Unit-3

Nuclear Physics

Introduction:

The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition
and the forces which bind it together, is called nuclear physics.

Nucleus

The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region at the center of an atom . IT consists of the
elementary particles, protons and neutrons which are known as nucleons. A proton has positive
charge of the same magnitude as that of electron and its rest mass is about 1836 times the mass
of an electron. A neutron is electrically neutral, whose mass is almost equal to the mass of the
proton. The nucleons inside the nucleus are held together by strong attractive forces called
nuclear forces.
The conventional symbol for nuclear species known as nuclide , follow the pattern

Classification of Nuclei:
(i) Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number Z but different
mass number A. The nuclei 1H 1, 1H2 and 1H3 are the isotopes of hydrogen. In other words
isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. As
the atoms of isotopes have identical electronic structure, they have identical chemical properties
but different physical properties. They are placed in the same location in the periodic table.
(ii) Isobars
Isobars are atoms of different elements having the same mass number A, but different
atomic number Z. The nuclei 8O16 and 7N16 represent two isobars. Since isobars are atoms of
different elements, they have different physical and chemical properties.
(iii) Isotones
Isotones are atoms of different elements having the same number of
neutrons. 6C14 and 8O16 are some examples of isotones.
(iv ) Mirror Nuclei :
Mirror Nuclei are nuclei, havig the same mass number A but with the proton and Neutron
number interchanged. For Example 4Be7 (Z= 4 & N= 3 ) and 3Li7 (Z= 3 & N= 4 ) are
mirror nuclei.

General properties of nucleus

 1. Nuclear size
According to Rutherford's 𝛼particle scattering experiment nuclear radius, is approximately of
the order of 1014 to 1015m. If the nucleus is assumed to be spherical,
The volume of the nucleus is directly proportional to the number of Nucleons
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∝ 𝐴

𝜋𝑅 ∝ 𝐴
Where R is the Nuclear Radius

Hence 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴

/
𝑅 ∝ 𝐴

/
𝑅=𝐶 𝐴

Where C is the proportionality constant let 𝑅 = 𝐶

R = 𝑅 A1/3
where 𝑅 is the constant of proportionality and is equal to 13 * 1015m

2. Nuclear density
The nuclear density ρ can be calculated from the mass and size of the nucleus.
Nuclear mass
ρ =
Nuclear Volume

A ∗ (mass of a nucleon)
ρ =
4
𝜋𝑅
3
3M
ρ =
4𝜋𝑅
Above equation shows that nuclear density is independent of mass number.
Substituting the known values, the nuclear density is calculated as 1.45 * 1017 kg m−3
which is almost a constant for all the nuclei irrespective of its size.
The high value of the nuclear density shows that the nuclear matter is in an extremely
compressed state.

3. Nuclear charge
The charge of a nucleus is due to the protons present in it. Each proton has a positive
charge equal to 1.6 * 1019 C.
 The nuclear charge = Ze, where Z is the atomic number.

4. Nuclear mass
As the nucleus contains protons and neutrons, the mass of the nucleus is assumed to be the
mass of its constituents.
Assumed nuclear mass = ZmP + Nmn
where mp and mn are the mass of a proton and a neutron respectively. However, from the
measurement of mass by mass spectrometers, it is found that the mass of a stable nucleus (m) is
less than the total mass of the nucleons.

i.e Real mass of a nucleus, m < (Zmp + Nmn)

Zmp + NmN - m = ∆m
where ∆m is the mass defect
Thus, the difference in the total mass of the nucleons and the actual mass of the nucleus is
known as the mass defect.

Atomic mass unit

It is convenient to express the mass of a nucleus in atomic mass unit (amu), though the unit of
mass is kg. One atomic mass unit is considered as one twelfth of the mass of carbon atom 6C 12.
Carbon of atomic number 6 and mass number 12 has mass equal to 12 amu.
1 amu = 1.66 * 1027 kg
The mass of a proton, mp = 1.007276 amu
This is equal to the difference in mass of the hydrogen atom which is 1.007825 amu and
the mass of electron.
The mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665 amu
The Energy equivalent of 1 amu = 931 MeV
Binding energy
When the protons and neutrons combine to form a nucleus, the mass that disappears (mass
defect, ∆m) is converted into an equivalent amount of energy (∆mc2). This energy is called the
binding energy of the nucleus.

