ME 652 Paper - Prashar2021

Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
A comprehensive review on sustainable cold spray additive manufacturing:

State of the art, challenges and future challenges
Gaurav Prashar, Hitesh Vasudev *
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, Punjab, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Klemeš Integration of additive manufacturing (AM) with Cold spray process is the latest solid-state supersonic deposition
method that has gained significant attention of future manufacturing industry owning to its acceptability for
Keywords: mass production, fabrication, and restoration of typical engineering components. Cold spray additive
CSAM manufacturing (CSAM) can build 3D components and this technique has the potential to change the future of the
Additive manufacturing
manufacturing world with remarkable sustainable benefits. This review sums up the research on state-of-the-art
Cold spray
and identified key challenges for deploying a CSAM as a repairing, restoration and sustainable fabrication
Sustainable technology
3D printing process in the future manufacturing industry. The benefits of CSAM for sustainable manufacturing have been
discussed regarding the environmental concerns, and optimized product structures and designs. The outcome of
the current study indicates that challenges associated with CSAM can be overcome with careful planning and
manufacturing strategies. It also presents the recommended future research directions for CSAM’s imple
mentation as an established viable advanced AM process.
layer via layer mechanism. In comparison to other subtractive tech

niques of production, AM is genetically less wasteful and holds the po
1. Introduction tential for de-coupling socio-economic value creations from the
environmental influence of the activities associated with the business. It
1.1. Additive manufacturing offers three major sustainable benefits which are listed below;
The advent of manufacturing technology when combined with a. Enhanced resource efficiencies: Enhancements can be recognized in
customer demand for more personalized goods is causing changes in design and production phases as both product and production pro
manufacturing size and distribution. The basic concept of cess can be redesigned;
manufacturing the product via AM has been existing for decades. The b. Product life extended: Wider reaching technical benefits, specifically
initial applications of AM include rapid prototyping, development of for repair and restoration works of high-cost products extending
products by generating original models and then subjected them to their useful service life. The sustainable social-economic design of
testing for validation of these products physically. In the last ten years fers better affinities among product-person and close relationships
period, AM has experienced significant growth in the technological field among producers and customers (Kohtala, 2015);
and has been employed for direct manufacturing of products in auto c. Reconfiguring the value chains: Shorter, collaborative, localized
mobiles, aerospace, and biomedical sector. In contrast with other prime value chains, and novel distribution models offering remarkable
techniques like servitisation (Neely, 2008), presumption (Fox and Li, sustainability benefits.
2012), and personalization (Zhou et al., 2013) the evolution of AM as a
direct manufacturing method has lead industries to re-think that where Manufacturing includes transforming the input of materials into
and how they should carry out their manufacturing. AM is now applied products and services. The efficacy of this conversion technology is a
along with conventional manufacturing (CM) processes in production primary factor of the ecological effect related to manufacturing. AM
lines. For instance, subtractive manufacturing depends upon material offers significant benefits from the viewpoint of sustainability (Gutowski
removal to develop the end product (Gebler et al., 2014). AM copies the et al., 2009). The benefits of sustainability include producing a little
biological methods of developing the coatings on product surfaces by
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: E-mail addresses: grvprashar@yahoo.co.in (G. Prashar), hitesh.24804@lpu.co.in (H. Vasudev). hiteshvasudev@yahoo.in (H. Vasudev).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127606
Received 25 January 2021; Received in revised form 23 April 2021; Accepted 19 May 2021
Available online 23 May 2021
0959-6526/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. Prashar and H. Vasudev Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606
Nomenclature SD Stand-off distance

GC Geometrical control
AM Additive manufacturing LPCS Low-pressure cold spray
CSAM Cold spray additive manufacturing SOPs Standard operating procedures
CS Cold spray OSHA The Occupational Safety and health agency
CGS Cold gas spray ASTM American society for testing of materials
HEA high entropy alloys AM CoE AM centre of excellence
PBF Powder bed fusion ISO International organization for standardization
EBM Electron beam melting PVD Physical vapour deposition
WAAM Wire arc additive manufacturing IssP In-situ shot peening
SLM Selective laser melting CM Conventional manufacturing
R&D Research and development PHT Post-heat treatment
HT Heat treatment IPBs Inter-particle boundaries
CVD Chemical vapour deposition
waste during manufacturing as it is an additive process. The product

geometries may be optimized in designing lightweight parts leading to
the reduction of material used during fabrication and consumption of
energy in use. In the supply chain, there is a reduction in transportation
and inventory wastage owing to the production of parts on demand
easily (Chen et al., 2015; Mani et al., 2014).
According to (Huang et al., 2013) AM is anticipated to grow as a
main fabricating technology in a future sustainable society. In contrast
with traditional AM methods, the generalized AM techniques are pre
sented in Fig. 1. The left part of Fig. 1 outlined the traditional AM
techniques and the right part indicates the generalized AM techniques
based on energy sources. CSAM appears to be the most popular tech
nique because it functions like the “3D printing” technique, which can
be employed in the manufacturing of engineering components, repair
and restoration works without altering highly complicated underlying
crystal structure.
1.2. CS and CSAM
CSAM utilizes a cold gas spray (CGS) technique which is one of the
growing areas in the thermal spray industry. A group of researchers
between 1986 and 1990, developed a coating deposition method and
two patents for CGS equipment construction (Champagne, 2007). From
1990 to 2000 to fabricate the first CGS setup, the US collaborated with
the government of Russia. The system was developed by A. Papyrin, and
after this US becomes 2nd country to have its CGS system. Germany and
other countries of Europe in the same decade also developed their CGS
Fig. 1. Generalized AM techniques. systems and start investigating novel applications. Subsequently, basic
studies concerning spray parameters during coating deposition and the
use of technical methods to examine the formation of coating and its
Fig. 2. (a) Evolution of CS technology and, (b) Publications in recent years.
2
Fig. 3. Typical parts manufactured by CSAM process (a) Rocket nozzle and, (b) Titanium housing (Impact innovations, Germany).
microstructure permitted to enhance the CGS applications in the particles are bonded to the substrate at the boundary surface. The rapid
manufacturing sectors (Grigoriev et al., 2015). After the year 2000, the succession of powder particle impact gradually creates a dense layer of
CGS technique experimented with vast development, and remarkably material.
spread to other countries, specifically during the last few years thanks to
R&D activities and dedicated production efforts all around the globe. A 1.4. Areas of CSAM
study in 2017 by (Raoelison et al., 2017) prints the installations of CGS
worldwide. Europe accounts for 55% of the CGS system utilized for R&D CSAM can develop complicated freestanding shapes and can produce
and manufacturing, with the United States accounting for 20%, China blocks rapidly processing advantages in comparison with other methods
for 7%, and India, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Canada, and Australia, ac as presented in Fig. 5 (Pattison et al., 2007).
counting for the remaining 18%. The installations around the globe are The process develops quickly to AM complex and functional parts for
employed for R&D (60%) and manufacturing (40%). A broad spectrum various industrial applications by integrating the additive features of
of studies is being carried out at different companies and research cen CSAM with the subtractive effects of CM. A motion platform was utilized
tres which are producing many applications. The evolution of CS tech in the Ibarmia 5-axis and Hermle 5-axis machining centre to fabricate
nology and the publications are represented in Fig. 2. and machine the hybrid CSAM deposits (Flynn et al., 2016). Till now, the
CSAM can build entire new parts. CSAM may serve the role of an CSAM approach has been utilized for manufacturing/repairing and
alternative production method in the future manufacturing sector. Some welding. It can deposit different industrial materials and their alloys like
typical engineering components manufactured by using CSAM are Aluminum, Copper, tin-bronze (Guo et al., 2009), composites of Ni–Al
illustrated in Fig. 3. A rocket nozzle (Fig. 3a) is the propulsion nozzles (Li et al., 2008a), metal matrix composites reinforced with diamonds
(usually de Laval nozzles) used in rocket engines. These nozzles increase (Yin et al., 2017), highly reactive metals such as Titanium (Gardon et al.,
the exit speed, the internal pressure of the combustion chambers, 2013) and Tantalum (Piercy et al., 2015), as well as HEA (Yin et al.,
improve the thrust and the combustion process of the rocket engine. The 2019) onto the surface of substrates without altering the underlying
CM of the nozzles is tedious and costly (Impact innovations). With the material properties (Li et al., 2019b), in comparison with conventional
help of the CSAM, rocket nozzles can be produced in a very short time. thermal spray approach (Moridi et al., 2014). It can also fabricate
Another typical engineering application of CSAM replacing the con sputtering targets (Miller et al., 2014), crankshafts (Villafuerte, 2010)
ventional method of production is in the AM of rotation symmetrical and gears (Eason et al., 2011). Also, it joins nonferrous metals (Cadney
casing components with CS developed by (Impact innovations). et al., 2008). Recently, an Australian advanced manufacturing company
(Fig. 3b). The major manufacturers of CSAM are listed in Table 1. fabricated Titanium drones by CSAM which measures more than 1.8m in
The rotational casing components are mostly used as casings of diameter (Titomic 3D prints, Australia). Titanium is generally costly and
aircraft engines, gas turbines, pumps and wind power plants. Mechani hard to manufacture using CM. Investigations, applications, and the
cal production is usually a combination of several turning and milling importance of CSAM in the modern era manufacturing sector have been
operations steps. A large portion of the material is removed by the reported all around the globe already; nevertheless, it is still in a
turning and milling process in most cases and the finished casing developing stage. Major areas of CSAM are presented in Fig. 6.
component is just of few per cent of the starting material. CSAM is used
to create the contour of the component close to the final shape of the 1.5. Merits and de-merits of CSAM
housing component with a small tolerance. The semi-finished compo
nent can be completed by turning and milling on the required functional With the recent incorporation of CSAM in AM family, it has all the
surfaces. CSAM stands out with huge potential for changing future merits of the CS method. In contrast, CSAM has special merits as
manufacturing size and distribution. compared to various well-examined AM technologies based on PBF
principles like EBM, WAAM, and SLM (DebRoy et al., 2018). The most
1.3. Mechanism of deposit formation key advantages of CSAM as compared to other AM techniques are low
production times, higher process flexibility, illimitable product size and
During the CSAM operation, powder particles in un-melted state appropriateness for reparation and restoration of damaged components.
impacts with high-velocity on a surface deformed plastically and bonded Moreover, CSAM is useful in the manufacturing of high-reflective metals
together to form a layer via kinetic compaction as shown in Fig. 4. When like Cu and Al, which is extremely difficult to manufacture utilizing
impacting the substrate surface the kinetic energy carried by the metal laser-based AM techniques.
particles is transformed into plastic deformation of the material. The However, CSAM demerits are also evident that it is a challenging task
3
Table 1 for the AM Engineers. CSAM generally manufactures a semi-finished

