Computerr Network UNIT2

Data Link Layer
Error Detection and Correction

Unit 2
CN SYLLABUS UNIT-2
• Data Link Layer:
• Error Detection and Error Correction: Types of errors, LRC, VRC,
• Checksum, CRC, and Hamming Code.
• Flow Control and Error Control: Stop and Wait Protocol, Sliding
• Window, Go-back-N-ARQ Protocol and Selective-Repeat ARQ
• Protocol.
• Channel Allocation Protocols: Random Access, Controlled and
• Channelization techniques such as ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD,
• CDMA/CA, TDMA, FDMA, Token Passing, etc.
Types of Error
Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable

communication, errors must be detected and corrected.
Types of Error
• Single-bit error: In a single-bit error, only one bit in the data unit has
changed.
Burst Error
A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed.
Detection
Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra
bits for detecting errors at the destination.
• Redundancy
• Parity Check
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
• Checksum
Redundancy
Detection methods
Even-parity concept
Even-parity concept
In parity check, a parity bit is added to every data

unit so that the total number of 1’s is even
(or odd for odd-parity).
Example 1
Suppose the sender wants to send the word world. In ASCII the five
characters are coded as
1110111 1101111 1110010 1101100 1100100
The following shows the actual bits sent
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001
Even-parity concept
Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is received by the
Example 2 receiver without being corrupted in transmission.
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up with
even numbers (6, 6, 4, 4, 4). The data are accepted.
Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is corrupted during

transmission.
Example 3
11111110 11011110 11101100 11011000 11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up with
even and odd numbers (7, 6, 5, 4, 4). The receiver knows that the
data are corrupted, discards them, and asks for retransmission.
NOTE: Simple parity check can detect all single-bit errors. It can detect burst errors only if the total number of errors in each data unit is odd.
Two-dimensional parity
Two-dimensional parity
Suppose the following block is sent:

10101001 00111001 11011101 11100111 10101010
Example 4 However, it is hit by a burst noise of length 8, and some bits are
corrupted.
10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010
When the receiver checks the parity bits, some of the bits do not
follow the even-parity rule and the whole block is discarded.
10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010
NOTE: In two-dimensional parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows and a redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
CRC generator and checker
Binary division in a CRC generator
Binary division in a CRC generator
A Polynomial
A Polynomial
Table: Standard polynomials
Name Polynomial Application
CRC-8 x8 + x2 + x + 1 ATM header

CRC-10 x10 + x9 + x5 + x4 + x 2 + 1 ATM AAL
ITU-16 x16 + x12 + x5 + 1 HDLC
x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10
ITU-32 LANs
+ x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1
A Polynomial
It is obvious that we cannot choose x (binary 10) or x2 + x (binary

Example 5 110) as the polynomial because both are divisible by x. However,
we can choose x + 1 (binary 11) because it is not divisible by x, but
is divisible by x + 1. We can also choose x2 + 1 (binary 101) because
it is divisible by x + 1 (binary division).
The CRC-12
x12 + x11 + x3 + x + 1
Example 6
which has a degree of 12, will detect all burst errors affecting an
odd number of bits, will detect all burst errors with a length less
than or equal to 12, and will detect, 99.97 percent of the time,
burst errors with a length of 12 or more.
Checksum
Checksum
The sender follows these steps: The receiver follows these steps:
• The unit is divided into k sections, • The unit is divided into k sections,
each of n bits. each of n bits.
• All sections are added using one’s • All sections are added using one’s
complement to get the sum. complement to get the sum.
• The sum is complemented and • The sum is complemented.

