Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

Air conditioners and refrigerators basically use the same principles of operation. They both
include the following components:-

• A compressor
• Condenser
• Expansion valve
• Evaporator
• Refrigerant

Basic Refrigeration Cycle

Principles of Refrigeration
• Liquids absorb heat when changed from liquid to gas

• Gases give off heat when changed from gas to liquid.

For an air conditioning system to operate with economy, the refrigerant must be used repeatedly.
For this reason, all air conditioners use the same cycle of compression, condensation, expansion,
and evaporation in a closed circuit. The same refrigerant is used to move the heat from one area,
to cool this area, and to expel this heat in another area.

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 • The refrigerant comes into the compressor as a low-pressure gas, it is compressed and
then moves out of the compressor as a high-pressure gas.

• The gas then flows to the condenser. Here the gas condenses to a liquid, and gives off its
heat to the outside air.

• The liquid then moves to the expansion valve under high pressure. This valve restricts the
flow of the fluid, and lowers its pressure as it leaves the expansion valve.

• The low-pressure liquid then moves to the evaporator, where heat from the inside air is
absorbed and changes it from a liquid to a gas.

• As a hot low-pressure gas, the refrigerant moves to the compressor where the entire cycle
is repeated.

Note that the four-part cycle is divided at the center into a high side and a low side This refers to
the pressures of the refrigerant in each side of the system

All air conditioning systems must have four basic elements:

• Compressor
• condenser
• Expansion Valve
• Evaporator

From the compressor, high-pressure gas is sent to the condenser, where the heat is dissipated and
condensed to liquid. The high-pressure liquid flows on to the expansion valve, where it is
metered and its pressure is reduced. At the evaporator, the liquid absorbs heat from the air and
evaporates to gas. The cycle is then repeated, starting at the compressor.

1. Compressor

The purpose of the compressor is to circulate the refrigerant in the system under pressure,
this concentrates the heat it contains.

• At the compressor, the low pressure gas is changed to high pressure gas.
• This pressure buildup can only be accomplished by having a restriction in the high
pressure side of the system. This is a small valve located in the expansion valve.

The compressor has reed valves to control the entrance and exit of refrigerant gas during the
pumping operation. These must be firmly seated.

• An improperly seated intake reed valve can result in gas leaking back into the low side
during the compression stroke, raising the low side pressure and impairing the cooling
effect.

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 • A badly seated discharge reed valve can allow condensing or head pressure to drop as it
leaks past the valve, lowering the efficiency of the compressor.

Two service valves are located near the compressor as an aid in servicing the system.

• One services the high side, it is quickly identified by the smaller discharge hose routed to
the condenser.

• One is used for the low side, the low side comes from the evaporator, and is larger than
the discharge hose

The compressor is normally belt-driven from the engine crankshaft. Most manufacturers use a
magnetic-type clutch which provides a means of stopping the pumping of the compressor when
refrigeration is not desired.

Compressor Relief Valve

Some compressors have a relief valve for regulating pressure. If the system discharge pressure
exceeds rated pressure, the valve will open automatically and stay open until the pressure drops.
The valve will then close automatically.

Compressor Noise Complaints

Many noise complaints can be traced to the compressor mount and drive.

• If a unit is noisy at one speed and quiet at another, it is not compressor noise.

• Many times this kind of noise can be eliminated or greatly reduced by changing the belt
adjustment.

• Usually tightening mounts, adding idlers, or changing belt adjustment and length are
more successful in removing or reducing this type of noise, than replacing the
compressor.

• Noises from the clutch are difficult to recognize because the clutch is so close to the
compressor. A loose bolt holding the clutch to the shaft will make a lot of noise.

• The difference, between suction pressure and discharge pressure, also plays an important
part on sound level.
o A compressor with low suction pressure will be more noisy than one with a higher
pressure.

• Consider whether the system is properly charged, whether the expansion valve is feeding
properly to use the evaporator efficiently, and whether enough air is being fed over the
evaporator coil.

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2.Condenser

The purpose of the condenser is to receive the high-pressure gas from the compressor and
convert this gas to a liquid.

• It does it by heat transfer, or the principle that heat will always move from a warmer to a
cooler substance.
• Air passing over the condenser coils carries off the heat and the gas condenses
• The condenser often looks like an engine radiator
• . As the compressor subjects the gas to increased pressure, the heat intensity of the
refrigerant is actually concentrated into a smaller area, thus raising the temperature of the
refrigerant higher than the ambient temperature of the air passing over the condenser
coils. Clogged condenser fins will result in poor condensing action and decreased
efficiency.

A factor often overlooked is flooding of the condenser coils with refrigerant oil. Flooding results
from adding too much oil to the system. Oil flooding is indicated by poor condensing action,
causing increased head pressure and high pressure on the low side. This will always cause poor
cooling from the evaporator.

Too-High condenser Pressure

• Indicated By: Excessive head pressure on high side gauge.

• Caused By: Restriction of refrigerant flow in high side of system or lack of air flow over
condenser coils.

Too-Low condenser Pressure

• Indicated By: Higher than normal pressure on low side gauge.

• Caused By: Failed compressor reed valve or piston. Heat exchange in the condenser will
be cut down, and the excessive heat will remain in the low side of the system.