The major manufacturers/producers of CSAM. component with a rough surface and called for post-machining. Own
Main Users and applications Parts Website link ing to inherent defects generated due to difficulty in controlling process
manufacturer manufactured/ parameters, CSAM developed parts have poor properties in their man
repaired ufactured condition. Post treatments are repeatedly required to enhance
SPEE3D, • Marine applications • Al bronze https://sp their properties. CSAM has been utilized mainly for the manufacturing
Australia • Royal Australian propeller ee3d.com/ of industrial components/parts with rotational geometry like cylinder
Navy • Al Camlock walls, and tubes. However, with help of a good designed and drafted
• Aerospace fitting
companies • Rocket nozzle
mandrel, complicated geometries like array fin heat exchanger and
• Architectural cover metal 2D code can be manufactured (Champagne and Helfritch, 2016).
hardware • Sparkless Cu- A systematic and detailed review of the work associated with CSAM
applications engineers is urgently needed. To date, studies by various researchers have focused
hammer
on state-of-the-art CSAM technologies in the broader state of affairs (Yin
• Cu-cable clamp
• Al interior door et al., 2018b). has explored CSAM as repairing and restoration tech
handles nology with microstructure, material and mechanical properties (Li
• Al compressor et al., 2019a). summarized ‘CS +’ techniques to highlight the effec
drive wheel tiveness in refining the microstructure of CSAM deposited parts. (Pathak
TITOMIC • Hockley Pattern & • Aerospace https://tit
Kinetic Tools, UK tooling omic.com/
and Saha, 2017), reviewed the progress of the CS process in scientific
fusion, • TITOMIC, Australia • Satellite parts and technological terms in the area of repair and restoration using the
Australia has collaborated AM concept.
with Lockheed
Martin, American
2. Recent challenges for CSAM
Aerospace
company and RMIT
University, With the evolution of high-efficiency CSAM tools, a vast tally of
Australia to deliver materials like Mg, Al, and Ti alloys, metal matrix composites, and even
AM satellite parts super-alloys are anticipated to be sprayed for fabricating and in-situ
Centerline, • Airbus Group, • Multi-material www.
Canada Netherlands 3D parts for supersonic
quick repair works. Certain challenges in CSAM that may restrict its
• Obninsk Center for Airbus spray.com practical applications are represented in Fig. 7.
Powder Spraying, • Automotive parts
Russian company • Turbine and 2.1. Challenges associated with material properties
• International pump restoration
Thermal Spray • Generator repair
Association, • Spray forming of The CSAM is sufficiently smart enough to build components with
America circuit complex shapes and functionalities such as mechanical, biologic or
conductors electrical. This requires good material properties which is one of the
HERMLE AG, • Tool and mould https://www. challenges in CSAM. In comparison with CM methods, which have un
Germany making hermle.de/d
• Additive build up e/home
dergone years of materials R&D; the material development of CSAM has
on semi-finished just initiated. In the initial years of CSAM, when the focus of AM in
parts dustries was on prototyping development, little attention was put on the
• Integrated heat properties of materials. However, with the transformation of technology
elements
into production solutions, material properties have been explored.
Impact • Impact spray https
Innvoatios systems ://impact-inn Table 2 summarizes the important material functional properties and
GmbH, • Impact powder ovations. applications.
Germany feeder com/en/
• Impact of CS gun 2.1.1. Presence of inter-particle boundaries (IPBs) and micro-pores
• CS combustion
chamber
The inconsistencies in the material properties are still a big challenge
• CS ortho grid in CSAM. For instance, typical deposit defects found in CSAM processed
structure Cu, steel and Ti deposits are the presence of IPBs and micro-pores. Poor
• CSAM set-up for inter-particle bonding and insufficient plastic deformation during
depositing
deposition may generate these defects when impact velocity is less (Yin
Ti–6Al–4V using
N2 as He gas et al., 2018b). Fig. 8 depicted the mechanism of deposit formation
Inovati, • Rocket nozzles www.inovati. during the CSAM of ductile metals. After the formation of the first layer,
US • Add stiffening com three main stages were noticed, each stage having its contribution to the
ribs to Al panels consolidation of deposit. The growth of deposit initiates by the defor
• Aircraft kinetic
metallization
mation and rotational motion of powder particles when they impact the
repairs substrate surface. This double kinematics mechanism contributes to
VRC Metal • Department of • GEN III™ https wards the onset of the dense deposit. During the second stage, porosity
Systems, defence portable HP CS ://vrcmetalsys decreases further by plastic deformation of the particles thus producing
US • Shipping industry system tems.com/
the inter-particle bonding. At last densification of the deposit ends with
• VRC VIPER™ CS
systems hardening of the particles and this is the last stage in coating build-up
• Automated and (Raoelison et al., 2017).
additive Therefore, for ductile deposits like Cu, micro-pores are hardly found
subtractive due to better ductility, hardening and less strength to density ratio of
systems
ductile materials (Raoelison et al., 2016). The main defect that results in
the reduction of mechanical properties is primarily IPBs in the case of
Cu.Whereas, for other CSAM deposited materials like steel (Meng et al.,
2011) or Ti (Goldbaum et al., 2011), both micro-pores and IPBs affect
4
Fig. 4. The schematic diagram for the development of coating during CSAM.
thermal and electrical conductivity levels of bulk Cu material.

Superalloys are the candidate material for high-temperature appli
cations like in gas turbines and in energy sectors where service tem
perature exceeds 1000 ◦ C and it may be a challenging task to deposit
superalloys with CSAM owning to its higher hardness (Bagherifard et al.,
2018). This leads to insufficient plastic deformation and can hinder the
formation of a dense deposit. As a result, deposits have poor mechanical
behaviour like poor strength with limited ductility due to excessive work
hardening of the surface during deposition. To investigate the chances of
getting good mechanical and physical properties of CSAM deposited
superalloys, possible PHT has been requested (Levasseur et al., 2012).
investigated pressureless sintering of IN-78 CS deposits. For the
as-sprayed condition, porosity was around 2.5% and after sintering, it
was observed that porosity decreases to 0.2%. The increased flexural
strength after the sintering was responsible for the enhancement of both
ductility and strength of CS IN-718 coatings. The tensile property of a CS
IN-718 coating using helium and nitrogen as driving gas was investi
gated in the study carried out by (Wong et al., 2012). Initially, it was
Fig. 5. Comparison of CSAM with other techniques (Pattison et al., 2007).
Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
noticed that the tensile strength of CS IN-718 coating employing helium
as a carrier gas is larger than exercising nitrogen. Secondly, deposits
become more ductile due to the increase in value of engineering strain as
the deposited properties owing to their higher hardness or higher
the HT temperature rises irrespective of the gas used to develop the
strength to density ratio.
IN-718 deposits (Fig. 10). This may be associated with the enhanced
inter-particle bonding due to sintering at elevated temperatures
2.1.2. Post heat treatment of deposits
(Bagherifard et al., 2018). recently compared CSAM fabricated
The effect of inter-particle boundaries and micro-pores can be
Inconel-718 samples before and after HT with SLM. CSAM leads to a
reduced by increasing the impact velocity of particles to improve plastic
homogeneous structure and also preserved the feedstock original
deformation of particles, or by PHT to introduce recrystallization within
microstructure, in comparison to the SLM series. HT promoted the
CSAM deposited particles and also across the IPBs (Huang et al., 2015;
intra-particle metallurgical bonding and leads to the significant increase
Gärtner et al., 2006a).
in ductility and cohesive strength of the CSAM series. Hence, elevated
The comparison of an etched Cu deposit in as-fabricated and
temperature in PHT can significantly enhance the performance of CSAM
annealed form can be observed in Fig. 9 (Yin et al., 2018a). In an
deposited superalloys used in future industry.
as-fabricated state, the presence of inter-particle boundaries can be
observed clearly with a minimal concentration of pores as shown in
2.1.3. Mechanical properties of deposits before and after HT
Fig. 9a. Whereas, after the annealing, process recrystallization occurs
Different spraying materials may exhibit distinct cold-spraying
both across IPBs and within the particles and assisted in the repair of
owing to their mechanical properties. Spraying materials for CSAM
defects at boundaries as seen in Fig. 9b. Moreover, repairing of IPBs
can be categorized into three main groups:
eliminates the barriers for heat transportation and currently leading to
enhanced electrical (Stoltenhoff et al., 2006; Borchers et al., 2005) and
• Materials that were hard-to-deform such as Ti–6Al–4V and superal
thermal conductivity (Seo et al., 2012) of CSAM deposits. Both tensile
loy IN-718
strength and percentage elongation after annealing can reach a similar
• Soft materials, like Al, Cu and their alloys; and
level as bulk Cu. Annealed deposits can get more than 90% of the
• Moderate strength materials, such as stainless steel.
5
Fig. 6. The major areas of CSAM.
2.2. Inter-particle bonding control
The inter-particle bonding effect corrosive media penetrations (Xie

