ED 302 Comparative Education 2024 Weeks 3 & 4 (2) - Merged

COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION
ED 302 SUMMARY NOTES
WEEKS 3 and 4
Presented by
Bro. John Bailanda CSC
Tel: +254-785666927, Email: jbailanda@cuea.edu
NOTE ON COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION
Comparative Education – is both a discipline and a method.

As a field of study – comparative education provides the
student with a wide scope of understanding traditions of
education associated with different countries or
geographical areas and offers on the ability to fit or cope
with the systems. It combines with international
development in education and caters for research in areas of
global policies and monitoring systems.
As a method, Comparative Education aims to study

different settings and education agenda so as to enable
informed decisions.
Introductory Weeks 3 & 4
 Approaches to  Factors Responsible for

Comparative Education the Increased Interest in
Stemming from the the study of Comparative
Historical Developments of Education
the field As resulting from Historical
Development
 Purpose and Rationale  Determinants of National

of Comparative Education Systems
Education Deriving from Historical
Viewed from definitions, Developments and
scope, historical development Approaches to Field
and approaches
WEEK 3: APPROACHES TO COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION
• Key to this lesson: Ability to explain different approaches to the study of
comparative education, but also examining the strengths and weaknesses of
selected approaches
• Key to note too: The approaches are an outcome of the historical
development, the more advanced the field of comparative education
became, the more methodological skills were viewed.
I) Descriptive Approach: This is an approach popular to Travelers’ Tales phase.
The investigator or traveler, describes everything he/she finds on ground,
including: Number of schools, student enrolment, number of teachers, number
and type of school buildings/structures and number of subjects being offered.
This approach is not very popular among the 21st educational Comparativists for
lack of specificity. Implying, not many educationists would easily consider
descriptive tales as worth valuing. Usually, these tales lack in-depth concepts of
curriculum, the management of education and socio-cultural/historical
foundations.
This method can be improved with intentional description from one who understands
the running of education systems.
EDUCATION
II)Thematic Or Problem-Based • Usually, attempts are made to provide solution to
identified problems, especially as they affect one’s
Approach:
own place or cultures so that generalizations could
• Process of Identifying Home Country be made since the issues under investigation are
Educational Problem or Challenge – Theme. similar.
• Investigator identifies a particular • The value of this method is not to compare existing
educational problem in his/her own country. systems but rather to envisage reform best suited
Purposeful identification and studying of an to new social and economic conditions.
educational problem within the context of
• Comparative Education quite resolutely looks into
its origin, nature, scope and causes in any
the future with a firm intent to reform. Thus CE as a
geographical location (community, state,
field of study has a dynamic character with the
region or country) that are common to
utilitarian or pragmatic purpose.
different states/countries.
• The problem-solving/thematic approach provides
• Investigator looks for another country(s) that
the selection of themes which are educational
has the same problem. Thus, researcher also
problems cutting across different countries, the
studies the education problem of another
collection of data in historical and present
country(s) in relation to their culture.
perspectives, provision of attempted solutions
• Investigator also examines the solution properly examined to determine suitability,
applied to such problem by the affected compared and contrasted and subsequently
country (s). recommended for application on an across national
• The study is aimed at finding best strategy to basis. However, application is cautioned by taking
solve their own educational problem as well. into consideration of local variations.
EDUCATION
III) Historical Approach: • The rationale to the historical approach is that
• One way of comparing national current national systems of education can be
systems of education is by projected both into the past and into the future.
looking for information into the
evolutionary processes of these • As their national past were formed by factors
systems. often common to many nations, such as
• Process: an investigator will only colonization, so their ideals for the future are
take a unit of study: village, town outcome of universal movements (like freedom
or country for the examination of movements). Thus, problems of education in
its formal educational historical different countries can be similar and the
development. principles which guide their solutions may be
• This approach enables the compared and even identified.
researcher to identify the factors
responsible for the current • The analytical study of these factors from a
educational system of unit historical perspective and the comparison of
studied. attempted solution of resultant problems are the
• This can be done even within main purpose of Comparative Education.
same country. For instance, one • The historical approach thus enables the
could study the coastal region of
Kenya vis-à-vis the lake region. Comparative Educationist to identify the factors
• Draw back of this method, that are responsible for the current education
greater emphasis is always system of the country being studied.
placed on the past.
EDUCATION
IV) Comparative Approach:
• The process entails the investigator V) Integrated Approach:
setting parameters on which he/she
studies two areas (countries) and • An approach where other
provides points of comparison
disciplines such as history,
• Data on the educational practices to
be compared must have been philosophy, geography;
gathered and reviewed. In addition,
hypotheses should have also been economics, anthropology
formulated to assist in the gathering of
data. and statistics are integrated
• The educational practices of the in to the study of
country under study will be put side by
side (juxtaposed) with the educational Comparative Education
practices of another country slated for
comparison. • This method enables the
• After Juxtaposition, the comparison of comparison to see other
the educational practices of the
countries is stated or described. disciplines as equally
• It is at stage of comparison that the
hypotheses that had been formulated influential to the education
earlier on will be rejected or accepted
process or vice versa.
EDUCATION
VI) International VII) Gastronomic Approach:
Approach: • This method compares both
• This approach considers the diet and the eating
all the variations existing habits of the people in a
from one area to particular country are
related to the practices of
another within the same
their education. This could
country
be one of the Traveler’s
• The system of education Tales methods
of a foreign country is • The approach is not very
used as yardstick for popular among the current
one's educational educational comparativists.
system.
EDUCATION
VIII) Case Study Approach: The uniqueness of Case Study approach resides in the Unit of
Study Identification and the extensiveness of providing an
• In this approach, an understanding to one’s audience.
education Comparativist • A Case Study as a method can simply be explained as
“giving consideration to parts from a whole.” Breaking
from one country can go to down the ‘whole’ into manageable parts or proportion is
another to study the a known as the case study.
• For instance, a study of the National Policy on Education
specific area (unit of study may be subjected to a case study by picking aspect of the
or case) such as primary policy as basis of comparison in different places of its
education level of the operation. The 6-3-3-4 system is a whole and studying the
6 years of primary may constitute a case study. Or
country. Secondary education can also be taken as a whole and a
case study of this may consider junior or senior secondary
• The report will be expected level for comparison in two or more locations..
to be very comprehensive • A case study on the other hand at the national level may
for readers to understand an examination of general educational issues, but
focussing or directing the study on delimited area(s). For
and take as basis for instance:
decision or policy changes.  The Role of Tertiary Institutions in Technological
Advancement, A case Study of Universities of
• Case studies, face Technology and Polytechnics.
challenges of objectivity  An Appraisal of the 6-3-3-4 System of Country X
Education, A Case Study of the UBE segment.
that is related to qualitative  Government’s Intervention in Early Childhood Care
investigations. Development and Education, A Case Study of particular
district or region.
EDUCATION
IX) Area Study Approach: Commonly identified stages in the area/field study
approach:
• Under this approach, the educational a) Descriptive Stage – The researcher makes a
comparativist will engage oneself in the description of his/her own educational system as well
educational practices of specified area as practices through extensive literature review. The
(country). That is, the Comparativist limits or investigator equally described the area to be studied.
restricts him/herself to a particular location or To enable the investigator have on the spot
area by complying with the principles of Area assessment, he/she can personally visit the country
whose educational system is studying.
Study. Area is defined geographically.
b) Interpretation Stage - the investigator will now
• The investigator gets involved in wide range of collate and analyse the data gathered from various
activities – as participant observer, as a result sources to be fair and justice to the educational
of which he/she is going to arrive at a body of system (theories and practices) of the area being
generalizations on the educational system studied. This helps to produce authentic report on
he/she is studying. the focus of the research.
• These principles are: a) Learning the language c) Juxtaposition Stage - the investigator will put side by
side the result obtained from the interpretation stage
of the environment in which the study is to be
with the educational system of his own country.
undertaken, b) Travelling and residing in the Differences and similarities are identified.
place of study, and c) Removal of observer’s d) Comparative Stage - the researcher will objectively
own cultural and personal biases compare and contrast the educational practices of
• It is found suitable that "one of the oldest and the country being studied with that of his/her own. It
clearest ways of introducing the subject is at this stage of the study that whatever hypotheses
(Comparative Education) is to study one that might have been formulated by the researcher
that will be rejected or accepted.
EDUCATION
X) Field Study Approach: Commonly identified stages in the area/field study
Note: Field Study Approach can easily be confused approach:
with Case Study or Area Study. So it is good to a) Preparatory Stage The investigator prepares very well
understand the distinction. before traveling to country of interest. One creates
• The first unique activity is the visitation or familiarity with the country he/she wants to visit by
another country and being involved in the field reading very extensively about the country.
