Adult Development

and Ageing
e-Book
– This book is based on the 2019 Second Edition printed copy –

Dap Louw and Anet Louw

Dap Louw is an extraordinary professor in the Department of Psychology at the University
of the Free State. He holds master’s degrees and doctorates in both Psychology and
Criminology. He studied and lectured in the USA. He is the editor and author of several
textbooks that are widely prescribed at Southern African universities. He has published
more than 100 articles in accredited national and international scientific journals.

Anet Louw completed her PhD in Child Psychology. She was an associate professor
in the Department of Psychology at the University of the Free State and is currently a
research fellow. She coordinated the PhD Programme in Child Psychology, as well as
the Child Practice Programme in the Master’s Course in Professional Psychology for
several years. She is the author, co-author, and editor of several publications in the field
of human development. She also lectured in developmental psychology in the USA.

https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424468
Adult Development
and Ageing
e-Book
– This book is based on the 2019 Second Edition printed copy –

Dap Louw and Anet Louw

Department of Psychology, University of the Free State
Adult development and ageing
Published by Sun Media Bloemfontein (Pty) Ltd

Imprint: SunBonani Books

All rights reserved

Copyright © 2020 (e-book in PDF) Dap Louw and Anet Louw

This book is based on the 2019 Second Edition printed copy

First Edition (e-book) 2020

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

electronic, photographic or mechanical means, including photocopying and recording
on record, tape or laser disk, on microfilm, via the Internet, by e-mail, or by any other
information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission by the
author. In this regard a request should be submitted to Prof Dap Louw:
psychologypublications@gmail.com / 083 391 8331

Views reflected in this publication are not necessarily those of the publisher.

Graphic design: Carrin Scott.

ISBN 978-1-928424-46-8 (e-book)

https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424468

AVAILABLE FROM: https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424468

The recommended citation for this book is:

Louw, D. & Louw, A. (2020). Adult development and ageing (e-Book).
Bloemfontein: SunBonani Books. https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424468

Do not sell or discard your books, notes or other learning materials once you have
completed a course. When you embark upon your career you will find that your memory is
not nearly as good as you thought it was --- and that you will need those materials
again. Start building up your future professional library and knowledge bank now. The
learning materials are not only meant to help you pass a test or exam, but also to assist
you in the future.
This book is dedicated to Antoinette, Dappie, Janine,
Dian, Mia and Reenen
 This book is dedicated to Antoinette, Dappie, Janine, PREFACE
Dian, Mia and Reenen
Until a few decades ago, most people equated human development with
child development. Even psychologists focused largely on the development
of the child, with the result that most of their theories and research involved
this segment of human development. This is understandable: for a long time
psychologists considered childhood as the most important, if not decisive,
part of development. However, this mode of thinking has since been debunked
and replaced with the realisation that adult development – from the end of
adolescence until the end of one’s life – plays an equally important role in
a person’s development. Currently, all developmental psychologists regard
adult development – a life span that could easily be four to five times longer
than that of childhood – as an important discipline in its own right. As life
expectancy is increasing more rapidly than at any other time in human history,
scientific knowledge about adult development and especially ageing will
become even more crucial.
http://www.psychologypublications.co.za Some younger students may wonder whether learning about adult
development is relevant for them. It definitely is. First, adult development is
about the ‘future you’. It is about the remarkable journey most of you have
already entered and the fascinating life journey that lies ahead of you. Second,
the information in the book should help you to understand all other adults
better, including those close to you such as your parents, grandparents, and
other older family members. Therefore, we believe that you will not only enjoy
studying this book, but also find it enriching.
Some clarifications:

Graphic design: Carrin Scott • The target audience of this book is primarily undergraduate students in
Printed by ABC Press, Cape Town psychology, education, social work, psychiatry, and related disciplines.
However, the nature and extent of Adult Development and Ageing also
makes the text suitable for use at postgraduate level (especially where
ISBN: 978-0-86886-857-8 this field was not a focus area in the undergraduate course). Furthermore,
the book contains valuable information that will be useful to anyone who
All rights reserved. has an interest in adult development.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the • Information on various aspects of adult behaviour is available in
permission in writing from the copyright owners. Please submit a written request abundance in media such as the Internet, magazines, and newspapers.
to Prof Dap Louw at psychologypublications@gmail.com. However, this plethora of information has created a problem of its own: It
is very difficult to separate the wheat from the chaff. This is why one of the
main objectives of the book is to provide the reader with the most recent
Copyright © Dap Louw and Anet Louw, 2019 scientific information.
• We decided to add a special focus to the book — ageing. Ageing is an
II III
 integral part of human development but seems to be a topic that is often topics for critical thinking, a focus on interesting South African and
ignored because of its negative emotional connotations. However, ageing other research, or concentrate on the practical application of the issues
cannot be wished away. In fact, the better we understand this inevitable discussed. At the end of each major section, questions are provided to aid
part of life, the better we can adjust to it. This special focus on ageing is the student to review the material.
also the main reason for including it in the title of this book. • As far as terminology is concerned:
• One of our most important aims is to make the book as relevant as – Gender. Sexist writing is offensive and the authors have done their best
possible to the unique South African situation. It never ceases to amaze us to avoid it. Their solution has been to use the plural form ‘they’. However,
to see how many students, including those who enrol for psychology, are in cases where the plural is inappropriate or unnatural, ‘he or she’ is used,
trained for a profession in South Africa using international textbooks that while ‘he’ and ‘she’ are often used alternately.
basically have limited relevance and therefore limited practical application – Coloured. The authors acknowledge that the term ‘coloured’ is
value (except for the students to pass their exams). Therefore, we went to offensive to some classified in this way. After consulting widely, it was
great lengths to trace and include local research data and South African decided to retain the term for practical reasons. Most South African
examples. This was no easy task, especially because some empirical data research, including that of the Central Statistical Service and Government
and other information, for example, were part of unpublished reports and departments, makes use of the category ‘Coloured’. By leaving out the
theses or published in relatively unknown sources. However, the search category altogether or by combining it with another category would
exceeded our expectations and we are happy and proud to share the results create unnecessary confusion.
with you. Nevertheless, a significant part of the book still relies heavily – Racial differences. The current authors are against the (sometimes
on international and particularly Western research. There are mainly two unintentional) racist conveyance of information that is found often in the
reasons for this. Firstly, it cannot be denied that there are certain ‘universal media and unfortunately also in scientific sources. Especially in South
truths’ (information or data that, to a greater or lesser degree, hold true Africa, where science was employed during the years of apartheid in
for most or all cultures). These universal truths have been uncovered an attempt to indicate discriminating differences between races, such
by international researchers, and it would be an academic omission to differences must be presented with great responsibility in the current
disregard these important contributions. Secondly, many research areas era. The authors pursued this aim. Several irrelevant references to race
in adult development still lie fallow in South Africa, with the result that we differences in the previous edition have been removed. Where references
had no other option but to use international data. Thus, the editors would to race and ethnicity still appear, the aim is mainly to acknowledge and
like to encourage present and future researchers strongly to assist us in indicate the rich and unique differences in our country – in the same way
improving the relevancy level in future editions by bringing empirical data in which other interesting differences (e.g. with regard to gender and
and other information on the South African situation to our attention. We socio-economic status) are pointed out. It is of utmost importance that
owe it to our students, colleagues and other interested parties to provide readers and students accept the generally accepted fact – that differences
them with relevant material. within one race are just as large as, and even larger, between races.
• The authors are aware that the majority of students will be reading this • The reference system of the American Psychological Association is used
book in their second or even third language. We are equally aware that by most psychologists. However, because some of their requirements
many students bring with them a scholastic backlog, for whatever reason. differ from language and other (e.g. statistical) principles in South Africa,
Thus, the book has been made as reader- and especially student-friendly it was used only as a guideline in this book. However, we did strive to fulfil
as possible. Therefore, the writing style and the language level have been the core aim of any reference system, namely to make it easy to trace
made as accessible as possible. For this purpose, we also incorporated sources.
the services of a professional language editor. Furthermore, new concepts • Regarding the approach to the composition of the book: In a predecessor
and terms have been defined, while keywords have been printed in bold. of this text, Human Development, we followed a sequential life span
To assist students in their studies, additional information is provided in approach in the section on adult development. However, several reviewers
inserts (boxes) to facilitate further understanding. These boxes include and colleagues found such an approach to be overlapping and superficial;

