Chapter: 1

Transportation Engineering
Definition
Transportation Engineering is the science of safe and
efficient movement of people, goods and in a manner
conductive to a vibrant community. This involves
specifying, designing, constructing and maintaining
transportation infrastructure which includes streets,
canals, highways, rail ways, airports, ports and mass
transit.
Different modes of transportation
Modes of transportation can be classified
1. Roadways or Highway.
2. Railways.
3. Water ways and
4. Airways.
The science which covers designing,
maintenance and operation of the roads, for
the convenience of the road traffic, is called
the "Highway Engineering".
Road Transport Characteristics
• Self Study
Benefits of good road system
1. Roads are essential for economic development of a
country
2. Road milage now-a-days has become a symbol of
prosperity and advancement of a country.
3. During emergent conditions like accident, the
injured persons can be rushed immediately_ to
hospital through good system of roads and saved his
life.
4. Good network of roads enables vaillagers to
transport their commodities to market easilty and
speedily.
5. Good system of helps the grwoth of trade and other
economic activities all over the country.
6. During floods and droughts, needed commodities
can be efficiently rushed from the other parts of the
country through good system of roads and saved the
situation.
7. Good system of roads helps people of one region to
cone in contact with the people of the over other
regions of the country.
8. Good system of roads serves as feeder line for other
modes of transport and thus helps development
Cont’d
9. For the efficient defense of the country during wars, good -
system of roads plays a vital role.
10. For maintaining law and order within the country good system
of roads is an essential.
11. Road development and road transport have a very high
potential for employment and hence, help solve unemployment
problem.
12. Good system of roads helps In carrying out exploration works
at remotest places, which are otherwise difficult to reach.
13. Educational and cultural contacts within the people of different
communities and different places are better developed.
14. Roads are to serve the traffic.
Chapter: 2
Traffic Engineering
 Traffic Engineering
• Traffic on roads consists of road users including
pedestrians, ridden or herded animals, vehicles, streetcars,
buses and other conveyances, either singly or together, while
using the public way for purposes of travel.

• Traffic laws are the laws which govern traffic and

regulate vehicles, while rules of the road are both the laws
and the informal rules that may have developed over time to
facilitate the orderly and timely flow of traffic.

• Traffic Engineering is a branch of civil engineering that

uses engineering techniques to achieve the safe and efficient
movement of people and goods on roadways.
Traffic Engineering
Professor Ross Bluden of California University
has proposed a modified definition

"Traffic Engineering is the science of measuring

traffic and travel, the study of basic laws relating
to traffic flow and generation, and application of
this knowledge to the professional practice of
planning, designing, and operating traffic
systems to achieve safe efficient and convenient
movement of persons and goods”
Traffic Engineering includes

 Studies and analysis of traffic characteristics (Vehicular,

road users and pedestrians) and flow parameters
(Speed, flow and concentration)
 Geometric design (Design speed, highway capacity, sight
distance, horizontal alignment design, super elevation,
extra widening)
 Planning of regulatory measures (These are used to
inform road users certain laws and regulations to
provide safe and free flow of traffic)
 Design and application of control devices (Signs,
markings and signals)
 Functional planning of road network.
Terminologies
• Speed: It is the rate of movement of
traffic or of specific components of traffic
(Kmph).
• Flow: It is the number of vehicles passing
a specific point during a stated period of
time (volume/hour)
• Concentration: It is the number of
vehicles present in a stated length of road
at an instant (Volume/Km length/lane).
Why Traffic Engineering so important
now-a-days?
Because of
• Increased urbanization process
• Increased traffic demand-Phenomenal growth in traffic
specially within urban areas
• Difficulties in expanding roadway facilities within built-up area
• Congestion become chronic in every where
• Increased air pollution
• Increased accident rates
• Road network become larger

Therefore, there is a need to maximize the utilization of existing

facilities by better traffic management and control measures.
Bottleneck
A traffic bottleneck is a localized disruption of vehicular
traffic on a street, road, or highway. As opposed to a traffic
jam, a bottleneck is a result of a specific physical condition,
often the design of the road, badly timed traffic lights, or
sharp curves.
Congestion
Traffic congestion is when vehicles
travel slower because there is too
much traffic on roads. This makes
trip times longer, and increases
queueing. This is also known as a
traffic jam. Congestion may result
from a decrease in capacity, for
example accidents on
the road or roads being closed.
 Causes of
Congestion

External Internal
Causes Causes
 External Causes of Congestion
• Road intersections
• Railway crossings
• Narrow
road/bridge/culverts
• Inconsistent  Scattered parking/non-motor activities along road.
roadway width  Frequent side roads entries
 Bus stops/parking near junctions
• Poor turning radius  Road side cut / unfinished repair of road side
• Side frictions pavement.
Poor Roadway Environment
• Poor road discipline
• Uncontrolled pedestrian crossing
• Poor road surface condition
• Speed breaker
• Poor sight distance
• Poor sight distance.
• Poor lighting
• Poor drainage facility
Internal Cause of Congestion
• Heterogeneous traffic stream
• High volume of traffic (demand>capacity)
Chapter: 3
Highway Geometry
Definition
Highway Geometries are the elements of a road which are visible to road users

Objectives:
1. Properly designed Highway Geometries provide optimum efficiency in traffic
operation, with maximum safety.
2. Every road user desires to reach his destination safely, in Shortest possible time
and with least inconvenience.

