How is the road alignment controlled?

•Obligatory points
These points are classified into two categories:
Points through which it should pass: mountain pass, bridge location, intermediate town, or
quarry.
Points through which it should not pass: religious places, costly structures, unsuitable land as
marshy or water-logged areas.
•Traffic
The alignment should suit the traffic requirements.
Based on the origin-destination data of the area, the desired lines should be drawn.
The new alignment should be drawn keeping in view the desired lines, traffic flow pattern,
classified traffic volume, future trends, etc.
•Geometric Design
Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight distance etc. also govern the
alignment of the highway.
•Economy
All three costs i.e., construction, maintenance and operating cost should be minimum.
• The construction cost can be decreased if it is possible to maintain a balance between cutting
and filling.
• Other considerations
Various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage considerations, political factors,
monotony and hydrological factors.
Drainage & Hydrological Factors: WT, seepage flow, high flood level, rainfall
Political: If a foreign territory comes across a straight alignment, we will have to deviate the
alignment around the foreign land.
Monotony: For a flat terrain it is possible to provide a straight alignment, but it will be
monotonous for driving. Hence a slight bend may be provided after a few kilometres of straight
road to keep the driver alert by breaking the monotony.

Being an engineer explain the steps that need to be undertaken before finalizing the
alignment.
•Map Study: It includes the study of the topographical map that would suggest the possible
routes for the highway.
•Reconnaissance Survey: It is a rapid & rough survey made on the physical features of the area.
•Preliminary Survey: It is the detailed study of the available routes after reconnaissance.
•Final Location and Detail Survey: Once the location is finalized after the above surveys, a
thorough detailed field analysis is conducted to begin the construction.
A vehicle is travelling at a designed speed of 50 Kmph. After seeing an object on the road
surface what should the driver do? Which theory is applicable in this situation? Explain in
brief.
Theory is applicable in this situation Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) refers to the minimum
distance a driver needs to be able to see ahead on the road to have enough room to stop
before colliding with an object in the roadway.
PIEV theory explains the amount of time it takes a driver to react to a hazard.
•Perception time: It is the time required to perceive an object or situation.
•Intellection time: Time required for a driver to understand the situation and compare different
thoughts.
•Emotion time: Time elapsed during emotional sensational and other mental disturbance such
as fear, anger or any other emotional feeling like superstitions, etc.
•Volition time: Time taken by the driver for the final action like brake application.

What is the importance of traffic engineering in the transportation sector?

Traffic engineering is a part of highway engineering which deals with the improvement of traffic
performance of road networks.
• Achieved through traffic study, scientific analysis and engineering application
• Traffic improvement is the result of planning and geometric design + regulation and control
• It aims to provide safe, rapid, convenient and economic movement of persons & goods

Why is super elevation required? Justify your answer.

When a vehicle travels on a curved path, it experiences an outward force known as centrifugal
force. To mitigate the effects of centrifugal force, super elevation is provided.
It aids in maintaining a constant speed while remaining comfortable on a curved path.
It lowers the number of accidents.
It aids in the drainage of rainwater towards the inner side. So there’s no need for a camber on
this stretch of road.
It also aids in keeping vehicles on the correct side of the road, preventing head collisions
between vehicles travelling in opposite directions.

3Es’ of Traffic Engineering

1) Engineering- improvement of road geometry, providing facilities
2)Enforcement- traffic laws, regulation and control
3)Education- publicity and education at school and college
For what reason is LOS used?
•Roadway facilities should be designed taking a suitable value of design capacity & level of
service.
•In HCM, six levels of services A, B, C, D, E & F are fixed keeping in view the operating or travel
speed & volume to capacity ratio (v/c).
•LOS A represents traffic conditions when the v/c ratio is very low and freedom to the drivers is
more which can only be attained at higher speed or near to free flow speed (FFS).
•LOS F represents the traffic conditions when the v/c ratio is 1 and when forced flow conditions
exist. Operating speed & flow of the stream decrease and the density reaches “jam density “.
•For different traffic facilities, different parameters like density, percentage of free flow speed,
delay, etc. are also used to calculate LOS.
•Roads are designed based on LOS B and C.