et al., 2019b; Wei et al., 2018), the load transmissions (Frattolin et al.,
2019; Feng et al., 2018), current and heat flow transmissions (Li et al.,
2017, 2018bib_Li_et_al_2018bib_Li_et_al_2017) and hence, it decides the
performance and application of CS metallic deposited parts. In CS de
posits the inter-particle bonding is closely connected to the plastic
deformation of impacted particles (Li et al., 2020), and oxide scale
presence at the interface of deposited-particle (Aghamiri et al., 2019).
This oxide scale at the interface results from the spraying powder surface
and is relevant to the powder natural characteristics (Luo et al., 2016).
Supersonic impact during CS results in the cracking of this brittle sur
ficial oxide scale on spraying powder and trapped finally at the
inter-particle boundaries after deposition of the following particles,
which inhibits the effective bonding formation at the interface of the
deposited particle (Li et al., 2007).
For the high quality of coatings on modern industrial components,
bonding mechanism has significant importance in CSAM technology
Fig. 7. Diagram outlining the challenges of CSAM.
(Ichikawa et al., 2019). The authors have discussed that inter-particle
bonding in the area of CS remains a central point of contention, spe
cifically for asymmetrical pairs like Ni and Ti. The Ni particles experi
All the CS deposits possess limited ductility and tensile strength
ence more deformation when sprayed on the Ti substrate (Nikbakht
before HT, although by selecting an appropriate HT process better
et al., 2018). In the case of Ti particles when sprayed on Ni substrate,
strength could be achieved. PHT is an effective method to enhance both
similar deformation levels are experienced both by particle and sub
ductility (Fig. 11) and the strength of the deposits (Fig. 12) (Li et al.,
strate leads to a significant increase in inter-particle bonding. The major
2018).
bonding mechanisms in CSAM are metallurgical (Bae et al., 2008), and
All CS powder feedstocks provide an excellent combination of tensile
mechanical (Assadi et al., 2003; Xie et al., 2015).
strength and ductility. Sufficient ductility and tensile strength are
needed for better mechanical integrity.
2.2.1. Bonding mechanism
The inconsistencies in the material properties can be minimized by
Metallurgical bonding (MB) is regarded to generate higher adhesion
using a solid material database with proven parameters and stated
strength in CS coatings. It was proved experimentally through evidence
specifications for the development of successful 3D printing. The stan
of intermetallics, amorphous phases and dimple-like features at fracture
dards developing organizations such as ASTM and ISO have released
surfaces of CS coatings or individual splat (Price et al., 2007; Bai et al.,
very few specifications for metal powders such as Ni, Ti and SS. These
2009). To achieve superior coatings with enhanced bonding strength
developments may be a key factor in affirming that CSAM materials can
and ductility, realizing the shift from mechanical to MB can be benefi
meet future manufacturers demands for better efficiency and reliability.
cial. The MB in CSAM is described in Fig. 13. During the CSAM process,
large impact pressure developed from high velocity sprayed particles
6
Table 2
Overview of material functional properties for CSAM deposits.
Materials Functional properties
Corrosion- Oxidation Erosion Wear- Conductive/ Biocompatibility Anti- Bulk material

resistant resistant Resistant resistant Insulation bacterial
Metals and
alloys
Metal/Polymer
Oxides
Nanomaterials
Ceramics
Intermetallics
Polymers
Applications
• Aerospace • Aerospace • Aerospace • Automobile • Electronic • Biomedical • Biomedical • Variety of
industrial sectors
• Automobile • Automobile • Naval • Aerospace • Aerospace • Dental
• Electronics • Electronics • Machining • Energetic • orthopaedic
• Defence • Defence • Decoration • electric
contact
• Petrochemical • Petrochemical
Fig. 8. Plastic deformation stages for ductile metals during CSAM (Raoelison et al., 2017). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
produce compaction, severe deformation and plastic flow (Fig. 13a) bonding.
which in-turn removes the oxide films from the component surface
(Fig. 13b), and consequently a large surface area of the fresh metal is 2.2.2. Peening effect
revealed, which permit intimate contact of metal-to-metal (Fig. 13d). To enhance the MB of CSAM developed coatings for efficient use in
The MB is confirmed by a dimple-like ductile hallmark at the surface of future industry, further investigations are needed on better inter-particle
the fracture. Most of the studies that centred mostly on the bonding control. One such effective method to enhance the inter-particle
cross-sectioned examinations by using SEM, TEM, and even FIB methods bonding is the introduction of the “peening effect”. The peening effect
cannot give proper particular information regarding the bonding situa not only intensifies the plastic deformation but also improves densifi
tion (Xie et al., 2019a). (Hussain et al., 2009) observed that with an cation in CSAM sprayed coatings. For instance, to densify the coating
increase in thickness of oxide layers on the substrate, jets are difficult to deposits, the in-situ shot peening (IssP) effect was applied by mixing big-
form during the CS process and jets are vital for better inter-metallic sized particles of SS (120 μm–180μm) with the coating powders (size 10
7
presented in Fig. 16. The SPE can significantly enhance the area of MB
among coating and substrate for better bonding inside the deposited
coating. Such promoted deformation of Nickel particle can also justify
the reduction in coating porosity content at high propelling gas pres
sures. The SPE significantly enhances the bonding strength of the CSAM
deposited coating. The SPE at high propelling gas pressures can provide
a novel direction to enhance the deposited coating properties by CSAM.
For instance, it is possible to enhance remarkably the bond strength and
densification rates of a CS sample by employing IssP, which may break
Fig. 9. Microstructure comparisons of an etched Cu deposit (Yin et al., 2018a). via bottleneck of the development of the CS equipment.
Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
2.2.3. Removal of the surficial oxide scale of the feedstock powder
μm–50μm) to deposit Ti6Al4V and pure Ti-coatings. The outcomes The surficial oxide scale of the coating powder decreases the depo
exhibited that the IssP effect can remarkably enhance the densification sition efficiency of feedstock powder in CS, but it also degrades the
and coating microhardness through significant strain hardening (Luo deposit’s properties due to its effect on inter-particle bonding (Li et al.,
et al., 2015). Identical findings were also observed by (Wei et al., 2018) 2017, 2018bib_Li_et_al_2017bib_Li_et_al_2018). Acid pickling is used to
and they developed fully dense Al6061 alloys on the AZ31B component dissolve the oxide scale present on the surface of the received powder, to
by depositing Al6061 powder (size 20 μm–50μm) mixed with big-sized improve both the deposition quality of the spraying powder and the
SS particles (size 200 μm–300μm). The outcomes revealed that with deposit properties (Li et al., 2021). Acid-pickling is done by utilizing a
IssP coating porosity decreases and corrosion resistance enhances. Based weak hydrochloric acid (HCL) solution and alcohol (ratio of HCL to
on the further consolidations and compactions of coating microstruc alcohol was 1:5). The received powder is submerged in the pre-prepared
tures, pure Al coating developed by IssP exhibited strong adhesion acid alcohol solution and thereafter stirred. Stirring continues at room
strength with high corrosion resistance (Wei et al., 2017). Fig. 14 shows temperature for more than 5 min until the powder colour did not change
the in-situ shot peening (IssP) process for better inter-particle bonding. and then dried. To avoid powder oxidation during drying, the process of
Besides the peening effect, the unbonded powder particles (no need drying is conducted in a sealed tank having low pressure and continued
for mixing larger particles in powder feedstocks) can also introduce for 24 h. The powder was withdrawn and vacuum sealed when its weight
peening effects on the already deposited coatings (Xie et al., 2019a). The stopped decreasing. The morphology of as-received and acid-picked
impact of strengthened peening effect (SPE) at high propelling gas powders are represented in Fig. 17. The acid-pickled powder is light
pressures on the bonding features among Nickel particle/Aluminium yellow, with only a few white spotty oxides such as “isolated-island”
substrate and Nickel coating/Aluminium substrate were examined to remaining as shown in Fig. 17b.
understand the mechanism of bonding. It may be suggested prudently The mechanism for the deposits using as-received and acid-picked
that the SPE introduced by the successive impact of incoming particle is feedstocks is represented in Fig. 18 The oxide film present on the sur
the deciding factor for the MB formation during deposition of the full face of feedstock breaks into parts and further these parts get trapped in-
coating. Fig. 15 shows that the insufficient kinetic energy possessed by between the splats as presented in Fig. 18a-c. In the case of acid-pickled
individual Nickel particle has resulted in the absence of MB developed feedstock powder, the oxide film present on the powder particles already
among Nickel splat and Aluminum substrate. broke down into tiny parts and doesn’t much affect the inter-particle
For the full nickel coating deposition, massive impacts of subsequent bonding as presented in Fig. 18(d–f).
nickel particles with higher velocities can lead to the formation of MB as
Fig. 10. Tensile test outcomes and porosity for as-sprayed and HT IN-718 deposits using He and N2 as driving gas (Wong et al., 2012). Reproduced with permission
from Springer Nature.
8
Fig. 11. Tensile strength of widely used CSAM deposits.
Fig. 12. % Elongation of widely used CSAM deposits.
2.3. Residual stresses 2.3.1. Microscopic level