Elements of the highway geometries : Gradients, supper elevation, camber, road

width, horizontal and vertical curves, sight distances are the.

Highway geometries can broadly be classified under following three headings.

1. Cross-section elements like camber, super elevation. etc

2. Sight distance characteristics like stopping sight distance. over takings sight
distance. etc.
3. Horizontal and Vertical alignments.
Friction
Friction is one of the factors to determine distances required for
stopping and accelerating the vehicles at maximum operating
speed. On horizontal curves lateral friction helps counter act the
effect of centrifugal force.
Following are the factors which affect friction coefficient:
1. Type cf road surface-Bituminous, W.B.M., earth, cement
concrete.
2. Pavement condition-rough, smooth, oil spilled, muddy. wet
and dry.
3. Conditions of tyres-worn out and new.
4. Brake efficiency.
5. Tyre pressure.
6. Load on tyres.
Slip and Skid
 Wheel slide without revolving, is knows as skidding.
 In skidding phenomenon the distance travelled by wheel on
road is greater than the circumferential movement of the
wheel. When brakes are applied wheels get locked and still if
vehicle moves ahead longitudinal skidding takes place.
 While moving on horizontal curve if value of centrifugal force
becomes more than the counter-acting force, lateral skidding
takes place.
 Slipping is actually opposite phenomenon to skidding
 In slip, distance travelled by wheel on road surface is always
less than the circumferential movement of the wheel. Slipping
always occurs in driving wheels.
Design Control
Highway geometrics are greatly affected by so
many factors. The important factors being the
following:
• Topography.
• Design speed.
• Traffic factors.
• Volume and capacity factors.
• Environmental and other factors.
Camber
 Transverse slope given to the road surface is called
camber. It is also sometimes called cross-slope.
 It is provided mainly to drain off rain water from the
road surface: In straight roads the central highest point is
called the crown.
 The camber is expressed as the slope of the line joining
the crown with the edge of the carriage way. It is
denoted by “1 in n”
 Amount of camber mainly depends on two following
factors.
1. Amount of rainfall and
2. Type of road surface.
Types of Camber
• There are mainly 3
Kinds of camber:
I. Parabolic camber
II. Straight Sloped
Camber
III. Composite
Camber
Problems of Providing Excessive
Camber
• Most of the vehicles will tend to, move along the centre
line of the road and thus road capacity is affected.
• Edges of the road surfacing wear out faster than the
central part, because vehicles moving near edges put
more load on the wheels moving near the edges.
• Because of tilt, high loaded vehicles may topple over
easily.
• Due to rapid flow of rain water, cross-ruts may develop
on the road surface.
• During overtaking operation, vehicles tend to drag,
causing uncomfortable conditions
How to provide camber?
2 x2
Y=
𝒏𝑩
B= Width of the pavement
n= Camber (for 1 in 20 camber, value of is 20),
x=horizontal distance of the point where offset or ordinate
is being determined from the centre of the pavement,
y=offset or ordinate of wooden baulk. At centre value of y is
zero.
Problem:
1. A Pavement of 7 m width (camber) is
given where the slope of the camber is 1in
60. This is a straight sloped camber.
Convert it into a parabolic camber and
hence find out the vertical offset.

2. A Pavement of 10.5 m width (camber) is

given where the slope of the camber is 1in
70. This is a straight sloped camber.
Convert it into a parabolic camber and
hence find out the vertical offset.
 Carriageway
• A carriageway or roadway
consists of a width of road on
which a vehicle is not
restricted by any physical
barriers or separation to
move laterally. A carriageway
generally consists of a number
of traffic lanes together with
any associated shoulder, but
may be a sole lane in width (for
example, a highway off ramp).
Why Median Strips?
Median strips or traffic separators Traffic
separators are provided with following objectives,
I. To segregate traffic coming from opposite
direction.
II. To segregate slow and fast traffic moving in
same direction
III. To channelize traffic into streams at
intersections.
IV. To slow down the crossing and turning traffic.
 Kerb
Kerb is a dividing line between carriage way and shoulders in rural roads. It
is also a basis of separating foot paths, Islands, kerb parking spaces, from
carnage way.

According to height, Kerb may be divided into following

Low or Mountable kerbs: This kerb is about 7 cm to 9 an high with
top Inside edge sloped. This kerb helps In longitudinal drainage of
the road.
Low Speed Barrier Kerb: Height of this kerb is 15 cm to 20 cm. This
is the kerb mostly used in urban roads to separate carnage way
from traffic separators, footpaths, islands, etc
High speed barrier kerb: This kerb is 23 cut to 45 cm in height. This
kerb is mainly used at atoll location such as bridges anjt hill roads
Submerged Kerbs: In rural roads submerged Was. in the form of
standing bncks or sometimes, in form of thin concrete slabs, are
provided between carriage way and shoulders.
Shoulders & Side Walk
• Shoulders are strips provided on both the sides of the
carriage way. Shoulders serve as parking place for vehicles
which have developed some defect and need parking. If
shoulders are not provided, vehicles going out of order shall
have to be parked on the .carnage way and thus efficiency
of the road is affected and may even become cause of
some serious accidents. Minimum width of shoulder may
be about 2.5 m as recommended by I.R.C.