of study. b) Investigatory and Analytical Stage the researcher will
• As from the historical development, visitation have to formulate some hypotheses on the educational
of foreign countries could have multiple practices of the country he wants to study. The
purposes: commerce, conversation, curiosity, formulation of these hypotheses will give him a focus
conflict, or religious exploration - goes back to on what to look for (data) how to analyse the data.
travelers.
c) Evaluatory and Comparative Stage – On return from
• In all historical periods, travellers must have
brought back facts and impression concerning the foreign country, investigator examine the practices
the cultures of the other countries they had of education of the country he/she visited in relation to
visited. Included in their reports must have the educational practices of one’s country with a view
been comments relating to the young and their to establishing the similarities and differences existing
upbringing. They may also have made some in the educational practices of the two countries. Thus,
remarks regarding the similarities and the hypotheses earlier on formulated will either be
differences in the ways of educating children. rejected or accepted.
Some, indeed, may have arrived at conclusions Note: The field study approach unlike area study
involving the expression of value judgments
approach, concerns itself with the study of the educational
• The field study of approach/method is systems of many countries at the same time. It also
identified with three stages: 1) Preparatory
involves visiting the foreign countries of interest to enable
stage, 2) Investigatory and analytical stage, and
3) Evaluatory and Comparative stage the investigator make an objective comparison between
the foreign educational practices and that of their country.
EDUCATION
XI) Statistical Approach:
• The method involves the collection and presentation of
information on the development of education in each of the
study locations.
• The statistical data focuses on measurable components such as:
educational administration, admission levels or policies, staff
and students’ performances, educational expenditures, facilities
and equipment, enrolment, retention and dropout figures etc.
• Once stated in a statistical or quantitative pattern for
comparison with other places educational development,
research can point to issues for country consideration.
• Such statistical comparisons have been utilized by OECD,
UNESCO and other international organization to foster adoption
of policies, allowing best practices to thrive.
EDUCATION
XII) Scientific Approach: Scientific approach as a method
• This is an approach in which the study of carrying out comparative
of comparative education is carried education study can simply be
out empirically by formulating
hypotheses, defining the important summarized as having the
concepts, setting out the variables as following characteristics:
well as the conditions for establishing
the validity of the hypotheses • study is carried out empirically
formulated. by formulating hypothesis to
• Since in any scientific research, data guide its study;
collection and interpretation are done
with help of statistics of analysis or • definition of key concepts;
other approved methods, these define
the approach. • setting out variables aimed at
• The scientific methodology must not making the study scientific;
also be lacking in the study of
Comparative Education to enhance the • the instrument meant for the
quality and credibility of whatever may study has to be validated;
be the result of the investigation
• The ability to replicate the process by • using statistics in the analysis of
following the set procedure to validate issues under study as another
result allows the scientific method to feature of scientific method.
out weigh other approaches.
EDUCATION
XIII) Philosophical Approach: The Philosophical Approach
• Adopted from Serguis Hessen, a faces several challenges:
Russian Philosopher – the a) Difference in emphasis,
considers choices of philosophical raising the difficulty to use
problems in education. the same criterion (national
• Serguis took as example: (a) ideology) for the
Compulsory education (b) The comparison.
School and the State (c) The
school and the Church and (d) b) There are many countries
The School and Economic life. without clear-cut national
• Study analyses the underlying ideologies.
principles and giving critical c) It is likely that philosophical
accounts of legislation in many hypotheses could be
countries, that try to address the formulated, be tested but
issues studied not be empirically
• The philosophical approach is a validated for better
step forward to solve the explanation of educational
problems in the national practices of various
character. countries.
WEEK 4-A: PURPOSE AND RATIONALE OF
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
The Study of Comparative Education is intended for the student teacher as well as
for the professional teacher and teacher educator.
• In the first place, Comparative Education prepares teachers and educators
generally, to cope with the growing International responsibilities of education. Our
knowledge of comparative education gives clarity to our understanding of our
own education and culture, in relation to that of other nations..
• It compliments other education disciplines like History of Education, Sociology of
Education, Psychology of Education, Education Administration, Curriculum
Development, and Philosophy of Education. But it as well draws much from these
disciplines.
• It builds in the students, professionals and teacher educators knowledge and goals
of reform agenda in different countries.
• The study pays attention to compare educational problems as well as the solutions
applied to such problems with a view to helping one's educational practices.
• The analytical study of these factors from historical perspective and the
comparison of attempted solution of resultant problems are the main purpose of
comparative education.
PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION (cont.)
Purposes of Comparative Education can be stated thus, to help the
professional and student teacher:
describe educational systems, processes, or outcomes.
assist in the development of educational institutions and practices.
highlight the relationships between education and society.
establish generalised statements about education those are valid in more than one
country.
help the current generation, understand the prevailing education systems, with
reference to the past.
become familiar with education policies and practices held in esteem in some
countries, and why it is done, is a necessary part of the training of all students of
educational careers.
be properly fitted to study and understand their own systems and plan intelligently
for the future.
To prepare the teacher/student teacher for future eventualities when come into
contact with other peoples and other cultural realities.
PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION (cont.)
Other reasons for Studying Comparative Education include:
a) To assist in the understanding of one's educational institutions as well as
educational practices.
b) To assist in the understanding of the factors that are responsible for various
educational changes.
c) To educate the students and teachers on the procedure through which
educational changes occur.
d) To assist in solving one's educational problems.
e) To open one's eyes to the educational philosophies, theories and practices of
other countries.
f) To assist both the students and teachers of discipline in gathering reliable
information concerning educational system.
g) To assist in the promotion of international relationship.
h) To get educators ready to contribute to the formulation of a country's
educational systems.
WEEK 4-B: PURPOSE AND RATIONALE OF
Rationale for Comparative Education
There are various reasons in which
student-teachers and teachers  Students internalize school
alike should study comparative curriculum and student
education. These reasons include learning experience,
(but not limited to) helping:  develop students’ broader
 students to improve the world views, cross– cultural
education in their home and comparative analytical
country. skills.
 students to acquire better  students to make
understanding of education connection between the
system of other countries and local and global, and the
borrow some aspects for better relationship between
improvement of education at education, development
home. and society.
WEEK 4-B: PURPOSE AND RATIONALE OF
Rationale for Comparative Education
 Comparative education helps students  Acknowledging globalization as a
to understand how educational force reorganizing the world’s
systems are shaped by wealth, economy and the main
ideology, social cultural features of the resources for that economy are
country and how they are impacted increasing knowledge and
on by globalization, education policy
information. The global
and practice in different regions and
countries
economy in turn shapes the
 The change or collapse of ideologies nature of educational
such as that of the USSR can affect opportunities and institutions,
dependent countries and regions. As thus, studying comparative
such, educational policies in Latin education becomes very
America and other continents were essential.
dramatically altered to reflect changed  To serve as an academic
economic policies. discipline in which students
should specialize on
 WEEK 4-C: Factors Responsible for the Increased
Interest in the study of Comparative Education
 From a historical point, the emergency  The need for educational reform. Most
of new independent states and developing countries such as
developing countries who need a clean …………………… ………………. ……….. ……….. Are
start with a good educational system – undergoing reforms. And many others
scholars search and compare education continue to search for fitting curricula.
systems in different countries. Provide Some developed countries such as Japan,
examples: ………………………………………….. Russia, Finland, Canada and Singapore
 The greater frequency of travel to attend have proven education can be the driver
conferences, seminars as well as of the economy and other national
workshops abroad create awareness for agenda. They attract comparative
adequate funding of one’s education educationists.
system. Provide examples: ……………  What other factors?:
............................................................. ……………………………
 The awareness of scientific and ……………………………………………
technological achievements, especially ……………………………………………
ICT and the knowledge economy. ……………………………………………
 The socio-economic and political ……………………………………………
problems facing other countries. Provide …………………………………………....
examples: ………………………… ………………….
 WEEK 4-D: Determinants of National Education Systems
Deriving from Historical Developments, Approaches to Field
and Country Comparative Studies
Exemplify these Traditional factors Exemplify these Emergent factors
using the Country Comparative using the Country Comparative
Studies Studies
a) Language Factor a) Technological Factor: ICT
b) The Geographical Factor and Knowledge Economy
c) The Economic Factor b) Global Agenda: MDG, SDG,
d) The Historical Factor EFA, NCLB
e) The Religious Factor c) Global Movements: Feminist
f) The Political Factor Movements, Labour
g) The Social Factor Migration, LGBTQ!
h) The Ethnic or Racial Factor d) Global Ecology: Global
i) The Academic or Warming
Professional Associations e) ……………………………………..
j) Colonialism and Foreign f) ……………………………………..
Domination
FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education
Vol. 7, Iss. 1, 2021, pp. 1-23
POST-INDEPENDENCE BASIC EDUCATION IN