becomes the checksum.
• If the result is zero, the data are
• The checksum is sent with the accepted: otherwise, rejected.
data.
Checksum
Suppose the following block of 16 bits is to be sent using a

checksum of 8 bits.
10101001 00111001
The numbers are added using one’s complement
Example 7 10101001
00111001
------------
Sum 11100010
Checksum 00011101
The pattern sent is 10101001 00111001 00011101
Checksum
Now suppose the receiver receives the pattern sent in Example 7

and there is no error.
Example 8 10101001 00111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it will get all 1s, which,
after complementing, is all 0s and shows that there is no error.
10101001
00111001
00011101
Sum 11111111
Complement 00000000 means that the pattern is OK.
Checksum
Now suppose there is a burst error of length 5 that affects 4 bits.
10101111 11111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it gets
Example 9
10101111
11111001
00011101
Partial Sum 1 11000101
Carry 1
Sum 11000110
Complement 00111001 the pattern is corrupted.
Correction
• Retransmission Table: Data and redundancy bits
Number of Number of Total

• Forward Error Correction data bits redundancy bits bits
m r m+r
• Burst Error Correction 1 2 3
2 3 5
3 3 6
4 3 7
5 4 9
6 4 10
7 4 11
Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code
Redundancy bits calculation
Example of redundancy bit calculation
Error detection using Hamming code
Burst error correction example
UNIT-2 TOPICS
Flow Control and Error Control: Stop and Wait Protocol, Sliding
Window, Go-back-N-ARQ Protocol and Selective-Repeat ARQ
Protocol.
Flow Control and Error
Control
Unit -2
Flow Control and Error Control
Flow Control
 Flow control coordinates the amount of data that can
be sent before receiving acknowledgement
 Flow control is a set of procedures that tells the

sender how much data it can transmit before it must
wait for an acknowledgement from the receiver.
 Receiver has a limited speed at which it can process

incoming data and a limited amount of memory in
which to store incoming data.
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Computer Networks 3
Error Control
 It allows the receiver to inform the sender if a frame is lost

or damaged during transmission and coordinates the
retransmission of those frames by the sender.
 Error control in the data link layer is based on automatic

repeat request (ARQ). Whenever an error is detected,
specified frames are retransmitted.
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Protocols
(Data Link Elementary Protocols) (Sliding Window Protocols)

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Computer Networks 5
Data Link Elementary or Noiseless Channel
1. Simplest Protocol
The design of the simplest protocol with no flow or error control
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Computer Networks 6
Example: Simplest Protocol
This diagram shows an example of

communication using this protocol. It
is very simple. The sender sends a
sequence of frames without even
thinking about the receiver. To send
three frames, three events occur at the
sender site and three events at the
receiver site. Note that the data frames
are shown by tilted boxes; the height of
the box defines the transmission time
difference between the first bit and the
last bit in the frame.
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Computer Networks 7
2. Stop-and-Wait Protocol(Data Link Elementary)
The design of the stop-and-wait protocol
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Computer Networks 8
Example: Stop-and-Wait
shows an example of communication

using this protocol. It is still very
simple. The sender sends one frame
and waits for feedback from the
receiver. When the ACK arrives, the
sender sends the next frame. Note
that sending two frames in the
protocol involves the sender in four
events and the receiver in two events.
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Computer Networks 9
Noisy Channel (Sliding Window Protocols)
 Sliding window refers to imaginary boxes at the transmitter and the
receiver.
 Window holds the frames at the both sides.
 Sender window provides upper limit on the number of frames that

can be transmitted before requiring an acknowledgement.
 Receiver window corresponds to the set of frames ,it is permitted to

accept.
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Computer Networks 10
Example: Send window for Go-Back-N ARQ
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Noisy Channel (Sliding Window Protocols)
1. Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request
 Sequence Number = 0 to 𝟐𝒎 -1, where m =number of bits.
 Stop-and-wait is 1 bit sliding window. Sender and receiver

window size is 1 then m=1.
 Then the sequence number are 0, 1 , 0, 1, 0, 1……….
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Design of Stop-and-Wait ARQ

