Introduction

Nuclear physics is a scientific discipline that studies the structure of nuclei,

their formation and stability. It mainly focuses on understanding the fundamental
nuclear forces in nature and the complex interactions between neutrons and protons.

Experimental nuclear physics drives innovation in scientific instrumentation.

Today’s research in nuclear physics is enabling a range of new technologies in
materials science chemistry, medicine, and biology. The application of nuclear
physics lies largely in the field of power generation using nuclear energy. Once the
force holding the nucleus was understood, we started splitting and fusing neutrons.
The process of splitting the nucleus to generate energy is known as Nuclear Fission
and the process of fusing two neutrons to generate energy is known as Nuclear
Fusion.

Nuclear Physics is defined as the branch of physics deals with the structure of
the atomic nucleus and its interactions.

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Nuclear Structure
Nucleus
The nucleus consists of the elementary particles, protons and neutrons
which are known as nucleons. A proton has positive charge of the same magnitude
as that of electron and its rest mass is about 1836 times the mass of an electron. A
neutron is electrically neutral, whose mass is almost equal to the mass of the
proton. The nucleons inside the nucleus are held together by strong attractive
forces called nuclear forces.

Parameter Electron Proton Neutron

Charge -1.6 x 10-19 +1.6 x 10-19 zero

Mass 9.1 x 10-31 1.672 x 10-27 1.674 x 10-27

A nucleus of an element is represented as ZXA, where X is the chemical

symbol of the element. Z represents the atomic number which is equal to the
number of protons and A, the mass number which is equal to the total number of
protons and neutrons. The number of neutrons is represented as N which is equal
to A−Z. For example, the chlorine nucleus is represented as 17Cl35. It contains 17
protons and 18 neutrons.

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Classification of Nuclei
i. Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic
number (Z) but different mass number (A). The nuclei 1H 1, 1H2 and 1H3 are
the isotopes of hydrogen. In other words isotopes of an element contain the
same number of protons but different number of neutrons. As the atoms of
isotopes have identical electronic structure, they have identical chemical
properties and placed in the same location in the periodic table.

ii. Isobars
Isobars are atoms of different elements having the same mass
number (A), but different atomic number (Z). The nuclei 8O16 and 7N16
represent two isobars. Since isobars are atoms of different elements, they
have different physical and chemical properties.

iii. Isotones
Isotones are atoms of different elements having the same number of
neutrons. 6C14 and 8O16 are some examples of isotones. For them, both the
atomic number (Z) and the mass number (A) are different, but the value of
(A – Z) is same. They have different number of electrons.

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General properties of Nucleus
Nuclear size
According to Rutherford's α−particle scattering experiment, the distance of
the closest approach of α − particle to the nucleus was taken as a measure of
nuclear radius, which is approximately 10−15 m. If the nucleus is assumed to be
spherical, an empirical relation is found to hold good between the radius of the
nucleus R and its mass number A. It is given by

𝑅 ∝ 𝐴1/3
𝑅 = 𝑟0 𝐴1/3

where ro is the constant of proportionality and is equal to 1.3 F

(1 Fermi, F= 10−15 m).

Nuclear density
The nuclear density ρN can be calculated from the mass and size of the
nucleus.

ρN = Nuclear mass / Nuclear volume

Nuclear mass = AmN

where, A = mass number

and 𝑚𝑁 = mass of one nucleon and is approximately equal to 1.67 x 10−27 kg

4
Nuclear volume = 𝜋𝑅3
3
4 3
𝜌𝑁 = 𝑚𝑁 / ( 𝜋𝑟 )
3 0
Substituting the known values, the nuclear density is calculated as 1.816 x 1017 kg
m−3 which is almost a constant for all the nuclei irrespective of its size. The high
value of the nuclear density shows that the nuclear matter is in an extremely
compressed state.

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Nuclear charge
The charge of a nucleus is due to the protons present in it. Each proton has
a positive charge equal to 1.6 x 10−19 C. The nuclear charge = Ze, where Z is the
atomic number.