NB:

Condensers used on R-12 and R-134a systems are not interchangeable. Refrigerant-134a has a
different molecular structure and requires a large capacity condenser

3.Expansion Valve :

The expansion valve removes pressure from the liquid refrigerant to allow expansion or change
of state from a liquid to a vapor in the evaporator.

The high-pressure liquid refrigerant entering the expansion valve is quite warm. This may be
verified by feeling the liquid line at its connection to the expansion valve. The liquid refrigerant

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leaving the expansion valve is quite cold. The orifice within the valve does not remove heat, but
only reduces pressure. Heat molecules contained in the liquid refrigerant are thus allowed to
spread as the refrigerant moves out of the orifice. Under a greatly reduced pressure the liquid
refrigerant is at its coldest as it leaves the expansion valve and enters the evaporator.

Pressures at the inlet and outlet of the expansion valve will closely approximate gauge pressures
at the inlet and outlet of the compressor in most systems. The similarity of pressures is caused by
the closeness of the components to each other. The slight variation in pressure readings of a very
few pounds is due to resistance, causing a pressure drop in the lines and coils of the evaporator
and condenser.

Two types of valves are used on machine air conditioning systems:

• Internally-equalized valve - most common

• Externally-equalized valve special control

Internally-Equalized Expansion Valve

The refrigerant enters the inlet and screen as a high-pressure liquid. The refrigerant flow is
restricted by a metered orifice through which it must pass.

As the refrigerant passes through this orifice, it changes from a high-pressure liquid to a low-
pressure liquid (or passes from the high side to the low side of the system).

Let's review briefly what happens to the refrigerant as we change its pressure.

As a high-pressure liquid, the boiling point of the refrigerant has been raised in direct proportion
to its pressure. This has concentrated its heat content into a small area, raising the temperature of
the refrigerant higher than that of the air passing over the condenser. This heat will then transfer
from the warmer refrigerant to the cooler air, which condenses the refrigerant to a liquid.

The heat transferred into the air is called latent heat of condensation. Four pounds (1.8 kg) of
refrigerant flowing per minute through the orifice will result in 12,000 Btu (12.7 MJ) per hour
transferred, which is designated a one ton unit. Six pounds (2.7 kg) of flow per minute will result
in 18,000 Btu (19.0 MJ) per hour, or a one and one-half ton unit.

Externally-Equalized Expansion Valve

Operation of the externally-equalized valve is the same as the internal type except that
evaporator pressure is fed against the underside of the diaphragm from the tail pipe of the
evaporator by an equalizer line. This balances the temperature of the tail pipe through the
expansion valve thermal bulb against the evaporator pressure taken from the tail pipe.

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4.Evaporator

The evaporator works the opposite of the condenser, here refrigerant liquid is converted to gas,
absorbing heat from the air in the compartment.

When the liquid refrigerant reaches the evaporator its pressure has been reduced, dissipating its
heat content and making it much cooler than the fan air flowing around it. This causes the
refrigerant to absorb heat from the warm air and reach its low boiling point rapidly. The
refrigerant then vaporizes, absorbing the maximum amount of heat.

This heat is then carried by the refrigerant from the evaporator as a low-pressure gas through a
hose or line to the low side of the compressor, where the whole refrigeration cycle is repeated.

The evaporator removes heat from the area that is to be cooled. The desired temperature of
cooling of the area will determine if refrigeration or air conditioning is desired. For example,
food preservation generally requires low refrigeration temperatures, ranging from 40°F (4°C) to
below 0°F (-18°C).

A higher temperature is required for human comfort. A larger area is cooled, which requires that
large volumes of air be passed through the evaporator coil for heat exchange. A blower becomes
a necessary part of the evaporator in the air conditioning system. The blower fans must not only
draw heat-laden air into the evaporator, but must also force this air over the evaporator fins and
coils where it surrenders its heat to the refrigerant and then forces the cooled air out of the
evaporator into the space being cooled.

Fan Speeds

Fan speed is essential to the evaporation process in the system. Heat exchange, as we explained
under condenser operation, depends upon a temperature differential of the air and the refrigerant.
The greater the differential, the greater the amount of heat exchanged between the air and the
refrigerant. A high heat load, as is generally encountered when the system is turned on, will
allow rapid heat transfer between the air and the cooler refrigerant.

A blower fan turned on to its highest speed will deliver the most air across the fins and coils for
rapid evaporation.

For the coldest air temperature from the evaporator, operate the blower fan at the lowest speed so
the heat will be absorbed by the refrigerant from the air

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Problems of Flooded or Starved Evaporator Coils

Changing the state of the refrigerant in the evaporator coils is as important as the air flow over
the coils. Liquid refrigerant supplied to the coils by the expansion valve expands to a vapor as it
absorbs heat from the air. Some liquid refrigerant must be supplied throughout the total length of
the evaporator coils for full capacity.

A starved evaporator coil is a condition in which not enough refrigerant has been supplied
through the total coil length. Therefore, expansion of the refrigerant has not occurred through the
whole coil length, resulting in poor coil operation and too-low heat exchange.

A flooded evaporator is the opposite of the starved coil. Too much refrigerant is passed through
the evaporator coils, resulting in unexpanded liquid passing onto the suction line and into the
compressor.

5.Refrigerants
For an air conditioning system to operate with economy, as mentioned earlier the refrigerant
must be used repeatedly.