The microscopic level is also known as the “splat scale” was the focus
CSAM is also anticipated to produce residual stress in parts and bulk of studies due to the issue of splat bonding and the mechanism of deposit
components and can result in component cracking or shape distortions. formations. Residual stresses and related plastic deformation phenom
As-fabricated deposits of CS contains compressive residual stresses ena were the main part of studies because it was necessary to understand
which occurs due to the accumulation of peening stresses among suc the CS deposition mechanism; the Microscopic level of understanding is
cessively deposited layers (Luzin et al., 2011; Suhonen et al., 2013). examined in various single-splat deposition simulations (Li et al., 2009;
Such compressive residual stresses in the CSAM deposits can be released Ghelichi et al., 2011). Such simulations, specifically multi-particle ones,
via post-spray annealing (Coddet et al., 2015). In past research studies showed that the pattern of residual stress development within the
associated with residual stresses were concentrated on various scale deposited splats is complex spatially and temporally; At this level re
levels. sidual stress in multilayer, deposits is highly oscillating and can locally
9
Fig. 13. MB mechanism of CSAM. (a) Impacting particle, (b) Breaking of oxide film due to severe deformation, (c) Extruding of oxide film, and (d) jetting formation.
Fig. 14. In-situ shot peening (IssP) process for better inter-particle bonding (Monette et al., 2020). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
Fig. 15. Surface morphologies of individual nickel splat at varying gas pressures (Xie et al., 2019a). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
reach the yield point of the specific material. models (Tsui and Clyne, 1997a, 1997bbib_Tsui_and_Clyne_1997a
bib_Tsui_and_Clyne_1997b) and many experimental works (Luzin et al.,
2.3.2. Mesoscopic level 2018). Generally, it is anticipated that this deposition stress in CS
Mesoscopic level (in thin coatings scale), stress distribution coherent coatings is compressive (Papyrin, 2001).
effect leads to the conviction of deposition stress which may be termed
as the stress-related with infinitesimal thin material layer. All localised 2.3.3. Macroscopic level
oscillations disappear, leaving a moderate deposition stress value. This Macroscopic level (in thick coatings scale) residual stress may have a
deposition stress concept becomes the basis for analytical deposition complex 3D distribution that depends upon shape, size and strategy
10
adopted for deposition. For thin coatings, scale both residual and
deposition stresses are the same but for thick multilayer coatings
deposition, stress and residual stress were not the same. Although for
every individual layer, deposition stress may be the same but the re
sidual stress will not be consistent. It can be difficult conceptually and
experimentally to switch from the 1D system of coatings to arbitrary 3D
objects of varying shapes and sizes.
Although residual stress generation is known in CS coatings (on a
cylinder and flat surfaces) the experimental residual stress investigations
amount on studies for 3D components is still very limited (Luzin et al.,
2020). Using the combined knowledge of residual stress development in
coatings and generalized principles of stress distribution across 3D ob
jects, some key predictions can be made to eliminate high residual
stresses in CSAM deposited coatings (Luzin et al., 2020). demonstrated
that residual stresses in CSAM deposits formed mainly via mismatching
of co-efficient of thermal expansion among coating powder and sub
strate. This however can be eliminated by choosing the coating powder
and substrate with a similar thermal expansion coefficient. But stress
arising during deposition can’t be eliminated by this approach and this
Fig. 16. Bonding features of nickel coating at the interface at varying gas
should be the focus in CSAM deposits. The sign and magnitude of the
pressures after HT with diffusion layer indicated by white arrows (Xie et al., deposition stress during CSAM are determined by knowing the CSAM
2019a). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature. system and spraying conditions used, but it can be altered by changing
the parameters (temperature–pressure) of the CSAM process.
Deposition stress may be compressive or tensile. Compressive
stresses are advantageous as they assist in preventing crack formations
and their propagation but on the other side tensile stresses should be
avoided. Tensile stresses take place when spray temperature is too high
to achieve better plastic deformation for hard-to-deform and moderate
strength materials. For instance, CS spraying of Ti at temperature
1100 ◦ C and pressure 50 bar demonstrates straight away tensile depo
sition stresses (quenching) (Boruah et al., 2019). Another example is the
CS of duplex SS at temperature 800 ◦ C and pressure 35 bar generated
tensile stress. As tensile stress assists in the formation of surface cracks,
the CSAM regimes that produce tensile deposition stresses are not rec
Fig. 17. (a) Morphology of as-received spray powder and, (b) acid-pickled
ommended from the viewpoint of the structural integrity of CSAM
powder (Li et al., 2021). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier. deposits.
Fig. 18. Schematic diagram illustrating the influence of acid pickling on the inter-particle bonding of CS metallic deposit (Li et al., 2021). Reproduced with permission
from Elsevier.
11
Fig. 19. Cu particles: (a) Spherical shape, and (b) Dendrite shape (Malachowska et al., 2017). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
2.4. Supersonic deposition of metals of the particle as a function of particle temperature, size, and velocity
and also accounted for individual particles path within the nozzle. The
2.4.1. Mechanical efficiency 3D model can be employed to reduce costs and will assist in the devel
In the field of supersonic particle deposition (CSAM), researchers opment of more accurate CSAM processes.
have found various problems related to the supersonic deposition of
metals. For instance, there have been few research investigations on the 2.4.2. Thickness of coatings
enhancement of the mechanical efficiency of the supersonic particle Al is a preferred material owing to its less weight and excellent
deposition process (Gartner et al., 2006). recommended that the use of ductility in the CSAM industry. Coatings deposited using CSAM are
fluid dynamics may help to design optimized nozzle geometry (Leitz characterized by higher bond strength which arises from the better
et al., 2018). elaborated that the final mechanical properties of the bonding mechanism among powder particles. But still, limited infor
coating were greatly influenced by initial particle temperature. The mation is available in the literature on the adhesion strength of coatings
interaction between the nozzle and the particle can be modelled and and their dependence upon resulting coating thickness (Winnicki et al.,
then predicted. The impacting particle temperature profile can be 2016). discussed that the thickness of the coating is directly proportional
simulated according to design applications. Higher particle temperature to the surface roughness. As thicker coatings contain higher waviness
and larger particles upon impact reduce critical velocity (Faizan-Ur-Rab which develops more extended topography. The coatings adhesion
et al., 2016). recommended that to obtain higher efficiency in the CSAM strength decreases when the thickness of the coating increases from 250
technique, a 3D model is required to calculate the acceleration of par to 1000 μm. For thicker coatings (range 1500–3000 μm) the bond
ticles and their impact temperature. This 3D model also predicts the flow strength value typically amounted up-to 61 MPa.
Fig. 20. Comparative analysis of the artificial neural network (ANN) and Gaussian modelling approaches (Ikeuchi et al., 2019).
12
2.4.3. Deposition on polymers