Binding energy = [ZmP + Nmn - m] c2

= ∆m c2
The binding energy of a nucleus determines its stability against disintegration. In other
words, if the binding energy is large, the nucleus is stable and vice versa.
The binding energy per nucleon is
BE/ A = Binding energy of the nucleus / Total number of nucleons
Nuclear Models :

To understand the observed properties of the nucleus, adequate knowledge of inter nucleon
interaction and there arrangements is necessary.

Nuclear models are proposed to understand or explain the observed properties of the nucleus
with certain approximations. These nuclear models have their own benefits and limitations.

1. Liquid Drop Model

Liquid drop model was proposed by Neils Bohr in 1936 . He pointed out that the strong ,
short range, attractive forces between the nucleons are analogous to those acting between
the molecules of a liquid .
The similarities between the nucleus and a liquid drop are the following:
(i) In the stable state, the shape of liquid drop is spherical due to the symmetrical
surface tension forces. Similarly the nucleus is also nearly spherical due to the
nuclear forces. The nucleons inside the nucleus behave just like the behavior of
molecules in a liquid. On this basis, the radius of nucleus must be proportional to
the cube root of its mass number. This fact has been experimentally verified.
(ii) The density of spherical drop of liquid does not depend on its volume (or radius)
similarly the density of nucleus is also independent of its volume (or mass number
A)
(iii) The molecules evaporate from a liquid drop on raising the temperature of the
liquid, due to their increased energy of thermal agitation. Similarly when energy
is given to the nucleus by bombarding it with nuclear projectiles, a compound
nucleus is formed which emits nuclear radiation almost immediately.
(iv) The nuclear forces are short range forces, similarly as that of liquid , in which the
inter molecular forces are short range forces.
(v) When a small drop of liquid is allowed to oscillate, it breaks up in to two smaller
drops of equal size . The process of nuclear fission is similar in which the nucleus
breakup in to two smaller nuclei.

Merits of liquid drop model

1. It explains the spherical shape of most nuclei.
2. It helps to predict the nuclear binding energy and also to assess how much is available for
consumption.
3. It helps to explain the stability of nuclei.
4. The radioactive phenomenon can be explained with the help of this model.
5. This model explains the phenomenon of artificial radioactivity.
6. Nuclear fission can be understood on the basis of this model.

Demerits of liquid drop model

1. It is a crude model. It does not explain all the properties of the nucleus.
2. It does not explain the high stability of nuclei with the magic number.
3. The concept of pairing cannot be explained with this model.
4. The discontinuities in B / E nucleon cannot be explained.

Magic Numbers in Nuclear Structure

When a nucleus has an even number of protons and neutrons, such a nucleus is more stable than
with the odd numbers. This number is known as “magic numbers” and they offer stability to the
atom. Following is the sequence of magic number:
2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126.
When nuclei will have both neutron number and proton number equal to one of the magic
numbers, they are known as “doubly magic”. Calcium is an example of a nucleus that has a
doubly magic number.

2. Nuclear Shell Model

The nuclear shell model is a model of the atomic nucleus. It uses the Pauli exclusion principle to
explain the nucleus structure in terms of energy levels. It basically explains the distribution of
energy levels into different nucleus atom shells and nucleus atom sub shells. A shell is described
as the energy level where particles having the same energy exists.

In this model, all the nuclear particles are paired one-to-one, neutron with a neutron, and proton
with a proton. The paired neutrons and protons in nuclear energy levels are filled when the
number of neutrons or protons is equal to 2, 8,20,28,50,82, or 126. These are the magic numbers
that show the most stable nuclei.

The unpaired ones are responsible for the properties of a nucleus and valence electrons are
responsible for different chemical properties of elements. With the help of the shell model, we
can accurately predict the properties of nuclei such as angular momentum.

The shell structure applies to both neutron and proton separately.

Merits of Nuclear Shell Model :
Magic numbers are explained succefully with the nuclear shell model .

Demerits of Nuclear Shell Model :

(i) There exists difference between shell-model wave functions and the real states of the
nucleus.
(ii) The Large value of Q the quadrupole moment in many nuclei cannot be explained
with this mode.
(iii) The strong spin-orbit interaction, are certainly not applicable in this model .
(iv) The shell model cannot be applied to many heavy nuclei .

Particle Accelerators :
A particle accelerator is a machine that uses to accelerate charged particles to very high speeds
and energies, and to contain them in well-defined beams.