The selection of the working fluids (refrigerants) has a significant impact not only on the
performance of the air conditioners but on the environment as well. Most refrigerants used for air
conditioning contribute to global warming, and many also deplete the ozone layer. CFCs,
HCFCs, and HFCs are potent greenhouse gases when leaked to the atmosphere.

The use of CFC as a refrigerant was once common, including the refrigerants R-11 and R-12
(sold under the brand name Freon-12). Freon refrigerants were commonly used during the 20th
century in air conditioners due to their superior stability and safety properties. When they are
released accidentally or deliberately, these chlorine-bearing refrigerants eventually reach the
upper atmosphere Once the refrigerant reaches the stratosphere, UV radiation from the Sun
homolytically cleaves the chlorine-carbon bond, yielding a chlorine radical. These chlorine
radicals catalyze the breakdown of ozone into diatomic oxygen, depleting the ozone layer that
shields the Earth's surface from strong UV radiation. Each chlorine radical remains active as a
catalyst until it binds with another radical, forming a stable molecule and quenching the chain
reaction.

Prior to 1994, most automotive air conditioning systems used R-12 as a refrigerant. It was
replaced with R-134a refrigerant, which has no ozone depletion potential. Old R-12 systems can
be retrofitted to R-134a by a complete flush and filter/dryer replacement to remove the mineral
oil, which is not compatible with R-134a.

R22 (also known as HCFC-22) has a global warming potential about 1,800 times higher
than CO2 . It was phased out for use in new equipment by 2010, and is to be completely
discontinued by 2020. Although these gasses can be recycled when air conditioning units are
disposed of, uncontrolled dumping and leaking can release gas directly into the atmosphere.

In the UK, the Ozone Regulations came into force in 2000 and banned the use of ozone depleting
HCFC refrigerants such as R22 in new systems. The Regulation banned the use of R22 as a "top-
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up" fluid for maintenance between 2010 (for virgin fluid) and 2015 (for recycled fluid). This
means that equipment that uses R22 can still operate, as long as it does not leak. Although R22 is
now banned, units that use the refrigerant can still be serviced and maintained.

The manufacture and use of CFCs has been banned or severely restricted due to concerns about
ozone depletion

As an alternative to conventional refrigerants, other gases, such as CO2 (R-744), have been
proposed. R-744 is being adopted as a refrigerant in Europe and Japan, but it must use higher
compression to produce an equivalent cooling effect.

In 1992, a non-governmental organization, Greenpeace, was spurred by corporate executive

policies and requested that a European lab find substitute refrigerants. This led to two
alternatives, one a blend of propane (R290) and isobutane (R600a), and one of pure isobutane.

Uses
Air-conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into comfort and process
applications.

Comfort applications

Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that remains relatively
constant despite changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads.

Air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible, for otherwise they would have to be built
narrower or with light wells so that inner spaces received sufficient outdoor air via natural
ventilation. Air conditioning also allows buildings to be taller, since wind speed increases
significantly with altitude making natural ventilation impractical for very tall buildings Comfort
applications are quite different for various building types and may be categorized as:

• Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce, including offices, malls, shopping
centers, restaurants, etc.

• High-rise residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and apartment blocks

• Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is desired

• Cars, aircraft, boats, which transport passenger or fresh goods

• Institutional buildings, which includes government buildings, hospitals, schools, etc.

• Low-rise residential buildings, including single-family houses, duplexes, and small

apartment buildings

• Sports stadiums, such as the University of Phoenix Stadium and in Qatar for the 2022 FIFA
World Cup

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Women have, on average, a significantly lower resting metabolic rate than men. Using inaccurate
metabolic rate guidelines for air conditioning sizing can result in oversized and less efficient
equipment, and setting system operating setpoints too cold can result in reduced worker
productivity.

In addition to buildings, air conditioning can be used for many types of transportation, including
automobiles, buses and other land vehicles, trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.

Process applications
Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for a process being carried out,
regardless of internal heat and humidity loads and external weather conditions. It is the needs of
the process that determine conditions, not human preference. Process applications include these:

• Chemical and biological laboratories

• Cleanrooms for the production of integrated circuits, pharmaceuticals, and the like, in
which very high levels of air cleanliness and control of temperature and humidity are required
for the success of the process.

• Environmental control of data centers

• Facilities for breeding laboratory animals. Since many animals normally reproduce only
in spring, holding them in rooms in which conditions mirror those of spring all year can cause
them to reproduce year-round.

• Food cooking and processing areas

• Hospital operating theatres, in which air is filtered to high levels to reduce infection risk
and the humidity controlled to limit patient dehydration. Although temperatures are often in the
comfort range, some specialist procedures, such as open heart surgery, require low temperatures
(about 18 °C, 64 °F) and others, such as neonatal, relatively high temperatures (about 28 °C, 82
°F).

• Industrial environments

• Mining

• Nuclear power facilities

• Physical testing facilities

• Plants and farm growing areas

• Textile manufacturing

In both comfort and process applications, the objective may be to not only control temperature,
but also humidity, air quality, and air movement from space to space.

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Health effects

In hot weather, air conditioning can prevent heat stroke, dehydration from excessive sweating
and other problems related to hyperthermia. Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather
phenomenon in developed countries. Air conditioning (including filtration, humidification,
cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic atmosphere in
hospital operating rooms and other environments where proper atmosphere is critical to patient
safety and well-being. It is sometimes recommended for home use by people with allergies.