The CSAM method has been commercialized around the globe for
deposition of metallic, ceramics, and composite coatings only on
metallic substrates, but in future, more research activities are needed on
an urgent basis to unlock the material properties feasible with CSAM
deposition of metallic materials on polymers. As polymers individually
can’t possess all requirements related to design and service. The polymer
cores were strengthened by the deposition of metallic materials for
structural usage by using CSAM. With additional development, the
CSAM route could provide an alternative for quick replacement of
damaged parts, reduction in weight of metallic parts leading to Fig. 21. Photographs representing (a) growth of track, (b) vertical wall
competitive advantages. But the shape, powder oxidation and hardness developed (Pattison et al., 2007). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
of spray particle as discussed by (Malachowska et al., 2017) have a
decisive influence on the formation of the excellent coating during CS as powders and even dense structure cannot be obtained owing to the
it can directly impact critical velocity. Less erosion was produced by limitation of shot acceleration path.
dendrite-shaped powders when sprayed on polymers owing to a larger In developing complex shaped profiles, the in-appropriate spraying
contact area among the spray particles and the component. Fig. 19 angle of the gun also leads to low deposition accuracy and lesser effi
shows the Cu particles for CS and the micrograph in Fig. 19a shows ciency. The impact of the spraying angle on the developed track profile
spherical Cu particles. The SEM micrograph presents Cu particles with a was also studied in the literature. It was found that by varying the gun
dendrite shape as shown in Fig. 19b. However, more porosity was angle, the deposited layers profiles can be triangles with desired angles,
observed in final coatings with dendrite shaped powders. and by ensuring a specific pattern, complex shape geometric profiles can
Spraying particles of soft nature like lead or tin can be deposited be developed (Pattison et al., 2007). have analyzed experimentally that
easily on polymer substrates. While during deposition of materials such a triangular profile can be generated during coating deposition. By
as Al or Ti on polymer substrates, the supersonic particle deposition tilting the spraying nozzle, deposition of particles can be achieved
method also leads to erosion of substrate. This erosion is more prevalent normal to the inclined surface of previously generated tracks. Hence, by
when Cu is sprayed. Oxidation present on the spray powder can also achieving the deposition of triangular profiles in the right pattern, ver
assist in poor spray adhesion and poor spray bonding as the metallic tical walls could be developed as shown in Fig. 21 (Yin et al., 2018b).
bonding is inhibited due to oxides (Malachowska et al., 2017). There also has similar findings and authors recommended that by following
fore, for the successful deposition of metallic coatings on soft polymers, the right pattern, complex-shaped geometries can be generated and also
all these challenges must be accounted. particles dispersion on inclined surfaces can be minimized. But on the
other hand powder deposition efficiency strongly relies on the height of
2.4.4. Low geometrical control the triangle. In specific, increasing track height results in a significant
Another barrier in the worldwide commercialization of the CSAM reduction of deposition efficiency (>than 35%) owning to diminishing
process is that the geometrical control (GC) and deposition accuracy of effective impingement spray angle among particles and surface
during CSAM manufacturing are also not high (Chen et al., 2017). Low (Kotoban et al., 2017).
GC limits the application of CSAM like the post-machining necessity, (Garmeh et al., 2020) examined the effects of impact angle and
difficulty in manufacturing complex geometries, property variations substrate shape on the particles’ in-flight behaviour. The numerical
induced due to geometry, and inconsistent manufactured parts quality. modelling approach presented in the experimentation provides better
Addressing GC challenge is of major note in CSAM and other AM tech insights about the deposition accuracy and deposited layers shape
nologies. From the viewpoint of GC, the evolution of a higher-accuracy developed by CSAM. Three shapes of objects include two cylindrical
process model on the compact processing unit like a single CS track frustums with distinct angles and a cylinder was placed as the AM parts
provide an encouraging solution to the above-said problem as single on substrate top as shown in Fig. 22.
track aggregate may be helpful to determine final part geometry. The Owing to particle deviation and high-speed particles deposition at
single-track model also plays a vital role in the modelling of larger the base of the frustum and cylinder, the deposited material angle keeps
processing units like overlapping and overlayer models in the available on increasing with time, and lastly, a triangular profile can be devel
literature (Ding et al., 2015; Nenadl et al., 2016). oped. The easiest method to resolve this issue is tilting the nozzle for the
particles deposition normal to slanted surfaces. Moreover, to optimize
2.4.5. Use of neural network model process deposition and to understand particle behaviour close to in
A neural network model may be used in the profile prediction of clined surfaces and basic flow structure, numerical simulations required
CSAM coatings to improve GC with a suitable process planning algo to be performed in near future for CSAM deposits.
rithm (Ikeuchi et al., 2019). This network model can predict the com
plete track profiles both for normal angles and off-normal spray angles. 2.5. Process parameters control
Fig. 20 represents the comparative analysis of the artificial neural
network (ANN) and Gaussian modelling approaches. ANN modelling The process parameters should be analyzed in an organized manner
approach possessed the capability to provide the complete prediction of for the development of superior deposits. In fabricating 3D parts by
track profiles in detail during CSAM at similar levels of accuracy or CSAM technology, the robot-assisted spraying strategy plays a key role.
higher. The various kinematic CS process parameters are manipulated and
controlled with help of a robot. The CS spray gun moves to the
2.4.6. Low deposition accuracy component by controlling and monitoring the various kinematic pa
CSAM deposition accuracy is limited owing to the dispersion of the rameters such as the spraying trajectory, the relative speed among the
particle near the component due to their complex shapes like the pres nozzle and the component, the spraying distance (SD), the angle of
ence of corners and sharp edges that reduces the process efficiency and spraying and the scanning step.
precision in these areas. To overcome this issue, the use of a particle In CSAM, to develop quality coatings on component the powder
injector consisting of micro-nozzles having smaller diameters is an op feeder, propulsive gas, and the spraying nozzle must work simulta
tion (Sova et al., 2013). The micro-nozzles in CS can lead to an increase neously under careful monitoring. Fig. 23 shows an illustrative repre
in high deposition accuracy and spatial resolution but it needs fine sentation of the typical CSAM manufacturing parameters which is a
13
Fig. 22. AM parts: (a) cylinder, (b) frustum 15◦ , and (c) frustum 45◦ (Garmeh et al., 2020). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
Fig. 23. The schematic diagram for the various process parameters employed in CSAM.
challenging task in CSAM for the production of quality coatings. Table 3 2.5.2. Carrier gas pressure and temperature
sums up the as-sprayed CSAM coating properties and their relationships The carrier gas velocity is directly affected by the carrier gas pres
with the various process parameters. Consideration of the same leads to sure. This would eventually improve the particle velocity existing the CS
the elite CSAM fabricating strategy with quality outcomes. nozzle and, as a result, the coating quality and deposit properties. The
It is clear from Table 3 that limited studies are available on SD and pressure and temperature of the gas are usually between 0.5 and 6.0
nozzle scanning step and they should be given a thought for better MPa and 25 and 1000 ◦ C, respectively.
applicability of CSAM in future. Some experimental studies show that increasing particle impact ve
locity increases deposition performance, improves deposit porosity,
2.5.1. Type of carrier gas deposit strength, and adhesion strength owning to reduced defects and
Compressed air, N2, and He are the most common carrier gases used improved metallic bonding (Binder et al., 2011; Goldbaum et al., 2011).
in CS systems. Despite being the most cost-effective alternative, com However, high impact velocities may results in higher residual stresses
pressed air has the drawback of not being able to meet the required due to an increase in the rate of plastic deformation of particles in CSAM
particle velocities for some heavier materials. Since N2, and He is rela deposits (Shayegan et al., 2014; Luzin et al., 2011). Whereas, owning to
tively inert, they are viable substitutes as they don’t promote oxidation. the in-situ annealing effect, a higher gas temperature was observed to
Compressed air and N2 are commonly used for cold spraying mono relieve residual stress, implying that raising the gas temperature did not
ductile powders like Al and Cu because they are less expensive than He dramatically increase residual stresses (Petráčková et al., 2017; Eason
while also achieving the minimum gas velocity needed for coating for et al., 2012).
mation. He is commonly used in situations where the gas velocity pro
vided by compressed air or N2 is inadequate to achieve effective 2.5.3. Powder feed rate (PFR)
deposition or high-quality coating. The PFR determines how much powder is added into the carrier gas
14
Table 3
Effect of various kinematic process parameters on coating properties.
Process parameters Variables Porosity Deposition Bond strength Residual stress Surface roughness Coating References
(%) efficiency (%) (MPa) (MPa) (μm) flatness (%)
Spray angle (◦ ) 90 – 100 34.5 – – – Wang et al. (2015)

75 85 58.6
60 65 82.7
45 41 137.9
90 – – – − 11.18 – – Shayegan et al.
75 − 9.48 (2014)
60 − 4.84
45 − 0.3
90 0.10 >95 – – – – Binder et al. (2011)
70 0.5 89
45 6.5 83
90 0.52 ± – – – 3.5 ± 0.3 – Singh et al. (2017)
0.08
60 1.47 ± 6.7 ± 0.3
0.42
Scanning step (mm) 2 – – – – – 100 Cai et al. (2014)
4 99.82
6 87.95
8 55.38
Nozzle traverse speed 100 0.5 – 2.5 – 8.89 – bib_Tan_et_al_2017
(mm/s) 300 2.7 >60 8.76
500 3.2 >60 7.23
10 – 56 – – – – Kotoban et al. (2017)
20 62.5
40 67
80 70
20 1 23 – – 36 – Seraj et al. (2019)
100 1.8 41 26
300 3 46 25
Propellant Gas 2 11.8 – 37 – – – Xie et al. (2019a)
pressure (Mpa) 2.4 4 42
2.8 1.5 54
2 18 ± 10.1 19 – – – – Goldbaum et al.
3 2.5 ± 0.3 30 (2011)
4 5.9 ± 1.5 49
Gas temperature (◦ C) 300 2.5 ± 0.3 30 – – – – Goldbaum et al.
500 1.4 ± 0.6 83 (2011)
750 0.7 ± 0.1 100
Powder feed rate (g/ 1.7 0.51 83.2 – – – – Ozdemir et al. (2017)
min) 8 0.53 82.5
39.8 0.72 81.7
SD (mm) 20 – 100 – – – – Li et al. (2008b)
65 88
110 76
80 0.92 ± – – – 3.4 ± 0.3 – Singh et al. (2017)
0.19
60 0.45 ± 3.3 ± 0.3
0.10
40 0.75 ± 3.2 ± 0.4
0.27
jet for deposition of the coating. The properties of CSAM deposits were transverse speed results in dense deposits (single layer) and sharp
influenced by PFR in three ways. Firstly, increased PFR increases coating profiles. But low speeds results in a decrease of mechanical
porosity levels, decreases hardness, deposition efficiency and tensile properties also like elastic modulus, deposit strength, and adhesion
strength of deposits due to a decrease in particle velocity as a result of strength (Tan et al., 2017; Rech et al., 2014).
strong gas-particle interaction (Ozdemir et al., 2017; Meyer et al., 2016). The low adhesion strength and high residual stress are not appro
Secondly, if all other considerations remain constant, a faster PFR nor priate for the practical applicability of CSAM for the restoration/repair
mally results in a thicker coating per pass and sharp track profiles (Sova of damaged parts (Ozdemir et al., 2017). Therefore, it is not suggested to
et al., 2013; Pattison et al., 2007). Third, high PFR will result in high use a low nozzle traverse speed for CSAM.
residual stress between the deposits and the substrate which should be
avoided during CSAM (Ozdemir et al., 2017). Hence for good quality 2.5.5. Spraying angle
CSAM deposits, all these three factors must be taken into consideration The CSAM coating properties strongly depends upon the spraying
and PFR used in CSAM are usually much lower than 100 g/s, with rates angle, as the impact direction of molten and semi-molten spraying
ranging from 10 g/s to 30 g/s being common. particles onto the surface of the substrate followed by proper embed
ment of these spray particles on the metal surface is controlled by
2.5.4. Nozzle transverse speed maintaining a proper spraying angle. The angle measures 90◦ ideally
During the CS, the nozzle transverse speed has a direct effect on the when the spray particle impacts the component surface straight up and
coating deposition quality. In general, the high transverse speed of the transfer greater momentum and thermal energy to the component sur
nozzle leads to higher porosity, lower deposition rates since fewer par face. Nevertheless, for coating complex shaped geometries and due to
ticles are hitting a single region of the substrate. On the other hand low the limited mobility of a robot system, it is impossible to maintain a
15
Table 4
The effect of various kinematic process parameters on coating properties in a generalized way.
Process parameters Condition Porosity Deposition efficiency Adhesion strength Residual stress Surface roughness Coating flatness
Spray angle
Scanning step
Nozzle traverse speed
Propellant Gas pressure
Gas temperature
Powder feed rate
Molecular weight of ga S
SD
Designations
Increase Decrease No data No common view
microstructure of coating (Kang et al., 2006) as, the impacting particles

do not possess the required energy to cover-up the entire surface of
substrate effectively, giving rise to more porous coatings and should be
avoided in CSAM. The effect of various kinematic process parameters on
coating properties in a generalized way is presented in Table 4.
2.5.6. Scanning step