Linear Particle Accelerator (LINAC)

A linear particle accelerator (LINAC) is a type of particle accelerator that greatly increases the
kinetic energy of charged subatomic particles or ions by subjecting the charged particles to a
series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beam line.

Principle:

1. There is no electric field inside a hollow charged conductor.

2. Under the action of an a.c. field , a charged particle would experience acceleration for half
the cycle and de acceleration for the next half cycle . If there a particle is kept in the field for
accelerating half cycle and then shielded from it for the nex half cycle it would experience
the ‘ regenerative’ accelerating action of the field .

Construction:
Figure (1) shows the setup used in LINAC.
A series of cylindrical conductor’s are kept
inside a long evacuated tube and the
charged particle (the proton) is made to
travel down the tube along the axis of the
cylinders. Alternate cylinders are
connected together and for accelerating
potential, A high voltage and high
frequency a.c. source (500 KV, 200 MHz)
is used.
Working :

Positive ions enter along the axis of the accelerator from an ion source through an aperture A .
Suppose a positive ion leave A and accelerated during the half cycle, when the cylinder 1 is
negative with respective to A . Let ‘q’ be the charge and ‘m’ is the mass of the ion and ‘V’
potential of drift tube 1 with respect o A.
Then velocity 𝑣 of the ion on reaching the cylinder is given by :

𝑚𝑣 = 𝑞𝑉

𝑣 = …… (1)

The length of the cylinder 1 is so adjusted that as the positive ion comes out of it, the cylinder
has a positive potential and the next cylinder (cylinder-2) has a negative potential. The positive
ion again accelerated in the space between the cylinder 1 and 2 . On reaching the cylinder 2 , the
velocity 𝑣 of the positive ion is given by :

𝑚𝑣 = 2𝑞𝑉
𝑣 = √2

𝑣 = √2𝑣 …..(2)

This shows that 𝑣 is √2 times of 𝑣 i.e. length of the cylinder 2 also must be √2 times of the
length of cylinder 2 .
For successive acceleration in successive gaps the tubes 1,2,3, etc must have length proportional
to 1, √2, √3 etc
i.e. 𝑙 ∶ 𝑙 ∶ 𝑙 = 1: √2 ∶ √3 ∶ 𝑒𝑡𝑐

Energy of the ion:

Let n be the number of gaps that the ion travels in the accelerator and 𝑣 be th final velocity
acquired by the ion, then
Velocity of the ion ,as it emerges out of the nth tube

𝑣 = √𝑛 …… (3)

Therefore the Kinetic energy (K.E.) acquired by the ion

𝑚𝑣 = 𝑛𝑞𝑉

Thus the final energy of the ion depends upon

(i) The total number of gaps
(ii) The energy gained in each gap

Limitation of LINAC:

(i) The length of accelerator become in conventionally large and it is difficult to

maintain vacuum in large chamber.
(ii) The ion current available in the form of short interval pulses because the ions are
injected at an appropriate moment.

Cyclotron :
Introduction :

A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1932. It is used

to accelerate positively charges particles like proton and deuterons to very high energies so that
these particles may produce disintegration.
 Construction :
A cyclotron consists of a cylindrical cavity which is
divided in to two called dees placed in an evacuated
chamber between the poles of a magnet.
gnet. An ion source
which consist of a heating filament and a gas
Hydrogen or deuterium is placed near the midpoint o
the gap between the ‘dees’ .
An alternating potential difference of the order of 104
volts is applied between the dees with the help of
Radio frequency oscillator.

Principle of Working :
When an ion of mass ‘𝑚′ and charge 𝑞 gets inside a dee which is at negative potential ,it
experiences no electrical force because the electric field is zero inside a hollow charge
conductor. However
ever under the action of magnetic field , ion describes a circular orbit with a
constant speed ′𝑣′ and radius ‘𝑟′ given by

𝑞𝑣𝐵 = ……..(1)

𝑟= ………(2) where ‘B’ is the magnetic induction

The angular velocity ′𝜔 of the ion in its circular path is given by

𝜔= = ……(3)

The time taken by the ion to travel the semi circular path

𝑡= = …….(4)

The potential difference between the dees oscillate with a frequency equal to ‘‘𝜔′′ . In this way,
the potential difference between the dees is in resonance with the circular motion of the ions.