IV V
 integral part of human development but seems to be a topic that is often topics for critical thinking, a focus on interesting South African and
ignored because of its negative emotional connotations. However, ageing other research, or concentrate on the practical application of the issues
cannot be wished away. In fact, the better we understand this inevitable discussed. At the end of each major section, questions are provided to aid
part of life, the better we can adjust to it. This special focus on ageing is the student to review the material.
also the main reason for including it in the title of this book. • As far as terminology is concerned:
• One of our most important aims is to make the book as relevant as – Gender. Sexist writing is offensive and the authors have done their best
possible to the unique South African situation. It never ceases to amaze us to avoid it. Their solution has been to use the plural form ‘they’. However,
to see how many students, including those who enrol for psychology, are in cases where the plural is inappropriate or unnatural, ‘he or she’ is used,
trained for a profession in South Africa using international textbooks that while ‘he’ and ‘she’ are often used alternately.
basically have limited relevance and therefore limited practical application – Coloured. The authors acknowledge that the term ‘coloured’ is
value (except for the students to pass their exams). Therefore, we went to offensive to some classified in this way. After consulting widely, it was
great lengths to trace and include local research data and South African decided to retain the term for practical reasons. Most South African
examples. This was no easy task, especially because some empirical data research, including that of the Central Statistical Service and Government
and other information, for example, were part of unpublished reports and departments, makes use of the category ‘Coloured’. By leaving out the
theses or published in relatively unknown sources. However, the search category altogether or by combining it with another category would
exceeded our expectations and we are happy and proud to share the results create unnecessary confusion.
with you. Nevertheless, a significant part of the book still relies heavily – Racial differences. The current authors are against the (sometimes
on international and particularly Western research. There are mainly two unintentional) racist conveyance of information that is found often in the
reasons for this. Firstly, it cannot be denied that there are certain ‘universal media and unfortunately also in scientific sources. Especially in South
truths’ (information or data that, to a greater or lesser degree, hold true Africa, where science was employed during the years of apartheid in
for most or all cultures). These universal truths have been uncovered an attempt to indicate discriminating differences between races, such
by international researchers, and it would be an academic omission to differences must be presented with great responsibility in the current
disregard these important contributions. Secondly, many research areas era. The authors pursued this aim. Several irrelevant references to race
in adult development still lie fallow in South Africa, with the result that we differences in the previous edition have been removed. Where references
had no other option but to use international data. Thus, the editors would to race and ethnicity still appear, the aim is mainly to acknowledge and
like to encourage present and future researchers strongly to assist us in indicate the rich and unique differences in our country – in the same way
improving the relevancy level in future editions by bringing empirical data in which other interesting differences (e.g. with regard to gender and
and other information on the South African situation to our attention. We socio-economic status) are pointed out. It is of utmost importance that
owe it to our students, colleagues and other interested parties to provide readers and students accept the generally accepted fact – that differences
them with relevant material. within one race are just as large as, and even larger, between races.
• The authors are aware that the majority of students will be reading this • The reference system of the American Psychological Association is used
book in their second or even third language. We are equally aware that by most psychologists. However, because some of their requirements
many students bring with them a scholastic backlog, for whatever reason. differ from language and other (e.g. statistical) principles in South Africa,
Thus, the book has been made as reader- and especially student-friendly it was used only as a guideline in this book. However, we did strive to fulfil
as possible. Therefore, the writing style and the language level have been the core aim of any reference system, namely to make it easy to trace
made as accessible as possible. For this purpose, we also incorporated sources.
the services of a professional language editor. Furthermore, new concepts • Regarding the approach to the composition of the book: In a predecessor
and terms have been defined, while keywords have been printed in bold. of this text, Human Development, we followed a sequential life span
To assist students in their studies, additional information is provided in approach in the section on adult development. However, several reviewers
inserts (boxes) to facilitate further understanding. These boxes include and colleagues found such an approach to be overlapping and superficial;

IV V
 therefore, we changed to the thematic approach by discussing adult
life span development and ageing within the framework of each of the
following major areas of development: physical development, cognitive
development, personality development, and social development. Many
international textbooks also follow this approach on adult development.

Finally, every work can be improved. Of course, the present text is no

exception. Therefore, we would appreciate any recommendations and
comments from colleagues, students, and other readers. Most importantly,
it is our wish that you will find this book as enriching as we did in writing it.
IMPORTANT NOTE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The following should always be kept in mind as you read this book: The media,
and even some textbooks, unfortunately tend to present human development
This book would not have been published had it not been for the support as if all individuals develop according to a specific formula. Such information
and feedback of various colleagues over the years. We cannot thank them is often seen as “normal” and inevitably as more acceptable. However,
such a presentation or viewpoint contradicts one of the most important
enough. We would like to pay special tribute to Proff. Lily Gerdes, Werner
principles in psychology – every person is unique. Therefore, students and
Meyer and Dorette van Ede who were part of the editorial team in the past. others interested in human behaviour should continually realise that research
We also express our sincere gratitude to the University of the Free State for and similar information on human beings refer primarily to ‘averages’ or
the use of its academic facilities and general support. guidelines. Special caution should be taken not to label individuals who do not
meet these predetermined formulas or expectations. The uniqueness of the
The essential role of our wonderful support staff cannot be overestimated: individual should be respected, encouraged, and nurtured. Disregarding this
characteristic could easily lead to the wasting of unique and valuable potential.
– Hesma van Tonder: Research librarian, also responsible for the index and
list of references.
– Carrin Scott: Graphic designer
– Danie Steyl: Language editor
– Jaco van Tonder: Cartoonist

By far the majority of the photos in this book were obtained from Shutterstock. The authors
went to great lengths to obtain permission to use some of the other material appearing in
this publication. However, in some cases, it proved impossible to trace copyright holders,
or copyright holders had not responded to the authors’ correspondence by the time of
going to print. Human error could also occasionally have crept in with regard to possible
errors and omissions. Therefore, the authors would be most grateful for information that
would enable them to rectify any such omission or errors in future editions. In the interim,
they apologise for any unintentional infringements.

Dap Louw and Anet Louw

Department of Psychology
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein

VI VII
 therefore, we changed to the thematic approach by discussing adult
life span development and ageing within the framework of each of the
following major areas of development: physical development, cognitive
development, personality development, and social development. Many
international textbooks also follow this approach on adult development.

Finally, every work can be improved. Of course, the present text is no

exception. Therefore, we would appreciate any recommendations and
comments from colleagues, students, and other readers. Most importantly,
it is our wish that you will find this book as enriching as we did in writing it.
IMPORTANT NOTE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The following should always be kept in mind as you read this book: The media,
and even some textbooks, unfortunately tend to present human development
This book would not have been published had it not been for the support as if all individuals develop according to a specific formula. Such information
and feedback of various colleagues over the years. We cannot thank them is often seen as “normal” and inevitably as more acceptable. However,
such a presentation or viewpoint contradicts one of the most important
enough. We would like to pay special tribute to Proff. Lily Gerdes, Werner
principles in psychology – every person is unique. Therefore, students and
Meyer and Dorette van Ede who were part of the editorial team in the past. others interested in human behaviour should continually realise that research
We also express our sincere gratitude to the University of the Free State for and similar information on human beings refer primarily to ‘averages’ or
the use of its academic facilities and general support. guidelines. Special caution should be taken not to label individuals who do not
meet these predetermined formulas or expectations. The uniqueness of the
The essential role of our wonderful support staff cannot be overestimated: individual should be respected, encouraged, and nurtured. Disregarding this
characteristic could easily lead to the wasting of unique and valuable potential.
– Hesma van Tonder: Research librarian, also responsible for the index and
list of references.
– Carrin Scott: Graphic designer
– Danie Steyl: Language editor
– Jaco van Tonder: Cartoonist

By far the majority of the photos in this book were obtained from Shutterstock. The authors
went to great lengths to obtain permission to use some of the other material appearing in
this publication. However, in some cases, it proved impossible to trace copyright holders,
or copyright holders had not responded to the authors’ correspondence by the time of
going to print. Human error could also occasionally have crept in with regard to possible
errors and omissions. Therefore, the authors would be most grateful for information that
would enable them to rectify any such omission or errors in future editions. In the interim,
they apologise for any unintentional infringements.

Dap Louw and Anet Louw

Department of Psychology
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein

VI VII
 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT .........................................................................107
3.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................108
CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGEING .................3 3.2 BASIC COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: INFORMATION PROCESSING AND
1.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................4 MEMORY .......................................................................................................................... 110
1.1.1 Substages of adulthood ...........................................................................................8 3.2.1 Information processing .......................................................................................110
1.1.2 Perspectives on age .................................................................................................9 3.2.2 Memory .................................................................................................................120
1.1.3 The demographics of the human population ................................................. 12 3.3 HIGHER COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: INTELLIGENCE, PROBLEM-SOLVING
1.1.4 Well-being ................................................................................................................ 18 DECISION-MAKING, AND LANGUAGE ...................................................................138
1.2 A LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE .................................................. 22 3.3.1 Intelligence ............................................................................................................138
1.3 THE FORCES AND INFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENT ......................................... 24 3.3.2 Problem solving and decision making ..........................................................151
1.4 DEBATES, ISSUES AND MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT ....................................... 26 3.3.3 Language .............................................................................................................. 157
1.5 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT..................................................................................... 31 3.3.4 Expertise, wisdom, and creativity .................................................................166
1.6 RESEARCH IN ADULT DEVELOPMENT.................................................................... 33 3.3.5 Factors that may affect cognitive development in adulthood .............183
1.6.1 Kinds of research ................................................................................................... 33 3.3.6 Redefining adult cognitive development: Theoretical perspectives...188
1.6.2 Methods of gathering information .................................................................. 34
CHAPTER 4 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................201
1.6.3 General research designs ................................................................................... 38
4.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................202
1.6.4 Research designs for studying adult development.................................... 42
4.2 BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADULT PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ... 204
1.6.5 Cross-cultural research ....................................................................................... 46
4.2.1 Personality traits................................................................................................ 204
1.6.6 Conducting research on the Internet ............................................................. 48
4.2.2 The five-factor theory and the five-factor model....................................205
1.6.7 Research ethics ..................................................................................................... 50
4.2.3 Personality traits: stability and change .......................................................210
CHAPTER 2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SEXUALITY ........................................... 55 4.2.4 South African research on personality traits ............................................. 215
2.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 56 4.2.5 Conclusions on the biological (trait) approach.........................................219
2.2 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGEING........................................................................ 58 4.3 CONTEXTUAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACHES TO ADULT
2.2.1 Programmed ageing theories ........................................................................... 59 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................222
2.2.2 Error theories ......................................................................................................... 61 4.3.1 Erik Erikson: Psychosocial development ..................................................... 222
2.3 SPECIFIC PHYSICAL CHANGES ................................................................................. 64 4.3.2 Personality development: An African perspective.................................. 227
2.3.1 The brain .................................................................................................................. 64 4.3.3 The neo-socioanalytic model of personality.............................................. 231
2.3.2 The senses.............................................................................................................. 66 4.4 TRANSACTIONAL APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ....... 235
2.3.3 Muscle strength ..................................................................................................... 71 4.4.1 Behavioural genetics ......................................................................................... 235
2.3.4 Stamina ....................................................................................................................73 4.4.2 The social-genomic model ............................................................................. 238
2.3.5 Physical appearance ............................................................................................73 4.4.3 Summary of the transactional approach ...................................................240
2.3.6 Height and weight ................................................................................................74 4.5 IMPORTANT PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EFFECT ON
2.3.7 Internal organs ...................................................................................................... 76 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT .............................................................................242
2.3.8 Physical health .......................................................................................................77 4.5.1 The self-concept .................................................................................................242
2.3.9 Climacteric and menopause ............................................................................. 85 4.5.2 Identity ................................................................................................................. 255
2.4 SEXUALITY ....................................................................................................................... 89 4.5.3 Emotions ..............................................................................................................264
2.4.1 International research........................................................................................... 91 4.5.4 Life stories ...........................................................................................................270
2.4.2 South African research....................................................................................... 93
CHAPTER 5 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................ 276
2.4.3 Sexual behaviour patterns in adulthood ...................................................... 97
5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 278
2.4.4 Sexual orientation ...............................................................................................101
5.2 ADULT RELATIONSHIPS .......................................................................................... 279
5.2.1 Intimacy ................................................................................................................. 279
5.2.2 Love .......................................................................................................................280
VIII IX
 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT .........................................................................107
3.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................108
CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGEING .................3 3.2 BASIC COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: INFORMATION PROCESSING AND
1.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................4 MEMORY .......................................................................................................................... 110
1.1.1 Substages of adulthood ...........................................................................................8 3.2.1 Information processing .......................................................................................110
1.1.2 Perspectives on age .................................................................................................9 3.2.2 Memory .................................................................................................................120
1.1.3 The demographics of the human population ................................................. 12 3.3 HIGHER COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: INTELLIGENCE, PROBLEM-SOLVING
1.1.4 Well-being ................................................................................................................ 18 DECISION-MAKING, AND LANGUAGE ...................................................................138
1.2 A LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE .................................................. 22 3.3.1 Intelligence ............................................................................................................138
1.3 THE FORCES AND INFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENT ......................................... 24 3.3.2 Problem solving and decision making ..........................................................151
1.4 DEBATES, ISSUES AND MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT ....................................... 26 3.3.3 Language .............................................................................................................. 157
1.5 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT..................................................................................... 31 3.3.4 Expertise, wisdom, and creativity .................................................................166
1.6 RESEARCH IN ADULT DEVELOPMENT.................................................................... 33 3.3.5 Factors that may affect cognitive development in adulthood .............183
1.6.1 Kinds of research ................................................................................................... 33 3.3.6 Redefining adult cognitive development: Theoretical perspectives...188
1.6.2 Methods of gathering information .................................................................. 34
CHAPTER 4 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................201
1.6.3 General research designs ................................................................................... 38
4.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................202
1.6.4 Research designs for studying adult development.................................... 42
4.2 BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADULT PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ... 204
1.6.5 Cross-cultural research ....................................................................................... 46
4.2.1 Personality traits................................................................................................ 204
1.6.6 Conducting research on the Internet ............................................................. 48
4.2.2 The five-factor theory and the five-factor model....................................205
1.6.7 Research ethics ..................................................................................................... 50
4.2.3 Personality traits: stability and change .......................................................210
CHAPTER 2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SEXUALITY ........................................... 55 4.2.4 South African research on personality traits ............................................. 215
2.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 56 4.2.5 Conclusions on the biological (trait) approach.........................................219
2.2 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGEING........................................................................ 58 4.3 CONTEXTUAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACHES TO ADULT
2.2.1 Programmed ageing theories ........................................................................... 59 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................222
2.2.2 Error theories ......................................................................................................... 61 4.3.1 Erik Erikson: Psychosocial development ..................................................... 222
2.3 SPECIFIC PHYSICAL CHANGES ................................................................................. 64 4.3.2 Personality development: An African perspective.................................. 227
2.3.1 The brain .................................................................................................................. 64 4.3.3 The neo-socioanalytic model of personality.............................................. 231
2.3.2 The senses.............................................................................................................. 66 4.4 TRANSACTIONAL APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ....... 235
2.3.3 Muscle strength ..................................................................................................... 71 4.4.1 Behavioural genetics ......................................................................................... 235
2.3.4 Stamina ....................................................................................................................73 4.4.2 The social-genomic model ............................................................................. 238
2.3.5 Physical appearance ............................................................................................73 4.4.3 Summary of the transactional approach ...................................................240
2.3.6 Height and weight ................................................................................................74 4.5 IMPORTANT PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EFFECT ON
2.3.7 Internal organs ...................................................................................................... 76 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT .............................................................................242
2.3.8 Physical health .......................................................................................................77 4.5.1 The self-concept .................................................................................................242
2.3.9 Climacteric and menopause ............................................................................. 85 4.5.2 Identity ................................................................................................................. 255
2.4 SEXUALITY ....................................................................................................................... 89 4.5.3 Emotions ..............................................................................................................264
2.4.1 International research........................................................................................... 91 4.5.4 Life stories ...........................................................................................................270
2.4.2 South African research....................................................................................... 93
CHAPTER 5 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................ 276
2.4.3 Sexual behaviour patterns in adulthood ...................................................... 97
5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 278
2.4.4 Sexual orientation ...............................................................................................101
5.2 ADULT RELATIONSHIPS .......................................................................................... 279
5.2.1 Intimacy ................................................................................................................. 279
5.2.2 Love .......................................................................................................................280
VIII IX
 5.2.3 Attachment........................................................................................................285
5.2.4 Social networks.................................................................................................288
5.3 LIFESTYLE CHOICES.................................................................................................. 300
5.3.1 Marital and non-marital lifestyles................................................................ 300
5.3.2 Family lifestyles and relationships................................................................341
5.4 WORK AND LEISURE.................................................................................................386
5.4.1 The importance of work.................................................................................. 387
5.4.2 The career cycle................................................................................................389
5.4.3 Women’s career cycle.....................................................................................399
5.4.4 Leisure and recreation.................................................................................... 401

CHAPTER 6 SUCCESSFUL AGEING AND MENTAL HEALTH...................................... 404

6.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 406
6.2 SUCCESSFUL AGEING...............................................................................................407
6.2.1 Factors that may affect successful ageing............................................... 409
6.3 OLD AGE AND MENTAL HEALTH...........................................................................433
6.3.1 Mood disorders..................................................................................................439
6.3.2 Anxiety disorders.............................................................................................442
6.3.3 Dementia............................................................................................................ 444
6.3.4 Parkinson’s disease..........................................................................................448
6.3.5 Delirium.............................................................................................................. 450
6.3.6 Sleep disorders..................................................................................................451
6.3.7 Substance abuse...............................................................................................453
6.3.8 Hypochondriasis...............................................................................................458
6.4 AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE ON MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS.................459

CHAPTER 7 DEATH AND GRIEF..........................................................................................462

7.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 464
7.2 WHAT IS DEATH?........................................................................................................466
7.3 DEATH ANXIETY..........................................................................................................469
7.4 STAGES OF DYING...................................................................................................... 474
7.5 THE RIGHT TO DIE....................................................................................................... 477
7.6 GRIEF, BEREAVEMENT, AND MOURNING............................................................489
7.7 SPECIFIC LOSSES........................................................................................................495
7.7.1 The loss of a child...............................................................................................495
7.7.2 The loss of a spouse or life partner..............................................................497
7.7.3 The loss of an elderly parent..........................................................................499

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................. 504

INDEX.............................................................................................................................................551

X XI
 5.2.3 Attachment........................................................................................................285
5.2.4 Social networks.................................................................................................288
5.3 LIFESTYLE CHOICES.................................................................................................. 300
5.3.1 Marital and non-marital lifestyles................................................................ 300
5.3.2 Family lifestyles and relationships................................................................341
5.4 WORK AND LEISURE.................................................................................................386
5.4.1 The importance of work.................................................................................. 387
5.4.2 The career cycle................................................................................................389
5.4.3 Women’s career cycle.....................................................................................399
5.4.4 Leisure and recreation.................................................................................... 401

CHAPTER 6 SUCCESSFUL AGEING AND MENTAL HEALTH...................................... 404

6.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 406
6.2 SUCCESSFUL AGEING...............................................................................................407
6.2.1 Factors that may affect successful ageing............................................... 409
6.3 OLD AGE AND MENTAL HEALTH...........................................................................433
6.3.1 Mood disorders..................................................................................................439
6.3.2 Anxiety disorders.............................................................................................442
6.3.3 Dementia............................................................................................................ 444
6.3.4 Parkinson’s disease..........................................................................................448
6.3.5 Delirium.............................................................................................................. 450
6.3.6 Sleep disorders..................................................................................................451
6.3.7 Substance abuse...............................................................................................453
6.3.8 Hypochondriasis...............................................................................................458
6.4 AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE ON MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS.................459

CHAPTER 7 DEATH AND GRIEF..........................................................................................462

7.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 464
7.2 WHAT IS DEATH?........................................................................................................466
7.3 DEATH ANXIETY..........................................................................................................469
7.4 STAGES OF DYING...................................................................................................... 474
7.5 THE RIGHT TO DIE....................................................................................................... 477
7.6 GRIEF, BEREAVEMENT, AND MOURNING............................................................489
7.7 SPECIFIC LOSSES........................................................................................................495
7.7.1 The loss of a child...............................................................................................495
7.7.2 The loss of a spouse or life partner..............................................................497
7.7.3 The loss of an elderly parent..........................................................................499

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................. 504

INDEX.............................................................................................................................................551