The scanning step means the interval among the two consecutive
(Fig. 24) scanning tracks when a coating is sprayed by a multi-track
trajectory. It is one of the important considerations when focusing on
the thickness and flatness of sprayed coatings.
The optimal value of the scanning step is under 4 mm can lead to a
uniform thickness of the coating (Cai et al., 2014). The surface rough
ness of the as-deposited coating becomes too low if the scanning step is
too small and vice-versa. If it is large then the flatness of coating de
creases and the thickness distribution of sprayed coating becomes un
Fig. 24. Schematic set-up of scanning step definition.
even. The variation in scanning steps results in the various track-to-track
profile distributions. Finally, influencing the pore and residual stress
consistent spray angle of 90◦ and it needs to be reduced. This change in distribution in CSAM developed coatings (Yang et al., 2018). The
impact angle can cause undesirable variations in the deposition rate or detailed in-depth studies on the influence of varying the scanning step
final coating properties. Different studies in the literature (Ilavsky et al., are limited. The influence of changing the scanning step onto the
1997; Friis et al., 2001) had already discussed that coating porosity in deposited coating properties is not acknowledged.
creases with reduced spray angles. The feedstock powder particles
sprayed at reduced angles indicate a decreased-normal velocity 2.5.7. Stand-off distance
component. As the final deformation of the impacting particles strongly Studies on SD are still very limited with CSAM manufactured parts.
bet on the normal velocity component, it can be considered that reduced Inside a supersonic jet flow, jet core intensity reduces gradually along
spray angles in thermal spraying affect the deposition efficiency and the central axis of the jet owning to the exchange of momentum among
Fig. 25. Deposition efficiency: function of SD: (a) (Pattison et al., 2008) and (b) (Li et al., 2008b). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
16
Fig. 26. Etched microstructures of deposits: (a) A1, (b) A2, and (c) A3 (Fan et al., 2020).
atmosphere and jet (Yin et al., 2014). The particles inside the jet core training of workers, post-processing equipment, certifications and
experience positive drag forces and accelerate rapidly. After reaching a finally the establishment of a facility needed to adapt all this. The
short distance as soon as high-velocity gas leaves from a divergent sec expenditure and resources needed to put this whole puzzle together are
tion of the nozzle, its speed gets slower in comparison to the velocity of sometimes so huge that organization is not willing or unable to invest in
the particles inside the jet. The velocity of the particles also reduces CSAM. The equipment cost required to cut down to unlock CSAM
owning to the resultant negative drag forces. Hence, the impact velocity technology for wider markets. The quick wins may attract the attention
of particles and deposition efficiencies rise as the SD increases from zero, of the manufacturing world and can create a feeling of momentum for
but declines after an optimal distance (Pattison et al., 2008). This phe developing the resources. But right now, CSAM has been a costly process
nomenon has already been confirmed experimentally in CSAM Al, Cu that hinders its widespread commercialization in the industry.
and Ti deposits as shown in Fig. 25. However, a much smaller optimal
SD was reported by (Li et al., 2008b) and also a sharp decline in depo 2.6.1. Cost associated with a carrier gas and feedstock preparation
sition efficiency particularly for Al and Ti deposits as the SD increases For instance, to deposit harder materials high pressure of carrier gas
from 10 mm to 110 mm. There are also various other studies concen is the primary requirement and expensive N2 or He gases are also
trating on the effect of SD (Singh et al., 2017; Won et al., 2014), but required to be employed as propellants (Fan et al., 2020). The usage of
unfortunately, the mostly evaluated parameters result were not consis compressed air as carrier gas can appreciably cut down cost, but the
tent on the influence of nozzle SD in CSAM deposits due to a limited process efficiency and performance remains on lower site in comparison
number of available CSAM studies. The optimal SD for generalized to the He. As compressed air does not produce the desired impact ve
manufacturing works lies in a range of 10–40 mm. More studies are locity needed for deposition owning to its higher molecular weight.
required to clarify the influence of SD on CSAM fabricated coatings in The coating powder preparation for CSAM is also expensive as
near future. spraying powder should be developed according to the requirements
such as the size and shape of the component. The concerns about the
powder loss during coating deposition by using air or N2 as driving gas is
2.6. Cost reduction one of the challenges. Due to low impact velocity, coating powders may
rebound after hitting the component surface. By using affordable gases
The greatest hindrance to CSAM adoption may lie in the investment like air and N2, ideal process deposition efficiency may reach up-to
required to put CSAM on the industry production floor. It is not only around 85%–90% (meaning 10%–15% powders loss), which high
associated with buying the CSAM equipment but also investing towards lighted the CS more inviting and eco-friendly option. But in the ongoing
the ecosystem of CSAM, which comprises software’s, materials, on hand circumstances, it is <50%, specifically for LPCS, despite different pro
spective enhancements based on the metal powders features and usage
of laser assistance technology to promote metallurgical bonding (Ogawa
et al., 2008; Lagerbom et al., 2007). However, component heating
combining with fine metal powders enables enhancing the efficiency of
up to 80% (Fukumoto et al., 2007). There exist a key challenge in front
of CSAM engineer and researchers to optimize the deposition efficiency
of CS by using air and nitrogen as driving gas rather than Helium for the
better practical commercial use of CSAM in future industry.
Recently (Fan et al., 2020), have proposed a novel manufacturing
strategy for high-performance CSAM deposits without using costly and
un-sustainable He gas. It was concluded from their study that the com
bination of low process parameters and wider powder particle size will
trigger the successful implementation of this novel approach. The
deposition behaviour of particle under varying impact velocities the
etched microstructures of Al deposits are shown in Fig. 26. After the
etching operation, the inter-particle boundaries present within the de
posits were noticed clearly and it was seen that particles within the A1
deposit undergone a remarkably higher degree of plastic deformation in
contrast with the other two cases (A2 and A3). A mutual interlocking
behaviour as indicated by the yellow arrows has enhanced the me
chanical properties of A1. This observation concludes that the A1 de
Fig. 27. Influence of nozzle exit diameter on particle velocity (Li and Li, 2005). posit developed under the lower particle impact velocity have
Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
17
Fig. 28. CSAM tube machined into a finished part: (a) Al alloy tube, (b) Al alloy flange, and (c) Cu cuboid (Yin et al., 2018b). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
experienced the most extreme plastic deformation. USA. Focusing AM usage in the aviation and defence sector, the part
nership is centred on standardizing materials and techniques for metal
2.7. Nozzle clogging 3D printing of the structural Ti parts. Perhaps the utmost strong
collaboration involves the initiation of AM CoE to fill important gaps in
For lower melting point metals like Al and Mg-alloys, thermal soft the designing, feedstock, methods, and post-processing. In 2016, both
ening of these materials can easily take place and attaches to the wall of ASTM and ISO announced a framework for standards of 3D printing
the nozzle and ultimately reduce the spraying efficiency. The issues known as the AM Standards Structure. The framework highlights the
associated with nozzle clogging can be work out with dynamic models to different categories that need standardization, which widely covers:
increase its capacity and effectiveness in terms of improved process ef
ficiency and homogenous coatings. Moreover, a better nozzle design also • Feedstock Materials
influences particle velocity. Novel materials must be explored to in • Processes and equipment
crease powder flowability through the nozzle by using high-temperature • HT of finished parts
materials like nano-Al2O3. In addition to this nozzle design optimization
is also required to reduce gas flow through it (Karthikeyan, 2007). There is no such standard available for the design of CSAM equip
investigated optimized nozzle design by using tungsten carbide for the ment that can be easily adopted by the manufacturers and it is a major
coating of GRCop-84 special alloy (Champagne et al., 2008; Champagne, drawback for its industrial application in future industry. For instance,
2008). designed a thermoplastic nozzle to deposit Al powder to reduce as the dimension and nozzle material of CSAM may be very different
the nozzle clogging. (Li and Li, 2005), have used ‘N’ gas to accelerate among various manufacturers, the process repeatability of the experi
powder particles at pressure 2 MPa and temperature 300 ◦ C with ment is poor. The development of CSAM standards is a time-consuming
different nozzle exit diameters. process but once defined it can yield outcomes, licensing manufacturers
It can be seen that there present an optimal value (ie., 5 mm) to get to produce and implement applications of CSAM more comfortably. A
the maximum velocity of particles as shown in Fig. 27 (Li et al., 2005). standard design of CS equipment may be set for producing desirable
also designed a special spray gun and fix 6.25 as expansion ratio and 30 CSAM deposit properties.
mm as SD for a divergent nozzle 40 mm in length. He and ‘N’ was used as
a propellant gas to achieve a dense coating deposit. 2.9. Need for machining
2.8. Lack of standard design benchmark The reality of CSAM is that all the components coming out needs
some post-processing and machining operations to enhance its me
It would be favourable to all consumers and stakeholders if the CSAM chanical properties, dimensional accuracy and aesthetics look. This is
had better standards universally, that is understood and accepted not a considerable issue when employing CSAM for prototyping work
clearly. With set standards, industries may compare apples to apples and out. As the CSAM technology is transforming to an end-product
can make smart decisions that may be executed within a global manufacturing method, support removal and surface finishing opera
ecosystem of manufacturers, suppliers, and consumers. In the tions have become the main bottlenecks in establishing CSAM produc
manufacturing world, standards are vital as they sketch out the major tion lines. But all these operations can increase lead times and may add
parameters that must be met for delivering a quality product. In the to the cost of the product indirectly. In specific, CSAM and CS restoration
CSAM process the materials, equipment, operators, engineers, distrib technologies are hard to encounter the challenges of large-scale pro
utors and more importantly manufacturing process themselves, all duction if these operations were performed manually. Currently, com
required standards and a suitable mechanism for certifying against those panies are still working on robotic solutions after the CSAM process to
set standards to produce parts with better quality. Even-though 3D minimize machining and support removal operations manually.
printing technology begins 30 years ago, the manufacturing world Limited research has been undertaken in the area of machinability of
around the globe began to acknowledge it as a method for production in CSAM deposits (Sova et al., 2013; Pattison et al., 2007). In specific,
recent years. For this cause, the industry has just started to develop CSAM manufactured products are appropriate for only conventional
products and industry-related standards. The absence of standards for machining operations. For instance, Fig. 28 Shows the CSAM products
3D printing remains one of the important bottlenecks braking down its machined into finished products employing conventional machining
large scale adoption. Some of the wide known standard developing or operations. The Al alloy tube as shown in Fig. 28a was machined by
ganizations, such as ASTM & ISO International, have established dedi turning. The Al alloy flange is shown in Fig. 28b was machined using
cated committees in the development of AM standards. One such turning and drilling and the Cu cuboid is shown in Fig. 28c machined by
example is a collaboration between Oerlikon, Switzerland and Boeing, milling demonstrating the suitability and reliability of conventional
18
Fig. 29. Comparison among the mechanisms of chip formation: (a) Fully dense bulk Al, (b) Annealed CSAM deposited Al, and (c) without annealing (Aldwell et al.,
2017). Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
Fig. 30. Surface roughness images of Turned Al deposits at: (a) without HT, (b), HT, (c) without HT, and (d) HT (Aldwell et al., 2017). Reproduced with permission
from Springer Nature.
machining operations in CSAM. machinability of a manufactured CSAM part relies upon the ductility,
inter-particle bonding and density of the deposit.
2.9.1. Pre-heat treatment of deposits By increasing the impact velocity of particles or using an HT process
Before the machining process, proper annealing or other HT may be before machining, the surface roughness of the machined CSAM deposits
necessary to achieve the required ductility in CSAM deposits otherwise can be reduced significantly because of enhanced inter-particle bonding
machining can lead to a surface similar to the cast or porous material. As as shown in Fig. 30 (Aldwell et al., 2017).
CSAM manufactured products comprise individual powder particles,
there may be density variations and work hardening levels within the 2.9.2. Tool wear
CSAM deposit (Yin et al., 2012). This can result in variations in thermal Another challenge associated with surface finishing or machining of
and mechanical loads experienced by cutting tool. CSAM deposits are CSAM products is tool wear. Due to the discontinuous nature of the
more difficult to machine in comparison with bulk materials. Fig. 29 machining, tool wear may be higher than that noticed when bulk ma
shows a comparison among the mechanisms of chip formation for bulk terials were machined. The employability of harder materials in the
Al and CSAM deposited Al with and without HT (Aldwell et al., 2017). CSAM process like Al may lead to higher tool wear during the machining
Fully dense bulk Al results in the formation of the continuous chip (Ramulu et al., 2002). Further research-oriented activities are urgently
during the machining process as shown in Fig. 29a. Annealed CSAM needed to explore the mechanism of tool wear in CSAM materials.
deposited Al has better ductility and has discontinuous chips, but ma
chines identical to the bulk Al material (Fig. 29b). However, during 2.9.3. Selection of machining parameters
machining of CSAM deposited Al without annealing (Fig. 29c), no chips The selection of suitable machining parameters is also a challenging
formed owning to limited plastic deformation. Poor inter-particle task to achieve quality finished parts. The milling operation is a choice
bonding leads to the breaking of inter-particle bonds. Hence, the to machine a non-symmetrical component. During the milling of brittle
19
making the challenge of design preparations a thing of the past.
3. CSAM sustainability implications
CSAM is a perfect “green” technology. It does not produce any