Flow diagram 1 : Stop-and-Wait ARQ
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Example 1: Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Flow diagram 1 shows an example of Stop-and-Wait ARQ in next

slide. Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged. Frame 1 is lost and resent
after the time-out. The resent frame 1 is acknowledged and the
timer stops. Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged, but the
acknowledgment is lost. The sender has no idea if the frame or the
acknowledgment is lost, so after the time-out, it resends frame 0,
which is acknowledged.
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i. An example of Stop-and-Wait ARQ. Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged. Frame 1 is
lost and resent after the time-out. The resent frame 1 is acknowledged and the timer
stops. Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged, but the acknowledgment is lost. The sender
has no idea if the frame or the acknowledgment is lost, so after the time-out, it resends
frame 0, which is acknowledged.
Solution:- The bandwidth-delay product is
ii. The system can send 20,000 bits during the time it takes for the data to go from the
sender to the receiver and then back again. However, the system sends only 1000 bits.
We can say that the link utilization is only 1000/20,000, or 5 percent. For this reason,
for a link with a high bandwidth or long delay, the use of Stop-and-Wait ARQ wastes
the capacity of the link.
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What is the utilization percentage of the link in Example 2 if we
have a protocol that can send up to 15 frames before stopping and
worrying about the acknowledgments?
Solution
The bandwidth-delay product is still 20,000 bits. The system can send
up to 15 frames or 15,000 bits during a round trip. This means the
utilization is 15,000/20,000, or 75 percent. Of course, if there are
damaged frames, the utilization percentage is much less because
frames have to be resent.
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2. Go-Back-N ARQ
 The sender window size is 𝟐𝒎 -1 with three variables: Sf, Sn,

and Ssize.
 The sender window can slide one or more slots when a valid
acknowledgment arrives.
 The receiver window size 1 with one single variable Rn.

The window slides when a correct frame has arrived; sliding
occurs one slot at a time.
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Sender window for Go-Back-N ARQ
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Receiver window for Go-Back-N ARQ
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Design of Go-Back-N ARQ

Why the Window size < 𝟐𝒎 for Go-Back-N ARQ

Note:
In Go-Back-N ARQ, the size of the sender

window must be less than 2m; the size of the
receiver window is always 1
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Flow Diagram 2 of Go-Back-N ARQ

Example 1: Go-Back-N ARQ
Flow diagram 2 shows an example of Go-Back-N. This is an
example of a case where the forward channel is reliable, but the
reverse is not. No data frames are lost, but some ACKs are delayed
and one is lost. The example also shows how cumulative
acknowledgments can help if acknowledgments are delayed or
lost. After initialization, there are seven sender events. Request
events are triggered by data from the network layer; arrival events
are triggered by acknowledgments from the physical layer. There
is no time-out event here because all outstanding frames are
acknowledged before the timer expires. Note that although ACK 2
is lost, ACK 3 serves as both ACK 2 and ACK 3.
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Flow Diagram 3 of Go-Back-N ARQ
Computer Networks
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Example 2: Go-Back-N ARQ
i. Flow diagram 3 shows what happens when a frame is lost. Frames
0, 1, 2, and 3 are sent. However, frame 1 is lost. The receiver
receives frames 2 and 3, but they are discarded because they are
received out of order. The sender receives no acknowledgment
about frames 1, 2, or 3. Its timer finally expires. The sender sends
all outstanding frames (1, 2, and 3) because it does not know what
is wrong. Note that the resending of frames 1, 2, and 3 is the
response to one single event. When the sender is responding to this
event, it cannot accept the triggering of other events. This means
that when ACK 2 arrives, the sender is still busy with sending
frame 3.
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Continue…………Example 2: Go-Back-N ARQ
ii. Flow diagram 3 shows what happens when a frame is lost. Frames
0, 1, 2, and 3 are sent. However, frame 1 is lost. The receiver
receives frames 2 and 3, but they are discarded because they are
received out of order. The sender receives no acknowledgment
about frames 1, 2, or 3. Its timer finally expires. The sender sends
all outstanding frames (1, 2, and 3) because it does not know what
is wrong. Note that the resending of frames 1, 2, and 3 is the
response to one single event. When the sender is responding to this
event, it cannot accept the triggering of other events. This means
that when ACK 2 arrives, the sender is still busy with sending
frame 3.
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Note:
Stop-and-Wait ARQ is a special case of Go-Back-N