X XI
2
The road of life can only reveal itself as it is travelled.
Anonymous
1
Basic Concepts of Adult
Development and Ageing
3
2
The road of life can only reveal itself as it is travelled.
Anonymous
1
Basic Concepts of Adult
Development and Ageing
3
 You cannot predict the outcome of human development. and ugly (Madonsela, 2012). She was even teased about her physical
All you can do is create the conditions under which it will hopefully appearance. The fact that she had two sisters whose beauty was talked
flourish. (Adapted) Ken Robinson about did not help either. However, she derived emotional security from her
Imizi ayifani, ifana ngeentlanti kuphela (Family homesteads are not academic achievements for which she was always praised and supported.
similar, only cattle kraals are. Meaning: People are not the same). This made her feel significant and loved. One of her well-known sayings stems
Xhosa saying from her background: “Sometimes we feel like and regret being odd balls, yet
it is our uniqueness that makes each of us fit for our individual purpose in life.”
In youth we learn; in age we understand. Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach Thuli Madonsela raised her two children, a boy and a girl, as a single
How old would you say you are if you didn’t know how old you were? parent. Her husband died when the children were very young.
Satchel Paige Elon Musk is a South African engineer and entrepreneur who now lives
in the USA and who is regarded as one of the greatest and most prolific
Adulthood was invented to repair the wounds of childhood. modern inventors. For example, in 2012 his company, SpaceX, became the
Joy Browne
first private company to send spacecraft to the International Space Station
Mejo ha e rutanwe, ho rutanwa ditlhare. (Every man is the creator of and return cargo to Earth. His company, SolarCity, is the largest solar provider
his own destiny.) Sesotho saying in the USA. He has received numerous scientific and other awards for his
ideas and inventions that have brought about huge scientific breakthroughs
1.1 INTRODUCTION in technologies such as space travel, renewable
energy and commercial electric cars.
Before we begin with our interesting journey to discover and investigate He was born in Pretoria where he also
the psychological characteristics of adult development and ageing, let us completed his high school career. His childhood
first read the following short biographies of three famous South Africans: was not a happy one. His parents divorced
Thulisile Nomkhosi “Thuli” Madonsela is a South African advocate when he was in primary school. He did not fit
who served as the Public Protector of South Africa from 2009 to 2016. in well and was regarded as a ‘nerdish know-it-
After her term had expired, she accepted a professorship at the University all’. He was also smaller and younger than most
of Stellenbosch. of his peers. He became a target of bullies. One
In 2014 the influential Time magazine incident was so serious that he had to spend
included her in the annual list of the 100 nearly two weeks in hospital where his father
most influential people in the world. In did not recognise him at first. This attack still
2012, she was honoured with South Africa’s Elon Musk causes him trouble with his breathing.
most Influential Women Award. Apart from At the age of 10 Elon’s father bought him
completing her LLB degree at the University a computer. Elon escaped into this new world which put him on the path to
of the Witwatersrand, she also received fame and richness beyond his wildest dreams. After completion of his school
honorary doctoral degrees from several career he left for Canada and then the USA where he became a household
other universities. She was a member of the name. In fact, in 2013 at the age of only 42 the respected Time magazine
team who drafted the final Constitution of rated him as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. He is also
South Africa and served as a member of the regarded as one of the 100 richest persons on earth.
Thuli Madonsela South African Law Reform Commission. Wayde van Niekerk is a South African athlete and world record holder,
Thuli Madonsela was born in Johannes- world champion and Olympic champion in the 400 metres. In 2016 he stole
burg Her father was an informal trader and her mother a domestic worker the spotlight at the Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro with a phenomenal
and ‘unofficial social worker’. She grew up in Soweto. As an adolescent men’s 400m victory, breaking the 17-year-old world record. He was named
she felt socially awkward, plagued by a nagging feeling of being unloved
4 5
 You cannot predict the outcome of human development. and ugly (Madonsela, 2012). She was even teased about her physical
All you can do is create the conditions under which it will hopefully appearance. The fact that she had two sisters whose beauty was talked
flourish. (Adapted) Ken Robinson about did not help either. However, she derived emotional security from her
Imizi ayifani, ifana ngeentlanti kuphela (Family homesteads are not academic achievements for which she was always praised and supported.
similar, only cattle kraals are. Meaning: People are not the same). This made her feel significant and loved. One of her well-known sayings stems
Xhosa saying from her background: “Sometimes we feel like and regret being odd balls, yet
it is our uniqueness that makes each of us fit for our individual purpose in life.”
In youth we learn; in age we understand. Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach Thuli Madonsela raised her two children, a boy and a girl, as a single
How old would you say you are if you didn’t know how old you were? parent. Her husband died when the children were very young.
Satchel Paige Elon Musk is a South African engineer and entrepreneur who now lives
in the USA and who is regarded as one of the greatest and most prolific
Adulthood was invented to repair the wounds of childhood. modern inventors. For example, in 2012 his company, SpaceX, became the
Joy Browne
first private company to send spacecraft to the International Space Station
Mejo ha e rutanwe, ho rutanwa ditlhare. (Every man is the creator of and return cargo to Earth. His company, SolarCity, is the largest solar provider
his own destiny.) Sesotho saying in the USA. He has received numerous scientific and other awards for his
ideas and inventions that have brought about huge scientific breakthroughs
1.1 INTRODUCTION in technologies such as space travel, renewable
energy and commercial electric cars.
Before we begin with our interesting journey to discover and investigate He was born in Pretoria where he also
the psychological characteristics of adult development and ageing, let us completed his high school career. His childhood
first read the following short biographies of three famous South Africans: was not a happy one. His parents divorced
Thulisile Nomkhosi “Thuli” Madonsela is a South African advocate when he was in primary school. He did not fit
who served as the Public Protector of South Africa from 2009 to 2016. in well and was regarded as a ‘nerdish know-it-
After her term had expired, she accepted a professorship at the University all’. He was also smaller and younger than most
of Stellenbosch. of his peers. He became a target of bullies. One
In 2014 the influential Time magazine incident was so serious that he had to spend
included her in the annual list of the 100 nearly two weeks in hospital where his father
most influential people in the world. In did not recognise him at first. This attack still
2012, she was honoured with South Africa’s Elon Musk causes him trouble with his breathing.
most Influential Women Award. Apart from At the age of 10 Elon’s father bought him
completing her LLB degree at the University a computer. Elon escaped into this new world which put him on the path to
of the Witwatersrand, she also received fame and richness beyond his wildest dreams. After completion of his school
honorary doctoral degrees from several career he left for Canada and then the USA where he became a household
other universities. She was a member of the name. In fact, in 2013 at the age of only 42 the respected Time magazine
team who drafted the final Constitution of rated him as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. He is also
South Africa and served as a member of the regarded as one of the 100 richest persons on earth.
Thuli Madonsela South African Law Reform Commission. Wayde van Niekerk is a South African athlete and world record holder,
Thuli Madonsela was born in Johannes- world champion and Olympic champion in the 400 metres. In 2016 he stole
burg Her father was an informal trader and her mother a domestic worker the spotlight at the Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro with a phenomenal
and ‘unofficial social worker’. She grew up in Soweto. As an adolescent men’s 400m victory, breaking the 17-year-old world record. He was named
she felt socially awkward, plagued by a nagging feeling of being unloved
4 5
the best male athlete of the Olympic Games. The fact that his coach was a This uniqueness of individuals is not only a golden rule in psychology
74-year-old grandmother (Anna “Tannie Ans” Botha) also made headlines all but also especially true in developmental psychology - and should always
over the world. be kept in mind. However, there are broad indicators or criteria that could
Wayde was born and raised in Cape Town. be used as guidelines to determine whether behaviour or development falls
He was a premature baby, weighing just over within ‘average’ limits. Therefore it is the primary goal of this book to provide
1kg. The medical opinion was that he could die an overview of the most important changes and adjustments that take place
(apparently he had only 24 hours to live) or during the development and ageing of the ‘average’ adult.
could be disabled. He beat the odds easily, as Unfortunately, it is also true that for a long time, psychologists largely
the record shows. ignored the developmental potential of the adult years. In fact, psychologists
He excelled as an athlete at school. At started conducting serious research on adult development about 50 years
home, however, it was not as rosy. For example, ago. Until then, research had focused mainly on child development. However,
his parents were divorced. Wayde and his present-day psychologists accept that psychological development continues
mother, also an outstanding athlete in her beyond childhood and throughout life, and that individuals have the potential
days, moved from Cape Town to Bloemfontein to develop and grow psychologically in response to the demands of their
Wayde van Niekerk when he was 12. He attended the well-known adult roles up to the end of their lives.
Grey College, where everyone described him Why then was psychological development during adulthood, which may
as a ‘good and solid guy’. He was especially known for his modesty. He went constitute 75% of one’s life span, neglected for so long?
on to study marketing at the University of the Free State. A major reason was that most early psychologists and other scientists
Regardless of his achievements, fame and financial worth he is still believed that an adult’s personality was mainly determined by experiences
known for his humbleness. He is also very religious and often speaks about during his or her childhood and that adulthood was characterised largely
the importance of religion in his life. by stagnancy and decline. For example, the famous English poet William
Although these three cases of famous South Africans were picked at Wordsworth (1770-1850) reflected this
random, it is striking that not one of these famous people had an easy or viewpoint by stating, “The child is the father
model childhood. This gives hope to millions of people who come from of man.” Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the
similar and even worse circumstances. South African and world history is father of psychoanalysis, firmly established
studded with examples of outstanding sportspeople, scientists and leaders in this perspective with his stance that an
all fields who did not excel during their childhood years, but who developed individual’s personality is shaped in the early
into achievers only during adulthood. childhood years. The influential writings of
However, it is equally true that many people do not succeed in escaping not only Freud and his followers, but also
from their traumatic background. On the other hand, some others from a of various other schools of thought
positive upbringing also do not nearly measure up to expectations. The created an assumption that the individual’s
opposite is also true: Many people from a solid background do become personality is well-defined when he or she
very successful. In this regard there are numerous examples of people who reaches adulthood, and therefore, further
continue to develop positively throughout their lives and whose potential developmental stages are unlikely and even
Freud believed that development
does not seem to become depleted, not even during late adulthood or old impossible (Schaie & Willis, 2015). From beyond childhood is unlikely
age. Our former president, Nelson Mandela, is a good example: he was not this perspective, it is understandable that
only President of South Africa until he was 81 years old, but during that time psychologists have rather focused their
was voted as the most popular political leader in the world; that is, apart from attention and research on development during the childhood years, while
receiving the Nobel Peace Prize and numerous other international awards, research concerning adulthood has largely addressed pathology (such as
including more than 50 honorary doctoral degrees. mental health), rather than normal psychological development.