dangerous emissions and therefore has no substantial environmental
effect. CSAM is a strong tool for sustainability over a broad range of
modern manufacturing sector by restoring rather than replacing the
whole component. Moreover, CSAM technology can also be utilized to
replace lesser environmentally friendly techniques such as chrome
plating which produces hexavalent chrome discharge. CSAM can even
perform on-site industrial repairs on parts coating with other thermal
spraying methods which would generally have to be entirely removed
and re-coated again to repair a defected area. The benefits of CSAM for
sustainable manufacturing option may be classified into four major
areas (Fig. 31):
1. No substantial environmental effect of CSAM.

2. Restoration avoids whole component replacement.
3. State-of-the-art performance improving the useful service life of
future industrial components.
4. Optimized product structures and designs
3.1. Environmental concerns

Fig. 31. CSAM benefits for sustainable manufacturing.
CSAM technology is an industrial technique with minimal environ

CSAM parts, large cutting forces tends to break the part. Improper mental influence. The CSAM process does not produce any dangerous
milling parameters results in fracture and cracks in the CSAM deposited emissions or toxic and harmful fumes. However, some characteristics of
part (Sova et al., 2017; MacDonald et al., 2017). Currently, studies on its usage, including the technical skills or spraying experience required
the mechanical properties and microstructures of CSAM deposited parts to control and operate the system, make it challenging to implement.
after machining are very limited. Hence, more investigations on this The main risks are associated with handling coating powders, O2
issue are required shortly to clarify the impact of different machining displacement from the propellant gas, loud noise from the spraying
methods and associated machining parameters on the microstructural nozzle, and tearing of high-pressure heated hose pipes. These associated
features and mechanical properties of the CSAM deposited parts. risk factors can be controlled and are normally much lower than risks
connected with other industrial techniques. In general, as with any novel
2.10. Combining CSAM with CAD/CAM (software challenge) technique, there is a need to provide technical knowledge to workers
and operators about the risks related to the process.
Design and preparation of data are still an issue in this sector while For example, CSAM uses powders that must be manoeuvred and
the focus is put on the high productivity hardware systems and the smart transported safely—otherwise, there is a chance of fire hazard, which
software solutions are being ruled out from this equation. At first look, it can be similar to gasoline-fueled explosions. CSAM powders are explo
may seem that 3D printing is as easy as pressing a button. Industrial 3D sive when:
printing needs complex design preparation to develop a model set for
printing. The design workflow may include multiple steps. In a typical • There is a cloud of powder of ample concentration.
fashion, a designer would generate a solid model by using CAD, then • O2 (or an equivalently reducing gas) is present.
reduce weight by optimizing structure, add necessary supports and then • There is a significant source of ignition.
perform simulation analysis. As a whole, all these will need different
programs and distinct software environments with multiple file formats. There are also some industrial specifications for the careful
Imagine that while performing a simulation run, the outcomes manoeuvring and usage of coating powders that assist both in facility
indicated a build failure and needs to change the orientation of design and the evolution of SOPs when working with them (NFPA 654,
component or support structures to prevent failure. As a result, the 2017). Standard mitigation guidelines incorporate a Class D fire extin
designer has to go back to alter some of the parameters to make the guisher for coating powders and state that work areas should be
desired printable model. This requires time and more importantly equipped with a dust collection apparatus and should be clear of any
probability of an error-prone design process in transforming AM design flammable quantities to avoid explosions. Also, regular housekeeping
data via multiple software solutions. The industry is sorting the way outs should be done periodically so that ample volumes of coating powder do
of 3D model development via multiple means. Popular software com not stockpile.
panies, such as PTC, Dassault Systems, and Autodesk are melding Another risk factor is the O2 displacement by the inert gas employed
particular 3D print functionality option into their CAD programs. For as the driving gas for the coating powders. However, this risk is low, as
instance, PTC is giving software Creo 6.0 to perform both preparations of the gas produced is entirely non-toxic and non-polluting. This risk can be
design and print in one environment. To eliminate or reducing the controlled using O2 sensors, alarms, and system controls that can alert
requirement for multiple transfers of data and conversions; software operators if O2 levels dip below a safe value in a working region.
companies such as Stratasys developed GrabCAD while 3D Systems The sound decibel limits produced by the CSAM process are another
developed 3DXpert. Even-though huge advancements are being done in primary area of concern and must be managed per the applicable stan
the field of AM print preparation and its design but there is still space for dards (OSHA Technical Manual (2013)). CSAM nozzles can create
development. Giving freedom to the designers to alter 3D models within sounds within the 110–120 dB range in the short region of the nozzle (i.
a CAD environment without multiple conversions is very important in e., less than 1m). CSAM operation is normally done in a sound damping
20
the CSAM system, owing to mechanical faults. Operators can suffer

burns and injuries from heated lines if any portion of their body contacts
any un-insulated area of the heated line or from high-temperature gas
exiting either from the spraying nozzle or due to a failure or leakage
along the heated line. The CSAM applicator nozzle should never be put
up against an operator’s body, as extreme injury or even death could
result if the CSAM system is still hot or pressurized.
3.2. Component restoration vs. replacement
The most preferred route in the CSAM technology which can improve
the sustainability of industrial components in the current and future
manufacturing sector is through repairing and restoration rather than a
component replacement (Hodges, 2005). Components can fail to own
mechanical damage, fatigue, or accidental impact. Components restore
by the CSAM approach is presented in Fig. 32. It can be noticed clearly
that CSAM restore the defective components in a state before they
occurring. The final decision to either repair or replace depends upon
both the cost of repair and the frequency of repair (Beichelt, 2001). With
CSAM, there is the freedom to maintain balance among admissible
repair costs and reduced repair frequencies. This can be achieved in two
ways viz. repair with the same material and spot repairing.
3.2.1. Repair with the same material

Numerous repairs are mainly recurring repairs owning to failures of
already repaired materials, for instance in composites and epoxy
patches, which needed to be periodically replaced during maintenance
due to interfacial stresses arising from differences in thermal expansion
or due to accelerated corrosion at interfaces of failed faying surface like
welded, bolted, and riveted joints.
3.2.2. Spot repairing