• Foot-paths are also called side walks and are provided along
the kerb lines in urban roads. They are the raised strips
constructed along both the edges of the road. They provide
protection to the pedestrians and reduce the possibilities of
accidents. Minimum width of the footpath recommended is
1.5 m.
 Drive ways & Right of Way
• Drive ways They are a sort of link roads which
connect important highways with fuel-stations,
service-stations, bank and commercial
establishments.

• Right of Way: Area to be acquired along the road

alignment is called right of way. The width of right of
way depends upon the width of formation, slopes of
cuttings and embankments, depth of cutting and
banking, possibilities of future widening, minimum
sight distance on horizontal curves, and drainage
system and their sizes, etc. This width is also called
land width of the road.
Cross Section of Road
Sight Distance
Sight distance is the actual length of road over
which a driver sitting at a specified height in a
vehicle can see objects either moving or
stationary, on the road surface. It can be
classified into three categories depending
upon the situation.
I. Stopping sight distance.
II. Safe overtaking sight distance.
III. Sight distance at intersection.
Stopping Sight Distance
It is the minimum distance required
within which a vehicle moving at
designed speed can be stopped without
colliding with a stationary object on the
road surface.
Hence stopping sight distance at summit
curve is that distance measured along
the road surface which a vehicle's driver
whose eye is 122 m above road surface
can see an object of 10 cm height also
situated at road surface.
Stopping Sight Distance
The factors affecting stopping sight distance
are –
 the speed of the vehicle
 efficiency of brakes
 total reaction time of driver
 longitudinal slope of the road surface and
 Frictional resistance of vehicle tyres.
SSD Calculation (for Straight Road)
𝒗2
SSD = 𝒗 𝒕 +
2gµ
Here,
v= Speed of Vehicle (m/s)
t= Reaction Time (usually 2-2.5 sec)
g= Gravitational Acceleration (9.81 m/s2)

µ or f = Coefficient of Friction
SSD (for sloped/Inclined Road)
𝒗2
SSD = 𝒗 𝒕 + “+” for Ascending roads
2g(µ ± n%) B.E “-” for Descending Roads
𝒗 = Speed of Vehicle (m/s)
t= Reaction Time (usually 2-2.5 sec)
g= Gravitational Acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
n = Gradient of the road provided
B.E = Braking Efficiency
µ or f = Coefficient of Friction
 Problem:
1. For a road with a design speed of 85 kmph calculate SSD
for (i) Two way traffic Two Lane Road and (ii) Two way
traffic Single Lane Road . (Assume that the reaction time is
2.5 seconds and coefficient of friction as 0.35)

2. Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for a design

speed of 60 kmph (Ascending) and 80 kmph (Descending)
with a brake efficiency of 50% and a grade of 3% is given
of the road. Find out the safe stopping sight distance.

3. Calculate SSD for =50kmph for (a) two-way traffic in a two

lane road (b) two-way traffic in single lane road.
Efficiency of brakes
The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age
of the vehicle, vehicle characteristics etc. If the
brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the
moment the brakes are applied. But practically, it
is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency.
Therefore the sight distance required will be more
when the efficiency of brakes are less. Also for
safe geometric design, we assume that the
vehicles have only 50% brake efficiency.
Problem
A vehicle moving at a 85 kmph speed was
stopped by applying the brake and length
of the skid mark is 14m. If the average skid
resistance of the pavement is 70%, find out
the Brake efficiency of the vehicle.
Overtaking sight distance
The overtaking sight distance is
the minimum distance open to
the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake
the slow vehicle ahead safely
against the traffic in the
opposite direction.
Overtaking sight distance
The factors that affect the OSD are:
 Velocities of the overtaking vehicle,
overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle
coming in the opposite direction.
 Spacing between vehicles, which in-
turn depends on the speed
 Skill and reaction time of the driver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking
vehicle
 Gradient of the road
 • d1 = vb t
OSD Calculation • d2 = vb T + 2s
• d3 = v T
( T = √ (4s/ f )
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 Here
A = Vehicle intending to overtake

d1 = the distance traveled by B= Vehicle to be overtaken

C= Vehicle coming from opposite direction
overtaking vehicle A during the reaction Vb = Speed of Vehicle to be overtaken(m/s)
time V = Design speed of vehicle A and C (m/s)
T = Overtaking maneuver time (Sec)
d2 = the distance traveled by the vehicle f = Acceleration of vehicle A (m/s2 )

during the actual overtaking operation

d3 = is the distance traveled by on- If Speed of overtaken vehicle isn’t

given then
coming vehicle C during the overtaking
operation (T) Vb = (V-16) where V is in kmph
vb = (V-4.5) where v is in m/s
 Sight distance at the intersections
IRC recommends that at non-controlled intersections, sufficient visibility should be provided
such that sight distance on each road is at-least equal to SSD corresponding to the design
speed of the road.