KENYA: AN HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF
CURRICULUM REFORMS
Justus O. Inyega
University of Nairobi, Kenya
Adeela Arshad-Ayaz 1
Concordia University, Canada
M. Ayaz Naseem
Evans W. Mahaya
University of Nairobi, Kenya
Dalia Elsayed
Abstract
This article presents a critical review of the education system and curriculum reforms
in basic education in Kenya from independence in 1963 to date. It presents a philosophical
and pragmatic basis for content review and the curriculum reform process. Data collection
involved a critical review of relevant literature; including several curriculum reform
documents. Based on the literature review and documentary analysis, there is overwhelming
evidence that radical changes have resulted in the Kenyan education system from several
curriculum reviews and major reforms in response to the changing needs of the Kenyan
society. The new curriculum currently under implementation is the Competency-Based
Curriculum (CBC). Over the years, there have been minimal changes in the content, scope,
and sequence of the basic education curriculum. This article presents salient changes in the
Kenyan education system and presents recommendations that may have significant
implications for future curriculum reforms that can potentially improve learning outcomes.
Keywords: curriculum reform, basic education, competency-based curriculum, historical

analysis.
1 Correspondence: 1455 deMaisonneuve Blvd. West Montreal, Quebec, H3G 1M8 Canada;
Adeela.ayaz@gmail.com
2 Post-Independence Basic Education in Kenya
Introduction
The current basic education school curriculum in Kenya is undergoing a reform.
Existing literature suggests that the current 8-4-4 curriculum is theoretical and does not
focus on the development of learners' competencies and skills (Jepkemei, 2017; Njeng' ere, &
Lili, 2017; Ogutu, 2017; Kaviti, 2018; Wanjohi, 2018). The literature alludes to current
pedagogical practices as authoritarian, rigid, and teacher-centered (Jepkemei, 2017).
Consequently, learning activities are often limited to rote memorization of facts and reciting
them to the teacher or regurgitating the knowledge during examinations (Jepkemei, 2017).
In the context of learner assessment practices, the existing literature is critical of the
over-emphasis on examinations (Jepkemei, 2017; Waiganjo, 2017). At the same time, scholars
are generally appreciative of the use of the mother tongue as the language of instruction
(Bamgbose, 2005; Piper, Trudell & Shroeder, 2015). Some schools start learners on English
and Kiswahili much earlier in their formative years of school. The curriculum review and
education reform process in Kenya epitomizes the government's commitment to improving
learning outcomes. Scholars have argued that the new Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC)
is likely to benefit learners in a variety of ways. Whether or not the Competency-Based
Curriculum reform process will address a myriad of systemic problems bedeviling the
education sector is a matter that is yet to be determined.
This article presents a critical review of the education system and curriculum reforms
in basic education in Kenya from independence in 1963 to date and makes important
recommendations for future curriculum reforms that can be instrumental in improving
learning outcomes. Employing critical document analysis as the methodological orientation,
the paper analyzes an exhaustive corpus of education acts, commission reports, documents
from the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology, and Kenya National Examination
Council assessment reports 2. The paper is organized into five sections. In the first section,
the paper presents a brief overview of the gaps in the literature on the status of basic education
in Kenya. In the second section, the discussion focuses on the rationale for the current
curriculum reform in Kenya. The third section is devoted to an exposé of the organization of
basic education in the new curriculum with special emphasis on early and middle school
education along with a discussion of learners with special educational needs. In the fourth
section, the paper examines the assessment approaches, especially the competency-based
assessment, summative assessment, and assessment as learning. Discussion and future
directions are presented in section five, followed by the concluding section and
recommendations.
Identifying Gaps in scholarship on the Status of Basic Education in Kenya

At face value, the status of Kenya's basic education seems to have improved over the
years. However, a closer look paints a mixed picture, with qualitative weaknesses masking
whatever quantitative gains have been made thus far. Research from diverse sources
consistently shows very low early grade reading and numeracy outcomes in both formal and
non-formal settings (PAL Network, 2020; Piper & Zuilkowski, 2015; Uwezo, 2016), across
2 Legal instruments analyzed include: Kenya Education Commission - Ominde Commission (the Republic of
Kenya, 1964, Republic of Kenya, 1965a, Republic of Kenya, 1965b); The National Committee on Educational
Objectives and Policy - Gachathi Report (Republic of Kenya1976), The Presidential Working Party on the
Second University - Mackay Report (Republic of Kenya, 1981a), The Presidential Working Party on Education
and Manpower -Kamunge Report (Republic of Kenya, 1988); Commission of Inquiry into the Education system
of Kenya- Koech Commission (Republic of Kenya, 1999); The 2012 Odhiambo Task Force on the Re-alignment
of the Education Sector to the Constitution of Kenya 2010; Vision 2030 and National Curriculum Policy (2015).

J. O. Inyega et al. 3
urban and rural locales (NASMLA, 2010), and in mother tongue learning (Piper et al., 2015),
in Kiswahili and English (Piper & Zuilkowski, 2015). This is compounded further by obsolete
pedagogical strategies and methods; high levels of both teacher and student absenteeism;
inadequate infrastructure; shortage of instructional materials; uneven distribution of
teachers; low levels of accountability; and resource misallocation; incomplete or even
deliberately falsified school data and regional disparities (Uwezo, 2015; World Bank, 2018);
all of which have adverse effects on learning outcomes. Foundational learning is particularly
resonant amidst natural and man-made disasters (such as the COVID-19 crisis), as
foundational skills are the easiest to lose when schooling is interrupted and are also the
hardest to regain once schooling re-starts.
As far back as 2005, many Kenyan children were not reaching the intended
benchmarks (Onsomu et al., 2005). According to Onsomu et al., just 21% of 6th-graders had
a 'desirable level' of reading, indicating the ability to handle the reading requirements of the
following academic year. The percentage of learners achieving the minimum threshold in
mastery actually decreased between 1998 and 2000. Learning outcomes have not shown
significant improvement in more recent surveys (e.g., PAL Network, 2020; Uwezo, 2015;
2016).
In 2013, Uwezo assessed more than 325,000 children aged six to 16 in just under
150,000 households in 366 districts and over 10,000 public primary schools in Kenya,
Mainland Tanzania, and Uganda through tests set at the 2nd-grade level. In Kenya, 64%
passed the literacy and numeracy test, while less than seven out of 10 children aged 10-16
have mastered standard two literacy and numeracy skills. In essence, Kenya along with
Uganda and Tanzania, missed the target of ensuring that all children have access to quality
learning.
Uwezo (2015) emphasized that the success of action taken to improve the education
sector should be measured by improved learning outcomes. Results have to be directly useful,
transparent, and easy for teachers to inform their instruction and underpin communication
with parents and communities and those who supervise the teachers. Learning outcomes has
to be the driving concern and energy expended on what works. The buck seems to stop on
what happens in the classroom and begs the question: Are our children learning?
Answers to this question will be inconsistent if one does not take a critical look at the
curriculum based on the assumption that it provides guidance on how to modify the structure,
content, and policy framework for improved basic education service delivery.
To address this, Education Evidence for Action (EE4A) 3 targeted and brought
together senior Ministry of Education personnel to conferences in 2015, 2017, and 2019 4 in
a proactive strategy to link education evidence to policy and action. These policy forums have
contributed immensely to education reforms and, in particular, implementation of the
Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) policy and practice. The emphasis in the CBC on
literacy and numeracy, for instance, is a direct outgrowth of the learned forums. Secondly and
equally important, the move away from an emphasis on summative evaluations towards
competency-based assessments (such as KEYA 5) is informed by UWEZO and similar studies
(e.g., PAL Network, 2020) undertaken in Kenya. Significantly, the 2019 conference answered
three interrelated questions: Are all children learning? What is the potential of the CBC, as
3 A coalition of civil society organizations (led by Twaweza East Africa responsible for UWEZO studies and
Research Triangle Institute (RTI) International of the cited Piper et al studies) and academia.
4 https://www.poverty-action.org/event/education-evidence-action-ee4a-conference-2019
5 KEYA stands for Kenya Early Years Assessment (KEYA) see https://kenyayote.com/how-to-register-for-
grade-3-keya-exams-knec-enrollment-procedure/

envisaged, to remedy the gaps in learning outcomes? What opportunities exist for the
continued enrichment of the curriculum implementation process to realize its full potential?
In sum, Uwezo studies, analyzed collectively with other data sources, have helped the
MoE to identify critical learning gaps in basic education, understand reasons for insufficient
learning, and provided robust intervention models and corrective measures to deal with it
sustainably, cost-effectively, and early in children's schooling trajectory. Stated differently,
EE4A has gone beyond sensitizing MoE on learning gaps to catalyzing action towards
quality education and improvement of learning outcomes. MoE has leveraged EE4A findings
to target interventions in low-performing counties and marginalized communities towards
the achievement of inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning
opportunities for all.
The Rationale for Current Curriculum Reform

Since the introduction of the Western system of education in the 1800s, the question
of relevance has been one of Kenya's preoccupations (Amukowa et al., 2013; Mackatiani et al.,
2016). According to Amukowa et al. (2013) and Jepkemei (2017), concerted efforts in
education reforms are in response to Kenya's social and economic needs and to align education
to international and local legal instruments such as the Universal Declaration on Human
Right (1948); the International protocol that established Education for All (EFA) agenda in
Jomtien, Thailand in 1990; the World Education Forum (WEF) in Dakar, Senegal in 2000;
and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in September 2015. These documents
collectively provide for the right to an inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong
learning opportunities for all for sustainable development. Local legal instruments (Acts,
Commissions, Committees, Taskforces, and sessional papers) that have informed education
reforms include the Ominde Commission (1964) and Mackay Report (1981).
The Ominde 6 Commission (1964) was the first Commission after independence in
1963. Its objective was to introduce a single educational system to promote national unity
and inculcate learners' desire to serve their Nation (Simiyu, 2001). The Commission
supported the government's initiative to abolish racial segregation in schools and urged them
to offer bursaries to African children so that they could join schools dominated by Europeans
and Asians. The Commission recommended setting up six clear broad goals of education:
national unity, national development; individual development and self-fulfillment; social
equality; respect and development of cultural heritage; and international consciousness.
These goals guide the education system to date.
The Ominde Commission (1964) recommended free universal primary education
(Mackatiani et al., 2016) and a curriculum that was 'Kenyan'. Changes were duly made in the
history and geography subject content to reflect this reality. Kiswahili was made a
compulsory subject in primary and secondary school. English was to be the medium of
instruction from Grade One. Religious education became a subject with an aim not to
proselytize children. Religious bodies were to fund schools and offer pastoral care. The
National Anthem was to be sung in school and the flag raised. This is done to date.
The Ominde Commission (1964) recommended the establishment of the East African
Examinations Board to replace the Cambridge University Local Examinations Syndicate to
ensure that curriculum change was reflected in examinations; creation of national schools and
encouraging all government-maintained secondary schools to have 20 percent of their
students from other parts of the country; an affirmative action that is still upheld today.
6 Named after its chairperson Professor Simeon H. Ominde, then Minister of Education.