Poorly maintained water cooling towers can promote the growth and spread of microorganisms,
such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaires' disease, or
thermophilic actinomycetes. As long as the cooling tower is kept clean (usually by means of a
chlorine treatment), these health hazards can be avoided or reduced. Excessive air conditioning
can have a negative effect on skin, causing it to dry out, and can also cause dehydration.

Environmental impacts

Production of the electricity used to operate air conditioners has an environmental impact,
including the release of greenhouse gases.

Power consumption and efficiency

Innovation in air conditioning technologies continues, with much recent emphasis placed on
energy efficiency

Alternatives to continual air conditioning can be used with less energy, lower cost, and with less
environmental impact. These include:

• In large commercial buildings, making windows able to be opened by occupants when

the air outside is cool enough to be comfortable

• Setting thermostats to around 82 °F (28 °C) and allowing workers to wear more climate-
appropriate clothing, such as polo shirts and Bermuda shorts. This approach has worked for the
Cool Biz campaign in Japan.

• Passive cooling techniques, such as:

• Natural ventilation under and through buildings

• Operating windows to induce a stack effect breeze

• Letting in cool air at night and closing windows during the day

• Operating shades to reduce solar gain

• Building slightly underground, to take advantage of unpowered conduction and

geothermal mass

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• Placement of trees, architectural shades, windows (and using window coatings) to reduce
solar gain

• Thermal insulation placed to prevent heat from entering

• Light-colored building materials reflect away more incoming infrared radiation

• Using a fan if the air is below body temperature

• Swamp coolers in hot but dry weather

• Using a geothermal heat pump or ground-coupled heat exchanger

• Using naturally cooler basement rooms more

• Taking a siesta during the hottest part of the day

• Sleeping outside on a porch or roof

Automobile power consumption

In an automobile, the A/C system will use around 4 horsepower (3 kW) of the engine's power,
thus increasing fuel consumption of the vehicle.

AIR CONDITIONERS

Airconditioning system

Installation types

1.Window unit and packaged terminal

How a window air conditioner works

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Parts of a window unit

Window unit air conditioners are installed in an open window. The interior air is cooled as a fan
blows it over the evaporator. On the exterior the heat drawn from the interior is dissipated into
the environment as a second fan blows outside air over the condenser. A large house or building
may have several such units, allowing each room to be cooled separately..

.Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC) systems are also known as wall-split air
conditioning systems They are ductless systems. PTACs, which are frequently used in hotels,
have two separate units (terminal packages), the evaporative unit on the interior and the
condensing unit on the exterior, with an opening passing through the wall and connecting them.
This minimizes the interior system footprint and allows each room to be adjusted independently.
PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an
electric strip, gas, or other heater, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and
draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. While room air
conditioning provides maximum flexibility, when used to cool many rooms at a time it is
generally more expensive than central air conditioning.

2.Split systems
Split-system air conditioners come in two forms: mini-split and central systems. In both types,
the inside-environment (evaporative) heat exchanger is separated by some distance from the
outside-environment (condensing unit) heat exchanger.

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Mini-split (ductless) system

Outside part of a ductless split-type air conditioner

Indoor part of a ductless split-type air conditioner

A mini-split system typically supplies air conditioned and heated air to a single or a few rooms
of a building .Multi-zone systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to
8 rooms (zones) to be conditioned from a single outdoor unit. Multi-zone systems typically offer
a variety of indoor unit styles including wall-mounted, ceiling-mounted, ceiling recessed, and
horizontal ducted. Mini-split systems typically produce 9,000 to 36,000 Btu (9,500–38,000 kJ)
per hour of cooling. Multi-zone systems provide extended cooling and heating capacity up to
60,000 Btu's.

Advantages of the ductless system include smaller size and flexibility for zoning or heating and
cooling individual rooms. The inside wall space required is significantly reduced. Also, the
compressor and heat exchanger can be located farther away from the inside space, rather than
merely on the other side of the same unit as in a PTAC or window air conditioner. Flexible
exterior hoses lead from the outside unit to the interior one(s); these are often enclosed with
metal to look like common drainpipes from the roof. In addition, ductless systems offer higher
efficiency

The primary disadvantage of ductless air conditioners is their cost and may cost more than twice
as much as window units of similar capacity.

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An additional possible disadvantage is that the cost of installing mini splits can be higher than
some systems. However, lower operating costs and rebates or other financial incentives—offered
in some areas—can help offset the initial expense

Central (ducted) air conditioning

Central (ducted) air conditioning offers whole-house or large-commercial-space cooling, and

often offers moderate multi-zone temperature control capability by the addition of air-louver-
control boxes.

In central air conditioning, the inside heat-exchanger is typically placed inside the central
furnace/AC unit of the forced air heating system which is then used in the summer to distribute
chilled air throughout a residence or commercial building.

The heat-exchanger cools the air that is being forced through it by the furnace blower. As the
warm air comes in contact with this cool surface the water in the air condenses. By pulling the
water molecules from the air. According to the psychometric chart as relative humidity decreases
in order to feel cool you will have to lower the temperature even more. A common way to
counteract this effect is by installing a whole-home humidifier. Similarly, installing a high
efficient system this need to turn the temperature down wont have such and influence on your
energy costs.

3.Multi-split system
A multi-split system is a conventional split system, which is divided into two parts
(evaporator and condenser) and allows cooling or heating of several rooms with one external
unit. In the outdoor unit of this air conditioner there is a more powerful compressor, ports for
connecting several traces and automation with locking valves for regulating the volume of
refrigerant supplied to the indoor units located in the room.

