assertive. Introverts are quiet
and shy.
• Sensing (s) versus Intuitive (Trự c
giá c) (N). Sensing types are
practical and prefer routine and
order, and they focus on details.
Intuitives rely on unconscious
processes and look at the “big
picture.”
• Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F).
Thinking types use reason and
logic to handle
problems. Feeling types rely on
their personal values and
emotions.
• Judging (J) versus Perceiving
(cả m nhậ n) (P). Judging types want
control and prefer order
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most widely used and structure. Perceiving types are
personalityassessment instrument in the world. It is a 100-question flexible and spontaneous (tự phá t).
personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in
situations. Respondents are classified as:
+ extraverted or introverted (E or I),
+ sensing or intuitive (S or N),
+ thinking or feeling (T or F),
+ judging or perceiving (J or P)

 DISC model - DISC viết tắt của 4 từ tiếng Anh:


Dominance – Influence – Steadiness –
Compliance (Sự thống trị, ảnh hưởng,
bền vững và tuân thủ)
- 4 nhó m tính cá ch DISC:

Marston đã cho rằ ng, hà nh vi con


ngườ i sẽ đượ c phâ n thà nh 4 kiểu dự a
trên lý thuyết DISC như sau:

1. Dominance (D) – “Thống


trị”: Ngườ i nằ m trong nhó m nà y
thườ ng có đặ c điểm là quyết đoá n, tự
tin, mạ nh mẽ, nă ng nổ , nhanh nhẹn,
mứ c độ tậ p trung cao, thích cạ nh
tranh, chú trọ ng tớ i kết quả .

2. Influence (I) – “Ảnh


hưởng”: Nhữ ng ngườ i thuộ c nhó m I
có đặ c điểm là thích xã giao, cở i mở , dễ
hò a đồ ng, nhiệt tình và khả nă ng
thuyết phụ c tố t.

3. Steadiness (S) – “Kiên định”: Điềm


tĩnh, trầ m ổ n, hò a nhã , biết lắ ng nghe,
ổ n định, luô n tậ n tâ m vớ i mọ i việc
mình là m và cẩ n trọ ng là nhữ ng phá c
họ a củ a ngườ i nằ m trong nhó m S.

4. Compliance (C) – “Tuân thủ”:


Ngườ i thuộ c nhó m C có đặ c điểm là
xem trọ ng trá ch nhiệm, thườ ng rõ
rà ng trong mọ i thứ , tư duy logic, tính
kỷ luậ t tố t, coi trọ ng sự chính xá c và
nghiêm tú c để hoà n thà nh kế hoạ ch đã
vạ ch ra.
PERSONALITY TRAITS – vẫ n méo hiểu
 Lotus of control – Điểm kiểm soá t tâ m lý - Điểm kiểm soá t là mứ c độ mà
mộ t ngườ i cả m thấ y bả n thâ n
kiểm soá t đượ c nhữ ng sự kiện
ả nh hưở ng trong đờ i số ng củ a
mình. Nếu bạ n tin mình kiểm
soá t đượ c nhữ ng thứ diễn ra, thì
bạ n có điểm kiểm soát nội tại,
theo giả i thích từ cá c nhà tâ m lý
họ c. Nếu bạ n nghĩ rằ ng mình
khô ng thể kiểm soá t đượ c
nhữ ng gì diễn ra và mọ i lỗ i lầ m
là ở nhữ ng yếu tố từ bên ngoà i
thì bạ n đang có điểm kiểm sát
ngoại tại

Locus of control refers to the extent to which people feel that


they have control over the events that influence their lives. If
you believe that you have control over what happens, then you
have what psychologists refer to as an internal locus of
control. If you believe that you have no control over what
happens and that external variables are to blame, then you
have what is known as an external locus of control

 Self-Esteem & Self-monitoring - Self-esteem: tự trọ ng


- Self-monitoring: tự giá m sá t
 Risk-taking - Risk propensity: xu hướ ng rủ i
ro