Teachers were to work anywhere in the country to develop a national outlook, a deployment
practice upheld to date.
The Ominde Commission (1964) recommended creating the Kenya Institute of
Education (Now Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development). It recommended a 7-4-2-3
system of education: seven years of uninterrupted primary education, four years of secondary
education, two years of advanced secondary education, and a minimum of three years of
university education. It recommended Government regulation of Harambee schools 7 (to curb
unemployment and frustration of its graduates), inclusion in educational planning, and
availing them professional advice (Mackatiani et al., 2016). The 1964 constitution made the
government responsible for all sectors of education.
The Ominde Commission (1964) advocated for the development of adult education to
enable people with elementary education to participate in national and economic
development. The Commission recommended in-service training for primary school teachers
and general planning of education to be centralized while administration and management of
primary schools would be done by school committees and Parent-Teacher Associations and
secondary schools and other tertiary institutions by Boards of Governors; a practice that
exists to date.
The government responded positively to the Ominde Report. It affected reforms,
including the establishment of non-racial schools. Former European schools were given local
names. For instance, Duke of York became Lenana School, and Duchess of Gloucester became
Pangani Girls Secondary School. African students were given bursaries to join high cost
Asian and European schools. By 1966, the African population in these schools was 30 percent.
The population increased to 65 percent in 1969 and almost 100 percent in 1970.
After the establishment of KIE, a common syllabus and common examination were
introduced in 1966. Kenya Preliminary Examination was replaced by Certificate of Primary
Education. East African Examinations Council was established in 1967 to administer the East
Africa Certificate of Education (which replaced the Cambridge School Certificate) and the
East Africa Advanced Certificate of Education (which replaced the Cambridge Advanced
School Certificate examination). Kenya Junior Secondary Examination was introduced in
1966 to be administered at the end of Form Two (9th Grade) to enable students in 'Harambee'
schools to join government schools or terminate their education and join the labor market.
The government took over some of the 'Harambee' schools by 1969 and posted qualified
teachers there.
Between 1964 and 1985, the 7-4-2-3-system was operational: seven years of primary,
four years of lower secondary (Form 1-4), two years of upper secondary (Form 5-6), and a
minimum of three years of university education—this excluded pre-primary education, which
has now been addressed in the new curriculum.
Over time the 7-4-2-3 system of education, recommended by the Ominde Commission,
and once regarded as a medium for social mobility and national economic development, was
criticized for its lack of capacity and flexibility to respond to changing aspirations of Kenyans
and labor market needs (Owino, 1997); According to Owino, call for reforms was widespread
and based on the perceived weakness of existing educational policy as being too academic and
encouraging elitist and individualistic attitudes among school leavers (Simiyu, 2001); lacking
in orientation to employment and, therefore, not suitable for direct employment.
7 These were schools set up by communities by pooling their resources in the spirit of Harambee – “let us pull
together”. The schools experienced rapid growth at independence to meet the demand for secondary school
education. Unfortunately, many of these schools were unregistered and lacked basic facilities and qualified staff,
and generally admitted students who may not have performed very well at the end of primary education.

In the 1980s, the government was forced to change its policy on education. The
philosophical underpinnings and rationale for the policy change and attendant curricula
review stemmed from the difficulties faced by graduates at both primary and secondary levels
for they could not be absorbed into the shrinking labor market. The government set up a
Presidential Working Party on the Second Kenyan University in 1981 (the Republic of
Kenya, 1981a), in what became the Mackay Commission (1981).
The Mackay Commission (1981) investigated how graduates at each education cycle
could be self-sufficient and productive in agriculture, industry, and commerce through
technical, scientific, and practical knowledge and lifelong skills. They proposed 8-4-4 8 system
of education to orient youths towards self-employment (King & McGrath, 2002) through
attitudinal and skills preparations for the world of work. Mackay advocated for a practical
curriculum that would offer a wide range of employment opportunities and equitable
distribution of educational resources. Mackay recommended the establishment of a second
university (Moi University) with faculties of technology, agriculture, commerce, education,
science, veterinary medicine, information sciences, forestry resources and wildlife
management, health sciences; social, cultural and development studies; school of graduate
studies; school of environmental studies and the institute of applied science and technology
and cost-sharing in university education.
The conception of the 8-4-4 system of education in January 1985, it's planning,
launching and implementation was against the backdrop of Structural Adjustment
Programmes (SAPs), initiated by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund and
donor fatigue, which ignited a series of economic and political reforms that impacted
negatively on educational progress in Kenya. The education sector experienced two major
shocks: the cost of implementing the 8-4-4 system of education and the cost-sharing policy,
which led to a sharp increase in the cost of attending school and triggered a massive decline
in primary school enrolments.
Vocational education was the linchpin of the 8-4-4 system of education. The need to
provide pre-vocational and technical education increased the cost of attending primary school
by more than 100 percent. It increased pressure on existing learning facilities, including
workshops and home-science classrooms. The financial responsibility to provide those
facilities was placed on parents, school committees, and the local community served by the
school. The burden to provide new textbooks also increased. The new system also increased
the burden on teachers and students with limited learning facilities. The system became
burdensome to students who had to spend more time in school. Most teachers were not
adequately trained to teach some of the vocational and pre-technical subjects. Later on, the
8-4-4 education system was criticized for being broad, expensive, and burdensome to pupils
and parents. Amutabi (2003a, p.136) notes that:
The 8-4-4 system of education introduced in 1985 remains the most radical and
perhaps mindless change in education in Kenya since independence. It has already
caused great devastation to Kenya that even if it were changed today, the toll on the
Nation will be felt for many years to come. Its devastation is similar to that of the
failed Ujamaa in Tanzania many years after it was officially scrapped.
8 8-4-4: Eight years of primary education, four years of secondary education, and four years of basic university
education. Mackay report recommended scrapping of A-levels and simultaneously added an extra year each to
primary and university education, respectively.

Some Kenyan elites opposed to the 8-4-4 educational system claimed the change was
not educational but politically instigated and that there was no crisis in the old system to
warrant the change. In response to criticisms such as these, other commissions were formed
to improve the 8-4-4 system that ultimately ushered in current curriculum reforms.
In 2018, the Ministry of Education announced that from 2020 the country would
implement Competency-Based Education. The announcement evoked mixed reactions
because, unlike previous curricula changes that were always preceded by education inquiry,
this one seems to have not. To date, there has been no authoritative statement from the
government about the new system.
Figure 1:
Organization of Basic Education
Source: (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development [KICD], 2017a).
The general consensus, however, is that review of the 32-year old 8-4-4 system had
long been overdue. It needed to be aligned with Constitution (2010), which guarantees the
right to free and compulsory basic education as a human right to every Kenyan child; and
Kenya Vision 2030, which singles out education and training as the main vehicles that will
propel Kenya into a middle-income economy. The curriculum also needed to be aligned with
the Basic Education Act 2013, KICD Act 2013, and NESSP 9 2019 to ensure a seamless
9 NESSP is the National Education Sector Strategic Plan (2019) informing education in 2018 -2022.

transition of all children from one level to the next through the creation of different pathways.
The curriculum needed to amplify the benefits of vocational and technical subjects.
On another trajectory, there have been increases in violence, including inter-ethnic
clashes, the radicalization of youth, and terrorism. Curricular reform is needed to address
these and other emerging challenges facing youth today. The education system also needed
to keep abreast of the pace of ICTs and globalization and to look at education as a course of
life and not merely as a course of study. Such an approach shifts focus on critical skills,
including literacy, numeracy, life skills, and how learning can be made meaningful across
disciplines and concomitant focus on 21st-century skills such as critical, creative, logical, and
rational thinking, problem-solving, communication, and innovativeness.
There was a need to move away from the emphasis on summative evaluation with its
implications on the psychosocial being of Kenyan children (Jepkemei, 2017; Waiganjo, 2017).
Regional trends and push for international benchmarking and harmonization of curricula
were overwhelming, especially when the policy framework for such a move had been
accomplished within East African partner states. Then the government, developed regional
curriculum standards to harmonize the Kenya National Qualifications Framework with those
of the East African Community. Under the auspices of UNESCO, Kenya has aligned the
curriculum to the International Bureau of Education (IBE) to benchmark with other
international curriculum development centers. Lastly, KICD has come up with the Basic
Education Curriculum Framework (BECF), which outlines how basic education will be
organized (see Figure 1).
From Figure 1, basic education will be organized into three levels: Early Years
Education, Middle School Education, and Senior School Education.
Early Years Education

Early Years Education will consist of two years of pre-primary and three years of
lower primary education. The subjects, now called learning areas, in pre-primary education
include language, mathematics, environmental, psychomotor and creative, and religious
education activities. Learners will also undertake community service learning.
Assessment will be formative, learner-centered, and highlight a child's progress over
time. It will cover cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains. It will be based on
developmental milestones and determined through observation of activities and oral
questioning. Data gathered will be used to plan experiences to bolster and enhance the
individual child's development, not for comparison with others.
Learners will move to lower primary for three years. Their learning areas will include
literacy, Kiswahili language activities or Kenyan Sign Language for the hearing impaired,
English language activities, indigenous language activities, mathematical activities (for day-
to-day living), environmental activities (science, social, and agriculture), hygiene and
nutrition activities, religious education and life skills activities, and creative activities. ICT
will be an integral learning tool at this level.
Assessment for learning from Grades 1-3 will be continuous through portfolios.
Transition to Grade 4 will be determined by a national assessment administered at Grade 3.
The assessment will not be individualized; rather, it will give an overall picture of whether
learners have acquired expected competencies. To avoid doctoring of assessment, learners
will thus be randomly sampled.
Middle School Education