A large Multi Split System is called a Variable refrigerant flow system and can be used instead
of a central air conditioner system, as it allows for higher energy efficiency but it is more
expensive to purchase and install.

Multi-split system installation considerations.

Before selecting the installation location of air conditioner, several main factors need to be
considered.

• First of all, the direction of air flow from the indoor units should not fall on the place of
rest or work area.
• Secondly, there should not be any obstacles on the way of the airflow that might prevent
it from covering the space of the premises as much as possible.
• The outdoor unit must also be located in an open space, otherwise the heat from the
house will not be effectively discharged outside and the productivity of the entire system
will drop sharply.
• It is highly advisable to install the air conditioner units in easily accessible places, for
further maintenance during operation.
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The main problem when installing a multi-split system is the laying of long refrigerant lines for
connecting the external unit to the internal ones. While installing a separate split system, workers
try to locate both units opposite to each other, where the length of the line is minimal.

Installing a multi-split system creates more difficulties, since some of indoor units can be
located far from the outside. The first models of multi-split systems had one common control
system that did not allow you to set the air conditioning individually for each room. However,
now the market has a wide selection of multi-split systems, in which the functional
characteristics of indoor units operate separately from each other.

The selection of indoor units has one restriction: their total power should not exceed the capacity
of the outdoor unit. In practice, however, it is very common to see a multi-split system with a
total capacity of indoor units greater than the outdoor capacity by at least 20%. However, it is
wrong to expect better performance when all indoor units are turned on at the same time, since
the total capacity of the whole system is limited by the capacity of the outdoor unit. Simply put,
the outdoor unit will distribute all its power to all operating indoor units in such a way that some
of the rooms may not have a very comfortable temperature level. However, the calculation of the
total power is not simple, since it takes into account not only the nominal power of the units, but
also the cooling capacity, heating, dehumidification, humidification, venting, etc.

Difference between split system and multi-split system:

Other common types of air conditioning system are multi-split systems, the difference between
separate split system and multi-split system in several indoor units. All of them are connected to
the main external unit, but the principle of their operation is similar to a simple split-system.

Its unique feature is the presence of one main external unit that connected to several indoor units.
Such systems might be the right solution for maintaining the microclimate in several offices,
shops, large living spaces. Just few of outdoor units do not worsen the aesthetic appearance of
the building. The main external unit can be connected to several different indoor types: floor,
ceiling, cassette, etc.

4.Portable units
A portable air conditioner can be easily transported inside a home or office. They are currently
available with capacities of about 5,000–60,000 BTU/h (1,500–18,000 W) and with or without
electric-resistance heaters. Portable air conditioners are either evaporative or refrigerative.

The compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to exchange heat,
in the same way as a car radiator or typical household air conditioner does. Such a system
dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces
hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the
cooled area to the outside air.

Portable split system

A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes,
similar to a permanently fixed installed unit. The portable units draw indoor air and expel it
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outdoors through a single duct. Many portable air conditioners come with heat as well as
dehumidification function

Portable hose system

Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air, are vented to the outside via air ducts.
The monoblock type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-
air type re-evaporates the water and discharges it through the ducted hose and can run
continuously.

A single-hose unit uses air from within the room to cool its condenser, and then vents it outside.
This air is replaced by hot air from outside or other rooms (due to the negative pressure inside
the room), thus reducing the unit's overall efficiency.

Modern units might have a coefficient of performance of approximately 3 (i.e., 1 kW of

electricity will produce 3 kW of cooling). A dual-hose unit draws air to cool its condenser from
outside instead of from inside the room, and thus is more effective than most single-hose units.
These units create no negative pressure in the room.

Portable evaporative system

Evaporative coolers, sometimes called "swamp coolers", do not have a compressor or condenser.
Liquid water is evaporated on the cooling fins, releasing the vapor into the cooled area.
Evaporating water absorbs a significant amount of heat, the latent heat of vaporization, cooling
the air. Humans and animals use the same mechanism to cool themselves by sweating.

Evaporative coolers have the advantage of needing no hoses to vent heat outside the cooled area,
making them truly portable. They are also very cheap to install and use less energy than
refrigerative air conditioners.

Air Conditioning Calculations

How do you do air conditioning calculations on the capacity of air conditioner for your room?
This calculation is important because if done wrongly, you will end up installing an oversize or
undersize equipment. An oversized air conditioner is not good as the compressor will run and
stop regularly and not able to cool the room uniformly.

It will also cause discomfort to the occupants as the de-humidification of the room is not
properly done. On top of that, the electricity bill will be high as the compressor turns on and off
too often.

Every time the on/off type of compressor starts to run, its power consumption is 6 times higher
than when it is running steadily.

The cycling on and off of the compressor will lead to shorter life span of the compressor besides
having to spend more on the unit price and installation cost.

An undersized unit will not be able to cool the room properly and more so if the weather is hot.

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Cooling Capacity

Cooling capacity for a room is defined as the heat load in a room that have to be removed in
order to achieve a certain room temperature and humidity. The typical design is set to 24°C
temperature and 55% Relative Humidity.

Study shows that this combination of temperature and RH is the most conducive for the human
body. The unit used to measure heat load is BTU/hr. 1 BTU/hr is the heat energy needed to
increase 1 pound of water by 1°F.