Atomic mass unit

It is convenient to express the mass of a nucleus in atomic mass unit (amu),
though the unit of mass is kg. One atomic mass unit is considered as one twelfth of
the mass of carbon atom 6C 12. Carbon of atomic number 6 and mass number 12
has mass equal to 12 amu.

Nuclear mass
As the nucleus contains protons and neutrons, the mass of the nucleus is
assumed to be the mass of its constituents.

Assumed nuclear mass = 𝑍𝑚𝑃 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 ,

where 𝑚𝑃 and 𝑚𝑛 are the mass of a proton and a neutron respectively. However,
from the measurement of mass by mass spectrometers, it is found that the mass of
a stable nucleus (m) is less than the total mass of the nucleons.

i.e. mass of a nucleus, 𝑚 < (𝑍𝑚𝑃 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 ) 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + 𝑁𝑚𝑁 − 𝑚 = ∆𝑚

where ∆𝑚 is the mass defect

Thus, the difference in the total mass of the nucleons and the actual mass of the
nucleus is known as the mass defect.

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In any mass spectrometer, it is possible to determine only the mass of the atom,
which includes the mass of Z electrons. If M represents the mass of the atom, then
the mass defect can be written as

∆𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚𝑃 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 + 𝑍𝑚𝑒 – 𝑀

= 𝑍𝑚𝐻 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 – 𝑀

where mH represents the mass of one hydrogen atom.

Binding Energy
When the protons and neutrons combine to form a nucleus, the mass that
disappears (mass defect, ∆m) is converted into an equivalent amount of energy
(∆mc2). This energy is called the binding energy of the nucleus.

Binding energy = [𝑍𝑚𝑃 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚] 𝑐 2

= ∆𝑚 𝑐 2

The binding energy of a nucleus determines its stability against disintegration. In

other words, if the binding energy is large, the nucleus is stable and vice versa.

The binding energy per nucleon is

𝐵𝐸/ A = Binding energy of the nucleus / Total number of nucleons

It is found that the binding energy per nucleon varies from element to element. A
graph is plotted with the mass number A of the nucleus along the X−axis and
binding energy per nucleon along the Y-axis (Fig 1).

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 Fig 1

Explanation of binding energy curve:

i. The binding energy per nucleon increases sharply with mass number A upto
20. It increases slowly after A = 20. For A < 20, there exists recurrence of
peaks corresponding to those nuclei, whose mass numbers are multiples of
four and they contain not only equal but also even number of protons and
neutrons. Example: 2He4, 4Be8, 6C12, 8O16, and 10Ne20. The curve becomes
almost flat for mass number between 40 and 120. Beyond 120, it decreases
slowly as A increases.
ii. The binding energy per nucleon reaches a maximum of MeV at A=56,
corresponding to the iron nucleus (26Fe56). Hence, iron nucleus is the most
stable.
iii. The average binding energy per nucleon is about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having
mass number ranging between 40 and 120. These elements are
comparatively more stable and non-radioactive.
iv. For higher mass numbers the curve drops slowly and the BE/A is about 7.6
MeV for uranium. Hence, they are unstable and radioactive.

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Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a nuclear process that occurs due to the decay of the
nucleus. Radioactivity is based on the law of conservation of charge. External
parameters such as temperature and pressure do not affect the rate of decay.

The daughter nuclei will have unique physical and chemical properties (that is
different from parent nuclei). The decay rate of any radioactive material is directly
proportional to the number of atoms present at that instant. α, β, and γ rays are
followed during the radioactivity.

Types of Radioactive Decay

There are three types, namely:

1. Alpha

2. Beta

3. Gamma.

1. Alpha decay:

When an alpha particle emits its nucleus, the process is called alpha decay.
The formula of alpha decay is given as:

𝐸 = (𝑚𝑖 − 𝑚𝑓 − 𝑚𝑝 )𝑐 2

Where,

 𝑚𝑖 is the initial mass of the nucleus

 𝑚𝑓 is the mass of the nucleus after particles emission

 𝑚𝑝 is the mass of the emitted particle

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2. Beta Decay:

A beta particle is often referred to as an electron, but it can also be a

positron. If the reaction involves electrons, the nucleus sheds out neutrons one
by one. Even the proton number increases accordingly.