 Person-Job Fit & Person-Organization Fit


d. Attitude - Thá i độ có ba cấ u phầ n:
+ nhậ n thứ c: Tuyên bố “Lương
củ a tô i thấ p” là mộ t thà nh phầ n
nhậ n thứ c củ a mộ t thá i độ - mộ t
mô tả hoặ c niềm tin và o cá ch
mọ i thứ đang diễn ra. Nó tạ o
tiền đề cho phầ n quan trọ ng
hơn củ a mộ t thá i độ (- cấ u phầ n
tá c độ ng)
+ tá c độ ng: Tá c độ ng là phâ n
đoạ n cả m xú c hoặ c cả m giá c củ a
mộ t thá i độ đượ c phả n á nh
trong tuyên bố "Tô i tứ c giậ n vì
số tiền tô i đượ c trả ít". TÁ c độ ng
có thể dẫ n đến kết quả hà nh vi
+ hà nh vi: Thà nh phầ n hà nh vi
củ a thá i độ mô tả ý định cư xử
theo mộ t cá ch nhấ t định đố i vớ i
ai đó hoặ c điều gì đó — chẳ ng
- Attitudes are evaluative statements—either favorable hạ n như “Tô i sẽ tìm mộ t cô ng
việc khá c trả lương cao hơn”.
or unfavorable—about objects, people, or events. They
reflect how we feel about something. When you say “I
like my job,” you are expressing your attitude about
your work
- Attitudes have three components:
+ cognition: The statement “My pay is low” is a
cognitive component of an attitude - a description of or
belief in the way things are. It sets the stage for the
more critical part of an attitude (- its affective
component)
+ affect: Affect is the emotional or feeling segment of an
attitude reflected in the statement “I am angry over
how little I’m paid.” Affect can lead to behavioral
outcomes
+ behavior: The behavioral component of an attitude
describes an intention to behave a certain way toward
someone or something—as in, “I’m going to look for
another job that pays better.”
 JOB ATTITUDES

 Job satisfaction

- Approaches to measure job satisfaction:


+ The single global rating: is a response to one question,
such as “All things considered, how satisfied are you
with your job?” Respondents circle a number between 1
and 5 on a scale from “highly satisfied” to “highly
dissatisfied.”
+ The summation of job facets (khía cạ nh): is more
sophisticated. It identifies key elements in a job, such as
the type of work, skills needed, supervision, present
pay, promotion opportunities, culture, and
relationships with coworkers. Respondents rate these
on a standardized scale, and researchers add the ratings
to create an overall job satisfaction score.
- Job satisfaction should be a
- Outcomes of Job satisfaction major determinant of an
employee’s organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB).
Evidence suggests job
satisfaction is moderately
correlated with OCB; people
who are more satisfied with
their jobs are more likely to
engage in citizenship behavior.
Trust is the reason why job
satisfaction leads to OCB.
- For most individuals, work is
an important part of life, and
therefore it makes sense that
our overall happiness depends
in no small part on our
happiness in our work (our job
satisfaction)
- Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB): Hà nh vi cô ng dâ n
tổ chứ c – là hà nh vi mang tính cá
nhâ n, tự nguyện, khô ng trự c tiếp
hoặ c rõ rà ng đượ c cô ng nhậ n bở i
hệ thố ng khen thưở ng củ a tổ chứ c
nhưng thú c đẩ y hiệu quả củ a tổ
chứ c
IMPACT OF JOB DISSATISFACTION
- Employee’s responses to Dissatisfaction
+ Exit. The exit response directs behavior toward leaving the
organization, including looking for a new position or resigning.
+ Voice. The voice response includes actively and
constructively attempting to improve conditions, including
suggesting improvements, discussing problems with superiors,
and undertaking union activity.
+ Loyalty. The loyalty response means passively but
optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, including
speaking up for the organization in the face of external
criticism and trusting the organization and its management to
“do the right thing.”
+ Neglect (Bỏ mặ c). The neglect response passively allows
conditions to worsen and includes chronic absenteeism or
lateness, reduced effort, and an increased error rate
- Withdrawal behavior (thuộ c phầ n Outcomes in OB
model)

- Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) Counterproductive work behavior:


hà nh vi là m việc phả n tá c dụ ng – là
hà nh vi đi ngượ c lạ i lợ i ích hợ p
phá t củ a mộ t tổ chứ c. Nhữ ng hà nh
vi nà y có thể gâ y tổ n hạ i cho cá c tổ
chứ c hoặ c ngườ i trong cá c tổ chứ c
bao gồ m nhâ n viên và khá ch hà ng...