When choosing an air conditioner, usually a 1 HP (horse power) equipment is able to remove
9,000 BTU/hr of heat. With better technology, some machines are able to remove 10,000 BTU/hr
of heat with the same capacity. The higher the listed BTU/hr, the greater the cooling capacity.

Air Conditioning Calculations - Rule Of Thumb

Calculating the cooling capacity needed for your room is a complicated process as there are
many factors to consider. However, there is a simple rule of thumb that you can use to estimate
the required cooling capacity for your room. Use this result to compare with the calculation done
by the air conditioning contractors for your own checking purposes.

Step 1

Find the volume of your room in cubic feet. This is done by measuring the length, width and
height of the room in feet and multiply all the three dimensions together.

Volume = Width X Length X Height (cubic feet)

Step 2

Multiply this volume by 6.

C1 = Volume X 6

Step 3

Estimate the number of people (N) that will usually occupy this room. Each person produces
about 500 BTU/hr of heat for normal office-related activity. Multiply this two figures together.

C2 = N x 500 BTU/hr

Step 4

Add C1 and C2 together and you will get a very simplified cooling capacity needed for the room.

Estimated Cooling Capacity needed = C1 + C2 (BTU/hr)

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Other factors considered to determine the sizing of the cooling capacity include:-

• the direction of your room. If the room is facing east or west, additional capacity is
needed as it will be exposed to the morning and evening sun compared to a room that
faces north or south.
• If the lighting of the room emits a lot of heat, additional capacity is needed. If electrical
appliances that generate heat is used, additional capacity has to be factored in.
• The type of material of the room and windows are also important consideration.

Air Conditioner BTU

In North America and many countries, the unit for heat in used today is still British Thermal Unit
or BTU. In other countries, the SI metric system Joule is used. Knowing the equivalent of both
unit is necessary as many of the product data sheets are using both units. Btu stands for British
thermal unit and is defined as the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 pound
of water by 1 °F.

1 BTU is required to increase the temperature of 1 pound of water from 63 °F to 64 °F. In SI

metric, the equivalent is 4.187 kJ is required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of water from 17
°C to 18 °C.

Example 1: Find the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 50 lb. of water from
50 °F to 80 °F.

Answer:

Heat required = weight in lb. X temperature change in °F

= 50 lb. X (80-50)°F
= 50 X 30 Btu
= 1,500 Btu

Example 2 (SI metric): Find the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 2kg of
water from 5 °C to 30 °C.

Answer:

Heat required in KJ = 4.817 X mass in kg X temperature change in °C

= 4.817 X 2kg X (30-5)°C
= 4.817 X 2kg X 25 °C
= 240.85 kJ

If the water is cooled, heat is removed from the it.

Equivalents

1 Btu = 1.055kJ

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1 kJ = 0.948 Btu

Refrigeration Unit
Ton of refrigeration unit has been used for a long time and it represents the heat that is absorbed
when 1 ton or 2,000lb. of ice melts in 24 hours. The ice is assumed to be at 32 °F (0 °C) and
melted to become water at the same temperature. The more commonly used unit to rate a HVAC
equipment is in Btu/hr. 1 ton of
refrigeration effect = [Weight of 1 ton of ice (2000 lb.) X latent heat of melting of ice (144
Btu/lb)]/24 hours
= [(2,000 X 144)/24] Btu/hr
= [288,000/24] Btu/hr
= 12,000 Btu/hr

Hence, a 12,000 Btu/hr cooling capacity is equivalent to 1 ton of refrigeration.

Calculation In SI Metric Units

Latent heat is 335 kJ/kg
1 ton is about 907 kg

1 ton of refrigeration effect = [907kg X 335kJ/kg]/[24 X 3600 sec]

= 3.5167 kJ/sec
= 3.5167 kW
Air Conditioner Btu Equivalents Summary

1 Btu/hr. = 0.29W

1 kW = 3415 Btu/hr.

1 ton = 12,000 Btu/hr

LEAK TESTS IN AIRCONDITIONERS AND REFRIGERATION

The requirements on the quality standards of refrigerating machines are increasing steadily. New
refrigerants are being developed continuously and used in numerous products world-wide.
During leak tests with halogen leak detectors commonly used today, frequent false alarms
significantly hamper the leak detection process. In addition the sensors are subject to rapid
ageing resulting in high maintenance costs and restricted uptime. On the basis of a new sensor
principle a handy unit has been developed which removes the disadvantages and which moreover
satisfies the requirements of today’s production lines.

The requirements as to the quality standards of refrigerating machines are increasing steadily.
New refrigerants are being developed continuously and are used in numerous products world-
wide. Through the Europe-wide ban on CFC usage to protect the ozone layer, partially
halogenated H-CFCs and H-FCs have been established since the beginning of the Nineties.

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These gases offer a low ozone depletion potential, but their global warming potential is still 100
to 5,000 times greater compared to CO2.

Moreover the manufacturers must ensure a hermetic seal for the entire refrigerant circuit and its
components over many years.

Typical leak tightness requirements for complete refrigerating systems today are in the range of
only a few grams of lost refrigerant per year. Consequently the leak tightness on requirements
individual components of the system and its joints are more demanding. In the supporting
industry the test gas method has become widespread and commonly helium as the test gas is
being detected.