What are the different kinds of traffic signs? Give at least 2 examples from each category.
•Mandatory/Regulatory Signs
All Mandatory/Regulatory Signs are circular in shape.
They are with red circular rings and diagonal bars with black symbols or arrows or letters on a
white background.
Mandatory signs giving positive instructions are circular with a white symbol on a blue
background. They indicate what drivers must do compulsorily.
•Cautionary/Warning Signs
These signs are triangular in shape with a red border and a black symbol on a white
background.
They are used to caution and alert road users to potential danger or the existence of certain
hazardous conditions on the roadway so that they take the desired action.
•Informatory/Guide Signs
They indicate location and direction to facilities like "fuel station" "eating place" or "parking"
and shall be a symbol within a rectangular board with a blue background.
Information signs are also used with destination names and distances with arrows indicating
the direction.
Briefly explain the various factors affecting the geometric design of highways.
1. Design Speed
•Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric design such as
sight distance, and horizontal and vertical curves.
•Design speed is defined as the highest continuous speed at which individual vehicles can travel
safely on the highway when weather conditions are conducive.
•Desired speed is the maximum speed at which a driver would travel when unconstrained by
either traffic or local geometry.
•Legal speed limit is the speed limit imposed to curb a common tendency of drivers to travel
beyond an accepted safe speed.
2. Topography
According to the slope of the country, the terrain is classified as plain, rolling, mountainous &
steep & the design standards especially speed are different for different terrain.
3. Traffic Factors
•Vehicle: The dimensions, weight of the axle and operating characteristics of a vehicle influence
the design aspects such as the width of the pavement, radii of the curve, clearances, parking
geometrics etc.
•Human: The important human factors that influence geometric design are the physical, mental
and psychological (PIEV) characteristics of the driver and pedestrians like the reaction time.
4. Volume & Capacity
•Traffic volume fluctuates with time according to peak & off-peak hours in a day. It will be
uneconomical to design the road for peak traffic flow.
•Volume to capacity ratio (v/c) determines the LOS of roads.
5. Environmental
•Factors like aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution etc. should be given due
consideration in the geometric design of roads.
6. Other Factors
•Economy: The design adopted should be economical as far as possible. It should match the
funds allotted for capital costs and maintenance costs.
• Grade-separated intersections, controlled access, and rotaries may be provided for
uninterrupted & higher speed standards.
Being an engineer how can you choose the aggregates during pavement construction?
Strength: Aggregates in top layers should resist crushing under high stress from traffic.
Hardness: Aggregates in the surface course should withstand constant abrasion from moving
traffic.
Toughness: Aggregates should resist impact, such as the effect of wheels jumping from one
particle to another.
Shape: Cubical, angular or rounded aggregates are preferred over flaky and elongated ones for
strength and durability.
Adhesion with bitumen: Aggregates in bituminous mix should adhere well to bitumen and not
be easily stripped off by water.
Durability: Aggregates should withstand adverse weather conditions and resist physical and
chemical actions.
Freedom from deleterious particles: Aggregates used in bituminous mixes should be clean and
free from harmful substances like clay lumps, silt, and organic impurities.

What do you mean by bitumen? Explain the various form of bitumen.

Bituminous materials, primarily bitumen, are dark, viscous substances composed mainly of high
molecular weight hydrocarbons. They’re derived from fractional distillation of crude petroleum,
destructive distillation of organic substances like coal and wood (producing tar), or from natural
lake asphalt. These materials, also known as asphalts, are valued for their excellent binding and
waterproofing properties, along with their relatively low cost.
TYPES:
Cutback Bitumen: This is bitumen diluted with a volatile solvent to reduce viscosity for
pavement application. It has types like rapid curing (RC), medium curing (MC), and slow curing
(SC). However, it’s less used due to pollution from the evaporating solvent.
Bitumen Emulsion: This is bitumen dispersed in water, stabilized by a suitable material. It’s
about 60% bitumen and 40% water. Upon application, water evaporates, leaving bitumen on
the road. It has grades like rapid setting (RS), medium setting (MS), and slow setting (SC), used
based on road conditions and aggregate size.
Modified Bitumen: This is bitumen treated with modifiers like polymers or crumb rubber to
improve its properties. Benefits include lower temperature susceptibility, higher deformation
resistance, better age resistance, higher fatigue life for mixes, better aggregate-binder
adhesion, and prevention of cracking.
State the advantages and disadvantages of using tunnel. Describe the various tunnel cross
section used for engineering purposes.
Advantages:
Avoidance of Interference: Tunnels avoid interference with air and surface rights.
Reduced Maintenance: Tunnels often require less maintenance compared to open roads.
Weather Resistance: Tunnels are unaffected by weather conditions like snow and icebergs.
Easier Gradient: Tunnels can provide an easier gradient for vehicles, especially in hilly areas.
Year-Round Connectivity: Tunnels ensure connectivity between valleys and the rest of the
country throughout the year.
Savings in Snow Clearance: Tunnels eliminate the need for snow clearance operations on
highways.
Disadvantages:
Specialized Equipment and Skills: Tunnel construction requires sophisticated equipment and
skilled labor.
High Initial Cost: The initial cost of tunnel construction is high.
Increased Length: Sometimes, the length of a highway or railway may increase due to the
approach that has to be constructed for the tunnel.
The usual cross-sections adopted for tunnels are: Circular Section, D-section, Horse-Shoe
Section, Rectangular section, Egg-shaped section.