6 7
the best male athlete of the Olympic Games. The fact that his coach was a This uniqueness of individuals is not only a golden rule in psychology
74-year-old grandmother (Anna “Tannie Ans” Botha) also made headlines all but also especially true in developmental psychology - and should always
over the world. be kept in mind. However, there are broad indicators or criteria that could
Wayde was born and raised in Cape Town. be used as guidelines to determine whether behaviour or development falls
He was a premature baby, weighing just over within ‘average’ limits. Therefore it is the primary goal of this book to provide
1kg. The medical opinion was that he could die an overview of the most important changes and adjustments that take place
(apparently he had only 24 hours to live) or during the development and ageing of the ‘average’ adult.
could be disabled. He beat the odds easily, as Unfortunately, it is also true that for a long time, psychologists largely
the record shows. ignored the developmental potential of the adult years. In fact, psychologists
He excelled as an athlete at school. At started conducting serious research on adult development about 50 years
home, however, it was not as rosy. For example, ago. Until then, research had focused mainly on child development. However,
his parents were divorced. Wayde and his present-day psychologists accept that psychological development continues
mother, also an outstanding athlete in her beyond childhood and throughout life, and that individuals have the potential
days, moved from Cape Town to Bloemfontein to develop and grow psychologically in response to the demands of their
Wayde van Niekerk when he was 12. He attended the well-known adult roles up to the end of their lives.
Grey College, where everyone described him Why then was psychological development during adulthood, which may
as a ‘good and solid guy’. He was especially known for his modesty. He went constitute 75% of one’s life span, neglected for so long?
on to study marketing at the University of the Free State. A major reason was that most early psychologists and other scientists
Regardless of his achievements, fame and financial worth he is still believed that an adult’s personality was mainly determined by experiences
known for his humbleness. He is also very religious and often speaks about during his or her childhood and that adulthood was characterised largely
the importance of religion in his life. by stagnancy and decline. For example, the famous English poet William
Although these three cases of famous South Africans were picked at Wordsworth (1770-1850) reflected this
random, it is striking that not one of these famous people had an easy or viewpoint by stating, “The child is the father
model childhood. This gives hope to millions of people who come from of man.” Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the
similar and even worse circumstances. South African and world history is father of psychoanalysis, firmly established
studded with examples of outstanding sportspeople, scientists and leaders in this perspective with his stance that an
all fields who did not excel during their childhood years, but who developed individual’s personality is shaped in the early
into achievers only during adulthood. childhood years. The influential writings of
However, it is equally true that many people do not succeed in escaping not only Freud and his followers, but also
from their traumatic background. On the other hand, some others from a of various other schools of thought
positive upbringing also do not nearly measure up to expectations. The created an assumption that the individual’s
opposite is also true: Many people from a solid background do become personality is well-defined when he or she
very successful. In this regard there are numerous examples of people who reaches adulthood, and therefore, further
continue to develop positively throughout their lives and whose potential developmental stages are unlikely and even
Freud believed that development
does not seem to become depleted, not even during late adulthood or old impossible (Schaie & Willis, 2015). From beyond childhood is unlikely
age. Our former president, Nelson Mandela, is a good example: he was not this perspective, it is understandable that
only President of South Africa until he was 81 years old, but during that time psychologists have rather focused their
was voted as the most popular political leader in the world; that is, apart from attention and research on development during the childhood years, while
receiving the Nobel Peace Prize and numerous other international awards, research concerning adulthood has largely addressed pathology (such as
including more than 50 honorary doctoral degrees. mental health), rather than normal psychological development.

6 7
 Fortunately, in time, psychologists began to realise not only that
psychological development continues throughout life, but also that adults Box 1.1 Defining old age in Africa
do not have to be helpless victims of their childhood years. Another factor As mentioned, age is a relative concept that should be seen in the context of several
that enhanced this point of view was that, owing to progress primarily in the factors, especially culture. Therefore, it is not surprising that different countries and
societies have different viewpoints and contexts regarding defining old age. For
medical field, the life expectancy of people began to increase significantly.
example, although most developed countries accept the chronological age of 60 to 65
This led to an escalation in especially the ageing population, which in as the criterion for an elderly person, the onset of old age could vary between the 50s
turn required the attention of a wide variety of scientific fields, including to 70s in other countries. A main reason for these different perspectives is attributed
psychology. The new demands of a growing and ageing population gave to cultural diversities.
In traditional African cultures, the age group of about 50 to 59 is often viewed as
rise to a new and important scientific discipline, namely gerontology; which those who are entering old age. However, one should take into account that the use
can be defined as the multidisciplinary study of old age and the ageing of chronological age in these cultures could pose a problem as official records of birth
process. Gerontologists thus include psychologists, medical scientists, dates frequently do not exist. Also, in many countries, factors such as poverty and
sociologists and researchers from various related disciplines. The specific the absence of medical care lead to a struggle to survive, with premature ageing as
an inevitable result. Therefore, it is understandable that other factors are often used
branch of psychology that deals with the multiple aspects of normal and as criteria for old age, for example, the loss of previous roles (e.g. where demanding
abnormal psychological changes that occur in the later years of life is called physical activity is involved) and acquiring new social roles (e.g. the care and education
geropsychology (also gerontological psychology or geriatric psychology; of the next generation).
geriatrics is a branch of medicine that deals with the problems and diseases
of old age).
1.1.2 Perspectives on age
1.1.1 Substages of adulthood
Age is a very relative concept and determining a person’s age depends
The study of adulthood soon brought a few issues to light. Firstly, it became largely on one’s perspective and definition of age, or the type of age to which
clear that, because adulthood could easily stretch over 50 years, it is one is referring. The following are the most important perspectives in this
characterised by continuing changes in basically all areas of functioning. regard:
Therefore it was decided to divide adulthood into substages, namely:
• Chronological age indicates the number of years that have passed
since a person’s birth. Although chronological age is used widely as a
– early adulthood (approximately ages 20 to 39),
measure in psychological research, most developmental psychologists
– middle adulthood (approximately ages 40 to 59), and agree that chronological age is a criterion that has little meaning in itself.
– late adulthood (approximately age 60 to death). Late adulthood
It is merely an indicator that time has passed, just as centimetres are an
is often divided into three subcategories: oldest-old (85 and older),
indicator of a person’s height. While there is a correlation (relationship)
old-old (75-84)and young-old (65-74) (Cannon, 2015; Bergen et al.,
between these factors, it does not mean that time causes developmental
2016).
changes, just as centimetres do not cause height. What is important
though, is the extent to which development has taken place during the
Secondly, although the above classification is used widely (especially for
chronological life span. During this time, developmental changes can
practical purposes), psychologists have been unanimous in their viewpoint
vary significantly among individuals of the same chronological age.
that these categories should not be used too rigidly. They agree that age is a
Moreover, the rate of development can differ from one developmental
relative concept and that it can be defined from different perspectives. (See
area to another in the same individual; for example, the young adult who
Box 1.1 in this regard.)
is intellectually mature but emotionally immature. Equally important,
especially in the multicultural South African context, is the influence
of cultural factors to determine a person’s age. For example, although

8 9
 Fortunately, in time, psychologists began to realise not only that
psychological development continues throughout life, but also that adults Box 1.1 Defining old age in Africa
do not have to be helpless victims of their childhood years. Another factor As mentioned, age is a relative concept that should be seen in the context of several
that enhanced this point of view was that, owing to progress primarily in the factors, especially culture. Therefore, it is not surprising that different countries and
societies have different viewpoints and contexts regarding defining old age. For
medical field, the life expectancy of people began to increase significantly.
example, although most developed countries accept the chronological age of 60 to 65
This led to an escalation in especially the ageing population, which in as the criterion for an elderly person, the onset of old age could vary between the 50s
turn required the attention of a wide variety of scientific fields, including to 70s in other countries. A main reason for these different perspectives is attributed
psychology. The new demands of a growing and ageing population gave to cultural diversities.
In traditional African cultures, the age group of about 50 to 59 is often viewed as
rise to a new and important scientific discipline, namely gerontology; which those who are entering old age. However, one should take into account that the use
can be defined as the multidisciplinary study of old age and the ageing of chronological age in these cultures could pose a problem as official records of birth
process. Gerontologists thus include psychologists, medical scientists, dates frequently do not exist. Also, in many countries, factors such as poverty and
sociologists and researchers from various related disciplines. The specific the absence of medical care lead to a struggle to survive, with premature ageing as
an inevitable result. Therefore, it is understandable that other factors are often used
branch of psychology that deals with the multiple aspects of normal and as criteria for old age, for example, the loss of previous roles (e.g. where demanding
abnormal psychological changes that occur in the later years of life is called physical activity is involved) and acquiring new social roles (e.g. the care and education
geropsychology (also gerontological psychology or geriatric psychology; of the next generation).
geriatrics is a branch of medicine that deals with the problems and diseases
of old age).
1.1.2 Perspectives on age
1.1.1 Substages of adulthood
Age is a very relative concept and determining a person’s age depends
The study of adulthood soon brought a few issues to light. Firstly, it became largely on one’s perspective and definition of age, or the type of age to which
clear that, because adulthood could easily stretch over 50 years, it is one is referring. The following are the most important perspectives in this
characterised by continuing changes in basically all areas of functioning. regard:
Therefore it was decided to divide adulthood into substages, namely:
• Chronological age indicates the number of years that have passed
since a person’s birth. Although chronological age is used widely as a
– early adulthood (approximately ages 20 to 39),
measure in psychological research, most developmental psychologists
– middle adulthood (approximately ages 40 to 59), and agree that chronological age is a criterion that has little meaning in itself.
– late adulthood (approximately age 60 to death). Late adulthood
It is merely an indicator that time has passed, just as centimetres are an
is often divided into three subcategories: oldest-old (85 and older),
indicator of a person’s height. While there is a correlation (relationship)
old-old (75-84)and young-old (65-74) (Cannon, 2015; Bergen et al.,
between these factors, it does not mean that time causes developmental
2016).
changes, just as centimetres do not cause height. What is important
though, is the extent to which development has taken place during the
Secondly, although the above classification is used widely (especially for
chronological life span. During this time, developmental changes can
practical purposes), psychologists have been unanimous in their viewpoint
vary significantly among individuals of the same chronological age.
that these categories should not be used too rigidly. They agree that age is a
Moreover, the rate of development can differ from one developmental
relative concept and that it can be defined from different perspectives. (See
area to another in the same individual; for example, the young adult who
Box 1.1 in this regard.)
is intellectually mature but emotionally immature. Equally important,
especially in the multicultural South African context, is the influence
of cultural factors to determine a person’s age. For example, although