IRC recommends that a minimum visibility distance of 15 m along the minor road and a
distance of 220, 180, 145 and 110 m along the major road corresponding to design speeds of
100, 80, 65 and 60 kmph. respectively may be provided.

Apart from three situations above, following sight distances are considered by IRC in highway
design.

Intermediate sight distance(ISD) = 2.SSD

• When overtaking sight distance cannot be provided, intermediate sight distance is
provided to give limited overtaking opportunities to fast vehicles.
• Head light sight distance
This is the distance along the road, visible to a driver during the night driving under the
illumination of the vehicle head lights. This sight distance is critical at up-gradients and at the
ascending stretch of the valley curves.
 Sight Distance at Intersection
i. Suitable sight distance should be provided, to
enable, either of the vehicles to change speed to avoid
collision. Hence lengths of sights AC and BC should be at
least equal to the distance travelled by each vehicle at
designed speed in two seconds.
ii. Stopping distance: One of the two intersecting roads is
-always a main road. The distance for minor road
should be at least equal to safe stopping distance.
iii. Enabling a stationary vehicle to cross the main road:
The minimum sight distance along the main road
should be the length moved by a vehicle at design
speed during the time (T) taken by the stopped vehicle
on minor road to cross the major or main road.
Design Speed
• Design Speed: is the speed which can be
allowed on road without risking safety
conditions
• The value of design speed depends on
 Type, importance and surface
characteristics of the road
 Type and intensity of traffic
 Road Geometrics
 Topography of the area
 Super Elevation
To reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
topple or skid, the outer edge of the road
pavement is raised with respect to the
inner edge, thus tilting the road surface
from outer edge towards the inner edge.
This lateral inclination to the road surface is
known as super elevation/ cant/ banking
and expressed as the ratio of the height of
outer edge with respect to the inner edge
and the horizontal width of the road. It is
generally denoted by “e”
Super Elevation
• Super Elevation Depends on
i. Speed of the vehicle on curves
ii. Radius of Horizontal Curves
iii. Lateral friction resistance between
vehicle tyres and road surface
Roadways in rural areas are typically designed with a maximum super
elevation rate of 8 percent. In mountainous areas, a maximum super
elevation rate of 6 percent is used due to the increased likelihood of ice
and snow. Urban roadways are normally designed with a maximum super
elevation rate of 4 percent. Super elevation is of limited use in urban areas
because of the lower operating speeds
Minimum super-elevation:
If calculated value of super-elevation is equal to or less than
the camber value, minimum super-elevation to be provided
should be equal to the camber slope, to affect effective
drainage, of the road surface.

Maximum super-elevation:
 It is recommended that the super elevation should be
provided, to fully counteract the centrifugal force according
to 75% of the design speed,
 and also limiting the maximum super-elevation to 1 in 15.
 If calculated value of super-elevation is < 1/15 or 0.067, the
full value of super-elevation is provided.
 But if this value exceeds limiting value of 1 in 15 or 0.067,
provide maximum super-elevation equal to 1/15.
Problem

The Design Speed of highway is 80 kmph. There is

a horizontal curve of radius 150m. Calculate the
super elevation needed. If the Maximum super
elevation of 1 in 15 and maximum coefficient of
friction of 15% is not to be exceeded calculate the
allowable speed on the horizontal curve.
 Why Extra Width on Horizontal Curve is
Provided?
 Drivers have the tendency to keep away fro the edge of the
carriageway while driving on curves.
 The clearance between the vehicles, crossing or passing each
other over horizontal curves, is kept more than that on a
straight road due to is psychological effect.
 While negotiating a horizontal curve the front steering wheels
are turned and thus more space of roads is occupied by the
vehicle
 While travelling on horizontal curve, rear wheels do not trace
the same path as front steering wheels do. This is called off
tracking. In this position more width of the road is occupied by
the vehicle.
 Why Extra Width on Horizontal Curve is
Provided? (Cont’d)
 At more than designed speed if super elevation and lateral
friction jointly can not counter act the centrifugal force fully,
out ward slipping of rear wheels may occur and thus more
width of road is covered. The condition occurs at very high
speeds.

 At start of the curves, drivers have a tendency to follow outer

edge of the pavement to have better visibility and large radius
curved path. This also necessitates extra width of the road.

 Trailer units require even larger extra width at curves.

Extra Widening Calculation
Problem
Find the total width of a pavement on a horizontal
curve for a new state highway with a ruling
maximum radius. The additional information are
given below-

(i) Design speed is 85 kmph.