What is ballast? List the requirements and functions with respect to railway engineering.
State the comparison statements of various types of ballast.
Ballast is the granular material packed under and around the sleepers to transfer the loads
from the sleepers to subgrade.
Functions
To provide a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on,
To hold the sleepers a position during the passage of trains.
To transfer and distribute the load from sleepers to a large area of formation.
To provide elasticity and resilience to track for getting proper riding comfort.
To provide necessary resistance to track for longitudinal and lateral stability.
To provide effective drainage to track.
To provide effective means of maintaining level and alignment of the track.
Requirements of Good Ballast
It should be tough and wear resistant.
It should be hard without getting crushed under moving loads.
It should be generally cubical having sharp edges.
It should be non-porous and non-absorbent of water.
It should resist attrition.
It should be durable and should not get pulverize under the weather conditions.
It should provide good drainage of water
It should be cheap and economical in price

What is sleeper? List the requirements and functions with respect to railway engineering.
State the comparison statements of various types of sleepers.
Sleepers are the members laid transversely under the rails which are meant to support the rail
over them & transfer the load from rails to ballast.
Functions of Sleepers:
Maintain correct rail gauge and alignment.
Provide firm, even support to rails.
Distribute load evenly from rails to a wider ballast area.
Act as an elastic medium to absorb shocks and vibrations from moving loads.
Provide longitudinal and lateral stability to the track.
Allow for track geometry rectification during its service life.
Ideal Sleeper Requirements:
Minimal initial and maintenance costs.
Moderate weight for easy handling.
Easy to adjust and maintain correct gauge.
Absorb shocks and vibrations from fast-moving trains.
Durable design to prevent damage or breakage during packing.
Sufficient bearing area.
Design that maintains position despite train passage.
Anti-theft and anti-sabotage qualities.
Design that allows easy removal and fixing of rails.
Design that facilitates track circuiting.

Explain the various factors affecting the airport site selection.

Regional plan
Airport use
Proximity to other airports
Ground accessibility
Topography
Obstructions
Visibility
Wind
Noise Nuisance
Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
Future development
Availability of utilities from the town
Economic considerations.
What do you mean by breakwater? Is it required? Justify your answer.
Breakwater is the artificial protective barrier constructed to enclose harbors and to keep the
harbor waters undisturbed by the effect of heavy and strong sea waves.
Yes, it is required because it enables the use of the enclosed area as a safe anchorage for ships
and facilitates cargo loading in comparatively calm waters
Types: Heap or Mound breakwater, Mound with superstructure, Upright wall breakwater

State the requirements of a good harbour. Also classify the harbour according to various uses.
Requirement:
A hard surface coast line to avoid frequent repairs. In case sandy coast surface intermittent
repairs to docks and building complex would be needed.
Should have facilities for repairs of ships as well as facilities for visiting ships.
Should have adequate area to provide for future expansion.
Should occupy strategic position to take care of any future invasion.
Should be having good communication link with the hinterland.
Should be capable of handling good tonnage.
The adjoining area should have advanced culture, trade and industry.
Should afford shelter to all ships visiting the harbour.
Classification of Harbour: Natural, Semi-Natural, Artificial

Classify the various types of rail.

Double-Headed Rails: These have equal foot and head dimensions. Initially used widely, the
idea was to invert and reuse them when the head wore out. However, their foot also got
corrugated under wheel loads, making them unsuitable for reuse. They’re no longer used in
Indian Railways.
Bull-Headed Rails: These have larger head dimensions than their foot. The head is made thicker
and stronger by adding more metal. These rails require chairs for positioning.
Flat-Footed Rails: Invented by Charles Vignole in 1836, these rails have a flat foot. Initially
thought to eliminate the need for chairs and keys, heavy train loads caused the foot to sink into
sleepers, loosening the spikes. To rectify this, steel bearing plates were used between the rails
and the wooden sleeper.

In which circumstances one should use a warehouse and transit shed? Justify your answer.
Warehouse:
Long-Term Storage: Warehouses are used for storing cargo for a longer period within the
harbour premises.
Bonded Warehouse: This type of warehouse is used for cargo requiring customs clearance.
Special Warehouse: These are used for specific types of material.
Structure: Warehouses can be trussed structures or multi-storeyed structures.
Cold Storage: For perishable materials like fish, eggs, mutton, fruits, and green vegetables, cold
storage equipped with refrigeration plants is provided as special units in the warehouses.
Transit shed:
Short-Term Storage: Transit sheds are used for storing cargo for a short duration within the
harbour premises.
Cargo Types: This is often the case for cargo that is being shipped abroad from different
stations but has the same destination, or for mixed consignments to be sent abroad by different
vessels.
Facilities: Transit sheds are equipped with adequate storage space, daylight, and fire-fighting
equipment. This ensures the cargo is stored safely and efficiently.

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