8 9
 childhood stretches until age 18 according to the legal definition, in or Parkinson’s disease which will be discussed later) or external factors
some cultures in South Africa children as young as 13 are accepted into such as stress or an unhealthy lifestyle. Therefore secondary ageing is not
adulthood through initiation rites and ceremonies. a universal part of the ageing process and is often preventable. Tertiary
• Psychological age refers to the ability of a person to adjust to the ageing is the process of terminal decline that occurs in the time (months,
environment and to cope with the associated challenges, as compared weeks, or days) before death. It is characterised by a significant increase of
to individuals of the same age. For example, a 40-year-old man who physical and cognitive deterioration in a relatively short period after which
still lives with his mother, cannot hold down a job and is unable to enter the individual dies. Tertiary ageing is not primarily related to age, but rather
into a long-lasting and meaningful relationship, is most probably much signifies the approach of death.
younger psychologically than his peers. Primary, secondary and tertiary ageing refer to processes that
• Social age is determined by the degree to which the person’s role in a accumulate over time and eventually cause a person’s death. Currently, many
society meets the expectations and perceptions of that society. These gerontologists believe that despite the changes in the body that lead to loss,
expectations are influenced strongly by the norms and expectations ageing can also involve gains (such as wisdom and expertise). The term
of the specific society, which in turn, to a large extent, are dictated optimal ageing refers to age-related changes that improve the individual’s
by factors such as culture, gender, race and ethnicity. For example, a functioning. These may reflect the preventative or compensatory measures
woman who has her first child in her forties will be seen as having a that adults take to counter the toll that ageing would normally take on
much younger social age than her peers who gave birth for the first time their physical and psychological functioning (such as maintaining a socially,
in their twenties. One reason is that she has to fulfil a social role and cognitively, and physically active and healthy lifestyle). However, some
associated obligations expected of a much younger woman. Similarly, individuals do not even make special efforts to alter their own ageing, but
according to the norms in most societies, a 25- year-old widow will have for reasons not entirely clear, seem to age at a slower rate than their peers.
a much older social age due to the perceptions of society. Social age On the other hand, as could be expected, throughout life, age-related losses
could also be regarded as a synonym for cultural age, especially when due to primary, secondary and tertiary ageing may overtake age-related
the above-mentioned expectations have to meet specific culturally gains (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014).
determined criteria, such as having undergone an initiation ceremony. The relativity and subjectivity of age have also led to the coining of two
• Biological age is the physical condition of a person, in comparison with concepts: personal age and the ageless self. Personal age is how a person
her or his peer group. Relativity also applies to this factor: For example, perceives and experiences his or her own age. It is interesting to note that
a health-conscious 50-year-old man can be in a significantly better adults and especially older people mostly report feeling younger than their
physical condition than a 30-year-old who neglects his health. Of course, actual age (Hayslip et al., 2007; Mirucka et al., 2016). For example, all of us
people can also feel older than they really are. Although this is usually have probably experienced the fact that people in their 60s, 70s or even
associated with older people, recent research has indicated that even 80s do not want to go to a retirement home because “I’m not that old!” or
among 38-year-olds, some participants’ biological age was more than “There are too many old people there”. In fact, it is not uncommon to hear
20 years older than their birth certificate indicated (Moffitt et al., 2016). adults reporting that they feel 10, 20 and even 30 years younger than their
chronological age. In this regard it seems that older adults report larger gaps
between their actual age and how old they feel than younger adults do, while
Psychological age, social age and biological age are often used as a unit
adults who feel younger are more educated and healthier and they are also
to determine an individual’s functional age; that is, the total ability of an
more active in the community (Institute on Aging, 2016). This experience
individual to function effectively in his or her environment.
by adults that the self (the ‘core’ of the personality) remains basically the
Gerontologists often distinguish between primary, secondary and
same, regardless of biological and chronological ageing, is referred to as the
tertiary ageing. Primary ageing refers to typical (normal) ageing, such
ageless self. It is also noteworthy that older people who feel younger than
as gradual physical deterioration. It is universal, inevitable and caused by
their chronological age have a reduced mortality (Rippon & Steptoe, 2015).
inborn biological factors. Secondary ageing (or impaired ageing) is physical
Concerning gender differences in the experience of age, it is under-
or psychological deterioration accelerated by disease (such as Alzheimer’s
10 11
 childhood stretches until age 18 according to the legal definition, in or Parkinson’s disease which will be discussed later) or external factors
some cultures in South Africa children as young as 13 are accepted into such as stress or an unhealthy lifestyle. Therefore secondary ageing is not
adulthood through initiation rites and ceremonies. a universal part of the ageing process and is often preventable. Tertiary
• Psychological age refers to the ability of a person to adjust to the ageing is the process of terminal decline that occurs in the time (months,
environment and to cope with the associated challenges, as compared weeks, or days) before death. It is characterised by a significant increase of
to individuals of the same age. For example, a 40-year-old man who physical and cognitive deterioration in a relatively short period after which
still lives with his mother, cannot hold down a job and is unable to enter the individual dies. Tertiary ageing is not primarily related to age, but rather
into a long-lasting and meaningful relationship, is most probably much signifies the approach of death.
younger psychologically than his peers. Primary, secondary and tertiary ageing refer to processes that
• Social age is determined by the degree to which the person’s role in a accumulate over time and eventually cause a person’s death. Currently, many
society meets the expectations and perceptions of that society. These gerontologists believe that despite the changes in the body that lead to loss,
expectations are influenced strongly by the norms and expectations ageing can also involve gains (such as wisdom and expertise). The term
of the specific society, which in turn, to a large extent, are dictated optimal ageing refers to age-related changes that improve the individual’s
by factors such as culture, gender, race and ethnicity. For example, a functioning. These may reflect the preventative or compensatory measures
woman who has her first child in her forties will be seen as having a that adults take to counter the toll that ageing would normally take on
much younger social age than her peers who gave birth for the first time their physical and psychological functioning (such as maintaining a socially,
in their twenties. One reason is that she has to fulfil a social role and cognitively, and physically active and healthy lifestyle). However, some
associated obligations expected of a much younger woman. Similarly, individuals do not even make special efforts to alter their own ageing, but
according to the norms in most societies, a 25- year-old widow will have for reasons not entirely clear, seem to age at a slower rate than their peers.
a much older social age due to the perceptions of society. Social age On the other hand, as could be expected, throughout life, age-related losses
could also be regarded as a synonym for cultural age, especially when due to primary, secondary and tertiary ageing may overtake age-related
the above-mentioned expectations have to meet specific culturally gains (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014).
determined criteria, such as having undergone an initiation ceremony. The relativity and subjectivity of age have also led to the coining of two
• Biological age is the physical condition of a person, in comparison with concepts: personal age and the ageless self. Personal age is how a person
her or his peer group. Relativity also applies to this factor: For example, perceives and experiences his or her own age. It is interesting to note that
a health-conscious 50-year-old man can be in a significantly better adults and especially older people mostly report feeling younger than their
physical condition than a 30-year-old who neglects his health. Of course, actual age (Hayslip et al., 2007; Mirucka et al., 2016). For example, all of us
people can also feel older than they really are. Although this is usually have probably experienced the fact that people in their 60s, 70s or even
associated with older people, recent research has indicated that even 80s do not want to go to a retirement home because “I’m not that old!” or
among 38-year-olds, some participants’ biological age was more than “There are too many old people there”. In fact, it is not uncommon to hear
20 years older than their birth certificate indicated (Moffitt et al., 2016). adults reporting that they feel 10, 20 and even 30 years younger than their
chronological age. In this regard it seems that older adults report larger gaps
between their actual age and how old they feel than younger adults do, while
Psychological age, social age and biological age are often used as a unit
adults who feel younger are more educated and healthier and they are also
to determine an individual’s functional age; that is, the total ability of an
more active in the community (Institute on Aging, 2016). This experience
individual to function effectively in his or her environment.
by adults that the self (the ‘core’ of the personality) remains basically the
Gerontologists often distinguish between primary, secondary and
same, regardless of biological and chronological ageing, is referred to as the
tertiary ageing. Primary ageing refers to typical (normal) ageing, such
ageless self. It is also noteworthy that older people who feel younger than
as gradual physical deterioration. It is universal, inevitable and caused by
their chronological age have a reduced mortality (Rippon & Steptoe, 2015).
inborn biological factors. Secondary ageing (or impaired ageing) is physical
Concerning gender differences in the experience of age, it is under-
or psychological deterioration accelerated by disease (such as Alzheimer’s
10 11
standable that women tend to be more anxious about growing old and Table 1.1 Population growth: World, Africa and South Africa
experience themselves as ‘old’ than is the case with men. Most societies Year World Africa South Africa
place a much higher value on women’s physical appearance and reproductive 1 200 million Unknown Unknown
abilities than they do on men. However, the overall life satisfaction and mental 1000 275 million Unknown 300 000
health of women improve with age (Haug, 2013; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010).
1500 450 million Unknown 600 000
They feel more competent and confident, have a more positive body image,
1700 1 billion 100 million 1 million
feel less lonely, while rates of depression, anxiety and suicide decrease.
1950 2,5 billion 228 million 14 million
Regardless of how psychologists and other social scientists define
2001 6,1 billion 814 million 45 million
adulthood or how it is perceived by the individual, it should always be taken
into account that all such definitions are subject to the legislation of a country. 2030 8,5 billion 1,3 billion 51 million
Therefore, the legal definition will always be the determining criterion, 2050 9,7 billion 2 billion 56 million
despite the fact that it does not consider the individual’s psychological or Adapted from United Nations, 2015; Feinstein, 2005; Rosenberg, 2007
physical maturity. In South Africa, the age limit for legal maturity, the age
As these statistics demonstrate, by only indicating population growth
at which one is considered to be legally old enough to make one’s own
without telling more about the characteristics of the people, they do not say
decisions, is 18 years. A person can then vote, apply for a driver’s licence,
much. Therefore, a broad overview of the main and relevant demographics
and sign legal documents independently of one’s parents or guardian;
of the world population is presented next. To make the statistics more
for example, if one wants to buy a car, a house, or get married. Until 2007
digestible, the present world population was reduced to 100; with all existing
however, one had to be 21 years old to enjoy these legal privileges. The
ratios still the same, it would look approximately as indicated in Table 1.2
change from 21 to 18 was brought about to be in line with the international
(note that this is a rough estimate). Statistics regarding South Africa are
trend (Smith, 2008).
presented in Table 1.3.
1.1.3 The demographics of the human population Table 1.2 World population reduced to 100
Catagory No of people Characteristics
No area or topic can be studied without interpreting it in its context; that
Adults/children 74 Adults
is, the environment, conditions or circumstances in which a phenomenon or 26 Children
an event occurs. One such context that provides an important informative
Geographical 60 Asian
background to the study of adult development is the demographic context. distribution 15 African
(Demography is the statistical study of human populations concerning 11 Europeans
factors and characteristics such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, social class, 9 Latin American & Carribbean
5 North American
education, income, marriage, family structures, crime, births and deaths.)
Gender 50 Female
Therefore, the main demographics of the world and the South African 50 Male
population will be discussed briefly in the following sections.
Religion 33 Christian
The dramatic increase in the world’s human population is one of the 2 Muslim
outstanding demographic characteristics of history. Table 1.1 illustrates this 14 Hindu
growth. 7 Buddhist
12 Other religions
12 Atheism
Qualifications 7 Tertiary education
17 Illiterate
Miscellaneous 15 Malnourished
13 Without clean water
22 Without electricity
12 100 People org, 2016; United Nations, 2015 13
standable that women tend to be more anxious about growing old and Table 1.1 Population growth: World, Africa and South Africa
experience themselves as ‘old’ than is the case with men. Most societies Year World Africa South Africa
place a much higher value on women’s physical appearance and reproductive 1 200 million Unknown Unknown
abilities than they do on men. However, the overall life satisfaction and mental 1000 275 million Unknown 300 000
health of women improve with age (Haug, 2013; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010).
1500 450 million Unknown 600 000
They feel more competent and confident, have a more positive body image,
1700 1 billion 100 million 1 million
feel less lonely, while rates of depression, anxiety and suicide decrease.
1950 2,5 billion 228 million 14 million
Regardless of how psychologists and other social scientists define
2001 6,1 billion 814 million 45 million
adulthood or how it is perceived by the individual, it should always be taken
into account that all such definitions are subject to the legislation of a country. 2030 8,5 billion 1,3 billion 51 million
Therefore, the legal definition will always be the determining criterion, 2050 9,7 billion 2 billion 56 million
despite the fact that it does not consider the individual’s psychological or Adapted from United Nations, 2015; Feinstein, 2005; Rosenberg, 2007
physical maturity. In South Africa, the age limit for legal maturity, the age
As these statistics demonstrate, by only indicating population growth
at which one is considered to be legally old enough to make one’s own
without telling more about the characteristics of the people, they do not say
decisions, is 18 years. A person can then vote, apply for a driver’s licence,
much. Therefore, a broad overview of the main and relevant demographics
and sign legal documents independently of one’s parents or guardian;
of the world population is presented next. To make the statistics more
for example, if one wants to buy a car, a house, or get married. Until 2007
digestible, the present world population was reduced to 100; with all existing
however, one had to be 21 years old to enjoy these legal privileges. The
ratios still the same, it would look approximately as indicated in Table 1.2
change from 21 to 18 was brought about to be in line with the international
(note that this is a rough estimate). Statistics regarding South Africa are
trend (Smith, 2008).
presented in Table 1.3.
1.1.3 The demographics of the human population Table 1.2 World population reduced to 100
Catagory No of people Characteristics
No area or topic can be studied without interpreting it in its context; that
Adults/children 74 Adults
is, the environment, conditions or circumstances in which a phenomenon or 26 Children
an event occurs. One such context that provides an important informative
Geographical 60 Asian
background to the study of adult development is the demographic context. distribution 15 African
(Demography is the statistical study of human populations concerning 11 Europeans
factors and characteristics such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, social class, 9 Latin American & Carribbean
5 North American
education, income, marriage, family structures, crime, births and deaths.)
Gender 50 Female
Therefore, the main demographics of the world and the South African 50 Male
population will be discussed briefly in the following sections.
Religion 33 Christian
The dramatic increase in the world’s human population is one of the 2 Muslim
outstanding demographic characteristics of history. Table 1.1 illustrates this 14 Hindu
growth. 7 Buddhist
12 Other religions
12 Atheism
Qualifications 7 Tertiary education
17 Illiterate
Miscellaneous 15 Malnourished
13 Without clean water
22 Without electricity
12 100 People org, 2016; United Nations, 2015 13
Table 1.3 South Africa: Population reduced to 100 Table 1.4 Population age 60+: Percentage of total population
Catagory No of people Characteristics Year World Africa South Africa
Gender 49 Male 1950 8,1 5,3 6,0
51 Female
2015 12,3 5,4 7,7
Age 30 Younger than 15
2030 12,3 6,3 10,5
5 Older than 65
Language 20 Zulu 2050 21,5 8,9 15,4
16 Xhosa United Nations, 2015
14 Afrikaans
8 Tswana The gradual ageing of the world’s populations, especially of those
8 English
9 Sepedi older than 60, probably will be one of the most outstanding demographic
8 Sesotho trends of the 21st century. In fact, the chronological age category of late
5 Xitsonga
adulthood will be the only category in many populations, including that
Racial division 79 Black
9 White
of South Africa, which will show a significant and sharp increase. This is
9 Coloured regardless of the projected high mortality rate due to factors such as AIDS.
3 Indian Because an older population puts additional strain on a government (for
Infrastructure 85 Homes have electricity example, in terms of physical and mental health care, housing and financial
90 Homes have a television
43 Homes with a motor vehicle needs) many countries may find it difficult to manage. This is especially true
36 Homes with a washing machine for developing countries that will host approximately 75% of the world’s
96 Use cell phones
population older than 60 in the near future.
Employment 69 Employed full time or part time
25 Unemployed and looking for work However, older persons should never be seen as a burden. They make
36 People living in relative poverty important contributions to development; for example, by supporting their
Education 76 Do not have matric offspring financially and materially; through the upbringing and social
8 Have a degree nurturing of grandchildren; by providing care for the sick, disabled and frail
StatsSA, 2011
household members and performing valuable community service. Therefore,
the important contribution of older people should not be underestimated.
The most important changes and trends that have occurred over the
On the contrary: The potential older person has been largely neglected, and
ages are the following (Pelser, 2005; SA Survey 2016; United Nations, 2015):
communities that do not utilise this largely unexploited resource will be
• A gradual ageing of the world population. From a psychological significantly poorer in most respects.
viewpoint, this is probably the most important trend. It means that • A decline in population growth rate. The decline in the growth rate in
psychologists should focus much more on late adulthood as a field where most countries in the world has been described as potentially one of the
research and professional services will be needed increasingly and urgently. biggest crises of the 21st century. This decline is shown in Table 1.5.
Psychology as a profession not only should acknowledge that this area has
Table 1.5 Population growth rate (%)
been neglected, but also should plan to make the same valuable contributions
in this field as in various other fields. The importance and urgency of this Year World Africa South Africa
statement becomes clear when one considers the statistics in Table 1.4 (also 1950-1955 1,77 2,08 2,34
see Pew Research Centre, 2014). 2000-2005 1,24 2,48 1,48
2010-2015 1,18 2,55 1,08
United Nations, 2015