Middle School Education will include three years of upper primary and three years of

junior secondary education. Upper primary, a three-year program (grades 4-6), will expose
learners to a broad curriculum with opportunities for exploration and experimentation. The
learning areas will include English, Kiswahili, or Kenyan Sign Language for the hearing
impaired, home science, agriculture, science and technology, mathematics, religious life skills
education, creative arts, physical and health education, and social studies. Foreign languages
will be optional. ICT will remain integral at this level as well. Assessment for upper-primary
will be continuous through learners' portfolios, and transition to Grade 7 will be via national
assessment administered at Grade 6 to a random sample of learners.
Lower secondary will last three years (grades 7-9). By this time, learners will already
have been introduced to optional subjects offered in 7th grade so they can make informed
choices. The curriculum in the lower secondary will be broad-based to enable learners to
explore their abilities, personality, and potential. The learners will also undergo a rigorous
career guidance program to enable them to make informed subject choices. Learners will take
12 core subjects and choose one or two optional subjects based on their personality, abilities,
interests, and career aspirations. ICT will be a delivery tool for all learning areas.
Schools will liaise with colleagues, local stakeholders, and the business community for
'on the job' opportunities for learners to apply school-based learning in a range of real-life
activities. Formative evaluation, forming 70% of the final grade at the end of the lower
secondary, will be carried out throughout the course. The remaining 30% will be from a
national examination administered by the Kenya National Examination Council, informing
the selection of different pathways and tracks.
Senior School Education

Senior School Education (SSE), a three-year course (Grades 10-12), will target
learners around 15 to 17 years of age. SSE will lay the foundation for further education and
training at the tertiary level. Learners in SSE will have explored their interests and potential
career paths at lower secondary. This will enable them to choose one of three pathways: Arts
and Sports Science, Social Sciences, or Science, Technical, Engineering, and Mathematics.
Various tracks are available within each pathway; schools can decide to offer one or more
tracks in a pathway. Whichever pathway they choose, all SSE learners will have to complete:
Community Service Learning and Physical Education. Community Service Learning
integrates classroom learning and community service to enable learners to reflect, experience,
and learn from the community. Learners will carry out at least 135 hours of community
service outside of classroom time over the course of their three years in SSE.
The idea of pathways has repeatedly been recommended in government documents to
help Kenya achieve aspirations of Vision 2030. NESSP (2019) recognizes that learners have
unique competencies and a range of skills, interests, experiences, and aspirations that can
only be harnessed by providing learning pathways. Providing learners with an education that
takes them down relevant pathways will facilitate their development and self-fulfillment,
equipping them with practical skills for employment or help them move into self-
employment. Other countries such as Canada 10, Malaysia 11, New Zealand 12 , and Germany 13
10 Pathways to Education. (2016). Program Results. [online] Available at: https://www.pathwaystoeducation.ca/program-

results [Accessed 24 Nov. 2016].
11 StudyMalaysia.com (2016). A Glance at The Malaysian Education System - StudyMalaysia.com. [online]
StudyMalaysia.com. Available at: https://studymalaysia.com/international/the-national-education-system/a-glance-at-the-
malaysian-education-system [Accessed 24 Nov. 2016].
12 Edgazette.govt.nz. (2016). Building strong foundations, clear pathways, successful transitions. [online] Available at:
http://www.edgazette.govt.nz/Articles/Article.aspx?ArticleId=8790 [Accessed 24 Nov. 2016].
13 Bonn 2015 Secretariat of the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Lander.

(Bonn, 2015) have already adopted similar approaches at the secondary level.
Learners' knowledge will be assessed based on the information retained, understood,
and applied in addition to their ability to evaluate information and create knowledge.
Assessment will take place over a period of time using projects, journaling, profiles, and
portfolios involving parents and other stakeholders. Learners' overall assessment at the end
of SSE will be based on project work, a national examination, and community service
learning. If community service learning is not completed, a learner will be denied secondary
certificates and entry to tertiary education. The curricular reform lays special emphasis on
learners with special needs, an area that was not especially focused on in the previous reforms.
Learners with Special Educational Needs

Learners with special needs, like all young people, have potential that needs to be
nurtured. The model in Figure 2 has been designed to enable learners with special needs to
feel included in the educational system and be a part of the Kenyan society and workforce.
Figure 2:
Special Needs Education Curriculum Model
Source: (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development [KICD], 2017b).
Education of learners with special needs starts with a functional assessment to

determine whether the learner should be placed in a special school, special unit, regular
school, or in a home-based program and the type of intervention that will be suitable. Some
learners with special needs will follow the regular curriculum with adaptations to content,
teaching, and learning strategies in addition to resources and assessment. These learners
include those with visual impairment, hearing impairment, physical disability, mild cerebral
palsy, learning disabilities, emotional and behavioral difficulties, and communication
disorders. For gifted and talented learners, the curriculum will be enriched through

additional and advanced content and resources.

Other learners with special needs may not follow the regular curriculum, including
those with mental disabilities, deaf-blindness, autism, cerebral palsy, multiple disabilities, and
profound disabilities. The primary purpose of education for these learners is to enable them
to live an independent life. Their curriculum will be stage-based, not age-based. They will
study at four levels of education, with transition dependent on the demonstration of
outcomes. The first is the foundation level in which learning outcomes are appropriate
communication, pre-numeracy, pre-literacy skills, spiritual and social skills, independent
living skills, exploring the environment for learning, and applying digital literacy skills.
Following the foundation level, learners' transition to the intermediate level. Here they will
focus on the same learning outcomes but at a higher level. Learners with special needs who
are exceptionally talented in specific areas may require a syllabus that is geared towards
nurturing and developing their talents. Following the intermediate level, learners' transition
to the pre-vocational level.
At the pre-vocational level, learners are introduced to the preliminaries of many skills-
based fields and are given the opportunity to identify their abilities and interests. Learning
includes skills in areas such as weaving, animal husbandry, cookery, hairdressing and beauty,
dressmaking, carpentry, metalwork, building construction, and horticultural farming.
Learners also focus on homemaking skills, and digital literacy is integrated across learning
areas. Once a learner's abilities and interests have been identified at the pre-vocational level,
they will be placed in a given field. A home-based program has been designed for learners
with profound disabilities who are mostly at home and may benefit from the services of EARC
officers and other auxiliary services.
Assessment Approaches in Basic Education

Education assessment is the process of determining the extent to which learners have
acquired knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and abilities that have been specified (pre-
determined) before a course begins. The assessment information is useful for monitoring
learners' progress, providing feedback, informing the next steps in learning, and guiding
future courses. Assessment can be at the classroom or national level. Several methods are
used to collect and record information about a learner's progress in all subjects. Assessment
is often overlooked when planning and implementing curricula change. However, in current
curricula reform processes, assessment is integral. Specifically, four types of assessment will
inform students' progress and achievement in basic education.
Competency-Based Assessment
Competency-based assessment (CBA) involves determining a learner's capability to
apply knowledge, skills, and abilities to successfully perform tasks in a defined setting
(UNESCO IBE, 2013). The process starts with a personal assessment against a set of
competencies – the assessor uses evidence to judge whether an individual is competent.
Evidence may be direct, such as observation of performance, and indirect, such as formal
testing and testimonies from others. The assessor reviews this evidence and verifies it with
the person performing the skill. The assessment must be valid, reliable, flexible, and fair.
Learners are considered competent when they are able to consistently apply their knowledge
and skills to the standard of performance required in the school. CBA foregrounded in current
reform processes is a radical shift and departure from current assessment practices of
comparing learners with each other (norm-referenced assessment) towards assessment
practices that collect evidence and make judgments on the extent and nature of the progress

of each learner.
Formative Assessment (Assessment for Learning)

Formative assessment is carried out during curriculum instruction to monitor
learning. It provides ongoing feedback for teachers to improve their teaching and students to
improve their learning (Bennet, 2011; Province of Manitoba, 2006) towards desired
outcomes. Information from formative assessments can help close the gap between current
and desired achievement levels (Dunn and Mulvenon, 2009).
The formative assessment uses both formal and informal methods to monitor a
learner's progress and collect information on their ability to demonstrate competencies
(Looney, 2011). Formative assessments also focus on other abilities, attitudes, and aptitudes
to assess a learner's development across all areas of learning. Current reforms mandate that
assessments are made on recorded evidence (portfolios) maintained by the class and/or
subject teacher.
Summative Assessment (Assessment of Learning)

Summative assessment evaluates student learning, skill acquisition, and academic
achievement at the end of a defined instructional period (Looney, 2011), or learning has been
completed (Province of Manitoba, 2006). Assessment information and feedback sum up the
teaching and learning process. It is a synoptic assessment of learning outcomes, in which
students demonstrate their ability to integrate and apply skills, knowledge, and
understanding across the breadth and depth of the subject. Individuals are compared against
a standard or benchmark, and the result is used for placement, certification, ranking, or
grading of learners and for deciding on progression to the next level of education.
By assessing a learner's capability to apply knowledge and skills gained in one part of
the course to other parts of the course, or across the course as a whole, summative assessment
enhances the links between different parts of a syllabus and reduces compartmentalization of
learning. In the new curriculum, summative assessment will be at the end of Early Years
Education, Middle School Education, and after Senior School Education.
Assessment as Learning
Assessment as learning uses assessment to develop and support learners'
metacognition (Province of Manitoba, 2006). It focuses on the student's role as the critical
connector between assessment and learning, with an emphasis on fostering skills and habits
such as self-assessment, self-monitoring, and self-correction. Teachers may refer learners to
their personal goals or external standards as references for self-assessment. They may also
facilitate self-assessment among students by introducing the use of self-reflection questions
and exemplary work for consideration. Assessment as learning promotes students' awareness
of strengths and weaknesses in their learning (Looney, 2011). In the new curriculum
assessment as learning is prioritized to promote learning to learn; critical thinking and
problem-solving; imagination and creativity; and self-efficacy skills in learners.
Assessment as, for, and of learning mainstreamed in the new curriculum is the game-
changer needed to catalyze further education reform. It will generate data and evidence about
the health of Kenya's basic education system. Putting more premium on assessment for
learning and assessment as learning (Chisholm & Leyendecker, 2008; UNESCO IBE, 2013)
will nurture and empower learners to engage more in the learning process and further
develop their ethical behavior as espoused in the mission of the ongoing (2017) curriculum
reform. The reform will usher policy alignment between curriculum content and assessment

and reduce the academic load for learners as the basic education system sifts through, isolates,
and focuses on those skills essential for the 21st century characterized by the multiple pathway
approach to education in the new curriculum.
Assessment information will have important implications on education policy,
practice, and research to improve learning outcomes and graduate learners equipped with
relevant knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes for sustainable development. Noteworthy is
the use of portfolios to demonstrate learners' capabilities at different points in their academic
journey. However, for the new assessment approach to succeed, teachers will need sustained
professional support, mentoring, and coaching. Competent and motivated teachers will
remain crucial for the successful implementation of educational assessment reforms.
Discussion and Future Directions