The CSAM is normally required only in the repairing region. Unlike
Fig. 32. Comparison among defected and restore components after CSAM: the welding method, which generally needed multiple locations to be
mould (Lee et al., 2007). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier. restored due to distortions in the component, CSAM can be applied
entirely to the affected region and after that, it is re-machined or
ratio, and operators working within this specific enclosure with sus grounded to the exact required dimensions.
tained noise >85 dB must wear proper ear protection.
Finally, CSAM utilizes a high-pressure thermal gas source, and there
are risks associated with the high-temperature and pressurized areas of
Fig. 33. Repair of corrosion damage by CSAM approach using Al or Al alloy: (a) Gearbox sump of S-92 helicopter, (b) oil tube bores (helicopter accessory cover
CH47), c) gearbox sump (UH-60 helicopter), and (d) rotor transmission housing (UH-60) (Yin et al., 2018b). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
21
Fig. 34. 3D part manufactured using CSAM and topology optimization technique (Lynch et al., 2013). Reproduced with permission from Taylor & Francis.
22
is Ni-based superalloy owning to its excellent thermo-mechanical

strength and corrosion resistance properties at elevated temperatures.
Aircraft parts made by Ni alloys have to face the impact of thermal and
mechanical loading during flight resulting in wear and corrosion of
parts. The actuator barrels of aircraft nose wheel steering fabricated
using Ni alloy are located in the front side of the aircraft, which are
continuously exposing these parts to humid air and aggressive envi
ronments when the aircraft landing gear is extended. It affects the joints
of the component, leading to the corrosive wear of landing gear. By
CSAM approach, deposition of Ni-alloy was done on a corroded B737
actuator barrel of nose wheel steering. It was noticed that after the repair
corroded surface became smooth without any signs of pits and cracks.
3.4. Optimized product structures and designs
The CSAM design has allowed the development of novel material

structures for the future manufacturing world. CSAM integrated with the
technique of topology optimization has emerged as a hotspot in the area
of both mechanical design and fabrication. Topology optimization
Fig. 35. Manufacturing of pyramidal fin arrays for heat sink application using grows as an advanced methodology in structural design to achieve novel
CS in a customized mask (Cormier et al., 2016). Reproduced with permission from lightweight and high-performance components in comparison with
Springer Nature. conventional ideas. CSAM builds as-designed structures with layer-by-
layer material joining, developing another pattern for complicated
3.3. Improved service life via advanced sustainable coatings components (Lynch et al., 2013). develop a prowess by a combination of
the CS deposition with design and topology shape structural optimiza
Another remarkable freedom for CSAM repairs is to enhance the tion. They proposed reliable design guidelines that link the design of the
sustainability of industrial systems by depositing a layer of a higher- 3D structure to the 3D part via the use of topology optimization tech
performing material over the base metal in those zones where corro nology combined with the control of the nozzle trajectory for different
sion or wear dominates the failure mechanisms. Limited studies are kind of spray paths. It was observed 60% stress reduction along-with
available for the deposition of sustainable corrosion-resistant coatings 20% weight reduction (Lynch et al., 2013). Also, they considered the
on corroded components. The major application area of CSAM is in the design of removable 3D support which is very consistent with the cur
aerospace industry owing to the corrosion of parts due to quality of air, rent 3D printing ideas (Fig. 34). The notion of removable support has
speed of rotation, and exposure of parts to high-speed impact. For also been employed to manufacture an array of a 3D structure by CSAM
example, parts made of magnesium corrode easily due to their anodic (Cormier et al., 2016). utilized a specially designed mask to obtain a
reaction with materials made up of metals. Such corrosion remarkably pyramidal fin array used as a compact heat exchanger solution (Fig. 35).
decreases the useful service life of a particular part and associated Using different customized masks with CSAM can prevent the deposition
maintenance cost and risk of failure also increase. To increase the service of unnecessary materials allowing the only deposition of the required
life and to reduce the costs it is of prime importance to restore the pattern.
corroded area with sustainable coatings and to bring back the repaired (Pal et al., 2020) the optimized enclosure of an automobile battery
component to a serviceable operation. One such example is highlighted pack by using CSAM technology. Initially, the casting method was
in Fig. 33, where corrosion damage occurring on various parts of the conventionally used to produce the battery pack enclosure. Molten Al
helicopter was carried out using a CSAM approach (Yin et al., 2018b). alloy is poured and then allowed to solidify in the mould. Defects like
After deposition of CSAM coatings, the corrosion and mechanical tests open holes and pinholes during solidification impacts battery pack
on the restored components assure that the back-filled Al and Al alloy enclosure strength. The battery pack life cycle can also be affected by
materials had better corrosion resistance and adhesive strength. These minor variations in design boundary resulting in damaging or even ex
repaired parts are now suitable to be back to assist in flying (Champagne plosion of the battery pack. Casting products need post-processing
et al., 2008; Security and Program, 2011). owning to the less dimensional accuracy of casted products which
Another material that is being used at a rapid rate in modern industry directly increases the production costs. To get the required strength and
Fig. 36. Representing various parts of the battery pack enclosure generated by CAD (Pal et al., 2020).
23
vibration resistance intelligent design optimization of the battery pack is • Nozzle clogging can be resolved by using nano-Al2O3 or elevated
considered via the CSAM approach. Firstly by using CAD a model of temperature resistance plastic (which is costly). Hence, alternative
battery pack enclosure is developed (Fig. 36) and then model analysis materials should be tested to address this issue.
for optimization was performed with ANSYS under ten different fre • There is no standard available for designing CSAM equipment that
quencies. The authors recommended that the CS battery pack enclosure can be easily adopted by manufacturers, which is a major drawback
was denser with minor porosity levels resulting in improved strength. regarding its industrial application. A standard design of CS equip
ment may be set for producing desirable CSAM deposit properties.
4. Future aspects of CSAM • The reality of CSAM is that all components require pre-processing
and machining operations to enhance their mechanical properties,
CASM in future may expand the space of novel manufacturing design dimensional accuracy, and aesthetics look. Currently, companies are
strategies in the field of automobiles. As the automobile industry aims to still working on robotic solutions that can be implemented after
minimize CO2 emissions in next-gen vehicles, most of the latest CSAM CSAM processes to minimize machining and the easy removal of
development efforts have focused on electric motors. CSAM technology support removal.
would allow more lightweight, better performing motors to be designed • As a growing AM and repairing/restoration technology, CSAM is
for the future and could set the stage for the design of entire motors often combined with machining to obtain the final dimensions of
using CS technology, offering remarkable merits like cost reduction, parts and flat mating surfaces, which wastes material. Therefore,
good thermal management and better-complicated geometries and combining CSAM with CAD/CAM will enable precise and accurate
functionalities. robot drives and save material.
High-performance magnets employed currently in electric motors • CSAM, as a sustainable fabricating method, offers vast opportunities
are conventionally made by methods like powder compaction process to improve manufacturing sustainability. CSAM is a “green” tech
for production of sintered magnets and injection moulding technique for nology, as parts are refurbished and repaired rather than replaced,
bonded magnets. Magnets initially were manufactured in these pro saving both cost and energy while improving the long-range sus
cesses and then formed and assembled into a finished product. CSAM tainability of high-value industrial assets.
technology integrates all stages into one step and could result in sig • Sustainable fabricating is achieved in eco-friendly ways and provides
nificant cost reductions. a way to deposit wear-, erosion-, and corrosion-resistant materials
CSAM is capable of transforming the industrial system from a cost- onto parts with better properties. As with any novel industrial
effective and production viewpoint enabling improvements in con technique, there may be risks involved. Thus, it is vital to design a
sumption and resource efficiency. CSAM can directly contribute towards CSAM facility installation perfectly to accommodate this technique
sustainability as it is considered to be an alternative for traditional and to train the workers engaged in operating the CSAM technology.
manufacturing methods as repair/restoration, fabrication, and design
freedom approach via CSAM that can improve product life in the long
term. Declaration of competing interest
5. Summary and perspectives The authors declare that they have no known competing financia
linterestsor personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
CSAM has emerged as an innovative manufacturing technique to the work reported in this paper.
fulfil the necessities of the modern industry coupled with customers’
demands for better service and customized products. References
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Journal of Cleaner Production 310 (2021) 127606

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

A comprehensive review on sustainable cold spray additive manufacturing:

layer via layer mechanism. In comparison to other subtractive tech­

Nomenclature SD Stand-off distance

waste during manufacturing as it is an additive process. The product

1.2. CS and CSAM

Fig. 2. (a) Evolution of CS technology and, (b) Publications in recent years.

Table 1 for the AM Engineers. CSAM generally manufactures a semi-finished

thermal and electrical conductivity levels of bulk Cu material.

Fig. 6. The major areas of CSAM.

2.2. Inter-particle bonding control

The inter-particle bonding effect corrosive media penetrations (Xie

Corrosion- Oxidation Erosion Wear- Conductive/ Biocompatibility Anti- Bulk material

Fig. 11. Tensile strength of widely used CSAM deposits.

Fig. 12. % Elongation of widely used CSAM deposits.

2.3. Residual stresses 2.3.1. Microscopic level

2.4.3. Deposition on polymers

Spray angle (◦ ) 90 – 100 34.5 – – – Wang et al. (2015)

Nozzle traverse speed

Propellant Gas pressure

Powder feed rate

microstructure of coating (Kang et al., 2006) as, the impacting particles

2.5.6. Scanning step

making the challenge of design preparations a thing of the past.

3. CSAM sustainability implications

CSAM is a perfect “green” technology. It does not produce any

1. No substantial environmental effect of CSAM.

3.1. Environmental concerns

CSAM technology is an industrial technique with minimal environ­

the CSAM system, owing to mechanical faults. Operators can suffer

3.2. Component restoration vs. replacement

3.2.1. Repair with the same material

3.2.2. Spot repairing

is Ni-based superalloy owning to its excellent thermo-mechanical

3.4. Optimized product structures and designs

The CSAM design has allowed the development of novel material

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layer via layer mechanism. In comparison to other subtractive tech

CSAM technology is an industrial technique with minimal environ