(ii) Width of the road is 8m and
(iii) Wheel base is 6m.
Horizontal Transition Curve
Transition curve is such a curve whose radius changes
from infinity to some finite value or between two
finite values. This curve is also called easement curve
Objectives of providing transition curve
are enumerated as follows:
a) To obtain gradual and easy transformation from straight to
circular curve and from circular curve to the straight roads.

b) To obtain a gradual increase of curvature from zero at the

tangent point, to that of circular curve at their junction point.

c) To accomplish a gradual increase of super-elevation from

zero on the tangent point to a specific value on the main
circular curve.

d) To obtain a gradual increase of extra widening from zero at

the tangent point, to a specified value at junction point with
the circular curve.
Transition c ur ve s hould s at isf y
the following conditions:

I. It should meet straight and simple circular

curve tangentially
II. It should have the radius of curvature equal
to that of circular curve at that Junction
point and infinity at the Junction point with
the straight road.
III. Rate of increase of curvature and super-
elevation should be same.
Design Steps of Transition Curve
Design steps for a transition horizontal curve are as follows:

1. Calculate the length of transition curve based on

allowable rate of change of the centrifugal
acceleration.
2. Calculate the length of transition curve based on
rate of change of super elevation.
3. Check the minimum required value of Ls as per IRC
empirical formulae.
4. Adopt the highest value of Ls, obtained from (1), (2)
and (3) steps as the design length of the transition
curve.
Gradient
The rate of rise or fall of road surface along
its length with respect to horizontal distance
is termed as gradient.
 A rising or ascending gradient is denoted by
plus ( + ) sign while descending gradient fly
negative ( - ) sign.
 The angle which measures the change of
direction at the intersection of the two
grade lines is called deviation angle.
Types of Gradient
1. Ruling Gradient: It is the gradient within which the
engineer attempts to fix the vertical profile of the
road.
2. Limiting Gradient: Limiting gradient is steeper than
ruling gradient and is provided at places where by
slightly adopting steeper gradient lot of savings in
earth work and other aspects can be achieved
3. Exceptional gradient: Situations may arise where
gradient even steeper than limiting may have to be
provided. Such a gradient is called exceptanal gradient
as it has to be provided only in unavoidable
Circumstances.
Types of Gradient
4. Average Gradient: This gradient is expressed as a resultant
of continuous constant slope between two points.
5. Minimum Gradient: From road surface, rain water can be
drained off by providing suitable camber to road surface and
cross fall to shoulders etc but certain minimum longitudinal
slope in the side drains is required for draining away water
collected in them.
6. Floating Gradient: It is that slope of the road over which if
a truck or a vehicle coming downwards with certain speed is
declutched and vehicle continues to maintain its speed
constant with out any engine power. Such a gradient is called
floating gradient.
 Grade compensation
Grade compensation is the reduction of
the gradient due to some obstructions

• It is given by (30+R)/R, where R is the

radius in m
• The maximum grade compensation is given
by 75/R
• The difference between the ruling gradient
and grade compensation gives us the
compensated gradient
• If the ruling gradient is 6% and grade
compensation is 1.5% then compensated
gradient is 4.5%
Vertical Curves
In road alignment when two different or
contrary gradients meet, they form a curve
in vertical plane known as vertical curve.
Vertical curves are classified into two
categories,
I. Summit curves and
II. Valley curves.
 Summit Curve
The vertical curve having convexity
upwards is called a summit curve.
 When a positive gradient meets another
positive gradient
 When positive gradient meets a flat
gradient
 When an ascending gradient meets a
descending gradient
 When a descending gradient meets
another descending gradient
Summit Curve
But in actual practice, a simple parabolic
curve is generally adopted because of
following reasons -
1. Since angle of deviation is small and
length of the curve is quite large a simple
parabolic summit curve is nearly
congruent with a circular arc between the
tangential points.
2. Parabolic calculations are easy to make, in
the field.
 Valley Curve
A vertical curve having concavity upwards
or convexity downwards is called a valley
curve.
 When a descending gradient meets
another descending gradient
 When a descending gradient meets a flat
gradient
 When a descending gradient meets an
ascending gradient
 When an ascending gradient meets
another ascending gradient
On the basis of the Stopping sight distance(SSD)
Suppose length of the transition curve is given as “Ls” and SSD as
“S” Stopping sight distance criteria has two cases:
On the basis of theOvertaking sight
distance(OSD)
Chapter: 4
Bituminous Materials
Definition
• Bitumen: Bitumen is a viscous liquid,
semi-solid or solid material, black or
dark brown in colour. having adhesive Function of bitumen:
properties consisting essentially of 1. To act as a binder to the stone
hydrocarbons, derived from crude metals or chips.
petroleum either by natural or :efinery 2. 2. To seal the surface against
process and soluble in carbon moisture and rain.
disulphide (CS2).

• Bitumen: Refinery products

manufactured from crude petroleum.
• Asphalt: mixture of bitumen and some
inert mineral matter.
Classification of Bitumen
Chemical Composition of Bitumen
According to the most accepted analysis, bitumen can be
divided in to the following three main fractions

1. Asphaltenes.
2. Maltenese
3. Carbenes

Asphaltenes are insoluble in Iight hydrocarbon solvents, such as

petroleum either. Maltenes are soluble in hydro carbon
solvents but carbenes fraction is insoluble in carbon
tetrachloride. Mattenes consists of four elements namely
nitrogen base, first acidaffins, second acidaffins, and Paraffins
Bitumen Production

 Distillation Process
 Solvent Extraction Process
 Cracking Process
 Straight-run-bitumen
Bitumen which has been distilled (by vacuum and
steam refined) to a definite viscosity or
penetration without further treatment is known
as straight run bitumen.

• It is produced by distillation process.