Kenya prides itself on a young and growing population, with over 80% of them under
35 years of age (NCPD, 2017 14). Most youth are in the basic education level and have
immense potential to transform Kenya's economic fortunes. This transformation is possible
if continuous improvement of the quality and relevance of skills young people possess when
entering the job market is prioritized. Youth must have the right skillsets to be gainfully
engaged. The demographic dividend must be harnessed to propel Kenya to higher levels.
Targeted efforts must be expended on the quality and range of educational opportunities
available to the youth. The next few years remain crucial in determining Kenya's socio-
economic and even political direction. A logical starting point is the ongoing curriculum
reform processes whose main objective (and strength) is developing learners' competencies,
skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes.
The situation in Kenya today is promising. There is a near gender-parity enrolment
in basic education programs, demonstrating the government's commitment to improving
educational access in the country. Free Primary Education, introduced in 2003, is the main
driving force behind school attendance. The number of schools, number of pupils, and net
enrolment in basic education (ECDE to 12th grade) have grown steadily. Free Day Secondary
Education was introduced in 2008, and capitation increased from KSh28bn ($308m) to
KSh32bn ($350m), representing 15% of the national budget for the 2015/16 fiscal year. The
government now shoulders the responsibility of paying examination fees for all candidates in
the 8th and 12th grades. Heavy public spending on education (Jepkemei, 2017; Muricho &
Chang' ach, 2013) and the waiving of levies to learners demonstrate the government's
commitment to building an accessible and effective education system. The huge investment
should translate to increased enrolment rates in basic education and improved access and
quality of education for all.
Basic educational outcomes in Kenya remain low. UNESCO (2012) and UWEZO
(2016) reports affirm that many children are graduating without requisite skills for the world
of work. About 39% of women are illiterate or semi-illiterate after six years of schooling. An
even bigger challenge is the scenario in which youth are being prepared for jobs that have
not yet been created. The education system must operate in synchronization with demands
from the ever-evolving labor market. The revised curricula address this gap by aligning
learners' skills being developed to job-market requirements.
Emphasis (and concern) on learning outcomes is the impetus needed to ensure that
curriculum and teaching quality reflects the government's efforts in improving access and
14 National Council of Population and Development. (NCPD, 2017). Youth Bulge in Kenya: A Blessing or Curse
(Policy Brief No. 56). Nairobi: NCPD

attendance if Kenya hopes to reap dividends of the bottom-heavy demographic bulge (NCPD,
2017). If done appropriately, it will reduce the dependency ratio – the percent of the non-
working-age population to working-age population – of 80.9% on the country's welfare
system. With more youth in gainful employment, tax revenues will grow. Productivity will
increase as well, especially when the emerging labor force is adequately prepared. To address
these issues, inter-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approaches must be adopted to make
educational content more relevant to future employment opportunities. To this end,
discussions with the private sector are imperative. Undoubtedly also, reforms must align with
the Constitution of Kenya (2010), Kenya's Vision 2030, and, on the international scene,
Sustainable Development Goals, including goal Four and 21st-century skills, if learners have
to meaningfully contribute to national development.
ICTs can and have been harnessed before to improve the quality of basic education
and as a means to reach all learners with and without disabilities, those in marginalized
regions and the vulnerable. Once the extensive electrification of over 22,000 primary schools
is complete, the next logical step should be to connect the schools to the high-speed fiber-
optic network. These infrastructure developments will pave the way to learning on the go –
anytime, anywhere, anyhow. We see the teacher increasingly playing a more facilitative role.
How then do we expect the curriculum to look like then? What provisions need to be made
in the curriculum reform right now to accommodate these novel ways of learning?
Curriculum implementation in the past has been rid with many challenges. The most
critical one has been the number of teachers in the workforce. Boosting numbers of well-
qualified, and motivated, teachers will remain high on the agenda for improving learning
outcomes. In 2013, the student-teacher ratio in primary schools was 52 to 1 and 32 to 1for
secondary schools. To improve educational quality, the provision of more teachers is required
to meet the UN recommended teacher-student ratio of one teacher for every 35 students. The
import of this is the need to employ an additional 79,000 teachers, a move that requires
strategic fiscal thinking, including the substantial expansion of the ministry's budget – 83%
of MoEST's recurrent budget.
Close collaboration between educational institutions and the private sector should
continue being forged and/or strengthened. More internships and service-learning field
placements accompanied by incentives, such as tax rebates for collaborating private sector
organizations, should be encouraged. Private enterprises should be encouraged to work
directly with universities and other tertiary institutions to not only improve the quality of
education and job readiness of new graduates but also to identify and nurture talent.
Mentoring and coaching should be mainstreamed. These efforts address some of the funding
crises many institutions of higher learning are currently facing.
The Kenyan education sector will continue to benefit from several comparative
advantages, including improving educational access and strong government-and donor-
support. Education remains a game-changer in the lives of Kenyan children, the result being
the production of self-reliant learners ready for the global market. Science, technology, and
innovation must take center-stage to address the demand for mid-level skills. The
government's flagship project of setting up technical training institutions in each region and
constituency in the country will, hopefully, spur the county towards the achievement of
Vision 2030.
Ominde Commission (1964), Mackay Report (1981), and other curricula reform
efforts viewed education as a solution to unemployment by foregrounding talents and
provision of technical and vocational skills. Current curriculum reform proposes multiple
pathways to education and identification and nurturing of talents.

The 8-4-4 system of education was doomed to fail in the absence of fully equipped
science labs and workshops and trained teachers ready to use learner-centric pedagogy. a.
Ongoing curriculum reform is premised on a true learner-centric pedagogy: learning
activities promote learner participation, with the teacher as a guide.
Assessment reforms envisioned in the new curriculum pave the way to regional and
international assessments (such as PISA-D, TIMMS, and PIRLS) (UNESCO, 2000). It is a
move away from norm-referenced to criterion-referenced testing that helps generate
information about learner understandings, skills, competencies, or behavior that can be
expected of a person with a given score. Constructivist approaches undergird Criterion-
referenced assessment to learning, which determines learners' understanding, not just their
knowledge in each learning area and their ability to apply new knowledge in various
situations (Fenstermacher and Soltis, 2015). Learners are expected to not only demonstrate
relevant generic skills but develop their abilities for self-reflection and self-assessment about
their learning. That also means that teacher-centric approaches must give way to learner-
friendly pedagogies. Learners will increasingly take charge of their learning that goes beyond
memorization of facts and regurgitation in the classroom and during exams (Pontefract &
Hardman, 2005). Such an approach brings to the center of teaching and learning processes
that tap into children's interests, experiences, and needs and automatically tilts in favor of
developing, in learners, higher-order thinking skills, critical analysis, and reflection (Kellagan
& Greeney, 2005).
Results from international learning assessments play a critical role in the monitoring
of learning outcomes, education quality and ensure accountability. They inform education
policymaking and promote prudent resource allocation and use. From a motivational
perspective, a move away from high stakes examinations can ease pressure on teachers about
their job security and redirect their efforts to genuine career growth and development. This,
in turn, could shift attention to teacher quality and standards hinged on continual
improvement with important implications on the quality of teaching and learning practices,
content choice, and education quality in general (Kellagan & Greeney, 2005; Somerset, 2011).
Teachers' capacity to handle labor demanding and time-consuming practical lessons
remains an ever-present challenge given many of the teachers are themselves products of
theory-based and teacher-centered teacher training programs. Additionally, implementation
of a learner-centered pedagogy is an almost insurmountable task within a resource-poor
context led by poorly remunerated and often demotivated teachers. Curriculum change
requires teacher re-tooling, including training on novel assessment techniques,
diversification and adaptation of the curriculum to local needs (Balarin & Benavides, 2010),
accommodation of indigenous knowledge in the classroom, and use of gender-sensitive
pedagogies and instructional materials that provide a more positive image of women and girls
and their role in society (Naseem, 2010). Ample evidence indicates that children are more
motivated and better positioned to learn if their background knowledge and experiences are
incorporated into their learning environments. Indigenization of the curriculum (Chisholm
& Leyendecker, 2008) will thus be imperative.
Past curriculum reforms have been demoralizing because of their failure to
meaningfully address systemic issues dogging the education system and minimize wastage
of time, energy, and resources. A case in point is the mismatch between student qualifications
and current market demand needs. In the same breath, the structural challenges provide an
opportunity for system-wide reforms and an overhaul of the whole education system,
especially in the governance, leadership, accountability, ownership, funding architecture,
institutional capacity, and monitoring and evaluation domains (Psacharapoulos, 1988), hence