3. Gamma Decay:

The nucleus has orbiting electrons, which indeed have some energy, and
when an electron jumps from a level of high energy to a level of low energy,
there is an emission of a photon. The same thing happens in the nucleus:
whenever it rearranges into a lower energy level, a high-energy photon is shot
out, which is known as a gamma ray.

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Nuclear Energy
Energy is produced in each nuclear decay and can be a priori extracted for
our use. Radioactive substances will however follow the exponential decay law and
disappear within a period of a few lifetimes which is a problem for storage. Instead
if one can find a stable substance which combined or sparked by another
undergoes a reaction and produces energy we have a viable energy source. The
qualitative process is like combustion with the quantitative difference being that
where chemical bounds rearrange to produce an energy of around eV per reaction;
nuclear energy is a million times more efficient. It has the potential to generate a lot
of energy or power without any emissions of pollutants. The only disadvantage is
the disposal of nuclear waste has to be done extremely carefully.

Nuclear Reaction
The reaction that involves the change in the identity or characteristics of an
atomic nucleus, induced by bombarding it with an energetic particle is known as a
nuclear reaction. The bombarding particle may either be an alpha particle, a
gamma-ray photon, a neutron, a proton, or a heavy ion. The bombarding particle
must have enough energy to approach the positively charged nucleus to within
range of the strong nuclear force.

Nuclear Fission
When the nucleus of an atom splits into lighter nuclei through a nuclear
reaction the process is termed as nuclear fission. This decay can be natural
spontaneous splitting by radioactive decay, or can actually be simulated in a lab by
achieving necessary conditions. The resulting fragments tend to have a combined
mass which is less than the original.

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 In a nuclear fission chain reaction, a free neutron interacts with
the nucleus of an atom and causes that nucleus to split apart into two new, less
massive nuclei. The ruptured nucleus in turn releases additional neutrons, which
can cause additional nuclei to split, and so on. In the case of uranium-235, for
example, each fission reaction produces two or three additional free neutrons, each
of which may in turn strike additional nuclei and cause more to fission. A controlled
chain reaction of this sort can be used to generate nuclear power; an uncontrolled
chain reaction can result in a nuclear explosion. Chain reactions are initiated when
a quantity of fissionable material, such as uranium-235 or plutonium,
reaches critical mass.

The condition for a chain reaction is usually expressed in terms of a

multiplication factor, k, which is defined as the ratio of the number of fissions
produced in one step (or neutron generation) in the chain to the number of fissions
in the preceding generation. If k is less than unity, a chain reaction cannot be
sustained. If k = 1, a steady-state chain reaction can be maintained; and if k is
greater than 1, the number of fissions increases at each step, resulting in a
divergent chain reaction.

In a fission bomb it is desirable to have k as large as possible and the time

between steps in the chain as short as possible so that many fissions occur and a
large amount of energy is generated within a brief period (∼10−7 second) to
produce a devastating explosion. If one kilogram of uranium-235 were to fission,
the energy released would be equivalent to the explosion of 20,000 tons of the
chemical explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT). In a controlled nuclear reactor, k is kept
equal to unity for steady-state operation.

Nuclear fission is a process in which a heavy nucleus, after capturing a

thermal neutron splits up into two lighter nuclei of comparable masses.

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Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a reaction through which two or more light nuclei collide to
form a heavier nucleus. The nuclear fusion process occurs in elements that have a
low atomic number, such as hydrogen. Nuclear Fusion is the opposite of nuclear
fission reaction, in which heavy elements diffuse and form lighter elements. Both
nuclear fusion and fission produce a massive amount of energy.

Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting
the atoms of certain elements. In a nuclear power reactor, the energy released is
used as heat to make steam to generate electricity. (In a research reactor the main
purpose is to utilize the actual neutrons produced in the core. In most naval
reactors, steam drives a turbine directly for propulsion.)

The principles for using nuclear power to produce electricity are the same for most
types of reactor. The energy released from continuous fission of the atoms of the
fuel is harnessed as heat in either a gas or water, and is used to produce steam.
The steam is used to drive the turbines which produce electricity (as in most fossil
fuel plants).