When the ion completes half revolution , the polarity of the dees is reversed. Therefore the ion
receives again small acceleration while cr
crossing
ossing the gap between two dees . Then th next half
cycle described by the ion has large radius but the same angular velocity .

The process repeats itself several times, until the radius attains a maximum value 𝑟
approximately equal to the radius
us ‘R’ of th dees. The magnetic field at the edge of the dees is
decreased sharply so that the ion moves tangentially and escaping out through an opening ‘A’
Energy of an ion :

Let 𝑟 be the radius of the outermost orbit described by the ion and 𝑣 is th
maximumvelocity gained by the ion in its final orbit. Then the equation of motion of the ion in a
magnetic field is

𝑞𝑣 𝐵=

Or 𝑣 =

The energy of the ion

𝐸= 𝑚𝑣

𝐸= ………(5)

Condition of resonance:
The condition for acceleration of the ion in the inter-dee gap is that :
Half the time period of the time taken by the ion to travel the semi circular path = oscillation of the applied high frequency voltage

i.e. =

or 𝑇 =

therefore frequency of the oscillator

𝑓= …….(6)

Limitation of Cyclotron :

1. The energy to which particles can be accelerated in a cyclotron is limited due to the
variation of mass with velocity.As the energy increases ,the velocity of the particle also
increases, resulting in a change of mass according to the relation 𝑚 = where

𝑚 is the rest mass of the particle

2. Uncharged particles cannot be accelerated by a cyclotron.
3. Only charged particles like protons, deuterons and alpha particles can be accelerated by
the cyclotron and electron cannot be accelerated, because the mass of electron is very
small and a small increase in energy of electron makes it move with very high speed and
as a result the electrons go quickly out of step with oscillating electric field.
4. The energy limitation of the normal, fixed frequency cyclotron can be removed and the
ions accelerated indefinitely if the applied frequency is varied to match exactly the ion
rotation frequency.
Synchro cyclotron :

A synchrocyclotron is a special type of cyclotron, patented by Edwin McMillan, in which the

frequency of the driving RF electric field is varied to compensate for relativistic effects as the
particles' velocity begins to approach the speed of light.

The frequency of R F oscillator is decreased in

steps of 10-20 cycles/ sec by rotating the
movable vanes of the capacitor ,thus the
resonance condition is established between
particle and RF frequency , and the particle
energy can be further increased by increasing
the radius of dees. The acceleration of
particles takes place as they enter or leave dee
at the outer edge, the ion beam can be removed
with the help of deflector .

It was possible to produce 200 MeV deuterons and 400 MeV for α – particle with the first
synchro cyclotron.

Advantage of the Sychrocyclotron :

1. There is no need to restrict the number of revolutions executed by the ion before its exist
2. The potential difference supplied between the dees can be kept smaller.

Betatron :
Betatron is a particle accelerating machine which is used to accelerate the high speed electrons
(beta particls) to very high energies. It was constructed by D.W. Kerst in 1941. Unlike the
cyclotron in which the orbit radius of the orbiting particle increases continuously, the electron in
betatron are made to orbit in a stable radius.The orbit radius is kept fixed by changing the
magnetic field in an appropriate manner.

Construction:

It consist of a doughnut shaped vacuum chamber placed between th pole pieces of two
electromagnet, The electromagnets are energized by an alternating current. The magnet
produces a strong magnetic field in the doughnut.The electrons are produced by the electron gun
and are allowed to move in a circular orbit of constant radius in the vacuum chamber .
Theory :
Consider an electron orbiting in an orbit of radius ‘r’ in a magnetic field having an instantaneous
flux density B at the position of the orbit. Since the flux density is made to change in a betatron,
the flux through the orbit 𝜙 will change at a rate and will consequently introduced emf of
magnitude .

The work done on an electron of charge ‘e’ in one revolution

= 𝐸𝑒 = −𝑒 …………..(1)

However we can also write work

𝑊 = 𝐹. 2𝜋𝑟 ………… (2)

On equating eq. (1) and (2)

𝐹 = − ……… (3)

The tangential force ‘F’ acting on the electron can also be calculated from the fact that

Force = Rate of chang of momentum

The momentum 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 can be calculated as

𝑞𝑣𝐵 =

𝑣=

The momentum P is, therefore , 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝐵𝑒𝑟 ……. (4)

𝐹=

𝐹= (𝐵𝑒𝑟)

For an orbit of constant radius

𝐹 = 𝑒𝑟 ……..(5)

Equating eq (3) and (5) we get

𝑒𝑟 =

Or 𝑑𝜙 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝐵

On integrating ∫ 𝑑𝜙 = 2𝜋𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝐵

Or 𝝓 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑩 ….. (6)

Equation (6) is known as betatron condition .