During final testing of refrigerating machines, helium is not suitable as a test gas since at that
time the refrigerant circuit is already filled with the refrigerant. Therefore one has to determine
the leak tightness of the joints between the individual components and subassemblies using a test
instrument cable of detecting the type of refrigerant used at a sufficient low detection limit.

A new refrigerant leak detector HLD 5000 is mainly used to detect leaks in connection with the
following applications:

▪ Air conditioning systems in vehicles

▪ Air conditioning systems in buildings
▪ Refrigerators and freezers
▪ Refrigerating systems

Instruments on the market today are based on principles where, for example, the refrigerant to be
detected gives rise to a chemical reaction in a heated sensor generating a measurable electric
current or on where principles the refrigerant temporarily removes oxygen molecules from a
ceramic surface, resulting in a measurable change in electric resistance. However, these methods
have significant disadvantages which become evident in an everyday production environment:

▪ Owing to the low selectivity of the detection methods, all possible gases and
vapours which may be present in an industrial environment (for example water
vapour, solvents or refrigerants) are detected and indicated as phantom leaks.
Thus an unambiguous identification and quantification of a true leak is often
difficult. This effect is even worse when the testing areas have not been optimized
for detecting leaks. For example, refrigerant filling stations which during
operation will release certain quantities of refrigerants into the ambient air may be
located in the vicinity of the testing area.
▪ The chemical type of sensor is a consumable resulting in high operating costs.
▪ The recovery time until the chemical reaction has decayed tests the patience of the
operator.
▪ Only a few very specific refrigerants can be detected which – on the long term –
will be replaced by more environment-friendly refrigerants.

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These disadvantages have been avoided by the sensor principle used in the HLD 5000. Here the
refrigerant which is to be detected is exposed to infrared light. Refrigerants have (depending on
their composition ) the ability to absorb certain frequency components in the infrared light.

To detect gases selectively in each case, a filter which matches the typical absorption line of the
refrigerant is placed in front of the sensor. That model of the refrigerant detector which is to
detect R134a is correspondingly fitted with a 7.7 µm interference filter whereas the model for
R22 for example is equipped with a 9 µm filter.

Compared to conventional methods, the operating costs of this new refrigerant leak detector are
significantly lower while at the same time usage in on everyday production environment is
significantly simplified. The different versions of the HLD 5000 are capable of detecting the
following gases:

R134a, R404A, R407C, R410A and R22

Versions for other gases are being prepared.

Determining How Much to Heat or Cool

1.Measure your square footage.

Measure the square footage of each room you plan to heat or cool and add them together. If
you're installing a furnace or central air conditioning system, this typically includes every room.
In some homes, the ducts do not connect to the attic or basement.

✓ For a rectangular room, multiply the length and width, measured in feet.
✓ For a triangular room, multiply the length and width, then divide by two.
✓ For a circular room, measure the radius r (the distance from the center to the
edge). Calculate πr2, or (3.14)r2 if you do not have a calculator with a π function.
✓ For rooms with odd shapes, divide them into smaller pieces and measure each
piece separately.
2.Determine the necessary heating or cooling capacity. The capacity of furnaces and air
conditioners is given in BTUs per hour. You need to establish the correct number of BTUs per
square foot for your house needed to either heat or cool it. The methods differ for heating and
cooling and are described below

✓ Many furnaces and air conditioners will be labeled "BTU," but this is actually
shorthand for "BTU per hour" (BTU/h).

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 ✓ At a bare minimum, you can use a figure of 20 BTUs per hour per square foot and
multiply this by the total square footage to be heated or cooled, but this does not
take into account climate, the amount of insulation you have, or the way you live.

3.Determining the Correct Cooling Capacity

Figure the total square footage to be cooled. If you're buying a room air conditioner, you only
need to figure the room whose window the air conditioner will be installed in; if you're buying a
central air conditioner or heat pump, you need to figure the entire square footage of the house
served by ductwork, as described under "Determining How Much to Heat or Cool.

4 Determine the necessary capacity. One method for determining capacity is refer to the
estimates on this index. Note that air conditioners are rated in BTUs per hour, but the label may
abbreviate this to just "BTU

• To cool 100–150 ft2, you need ~5,000 BTUs per hour.

• To cool 150–250 ft2, you need ~6,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 250–300 ft2, you need ~7,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 300–350 ft2, you need ~8,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 350–400 ft2, you need ~9,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 400–450 ft2, you need ~10,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 450–550 ft2, you need ~12,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 550–700 ft2, you need ~14,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 700–1,000 ft2, you need ~18,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 1,000–1,200 ft2, you need ~21,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 1,200–1,400 ft2, you need ~23,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 1,400–1,500 ft2, you need ~24,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 1,500–2,000 ft2, you need ~30,000 BTUs per hour.
• To cool 2,000–2,500 ft2, you need ~34,000 BTUs per hour.

5.Adjust for special conditions. If you're buying a room air conditioner instead of a central unit,
you can adjust your needs according to the following factors: Reduce the necessary capacity by
10 percent if the room to be cooled is heavily shaded. However, if the room is very sunny,
increase the necessary capacity by 10 percent.

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 ✓ If the room regularly hosts more than 2 people, add 600 BTUs/hour for each person after
the second.
✓ If the room to be cooled is a kitchen, increase the necessary capacity by 4,000
BTUs/hour.