ARQ in which the size of the send window is 1.
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3. Selective Repeat ARQ
 The sender window size and receiver window size is

𝟐𝒎
or 𝟐𝒎−𝟏 .
𝟐
 The sender window can slide one or more slots when a valid
acknowledgment arrives.
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Sender and Receiver window for Selective Repeat ARQ
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Design of Selective Repeat ARQ

Why the Window size < 𝟐𝒎−𝟏 for Selective Repeat ARQ

Delivery of data in Selective Repeat ARQ
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Flow Diagram 4 of Selective-Repeat-ARQ
Computer Networks
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Example 1 : Selective Repeat ARQ
i. This example is similar to Example 1 of Stop-and-Wait in
which frame 1 is lost. We show how Selective Repeat behaves in
this case. Flow Diagram 4(Stop-and-wait) shows the situation.
One main difference is the number of timers. Here, each frame
sent or resent needs a timer, which means that the timers need
to be numbered (0, 1, 2, and 3). The timer for frame 0 starts at
the first request, but stops when the ACK for this frame arrives.
The timer for frame 1 starts at the second request, restarts when
a NAK arrives, and finally stops when the last ACK arrives. The
other two timers start when the corresponding frames are sent
and stop at the last arrival event.
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Continue …...Example 1 : Selective Repeat ARQ
ii. At the receiver site we need to distinguish between the
acceptance of a frame and its delivery to the network layer. At
the second arrival, frame 2 arrives and is stored and marked,
but it cannot be delivered because frame 1 is missing. At the
next arrival, frame 3 arrives and is marked and stored, but still
none of the frames can be delivered. Only at the last arrival,
when finally a copy of frame 1 arrives, can frames 1, 2, and 3 be
delivered to the network layer. There are two conditions for the
delivery of frames to the network layer: First, a set of
consecutive frames must have arrived. Second, the set starts
from the beginning of the window.
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iii. Another important point is that a NAK is sent after the second
arrival, but not after the third, although both situations look
the same. The reason is that the protocol does not want to
crowd the network with unnecessary NAKs and unnecessary
resent frames. The second NAK would still be NAK1 to inform
the sender to resend frame 1 again; this has already been done.
The first NAK sent is remembered (using the NAK Sent variable)
and is not sent again until the frame slides. A NAK is sent once
for each window position and defines the first slot in the
window.
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iv. The next point is about the ACKs. Notice that only two ACKs
are sent here. The first one acknowledges only the first frame;
the second one acknowledges three frames. In Selective Repeat,
ACKs are sent when data are delivered to the network layer. If
the data belonging to n frames are delivered in one shot, only
one ACK is sent for all of them.
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Design of piggybacking in Go-Back-N ARQ

Channel allocation, Multiple access protocols,
Channel Allocation Protocols: Random Access, Controlled and
Channelization techniques such as ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD,
CDMA/CA, TDMA, FDMA, Token Passing, etc.
Multiple Access
Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS
In random access or contention methods, no station is superior

to another station and none is assigned the control over another.
No station permits, or does not permit, another station to send.
At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a
procedure defined by the protocol to make a decision on
whether or not to send.
Topics discussed in this section:
• ALOHA
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS,
ALOHA
ALOHA
• Norman Abramson at University of Hawaii, in 70’s wanted to
connect computer centers of all the islands of Hawaii.
• Hawaii is a collection of islands and it was not possible to
connect them with telephone lines.
• Joining islands with wires laid on seabed was very expensive,
so they started thinking about wireless solution.
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, ALOHA
Solution: ALOHA
• Using short range radios.