14 15
Table 1.3 South Africa: Population reduced to 100 Table 1.4 Population age 60+: Percentage of total population
Catagory No of people Characteristics Year World Africa South Africa
Gender 49 Male 1950 8,1 5,3 6,0
51 Female
2015 12,3 5,4 7,7
Age 30 Younger than 15
2030 12,3 6,3 10,5
5 Older than 65
Language 20 Zulu 2050 21,5 8,9 15,4
16 Xhosa United Nations, 2015
14 Afrikaans
8 Tswana The gradual ageing of the world’s populations, especially of those
8 English
9 Sepedi older than 60, probably will be one of the most outstanding demographic
8 Sesotho trends of the 21st century. In fact, the chronological age category of late
5 Xitsonga
adulthood will be the only category in many populations, including that
Racial division 79 Black
9 White
of South Africa, which will show a significant and sharp increase. This is
9 Coloured regardless of the projected high mortality rate due to factors such as AIDS.
3 Indian Because an older population puts additional strain on a government (for
Infrastructure 85 Homes have electricity example, in terms of physical and mental health care, housing and financial
90 Homes have a television
43 Homes with a motor vehicle needs) many countries may find it difficult to manage. This is especially true
36 Homes with a washing machine for developing countries that will host approximately 75% of the world’s
96 Use cell phones
population older than 60 in the near future.
Employment 69 Employed full time or part time
25 Unemployed and looking for work However, older persons should never be seen as a burden. They make
36 People living in relative poverty important contributions to development; for example, by supporting their
Education 76 Do not have matric offspring financially and materially; through the upbringing and social
8 Have a degree nurturing of grandchildren; by providing care for the sick, disabled and frail
StatsSA, 2011
household members and performing valuable community service. Therefore,
the important contribution of older people should not be underestimated.
The most important changes and trends that have occurred over the
On the contrary: The potential older person has been largely neglected, and
ages are the following (Pelser, 2005; SA Survey 2016; United Nations, 2015):
communities that do not utilise this largely unexploited resource will be
• A gradual ageing of the world population. From a psychological significantly poorer in most respects.
viewpoint, this is probably the most important trend. It means that • A decline in population growth rate. The decline in the growth rate in
psychologists should focus much more on late adulthood as a field where most countries in the world has been described as potentially one of the
research and professional services will be needed increasingly and urgently. biggest crises of the 21st century. This decline is shown in Table 1.5.
Psychology as a profession not only should acknowledge that this area has
Table 1.5 Population growth rate (%)
been neglected, but also should plan to make the same valuable contributions
in this field as in various other fields. The importance and urgency of this Year World Africa South Africa
statement becomes clear when one considers the statistics in Table 1.4 (also 1950-1955 1,77 2,08 2,34
see Pew Research Centre, 2014). 2000-2005 1,24 2,48 1,48
2010-2015 1,18 2,55 1,08
United Nations, 2015