6.Look at the efficiency rating. While furnaces are rated by their effectiveness in delivering the
heat they generate, air conditioners are rated by how efficiently they use electricity over the
course of a typical operating year. One such rating is the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio
(SEER) rating, created by the Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute, which is the
ratio of the unit's cooling output in BTUs divided by the energy in watt-hours needed to run it for
the entire operating year. (Note that 1 kilowatt-hour equals 1,000 watt hours.)

✓ For example, take a 4,000 BTU/hour air conditioner run for 1,000 hours during an
operating year using 400,000 watt-hours of electric power. This air conditioner would
have a SEER rating of 10, since 4,000 x 1,000 / 400,000 = 10.
✓ To find the average power consumption divide the unit's power in BTUs per hour by the
SEER rating. Since the SEER rating is in units of BTU per Watt-hour, your answer will
be in terms of watts. In the example above, (4,000 BTU/h) / (10 BTU/Wh) = 400 W.
✓ To find the cost per hour of operation, multiply the average power consumption in
kilowatts by the cost of your electricity per kilowatt-hour. In our example, the unit's
consumption is (400 W) / (1,000 W/kW) = 0.4kW. If your electricity costs 5 cents per
kWh, this unit costs 0.4kW x 5 ¢/kWh = 2 ¢/h (cents per hour).
✓ Central air conditioners manufactured in the United States since January 2006 are
required to have a SEER rating of at least 13, or 14 to be Energy Star qualified. Room air
conditioners are currently exempt from this requirement; many have SEER ratings closer
to 10.
7.Determining the Correct Heating Capacity
Consider your climate. In warmer climates, you may need only 30 to 35 BTU per hour per
square foot to heat your house adequately. In colder climates, you may need up to 50 to 60
BTU/h/ft2. In general, the further from the equator you live, the greater the number of
BTU/h/ft2 you need,

Many product labels abbreviate "BTU per hour" (BTU/h) as "BTU." You do not need to do any
calculations to turn this into BTU/h.

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8,Consider age and insulation. Newer homes tend to be better insulated than older homes
because of revisions to building codes over the years. Better insulated homes need fewer BTUs
per hour per square foot than older homes. If your home is new or well insulated, you can use the
lower of the two numbers for your climate zone; if it is older or poorly insulated, use the higher
number of the range.

9.Multiply the total square footage to be heated by the heating factor. If you live in a 2,500
square foot home and a climate zone with a heating factor of 40 BTUs per square foot, you need
a furnace with an output of 100,000 BTUs per hour

10.Take the efficiency rating of the furnace into account. Furnaces are rated not by the actual
BTU output you receive but by the amount of heat they generate. How much of the heat a
furnace generates (input heat) that actually reaches you (output heat) is a measure of how
efficient the furnace is. The efficiency is expressed in percentage as a ratio of the output to input
heat. Most modern furnaces are rated as either 80 or 90 percent efficient.

✓ In the example above, a 100,000 BTU/h input furnace would not be enough to heat a
home needing an output of 100,000 BTUs per hour. An 80% efficient furnace would
deliver an output of only 80,000 BTU/h (100,000 x 0.8). To find an 80% efficient furnace
that does provide enough power, divide the goal by 0.8. In our example, 100,000 BTU/h
÷ 0.8 = 125,000 BTU/h, so you'd need a furnace rated to 125,000 BTU/h input.

Seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER)

For residential homes, some countries set minimum requirements for energy efficiency. In the
United States, the efficiency of air conditioners is often (but not always) rated by the seasonal
energy efficiency ratio (SEER). The higher the SEER rating, the more energy efficient is the air
conditioner. The SEER rating is the BTU of cooling output during its normal annual usage
divided by the total electric energy input in watt hours (W·h) during the same period.

SEER = BTU ÷ (W·h)

this can also be rewritten as:

SEER = (BTU / h) ÷ W, where "W" is the average electrical power in Watts, and (BTU/h) is the
rated cooling power.

For example, a 5000 BTU/h air-conditioning unit, with a SEER of 10, would consume 5000/10 =
500 Watts of power on average.

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The electrical energy consumed per year can be calculated as the average power multiplied by
the annual operating time:

(Assuming 1000 hours of operation during a typical cooling season (i.e., 8 hours per day for 125
days per year). For the 500W

500 W × 1000 h = 500,000 W·h = 500 kWh

Another method that yields the same result, is to calculate the total annual cooling output:

5000 BTU/h × 1000 h = 5,000,000 BTU

Then, for a SEER of 10, the annual electrical energy usage would be:

5,000,000 BTU ÷ 10 = 500,000 W·h = 500 kWh

SEER is related to the coefficient of performance (COP) commonly used in thermodynamics and
also to the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER). The EER is the efficiency rating for the equipment at
a particular pair of external and internal temperatures, while SEER is calculated over a whole
range of external temperatures (i.e., the temperature distribution for the geographical location of
the SEER test). SEER is unusual in that it is composed of an Imperial unit divided by an SI unit.
The COP is a ratio with the same metric units of energy (joules) in both the numerator and
denominator. They cancel out, leaving a dimensionless quantity. Formulas for the approximate
conversion between SEER and EER or COP are available.

(1) SEER = EER ÷ 0.9

(2) SEER = COP × 3.792

(3) EER = COP × 3.413

From (2) above, a SEER of 13 is equivalent to a COP of 3.43, which means that 3.43 units of
heat energy are pumped per unit of work energy.

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