the reform currently (2017) underway. Otherwise, and in Jepkemei's (2017) words:
We can get the structure we want, but what does it mean if our children remain
"unbuilt"? What is the point of setting a beautiful dinner table if the food is not nourishing?
We need to focus on what matters. Let's get the curriculum and accountability right. The
structure will fall in place. So, is reform cheap? No, it isn't. Neither is an ineffective,
unaccountable education system.
The politicization of education has been one of the major challenges in education in
Kenya and, in part, contributed to the failure of past curricular reviews and reforms. The
challenge is further complicated by politicians ignorant of the wherewithal of a successful
curriculum reform process that considers issues such as teacher and student factors, school
ethos and management, and physical resources. Heneveld and Craig (1996) and Rogan and
Grayson (2003) posit that successful implementation of curriculum reforms depend on the
extent to which policymakers and planners consider the whole school context and the current
level of curriculum and classroom practice, and capacity to support reform.
• Ongoing curriculum reforms should address the language of instruction and other
issues surrounding indigenous knowledge, cultural expression, and identities in
transformative and empowering ways (Brock-Utne, 2001) and maintenance of
cultural heritage.
• The government should secure inter-disciplinary and multi-sectoral engagements in
providing basic education and eliminating the silo approach to education service
delivery options by both state and non-state actors.
• National values, community service learning, and physical education should link what
happens in the classroom to the real world – a fit-for-purpose approach, if you may.
Jepkemei (2017) notes that the curriculum has to be both challenging and connected
to "real-world" applications such as service and internship. It is the only way to make
the curriculum relevant.
• The new curriculum should be inclusive and guarantee achievement for/of/by all
learners, including those living with disabilities. Let no child be left behind. That
means targeted efforts should be made towards children with special needs and the
marginalized and vulnerable children in poorly resourced arid and semi-arid regions
of the country.
• The government should address other key factors that affect education quality by
stemming out corruption and plugging holes for siphoning public funds. Curriculum
reforms should not be cosmetic but result in real change for graduates to look beyond
white-collar employment to the creation of their jobs and the freedom that comes with
it.
Conclusion
Several curricular reforms in Kenya have happened over time in response to the labor
market's needs and to align curricula with local and international legal instruments (such as
the Constitution of Kenya (2010 and Sustainable Development Goals) that shape education.
Arguably, the Kenyan curriculum is becoming more inclusive, competence-based, and
practice-oriented to nurture 21st-century skills. Pedagogical approaches are becoming more
learner-centered with equal educational opportunity for all emphasized. More value is being
placed on assessment for and as learning than on an assessment of learning. Curricula reform
goals and objectives revolve around Kenya's demographic and legislative realities against the
backdrop of systemic problems (such as huge class sizes and teacher absenteeism), which

jeopardize the achievement of expected learning outcomes.

Contextualizing education to regional differences affirms democracy in education
towards the devolution of education functions and services. It answers questions of who
decides what is worthwhile to know and experience in order for learners to reach greater
potential and develop into responsible human beings capable of contributing meaningfully to
sustainable development. It combines centralized and grassroots reform efforts to yield
excellence, equity, and genuine human growth and assures a bright future for Kenya's
children.
Recommendations
Based on the findings reported in this paper, the following recommendations are made:
1. Stakeholder participation in curriculum reform: The widest extent of education
stakeholders should be involved in curriculum reform. Teacher inclusion in the
design, development, and implementation of the new curriculum should be prioritized.
After all, teachers are the most important change agent on the education work floor.
2. Strategic implementation of the reformed curriculum: Implementation of the new
curriculum should be well-planned and structured to yield expected learning
outcomes. The reforms must be communicated clearly and efficiently to all actors
involved in implementation at different levels to avoid irregularities, confusion, and
resistance from teachers as has characterized previous rollouts. Resistance to reforms
should be viewed as critical to improving education and futureproofing it. Teachers
should be properly oriented and re-skilled, and essential learning and teaching
materials availed in all schools. A robust implementation plan ensures that necessary
conditions and an enabling environment are guaranteed and made available for
teachers and schools.
3. Synchronization of basic education and teacher education curriculum reform:
Pre- and in-service teacher education programs should be reformed simultaneously
with basic education curriculum reforms to better meet the demands of competency-
based education.
4. Curriculum policy review and/or alignment: Basic education curriculum policies
on content, pedagogy, and assessment should be reviewed and/or aligned to ensure
effective and efficient curriculum implementation.
5. Implementation of alternative assessment methods to track learner
achievement: Assessment for learning (formative) and assessment as learning should
be prioritized to empower learners to monitor their learning progress and growth and
for setting new academic goals. Less emphasis should be placed on the assessment of
learning (summative) to eliminate rote learning and nurture mastery learning in
which learners demonstrate what they know and can do. This will be a double-edged
strategy to curb examination-based education characterized by cut-throat
competition, cramming, and regurgitation of content.
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About the Authors

Justus O. Inyega holds a PhD (Science Education) and Postgraduate Certificate in
multidisciplinary qualitative research from the University of Georgia, USA, M. Ed. (Science
Education), University of Leeds, UK, M. Ed (Admin.) and B. Ed (Primary Education Option)
from Kenyatta University, Kenya. In addition, Inyega is also holder of Postgraduate
Certificate in Chemical Education (Hiroshima University), and Certificate in Project Cycle
Management (JICA, Tokyo). Inyega is an Associate Professor in the Department of
Educational Communication and Technology, School of Education, College of Education and
External Studies, University of Nairobi. Inyega is also the Director, Centre for Pedagogy and
Andragogy (CEPA), which in-services University lecturers on teaching methodologies in
higher education. Inyega has a wide range of teaching experience at all levels of education,
within Kenya and in the United States, for over 30 years, 19 years of which in high schools
and tertiary teacher training colleges and polytechnic, and 17 years in university teaching,
research, consultancy and community work. Inyega has also experience in management of
research-based projects in Kenya. He has successfully worked with University of Nairobi pre-
service teachers in a USAID-sponsored project on early grade reading as the Principal
Investigator. Inyega has also been a Co-principal investigator in the Cross-age Peer Tutoring
in the Teaching of Reading in Primary Schools in Kenya Project that was funded by the
Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) through University of York, United
Kingdom.
Adeela Arshad-Ayaz is an Associate Professor at the Department of Education,
Concordia University. She received her Ph.D. in Comparative and International Education
and Sociology of Education from McGill University. Prior to joining Concordia University,
she held a tenure-track position at the Faculty of Education, University of Regina. Dr.
Arshad-Ayaz is a postcolonial, transnational feminist and critical theorist with interest and
expertise in the sociology of technology, citizenship/civic participation and engagement,
anti-extremism and anti-radicalization education, globalization, international development,
and cultural pluralism. Her published work explores education policies related to educational
technology in Western and developing countries such as Kenya, Pakistan, Indonesia, etc. She
has also published on the impact of globalization on educational policy and the impact of
social media on youth’s civic engagement and issues related to diversity in culturally pluralist
societies. Her ongoing research includes (FQRSC, SSHRC, and Security Canada) funded
projects on social media for civic engagement and participation, social media and cultural
pluralism, and the dark side of social media: hate speech in online environments. She is the
Co-convenor and co-chair for the Annual International Symposium on Teaching about
Extremism, Terror, and Trauma (http://www.tett.ca/). She has also served as the Principal

for Loyola College for Diversity and Sustainability and Co-managing Editor of the Journal
of Contemporary Issues in Education (JCIE). Her research has been featured in leading
newspapers, including Le Devoir.
M. Ayaz Naseem is a Professor of Education at Concordia University, Montreal. He
holds a Ph.D. in Comparative and International Education from McGill University,
Montreal. Prior to joining Concordia University, he taught at the departments of
International Relations and Defense and Strategic Studies at the Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad, Pakistan. His research interests are situated on the cross section of peace
education, social media as space for peace education, teaching about extremism, terror, and
radicalization, feminist theory and philosophy, post-structuralism, and citizenship education.
In 2013-14, he held the First Georg Arnhold Research Professorship on Educating for
Sustainable Peace at Georg Eckert Institute in Braunschweig, Germany. He has published
widely including six books and over fifty articles and book chapters. His co-authored book
Scientism and Education was awarded the prestigious American Educational Studies
Association Critics Choice Award 2008. His book Education and Gendered Citizenship in
Pakistan (Palgrave-McMillan, 2010) was a finalist for the CIES Jackie Kirk Outstanding
Book Award. It was also nominated for the American Institute of Pakistan Studies Book
Award. He has guest-edited special issues of the Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and
Society (JEMMS) and Journal of Current Issues in Education. His research has been funded
by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, FRQ-SC, Public Security Canada,
Humboldt Foundation (Germany), Georg Arnhold Foundation (Germany), Quaid i Azam
University (Pakistan).
Evans W. Mahaya is a PhD student/research assistant at the University of Nairobi;
College of Education and Eternal Studies. His doctoral program is domiciled in the
Department of Educational Communication and Technology. He holds a Master of Arts
degree Education from the University of Georgia (USA) and Bachelor of Education degree
from Kenyatta University (Kenya). Prior to joining Graduate School, he taught Chemistry
and Mathematics at High School and lectured part-time at Kisii University (Kenya). Over the
last 10 years, he has been involved in Research and Consultancy activities for donor-funded
projects in Kenya (by USAID, DFID, ESRC, CIFF, TrustAfrica, CODE) focusing on
educational research, monitoring and evaluation, teacher training and capacity-building,
classroom teacher support, supervision and material development. He has worked with
research organizations such as RTI International, AGA Khan Foundation, Management
Systems International, Educational Development Trust, Genesis Analytics and University of
Nairobi to advance their research agenda. His research interests include; technology
integration in teaching and learning, blended-learning in higher education, assessment of
learning and classroom teacher support and supervision.
Dalia Elsayed is a third year PhD student in the Education Department at Concordia
University. She received her Bachelor of Science from Georgetown University School of
Foreign Service in Qatar with a focus on Middle Eastern and African studies. Dalia completed
her master’s degree At Qatar University’s Gulf Studies Program where her research focused
on power structures under Sharia law, non-western forms of feminist discourses, and Islamic
feminist resistance in Iran and Saudi Arabia. Currently, Dalia’s PhD research focuses on race,
critical theory, intersectionality, and feminist epistemology. Her scholarship seeks to
understand Blackness in a global perspective focusing particularly on the experiences of the
Black African in the diaspora. In doing so, Dalia is interested in understanding the different
narratives and frameworks that contribute to the formation and the articulation of Black
identity/identities globally.