The world's first nuclear reactors 'operated' naturally in a uranium deposit about
two billion years ago. These were in rich uranium ore bodies and moderated by
percolating rainwater. The 17 known at Oklo in West Africa, each less than 100 kW
thermal, together consumed about six tonnes of uranium. It is assumed that these
were not unique worldwide.

Today, reactors derived from designs originally developed for propelling

submarines and large naval ships generate about 85% of the world's nuclear
electricity. The main design is the pressurized water reactor (PWR) which has

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water at over 300°C under pressure in its primary cooling/heat transfer circuit, and
generates steam in a secondary circuit. The less numerous boiling water reactor
(BWR) makes steam in the primary circuit above the reactor core, at similar
temperatures and pressure. Both types use water as both coolant and moderator,
to slow neutrons. Since water normally boils at 100°C, they have robust steel
pressure vessels or tubes to enable the higher operating temperature. (Another
type uses heavy water, with deuterium atoms, as moderator. Hence the term ‘light
water’ is used to differentiate.)

Components of a nuclear reactor:

There are several components common to most types of reactor:

Fuel:
Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in
tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor
core.

Moderator:
Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that
they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.

Control rods or blades:

These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or
boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or
to halt it.

Coolant:
A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water
reactors the water moderator functions also as primary coolant.

Pressure vessel or pressure tubes:

Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and moderator/coolant,
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but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through
the surrounding moderator.

Steam generator:
Part of the cooling system of pressurised water reactors (PWR & PHWR) where the
high-pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam
for the turbine, in a secondary circuit.

Containment:
The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators which is
designed to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the
effects of radiation in case of any serious malfunction inside. It is typically a metre-
thick concrete and steel structure.

The reactor given in Fig 2 is a pressurized heavy water reactor. This is the
reactor which is mostly used by India. This reactor has the capacity to run on
recycled uranium from reprocessing LWR used fuel or a blend of this and depleted
uranium left from enriched plants. Thorium can also be used as fuel.

Fig 2

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Fission Reactor
Fission reactors can be classified by the energy of the neutrons that
propagate the chain reaction. The most common type, called a thermal reactor,
operates with thermal neutrons (those having the same energy distribution as gas
molecules at ordinary room temperatures). In such a reactor, the fission neutrons
produced (with an average kinetic energy of more than 1 MeV) must be slowed
down to thermal energy by scattering from a moderator, usually consisting of
ordinary water, heavy water (D2O), or graphite. In another type, termed an
intermediate reactor, the chain reaction is maintained by neutrons of intermediate
energy, and a beryllium moderator may be used. In a fast reactor, fast fission
neutrons maintain the chain reaction, and no moderator is needed. All of the
reactor types require a coolant to remove the heat generated; water, a gas, or a
liquid metal may be used for this purpose, depending on the design needs.

Fusion Reactor
A reactor to produce electrical power from the energy released in a nuclear
fusion reaction. The use of nuclear fusion reactions for electricity generation
remains theoretical. Since the 1930s, scientists have known that the Sun and other
stars generate their energy by nuclear fusion. They realized that if fusion energy
generation could be replicated in a controlled manner on Earth, it might very well
provide a safe, clean, and inexhaustible source of energy. The 1950s saw the
beginning of a worldwide research effort to develop a fusion reactor.

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Applications of Nuclear Reactors
A nuclear reactor is essentially a furnace used to produce steam or hot
gases that can provide heat directly or drive turbines to generate electricity.
Nuclear reactors are employed for commercial electric-power generation
throughout much of the world and as a power source for propelling submarines and
certain kinds of surface vessels. Another important use for reactors is the utilization
of their high neutron fluxes for studying the structure and properties of materials
and for producing a broad range of radionuclides, which, along with a number of
fission products, have found many different applications. Heat generated by
radioactive decay can be converted into electricity through the thermoelectric effect
in semiconductor materials and thereby produce what is termed an atomic battery.
When powered by either a long-lived beta-emitting fission product (e.g., strontium-
90 or promethium-147) or one that emits alpha particles (plutonium-238 or curium-
244), these batteries are a particularly useful source of energy for cardiac
pacemakers and for instruments employed in remote unmanned facilities, such as
those in outer space, the polar regions of the Earth, or the open seas.