• Before straight-run-bitumen can be used, it has
to be processed to reduce its viscosity.
• This is the bitumen mostly used for road
construction.
 Air Blown Bitumen
• Special properties can be developed in semi solid bitumen by
blowing air through hot residue.
• During air blowing, the residue is held at a high temperature.
Bitumen thus obtained is sometimes called Oxidized
Bitumen.
• Blown bitumen is stiffest bitumen and has firm consistency
at higher temperature.

• Not used in paving mixes, but is a very useful element in

roofing materials, battery boxes. under coating automobiles,
and water proofing paints.
• It is widely used. for concrete .pavements as joint filler.
Cut Back
Cut-back is defined as a bitumen whose
viscosity has been reduced by the addition
of a volatile diluents, volatile diluents are
gasoline or Naphtha, kerosene and high
boiling-light oils.

• It is used for road construction like

surface dressing or soil stabilization.
• Three types of cut-backs are
commercially manufactured. The three
types are (i) Rapid Curing (R.C.) (ii)
Medium Curing (MC) and (iii) Slow
Curing (SC)
Tests of Cut Backs
• Following are various tests which can be carried
out on cut- back.
 Distillation test
 Penetration test
 Ductility test
 Solubility test
 Flash point test.
 Viscosity test
Requirements of Bitumen
 Mixing
 Attainment of desired stability of the mix.
 To maintain the stability under adverse
weather conditions.
 To maintain sufficient flexibility and thus
avoid cracking of bituminous surface.
 To have sufficient adhesion with the
aggregates in the mix in presence of water.
Properties of Bituminous Materials

1. Consistency
2. Durability or Resistance to weathering
3. Rate of curing
4. Resistance to water action.
 Tests on Bitumen
 Specific Gravity Test  Flash point and Fire
 Penetration test point test
 Furol viscosity test  Spot test
 Loss on heating test
 Float test Kinematic  Water content test
viscosity test  Solubility test
 Ductility test  Distillation test.
 Softening point test
Emulsion
Emulsion is a combination of water, bitumen, and
an emulsifying agent.
• Emulsions are manufactured either by colloid
mill method or high-speed mixer method.
• Depending upon the stability of the protective
coating of emulsifying agent the emulsion may
be classified or termed as Rapid setting (RS).
Medium setting (MS), and & Low setting (SS).
• Manufactured emulsions are always stored is air
tight drums.
• Emulsions can be used in soil stabilization and in
patch repair works on bituminous roads..
Tests on Emulsion
 Demulsibility test.
 Settlement test.
 Sieve test.
 Mixing test.
 Distillation test.
 Particle charge test.
 Oil distillate test.
 Tests for residue.
Coke-oven coal tar
• It is produced as a by-product in the
manufacture of coke from
bituminous coal which is used in
steel industry mostly.

• When bituminous coal is heated in

the absence of air, it breaks up into
volatile substances and coke. The
volatile substances contain gases,
light oils, tars and chemicals.
Bitumen and Tar
Chapter: 5
Highway Planning
Objectives of Highway Planning

 To provide a most suitable type of road, of maximum length, with the

available funds.
 To plan road system for future anticipated requirements by constructing
new roads and improving the existing ones.
 If, with available funds, required road system cannot be constructed,
phased programme for road development may be planned.
 Highway planning helps fix priorities of roads. If ail the requited roads
cannot be constructed, the most important should be constructed first
with the available fund and within the plan period.
 Planning is also helpful to work out financing system of roads.
 Classification of Roads
 According to Traffic  According to Location
Volume and Function (Nagpur
Plan)

• Heavy • National Highway

• State Highway
• Medium
• District Roads
• Light Traffic Roads ( i) Major District Roads (MDR)
(ii) Minor District Roads (ODR)
• Village Roads
National Highways
• National Highways are the main high ways
running through length and breadth of the
country.
• They serve connect national capital with
state capitals, major port towns, border
areas, etc.
• They constitute the main arteries of
transport in the country and are of strategic
importance.
• Roads connecting the neighboring countries
are also called the National highways.
National Highways
• National highways should be at least 2 lanes
wide and should have high class surface
finishing together with adequate structural
strength.
• The National Highways should form the frame
on which the entire road communication
should be based. They must give an
uninterrupted road communication
throughout the country and should connect the
entire road network.
State Highways
 These are the main roads within the
States.
 They connect important towns and cities of
the state. They connect important cities of
the state with National highways and with
highways of neighboring states.
 State highways should preferably be two
lanes wide but if one lane wide only, it
must be provided with wide shoulders.
 It should be structurally sound and possess
good surface finishing. These roads form
main arteries of road transportation within
the state.
District Roads
• These are the roads which traverse each district.
• These road serve areas of production and
markets and establish connection with National or
State highways and rail ways.
• These roads should carry the traffic to the interior
rural areas. These roads are considered main
branches from National or state high ways.

• District Roads are further classified as

(1) Major district roads and
(2) Other district roads.
• Major District Roads: They connect areas of
production and market with a State highway, National
highway or railway. They form the main connections
between the Head quarters of the neighboring
districts.
• These roads should be metalled and at least one lane
wide and having modern type of surface finishing.