Formal Education in
Kenya
ED 302: Comparative Education
Bro. Bailanda John CSC

jbailanda@cuea.edu
GOALS OF EDUCATION IN KENYA
Meaning of formal education
-Educational goals
-Education laws in Kenya
 1. Foster nationalism, patriotism, and promote national unity
Kenya’s people belong to different communities, races and religions and
should be able to live and interact as one people. Education should enable
the learner acquire a sense of nationhood and patriotism. It should also
promote peace and harmonious co-existence.
National Goals – Current 2024
 2. Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development
Education should prepare the learner to play an effective and productive role in
the nation.
a) Social Needs
Education should instill social and adaptive skills in the learner for effective
participation in the family, community, national, regional and
international development.
b) Economic Needs
Education should prepare the learner with requisite competences that support a
modern and independent growing economy. This should translate into
high standards of living for every individual.
c) Technological and Industrial Needs
Education should develop in the learner necessary competences for technological
and industrial development for the nation in tandem with global
trends
 3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment
Education should provide opportunities for the learner to develop to the fullest
potential. This includes development of one’s interests, talents and
character for positive contribution to the society.
 4. Promote sound moral and religious values

Education should promote acquisition of national values as enshrined in the Kenya
Constitution. It should be geared towards developing a self-disciplined
and ethical citizen with sound moral and religious values.
 Promote social equity and responsibility
Education should promote social equity and responsibility. It should provide
inclusive and equitable access to quality and differentiated education;
including learners with special educational needs and disabilities. Education should
also provide the learner with opportunities for shared
responsibility and accountability through community service learning.
 5. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures
Education should instill in the learner appreciation of Kenya’s rich and diverse
cultural heritage. The learner should value own and respect other
people’s culture as well as embrace positive cultural practices in a dynamic
society.
 6. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards
other nations
Kenya is part of the interdependent network of diverse peoples and nations.
Education should empower the learner to respect, appreciate and
participate in the opportunities within the international community. Education
should also enable the learner to operate within the international
community with full knowledge of the obligations, responsibilities, rights and
benefits that this membership entails.
 7. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental
protection
Education should inculcate in the learner the value of physical and psychological
Characteristics of formal education in Kenya
• Structure • Islamic Education Structure

• Curriculum - Thrust - • Missionary Education Structure
Objectives • Colonial Education Structure
• Curriculum Determined • Structure after Independence: 7-4-2-3
Assssessment • The Post-Independence Structure: 8-4-4
• Curriculum Content • The Evolving Structure: 2-3-3-3-3-3 or 2-

6-3-3-3 or 2-9-3-3
Teacher Characteristics/Issues
• Qualification, • Teacher Training Institutions

Primary Teacher Training
Institutions
• Remuneration, Secondary Teacher Training
Institutions
• T.S.C Universities
• KNUT Training Institutions for TVT
Instructors
Historical Development of Kenya’s Formal
Education
• Note on African Formal • Islamic Education
Education Systems: • Missionary Education
• Tribal/Ethnic Community • Colonial Educational
Organization
• Independent Kenya and Choice
• Continuous? When does it start? of Education System
When does it end?
• The Role of the Education
• What qualifications? – Life Skills Commissions
and Career Skills
Challenges of Kenyan National Education
System
• Language of Instruction – for unity or for imperial culture
• Embracing all cultures
• Adopting foreign curriculum and examinations
• Efforts at Afracanization of Education
• Ever-changing Curricula
COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION
ED 302 SUMMARY NOTES
WEEKS 10 to 11
Presented by
Bro. John Bailanda CSC
Tel: +254-785666927, Email: jbailanda@cuea.edu
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AND
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN
EDUCATION IN AFRICA
Contemporary Issues in Education: Should

not just be taken as challenges, instead – a
host of stimulating as well as
impeding/obstructing/hindering concepts,
perspectives and practices in education.
Comparative Education discussion should

aim to study different issues so as to enable
informed decisions or guide policy
formulation.
WEEK 10 A –
ICT AND EDUCATION
 ICT Competencies  The Concept of
For teachers and learners, Knowledge Explosion
and for employability How is knowledge tapped?
Who is the credible
source?
 ICT Integration in
School Systems and
 Social Media and the
Pedagogies
fear of
ICT especially for system
unfounded/conspiracy
administration and for
theories
teaching and learning
WEEK 10 B – EDUCATION
QUALITY AND EQUITY
 Quality – Teachers and  Quality Resources and
Teaching/Learning Pedagogies and
Context Andragogies
Against crowded classrooms Teaching and Learning
Teacher : Student Ratio thrives on methods and
concerns resources
 Equity – Differently  Equity – Socio-

ably economic contexts
Is education targeting every Are education resources offered
category of learner to to learners according to need to
achieve maximally achieve maximally
WEEK 10 C –
GENDER AND EDUCATION
 Gender Issues –  Gender Issues – The
Women Empowerment Boy-Child and The
Struggle and recognition of Girl-Child
Equality What are the best ways to
educate them together?
 Gender Issues –  Gender Issues – The

Changing aspects of global movements
Female, Male, How does education fit in
Transgender! the debate!
WEEK 10 D –
INTEGRITY AND SECURITY IN
EDUCATION
 Ethical Issues  Exam Malpractices!
In Scholarly Merit The springboard of
In Research conduct unhealthy competition in
In Teacher-Student relationships
Authentic Knowledge!
school and translated in
job market
Corruption in Education!
 Why are Learners Security
Targets?
 Does Peace Education
 The vulnerability of
children & youth and have room in school
women in face of wars curriculum?
WEEK 10 E –
Curriculum Reforms and Innovations
 Are Reforms  Effects of Curriculum
necessary? Change!
Ever-changing face of How often should
Education curriculum change?
 Curricula Borrowing!  Whose best practices?

Critique the intentions of
curriculum reform and the
management issues in Africa
WEEK 11 A –
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
 Critique national  University
policies and Placement Policy
practices of Higher Course, Points and
Education Diversity!
 University Credit  Equitable Access to

Transfer Higher Education!
How much can the institution Funding Issues vs
own its certificate? Employability
WEEK 10 B –
TRANSITION POLICIES
 100% Transition  Education for All!
Policy! How is this policy
What does this policy serve? achievable in developing
countries?
 Global Policies!
Critique the adaptation of global education policies
and their effect on country education systems
WEEK 11 C –
Teacher Education/Qualification
 Different Levels of  The Need for Constant
schools – Different Teacher Professional
Qualifications of Development
Teachers! Whose expense?
 Teacher  Teaching Ethics!

Remuneration! Modeling values and
morals!
WEEK 11 D –
HEALTH AND EDUCATION
 The COVID-19  HIV/AIDS has persistently
Pandemic revealed the been a threat to young
people
vulnerability of
-Teenage/Adolescents in trial
teachers (elderly/with relationships
pre-existing -Youthful targets of
conditions) transgenerational sex
- Younger people resilience
to disease and yet  How might Education
carriers respond to health skills and
- School crowds are preventive health?
vulnerable to water-born  Does Health Education have
and air-born diseases room in curriculum?
WEEK 11 E –
Ecology and Global Warming
 Schools as  Schools (young
Environmental generation) as best
destroyers – From the targets of
aspect of fuel for environmental
cooking and other education and
activities conservation practices
 The need to pay attention  Does environment
to natural disasters: education have room
Floods, Rising Tides,
in school curriculum!
Typhoons and Hurricanes,
Desertification,
unpredictable seasons, etc.
Contemporary Issues in Education
Stretch beyond continental
boundaries
 The Course should be eye-open to
more global issues
The Course should stimulate your
research potential
 The Course should invite you to

career professionalism

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COMPARATIVE

Comparative Education – is both a discipline and a method.

As a method, Comparative Education aims to study

 Approaches to  Factors Responsible for

 Purpose and Rationale  Determinants of National

POST-INDEPENDENCE BASIC EDUCATION IN

Keywords: curriculum reform, basic education, competency-based curriculum, historical

Identifying Gaps in scholarship on the Status of Basic Education in Kenya

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

The Rationale for Current Curriculum Reform

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

Source: (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development [KICD], 2017a).

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

Early Years Education

Middle School Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

Senior School Education

10 Pathways to Education. (2016). Program Results. [online] Available at: https://www.pathwaystoeducation.ca/program-

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

Learners with Special Educational Needs

Source: (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development [KICD], 2017b).

Education of learners with special needs starts with a functional assessment to

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

additional and advanced content and resources.

Assessment Approaches in Basic Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

Formative Assessment (Assessment for Learning)

Summative Assessment (Assessment of Learning)

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

Discussion and Future Directions

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

jeopardize the achievement of expected learning outcomes.

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

Development of Education in Africa.

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

Science, and Technology.

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

About the Authors

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education

ED 302: Comparative Education

Bro. Bailanda John CSC

 4. Promote sound moral and religious values

• Structure • Islamic Education Structure

• Curriculum Content • The Evolving Structure: 2-3-3-3-3-3 or 2-

• Qualification, • Teacher Training Institutions

Contemporary Issues in Education: Should

Comparative Education discussion should

 Equity – Differently  Equity – Socio-

 Gender Issues –  Gender Issues – The

 Curricula Borrowing!  Whose best practices?