If the field had remained constant, the flux through an orbit of radius ‘r’ would have been 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑩.
Eq. (6) therefore shows that in order to maintain a stable radius , we must arrange the field
producing pole pieces in such a way that flux at the position of the stable orbit is twice what it
would have been for uniform constant magnetic field.

Geiger - Muller counter :

Introduction :

‘Geiger Muller Counter’ or ‘GM counter’ is a ‘particle detector’ to measure the ionizing
radiation such as alpha, beta, and gamma particles. It was developed by Geiger and Muller in
the year 1928.

It is widely used in applications like radiological protection, radiation dosimetry, and

experimental physics.
Principle
GM counter is based on the fact that “Radiation ionizes the gas through which they pass and
produces few. Ions.” If the applied voltage is strong enough, these ion produce a secondary
avalanche whose total effect will be proportional to the energy associated with the
primary ionizing event.
If the applied potential difference is very high, the secondary ionization phenomenon
becomes so dominant that the primary ionizing event loses its importance. In other
words, the size of the final pulse produced depends only on the triggering off of
ionization by an ionizing particle but independent of the energy of this particle.
A high energy particle entering through the mica window will cause one or more of
the argon atoms to ionize. The electrons and ions of argon thus produced cause other
argon atoms to ionize in a cascade effect. The result of this one event is sudden,
massive electrical discharge that causes a current pulse. The current through R
produces a voltage pulse of the order of 10μV. An electron pulse amplifier accepts the
small pulse voltage and amplifies them to about 5 to 50 V. The amplified output is
then applied to a counter. As each incoming particle produces a pulse, the number of
incoming particles can be counted.
Construction :
It consists of a hollow metal case
enclosed in a thin glass tube. This hollow
metal case acts as a cathode. A fine
tungsten wire is stretched along the axis
of the tube and is insulated by ebonite
plugs. This fine tungsten wire acts as
anode.
The GM tube is evacuated and then partially filled with a mixture of 90% argon at 10
cm pressure and 10% ethyl alcohol vapors at 1cm pressure. The fine tungsten wire is
connected to positive terminal of a high tension battery through a resistance R and the
negative terminal is connected to the metal tube. The direct current voltage is kept
slightly less than that which will cause a discharge between the electrodes. At one end
of the tube a thin window of mica is arranged to allow the entry of radiation into the
tube.

Working of Geiger-Muller counter

The tube is filled with Argon gas, and around voltage of +400 Volts is applied to the
thin wire in the middle. When a particle arrives into the tube, it takes an electron from
Argon atom. The electron is attracted to the central wire and as it rushes towards the
wire, the electron will knock other electrons from Argon atoms, causing an
"avalanche". Thus one single incoming particle will cause many electrons to arrive at
the wire, creating a pulse which can be amplified and counted. This gives us a very
sensitive detector.

There is a threshold below which the tube

doesn’t work. This can be several hundred
volts. After this, the number of pulses is
proportional to the voltage. This region is
known as proportional region. If the
applied voltage is increased further, then a
point will be reached after which the
count rate remains constant over a certain
region. This region is known as plateau
region or Geiger region. This region is
used for Geiger Muller operation.
Beyond the plateau region the applied electric field is so high that a continuous
discharge takes place in the tube and the count rate increases very rapidly. It does not
require any ionization event to happen so that the tube must not be used in this region.

The Geiger Muller counter can account for about 500 particles per second. The GM
counter will not register those particles that pass through it in the dead time. Dead
time refers to the time taken by the tube to recover between counts. It requires about
200 μs for the tube to recover. If lot of particles enters the GM tube at a rapid rate, the
tube will not have time to recover and some particles may not be counted.
The efficiency of the counter is defined as the ration of the observed counts per
second to the number of ionizing particles entering the counter per second. Counting
efficiency is defined as the ability of counting of the GM counter.
Counting efficiency, η = 1- exp (spl)
Where,
s = specific ionization at one atmosphere
p= pressure in atmosphere
l = path length of the ionization particle in the counter