• Other District Roads: These roads are some what

lower specifications than major district and state
highways.
• These serve mainly rural population and establish
connection with M.D.R. and s. high ways.
• These roads should have metalled surface proper
drainage, and should be motorable throughout the
year.
Modified classification of Road System by 3rd
road development plan Types of roads

• Primary System
Expressways and National Highways
• Secondary System
State Highways and Major District Roads
• Tertiary system Rural roads
Other District Road and Village Roads
X Section of Urban & Rural Road
Classification of Urban Roads

1. Expressways
2. Arterial Streets
3. Sub-Arterial Streets
4. Collector’s Streets
5. Local Streets
 Expressway
Throughway, thruway, parkway, freeway, superhighway,
or motorway, major arterial divided highway that features two or
more traffic lanes in each direction, with
 opposing traffic separated by a median strip;
 elimination of grade crossings;
 controlled entries and exits; and
 advanced designs eliminating steep grades, sharp curves, and
other hazards and inconveniences to driving.

 High speed
 Greater safety Advantages
 Comfort & Convenience for drivers and passengers
 Lower vehicle operating costs.
Expressway
• For Speedy and heavy traffic
• Pedestrians not allowed
• Connect main markets, important places
• Complete separation of opposite moving
traffic by a divider or median
• Level crossings, sharp curves, steep
gradients avoided
• Telephone facility, Highway Police, Servicing
Stations, Refreshment Facility available at
regular intervals
Expressway
• Heavy Traffic with high speed
(120 Km/Hr.)
• Land width= 90 m.
• Connects major points of
traffic generation
• Slow moving traffic is not
allowed
• No loading unloading and
parking allowed
• Full Access control Mumbai Pune Expressway
Arterial Streets
• For the heavy/important traffic inside the city
• Usually along the expressways serving as
principal network of traffic flow
• Join central business district with outside
residential areas
• Parking, loading, unloading prohibited
• Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at
intersections
• Design Speed: 80 km/hr.
• Land width= 50-60 m.
Sub-Arterial Streets
• Less traffic than arterial streets
• Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at
intersections
• Spacing varies from 0.5 km in central business
areas to 3 to 5 km in residential area.
• Parking, loading, unloading usually restricted
and controlled
• Bus stops but no standing vehicle.
• Design Speed: 60 Km/hr.
• Land width= 30-40 m.
Collector’s Streets
• Meant for collecting the traffic from local
streets to arterial streets
• Full access allowed from properties alongside
• Situated in residential, commercial, industrial
areas
• Few parking restrictions except for peak hours
• Design Speed: 50 km/hr.
• Land width= 20-30 m.
Local Streets
• Open access from residents, business or
other properties.
• Does not carry large volume of traffic.
• Unrestricted parking and pedestrians
allowed
• Design Speed: 30 km/hr.
• Land width= 10-20 m.
Chapter: 6
Street Lighting
Objective
• Adequate street lighting –

 Enable road users to see clearly the

roadway
 Make drivers confident in their maneuver
 Encourage use of full roadway width
 Reduces use of dip-beam
 Reduces night time crime
 Go Improves personal security
 Promotes business
Key Locations to Provide Street Light
Following locations/objects need more lights than
that of straight roads –

• Where there are high proportions of pedestrians,

cyclists or other poorly lit road users including animals.
• Intersections where other vehicular and pedestrian flow
is high
• Sharp Bend, summit curves, tunnels, Pedestrian
crossing areas, bridge sites, level crossings,
bottlenecks/places where there are restraints on traffic
movements etc.
• Hazardous objects like - road humps, channelizing
islands etc.
Arrangement of Street lighting
• Single side: An arrangement in which lanterns are
placed on one side only of-the carriageway.
• Both sides
1. Staggered: An arrangement in which lanterns are
placed alternately on either side of the carriageway
2. Opposite: Arrangement in which lanterns are placed
on either side of the carriageway opposite to one
another.
• Central: An arrangement in which lanterns are placed in
an axial line close to the centre of the carriageway.
1. One head or arm
2. Two heads / double alms
Different Arrangement
Types of Light Sources / Lamps

• Tungsten light / incandescent filament

• Tubular fluorescent
• Sodium lighting ( low pressure vapor)
• Mercury lighting (vapor)
Installation Requirements
• Mounting height: The vertical distance between the center of the
lantern and the carriageway. In general practice is to have mountings
of7.5 — 12 m for traffic routes and 3 - 8 m for other street!.
• Spacing: The distance measured parallel to the center line of the
carriageway between successive lanterns being on the same or opposite
side of the carriageway. In general the spacing should not exceed 55 m,
and should preferably be 35 - 45 m on important traffic routes. As a
rough guide. the spacing should be between 3 and 5 times of the
mounting height.
• Overhang: The distance measured horizontally between the center of a
lantern mounted on a bracket and the adjacent edge of a carriageway.
• Outreach: The distance measured horizontally between the center of a
lantern mounted on a bracket and the center of the column or wall face.
Installation Requirements (Cont’d)
• Luminous intensity brightness: This may be
defined as light giving power of a lamp in any g.1% :n
direction.
- The Unit of luminous intensity is candela.
• Luminous Flux: This is the light given by a light source
or received by a surface irrespective of die direction in
which it is distributed.
- The unit of luminous flux is Lumen.
• Lantern: A house for one or more lamps, comprising a
body and any refractor, diffuser or enclosure associated
with the lamp (s)
• Surface type
Design of Street Light
Design means fixing spacing and arrangement of lighting post.
a) Determination of spacing
Average Pavement Illumination = Total effective illumination /
Total area to be illuminate
(LxCu) / (SxW )
Where,
L = Lumen output of light source (strength of source)
Cu = Co-efficient of utilization ( i.e. efficient lumen of light on
the pavement, which depends on the ratio of road width and
mourning height )
S= Spacing of Light post
W = Width of pavement
Procedure to find out Design Parameter
Actual average illumination = Required illumination x Pavement
reflection factor
(Use Table 1 and , 2 to find out actual average illumination for
 average illumination requirement and
 pavement reflectance)