 Organizational Commitment
Is the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular
organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership
in the organization.

Three dimensions of Organizational Commitment:

 Job involvement
Is the degree to which people identify psychologically with
their jobs and consider their perceived performance levels
important to their self-worth. Employees with high job
involvement strongly identify with and really care about the
kind of work they do

5. Perceptual process
a. Perception
Why is perception important in the study of OB? Simply
because people’s behavior is based on their perception of what
reality is, not on reality itself. The world as it is perceived is the
world that is behaviorally important. In other words, our
perception becomes the reality from which we act.
b. Factors that influence perception - PERCEIVER When you look at a
target, your interpretation of what
you see is influenced by
your personal characteristics—
attitudes, personality, motives,
interests, past experiences,
and expectations. In some ways,
we hear what we want to hear
and see what we want
to see—not because it’s the truth,
but because it conforms to our
thinking.
- TARGET The characteristics of
the target also affect what we
perceive. Because we
don’t look at targets in isolation,
the relationship of a target to its
background influences
perception, as does our tendency
to group close things and similar
things together.
- SITUATION/ CONTEXT Context
matters too. The time at which we
see an object or event can influence
our attention, as can location, light,
heat, or situational factors.
PERSON PERCEPTION
5.1. Attribution Theory - Attribution theory: Lí thuyết qui
kết đượ c đưa ra để giả i thích về
cá ch chú ng ta đá nh giá mộ t ngườ i;
cá c cá ch khá c nhau trong việc dự a
và o ý nghĩa mà chú ng ta qui cho
mộ t hà nh vi nhấ t định.
Attribution theory tries to explain the ways we judge people
differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a
behavior
3 factors:
- Distintiveness: Tính riêng biệt
+ Tính riêng biệt đề cậ p tớ i việc liệu mộ t cá nhâ n có thể hiện
cù ng mộ t hà nh vi trong nhữ ng tình huố ng khá c nhau. Nhữ ng gì
chú ng ta muố n biết là liệu hà nh vi củ a mộ t cá nhâ n diễn ra
thườ ng xuyên hay khô ng.

+ Nếu đú ng là hà nh vi củ a mộ t cá nhâ n diễn ra khô ng thườ ng


xuyên thì ngườ i quan sá t có thể qui kết hà nh vi nà y là do
nguyên nhâ n bên ngoà i. Nếu hà nh độ ng nà y khô ng phả i chỉ
diễn ra có mộ t lầ n, thì có thể nó sẽ đượ c đá nh giá là có nguyên
nhâ n bên trong.

- Consensus - Tính liên ứ ng


+ Nếu mọ i ngườ i đố i mặ t vớ i nhữ ng tình huố ng tương tự phả n
ứ ng theo cá ch tương tự thì chú ng ta có thể nó i rằ ng hà nh vi thể
hiện sự liên ứ ng.

+ Theo quan điểm qui kết: Nếu như mứ c độ liên ứ ng là cao, thì
nguyên nhâ n dẫ n đến hà nh vi là nguyên nhâ n bên ngoà i; trá i
lạ i, nếu tính liên ứ ng củ a hà nh vi thấ p thì nguyên nhâ n dẫ n đến
hà nh vi là nguyên nhâ n bên trong.

- Consistency - Tính nhấ t quá n củ a hà nh vi


+ Tính nhấ t quá n củ a hà nh vi là mứ c độ mà cá nhâ n phả n ứ ng
theo cù ng mộ t cá ch tạ i nhữ ng thờ i điểm khá c nhau.

+ Nếu tính nhấ t quá n cao thì nguyên nhâ n dẫ n đến hà nh vi là


nguyên nhâ n bên trong, ngượ c lạ i, nếu tính nhấ t quá n thấ p thì
nguyên nhâ n dẫ n đến hà nh vi là nguyên nhâ n từ bên ngoà i.

5.2. Frequently used shortcuts in judging others

- Halo effect: When we draw an impression about an


individual on the basis of a single characteristic, such
as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, a halo effect
is operating
- Projection: more favor on person who have the same
charateristic(s) with perceiver.
5.3. Learning – vẫ n méo hiểu thuộ c phầ n nà o
5.4. Reinforcement

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