• Half duplex by nature. At a time, only can send or receiver. Switching
also takes time.
• Two different frequencies, one for sending, another for receiving.
• But, problem of collision, how to solve it?
• Solution: Let the users communicate, if signals collide, not
acknowledged and so, sender resends data.
• Adding randomness reduces the chance of collision.
• Algorithm is called Binary Exponential Back-off Algorithm.
• Also had problem: While transmitting, sender can not sense collision.
• In ALOHA, maximum 18 out of 100 packets pass without collision if
ALOHA works with optimum speed.
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Slotted
ALOHA
Slotted
• Solution: Slotted ALOHA
ALOHA
• Robert, in 1972 proposed a scheme.
• Packets are vulnerable to collide with only those packets
which were transmitted before, but not during the lifetime.
• He divided timeslots equal to lifetime of packets.
• Packet can be transmitted only in beginning of next slot
only.
• Slotted ALOHA introduces additional delay.
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Slotted ALOHA
• Eg : B is to be transmitted during A’s lifetime, B will be delayed till next slot.

• Thus, reducing collision probability to half and performance is doubled.
• In slotted ALOHA, 36 out of 100 packets are delivered without collision at
optimum speed.
• In slotted ALOHA time is divided into discrete intervals, each corresponding to
one frame.
• A computer is not permitted to send whenever it has data to send.
• Instead it is required to wait for the next available slot.
• Well, it still needs improvement.
• See next figures that explain ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA.

Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Pure ALOHA
Frames in a pure ALOHA network
Multiple Access
Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol
Multiple Access
Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Slotted ALOHA
Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Vulnerable time for Slotted ALOHA
Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS
Space/time model of the collision in CSMA
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Vulnerable time in CSMA
Vulnerable time in CSMA

Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Behavior of Three persistence methods
Behavior of three persistence methods
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Flow Diagram of three persistence methods
Flow diagram for three persistence methods

Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, CSMA
CSMA
• TYPES:
• 1. 1 Persistent CSMA
• 2. Non Persistent CSMA
• 3. P Persistent CSMA
• 4. CSMA/CD
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, CSMA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

• Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier (i.e. transmission)
and act accordingly are called carrier sense protocols.
1. 1-persistent CSMA
Channel Busy  Continue sensing until free and then grab.
Channel Idle  Transmit with probability 1.
Collision  Wait for a random length of time and try again.
2. Non-persistent CSMA:
Channel Busy  Does not continually sense the channel. Wait for
a random length of time and try again.
Channel Idle  Transmit.
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, CSMA
3. P-persistent CSMA:
Channel Busy  Continue sensing until free (same as idle).
Channel Idle  Transmit with probability p, and defer
transmitting until the next slot with probability q = 1-p.
• Analysis:
• The non-persistent CSMA has better channel utilization but longer
delays than 1-persistent CSMA.
• CSMA are an improvement over ALOHA because they ensure that no
station begins to transmit when it senses the channel busy.
• Another improvement is for stations to abort their transmissions as
soon as they detect a collision.
• Quickly terminating damaged frames saves time and bandwidth.
• This protocol is called CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection).
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
• Carrier Sense: Ethernet card listen to channel before transmission and
differ to transmit if somebody else is already transmitting.
• Multiple Access: More than one user needs channel access.
• Collision Detection: Protocol listen when transmission is going on and
find stop transmitting when it finds colliding.
• Interframe gap: As soon as channel becomes free, it waits for small interframe gap
and then transmits. Interframe gap is idle time between frames. After a frame has
been sent, transmitters are required to transmit a minimum of 96 bits (12 octets)
of idle line state before transmitting the next frame.
Multiple Access
• Maximum distance limitation: Frame size min 64 bytes.
• Minimum frame size limitation: Frame length min 250 m.
• Both, distance and size can not be increased together.
• More bandwidth deteriorates performance.
• If first 64 bytes are successfully received, means later there would be no

collision.
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Collision Detection & Avoidance
Collision Detection & Avoidance

• Collision garble the frames.
• Collision Detection:
• Let collision happen and then solve it.
• If sender detects collision, it can stop sending and restart later by following
‘binary back-off algorithm’.
• Need a mechanism to listen to channel.
• Used by classic Ethernet.
Multiple Access
Collision Avoidance:
• See that collision do not occur by carefully avoiding it.
• Here, it is possible to extract any component signal from collided signal.