L ( for particular Source) = Efficiency x Total Wattage

(Use table 3 to calculate lumen output, L for
 Type of source ( fluorescent, sodium. mercury etc.)
 wattage of source
 its lighting efficiency in lumen/watt)

Actual I utilization factor, Cu = utilization factor* maintenance factor]

(Use Figure -1 to find out effective .utilization factor, Cu for
Road width/post height ratio and
Maintenance Factor)
Arrangement of Street Lighting

Use Table 4 to select Lighting Layout

 Table 1: Recommended Average illumination (Lumens / ft2)
Pedestrian
Traffic
Vehicular Traffic (vph)
Very Light ( Medium (500-
Light (150-500) Heavy (>1200)
<150) 1200)
Heavy 0.8 1.0 1.2
Medium 0.6 0.8 1.0
Light 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Table 2: Adjustment factors for average illumination Values

Surface Reflectance Adjustment Factor
< 10% 1.50

= 10 % 1.00

> 10% 0.75

 Table 3: Lighting Source Characteristics
Expected Life Lighting Efficiency Wattage
Source Type
(hrs.) (Lumens/Watt) (Watt)
Tungsten 1000 8-14 Up to 1000
Fluorescent 6000 50-75 Up to 250
Sodium 6000 100-120 Up to 160
Mercury 7500 20-60 Up to 400

Table 4: Recommended arrangements of Street Lighting

Type of Arrangement Pavement Width
One Side < 30 ft.
Both Side (Staggered) 30 ft. < Width < 60 ft.
Both Side (opposite) > 60 ft.
Problem
An urban secondary road, with 50 ft.
pavement width having a reflectance of
10% carries a maximum 1000 vph at night-
time in both directions. Design lighting
system of the road considering sodium
source with mounting height of 40ft and a
maintenance factor of 0.8.
Draw the lighting layout.
Chapter: 7
Speed Studies
Objectives
 Capacity studies
 Geometric design
 Accident analysis
 Economic studies
 Performance study of a traffic
control measures (before &  Traffic signal design
after studies)  Designing road signs
 Designing parking crossings
 Planning and designing traffic Establishing speed limits
control measures viz: Speed zoning
 Placing speed breaker etc.
Speed Depends on -
Roadway geometric, operating and
surface conditions
Amount of side frictions
Traffic conditions
Location alma the roast
Time of the day
Weather conditions
Time Mean Speed (TMS)
The speed obtained when the sum of all
values is divided by the number of
observations. It gives arithmetic mean of the
spot speeds vehicles passing a point. t for
traffic regulation purposes.
∑𝑽𝒕
TMS =
𝒏
Here, 𝑽𝒕 = Individual Speed
n = Number of observations
Speed Mean Speed
The speed obtained when speeds are averages over
space. It gives the harmonic mean of the speeds of
vehicles passing a point, on a highway during an
interval useful for establishing now relationships.
𝒏 𝒏𝒔
𝐒𝐌𝐒 = =
𝟏/∑𝑽𝒕 𝒕
Here, 𝒔 = Space distance
t = Mean Travel Time
Problem
Solution
Different Forms of Speed
• Spot speed : instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a pt.
• Running speed: average speed while In motion
• Journey speed : overall speed including stops
• Operating speed : the highest overall speed
• Free flow speed : when drivers face no restriction in driving and
can maintain desired speeds.
• Safe speed : 85th percentile speed
• Design speed :98th percentile speed
• Median speed : 50th percentile speed
• Modal speed : speed at the highest frequency
• Speed limits :
 Upper Limit = 85th Percentile Speed
 Lower Limit = 15th Percentile Speed
Method of Speed Measurement
• Spot/ Time mean speed : measured at free flow/unobstructed
conditions by using:
• Manual method — measuring a travel time over a short distance
• Automatic methods
a) Rader speed meters
b) Pressure contact strip
c) Video Camera method
d) Tachometer/graph
• Travel / Space-mean speed : measured at existing operating condition by
using:
a) License plate method .
b) Floating car method - by use of lest vehicle
c) Elevated observer method
Problem
• Following data was collected while conducing
spot speed studies at certain stretch of a road
within the Urban area. Determine :

a) average speed of traffic stream.

b) modal speed and pace of the traffic stream.
c) upper and lower values or speed limits for
regulation
d) design speed for checking the geometric
design
Solution
Chapter: 8
Parking Studies
Slide Title

Product A Product B
• Feature 1 • Feature 1
• Feature 2 • Feature 2
• Feature 3 • Feature 3