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Nuclear Holocaust
A Nuclear Holocaust, also known as a nuclear apocalypse, nuclear
annihilation, nuclear armageddon, or atomic holocaust, is a theoretical scenario
where the mass detonation of nuclear weapons causes widespread destruction
and radioactive fallout.

Nuclear weapons produce enormous explosive energy. Their significance

may best be appreciated by the coining of the words kiloton (1,000 tons) and
megaton (1,000,000 tons) to describe their blast energy in equivalent weights of
the conventional chemical explosive TNT. For example, the atomic bomb dropped
on Hiroshima, Japan, in 1945, containing only about 64 kg (140 pounds) of highly
enriched uranium, released energy equalling about 15 kilotons of chemical
explosive. That blast immediately produced a strong shock wave, enormous
amounts of heat, and lethal ionizing radiation. Convection currents created by the
explosion drew dust and other debris into the air, creating the mushroom-shaped
cloud that has since become the virtual signature of a nuclear explosion. In
addition, radioactive debris was carried by winds high into the atmosphere, later to
settle to Earth as radioactive fallout. The enormous toll in destruction, death, injury,
and sickness produced by the explosions at Hiroshima and, three days later, at
Nagasaki was on a scale never before produced by any single weapon. In the
decades since 1945, even as many countries have developed nuclear weapons of
far greater strength than those used against the Japanese cities, concerns about
the dreadful effects of such weapons have driven governments to negotiate arms
control agreements, such as the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963 and the Treaty
on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1968. Among military strategists
and planners, the very presence of these weapons of unparalleled destructive
power has created a distinct discipline, with its own internal logic and set of
doctrines, known as nuclear strategy.

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The first nuclear weapons were bombs delivered by aircraft. Later, warheads were
developed for strategic ballistic missiles, which have become by far the most
important nuclear weapons. Smaller tactical nuclear weapons have also been
developed, including ones for artillery projectiles, land mines, antisubmarine depth
charges, torpedoes, and shorter-range ballistic and cruise missiles.

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Applications of Nuclear Physics
Some important applications of nuclear physics are listed below:

 Nuclear energy is an essential part of society’s energy production. Nuclear

energy is produced using a nuclear reactor.

 Nuclear physics principles have led to great medical diagnostics and therapy
methods. One such example is radiation therapy. In radiation therapy,
ionizing radiation is used to treat conditions such as thyroid cancer.

 In archaeology, nuclear solutions are used to identify various stable and

radioactive isotopes in archaeological relics. This allows us to uncover the
backgrounds of these artefacts.

 Radioactive elements are used in smoke detectors. Most standard domestic

smoke alarms use a radioactive isotope of the element americium to
recognize smoke.

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Conclusion
This report provides a long-term assessment of and outlook for nuclear
physics. Nuclear physics today is a diverse field, encompassing research that
spans dimensions from a tiny fraction of the volume of the individual particles
(neutrons and protons) in the atomic nucleus to the enormous scales of
astrophysical objects in the cosmos. Its research objectives include the desire not
only to better understand the nature of matter interacting at the nuclear level, but
also to describe the nature of neutrinos and the state of the universe that existed at
the big bang and that can now be studied in the most advanced colliding-beam
accelerators, where strong forces are the dominant interactions. The impact of
nuclear physics extends well beyond furthering our scientific knowledge of the
nucleus and nuclear properties. Nuclear science and its techniques, instruments,
and tools are widely used to address major societal problems in medicine, border
protection, national security, non-proliferation, nuclear forensics, energy
technology, and climate research. Further, the tools developed by nuclear
physicists often have important applications to other basic sciences—medicine,
computational science, and materials research, among others—while its
discoveries impact astrophysics, particle physics, and cosmology, and help to
describe the physics of complex systems that arise in many fields.

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Bibliography
world-nuclear.org

osti.gov

britannica.com

byjus.com

nationalacademia.org

Nuclear Physics by Department of Physics, Taki Government College (Material)

Nuclear Physics by Rodrigo Alonso (Material)

Applied Nuclear Physics by Prof. Paola Cappellaro

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