So retransmission is not needed. We just extract what we need from the
received signals.
• Preferred by 802.11 wireless LANs.
• CDMA Code Division Multiple Access is used in Mobile phones.

Multiple Access
CSMA/CA
• Collision Avoidance with Career Sense Multiple Access.
• On Wireless Networks
• Strategies:
• 1. Inter-frame Spacing (IFS)
• 2. Contention Window – Binary Exponential Back off Algorithm
• 3. Acknowledgement
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD
Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD
Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD
Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD
Multiple Access
Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Timing in CSMA/CD
Timing in CSMA/CA
In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the timer of the
contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle.
In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame.
Multiple Access
RANDOM ACCESS, Flow Diagram CSMA/CA
Flow diagram for CSMA/CA
Multiple Access
CONTROLLED ACCESS
In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station
has the right to send. A station cannot send unless it has been authorized
by other stations. We discuss three popular controlled-access methods.
• Reservation
• Polling
• Token Passing
Multiple Access
CONTROLLED ACCESS
Reservation access method

Multiple Access
CONTROLLED ACCESS
Select and poll functions in polling access method

Multiple Access
CONTROLLED ACCESS
Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method
Multiple Access
Channelization
CHANNELIZATION
Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a
link is shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations. In
this section, we discuss three channelization protocols.
• Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

• Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Multiple Access
Channelization
Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
In FDMA, the available bandwidth of the common channel is divided into bands that are
separated by guard bands.
Multiple Access
Channelization
Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is timeshared between different stations.
In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions simultaneously.

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Data Link Layer

Error Detection and Correction

Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable

• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

In parity check, a parity bit is added to every data

Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is corrupted during

Suppose the following block is sent:

10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010

Table: Standard polynomials

Name Polynomial Application

CRC-8 x8 + x2 + x + 1 ATM header

It is obvious that we cannot choose x (binary 10) or x2 + x (binary

• The sum is complemented and • The sum is complemented.

Suppose the following block of 16 bits is to be sent using a

Now suppose the receiver receives the pattern sent in Example 7

• Retransmission Table: Data and redundancy bits

Number of Number of Total

 Flow control is a set of procedures that tells the

 Receiver has a limited speed at which it can process

 It allows the receiver to inform the sender if a frame is lost

 Error control in the data link layer is based on automatic

08-02-2024 Computer Networks 4

(Data Link Elementary Protocols) (Sliding Window Protocols)

This diagram shows an example of

shows an example of communication

 Window holds the frames at the both sides.

 Sender window provides upper limit on the number of frames that

 Receiver window corresponds to the set of frames ,it is permitted to

1. Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request

 Sequence Number = 0 to 𝟐𝒎 -1, where m =number of bits.

 Stop-and-wait is 1 bit sliding window. Sender and receiver

 Then the sequence number are 0, 1 , 0, 1, 0, 1……….

08-02-2024 Computer Networks 13

Flow diagram 1 shows an example of Stop-and-Wait ARQ in next

Solution:- The bandwidth-delay product is

 Sequence Number = 0 to 𝟐𝒎 -1, where m =number of bits.

 The sender window size is 𝟐𝒎 -1 with three variables: Sf, Sn,

 The receiver window size 1 with one single variable Rn.

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In Go-Back-N ARQ, the size of the sender

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Stop-and-Wait ARQ is a special case of Go-Back-N

 Sequence Number = 0 to 𝟐𝒎 -1, where m =number of bits.

 The sender window size and receiver window size is

08-02-2024 Computer Networks 32

08-02-2024 Computer Networks 33

08-02-2024 Computer Networks 40

In random access or contention methods, no station is superior

• Using short range radios.

• Eg : B is to be transmitted during A’s lifetime, B will be delayed till next slot.

• Well, it still needs improvement.

• See next figures that explain ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA.

Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

Vulnerable time in CSMA

Flow diagram for three persistence methods

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

• Maximum distance limitation: Frame size min 64 bytes.