14 15
 These statistics are given special meaning when considering that the Table 1.6 Urbanisation trends
population replacement rate (the ability of each generation to replace Period World Africa South Africa
itself) averages about 2,1. Various factors contribute to this situation; for 1950 29,6 14,0 42,2
example, greater access to and use of contraceptives (especially condoms, 2000 46,6 34,5 56,9
which are strongly recommended in the fight against AIDS), the decline in 2015 65,4 40,4 64,8
life expectancy at birth due to factors such as AIDS and the modern trend
2030 60,0 47,1 71,3
in various traditional countries that allows women much greater freedom of
United Nations, 2014
choice, also concerning pregnancy.
An important consequence of a falling growth rate is the increase in the Secondly, there is migration of highly skilled labour from certain countries;
numbers of the elderly. This confirms not only the ageing of populations, but a worldwide tendency towards emigrating from developing countries to
also that the focus of psychologists, as already mentioned, should have a developed countries. South Africa is one of the countries that have continued
strong geropsychological perspective. to lose a highly skilled labour force especially since the 1990s. No reliable
• Increased urbanisation and migration patterns. There are three important statistics exist for all South African groups, but it is generally accepted that
trends as far as migration is concerned. Migration refers to the act whereby members especially of the white population (who are particularly highly
people relocate from one place to another. The move is permanent or for a skilled in various scientific and technological areas), have emigrated to other
relatively long period of time. Emigration means moving from a place, while countries. It goes without saying that a shortage of highly skilled labour could
immigration refers to moving to a place. have a serious effect on many areas of a society.
Firstly, the urbanisation (moving to cities) of populations is a growing Thirdly, there is the problem of illegal immigration, the unlawful relocation
trend. At present, 54% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a that usually takes place from a developing to a (more) developed country, which
proportion that is expected to increase to 66% by 2050 (United Nations, is an increasing international phenomenon. For example, for several years since
2014). This is especially true for less developed countries where, in many the mid 1990s, the number of illegal immigrants in the USA has surpassed the
cases, they already experience problems of providing basic services for number of legal immigrants (Passel, 2005). However, illegal immigration is a
medical and mental health, sanitation, clean water and waste removal. Table criminal offence, and as such, it is extremely difficult to determine an accurate
1.6 illustrates this migration trend. The projected situation regarding South assessment of the problem. Most experts estimate that there are between
Africa is especially alarming. 500 000 and 1 million illegal immigrants in South Africa (StatsSA, 2015).
Whatever the case may be, the negative effect of illegal immigration is an
accepted fact. It is associated especially with an increase in crime and the
taking of jobs that could have been filled by members of the local population.
This, in turn, easily leads to xenophobia, the unjustified hostility, fear, distrust
or aggressive behaviour toward foreigners, strangers or anything perceived
as unfamiliar or different. In recent years xenophobia has led to the deaths of
many people in South Africa (Solomon & Kosaka, 2014).

Urbanisation is often associated with a lack of basic services

Xenophobia has led to the deaths of many people in South Africa

16 17
 These statistics are given special meaning when considering that the Table 1.6 Urbanisation trends
population replacement rate (the ability of each generation to replace Period World Africa South Africa
itself) averages about 2,1. Various factors contribute to this situation; for 1950 29,6 14,0 42,2
example, greater access to and use of contraceptives (especially condoms, 2000 46,6 34,5 56,9
which are strongly recommended in the fight against AIDS), the decline in 2015 65,4 40,4 64,8
life expectancy at birth due to factors such as AIDS and the modern trend
2030 60,0 47,1 71,3
in various traditional countries that allows women much greater freedom of
United Nations, 2014
choice, also concerning pregnancy.
An important consequence of a falling growth rate is the increase in the Secondly, there is migration of highly skilled labour from certain countries;
numbers of the elderly. This confirms not only the ageing of populations, but a worldwide tendency towards emigrating from developing countries to
also that the focus of psychologists, as already mentioned, should have a developed countries. South Africa is one of the countries that have continued
strong geropsychological perspective. to lose a highly skilled labour force especially since the 1990s. No reliable
• Increased urbanisation and migration patterns. There are three important statistics exist for all South African groups, but it is generally accepted that
trends as far as migration is concerned. Migration refers to the act whereby members especially of the white population (who are particularly highly
people relocate from one place to another. The move is permanent or for a skilled in various scientific and technological areas), have emigrated to other
relatively long period of time. Emigration means moving from a place, while countries. It goes without saying that a shortage of highly skilled labour could
immigration refers to moving to a place. have a serious effect on many areas of a society.
Firstly, the urbanisation (moving to cities) of populations is a growing Thirdly, there is the problem of illegal immigration, the unlawful relocation
trend. At present, 54% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a that usually takes place from a developing to a (more) developed country, which
proportion that is expected to increase to 66% by 2050 (United Nations, is an increasing international phenomenon. For example, for several years since
2014). This is especially true for less developed countries where, in many the mid 1990s, the number of illegal immigrants in the USA has surpassed the
cases, they already experience problems of providing basic services for number of legal immigrants (Passel, 2005). However, illegal immigration is a
medical and mental health, sanitation, clean water and waste removal. Table criminal offence, and as such, it is extremely difficult to determine an accurate
1.6 illustrates this migration trend. The projected situation regarding South assessment of the problem. Most experts estimate that there are between
Africa is especially alarming. 500 000 and 1 million illegal immigrants in South Africa (StatsSA, 2015).
Whatever the case may be, the negative effect of illegal immigration is an
accepted fact. It is associated especially with an increase in crime and the
taking of jobs that could have been filled by members of the local population.
This, in turn, easily leads to xenophobia, the unjustified hostility, fear, distrust
or aggressive behaviour toward foreigners, strangers or anything perceived
as unfamiliar or different. In recent years xenophobia has led to the deaths of
many people in South Africa (Solomon & Kosaka, 2014).

Urbanisation is often associated with a lack of basic services

Xenophobia has led to the deaths of many people in South Africa

16 17
1.1.4 Well-being Financial/political Corruption 67%
Unemployment 58%
Well-being, in short, refers to the quality of life of an individual or group. More Crime & violence 53%
precisely it refers to a state of good physical and mental health, as well as a Poverty & social inequality 31%
sense of accomplishment, personal fulfilment and a general satisfaction with Education 23%
Inflation 18%
life. Well-being is one of the corner stones of positive psychology, a relatively
Taxes 13%
new and popular main branch of psychology that focuses on well-being and Healthcare 10%
optimal functioning. Positive psychology was established to complement Moral decline 9%
(some would say ‘as a reaction against’) the traditional overemphasis of Immigration control 7%
psychology on ‘abnormal psychology’ and mental disorders. In fact, the view Threats against the environment 3%
of positive psychologists is that optimising (improving) the lives of ‘normal’ Climate change 2%
Rise of extremism 1%
people is just as important as the treatment of mental disorders. As this book
Terrorism 1%
focuses primarily on normal adult development, the concept of well-being is an Maintaining social programmes 1%
integral part of the chapters to follow. The following graphic information will Access to credit 1%
provide you with a background for these discussions: Childhood obesity *
The histogram in Figure 1.1 gives an indication of the variables that people in Adapted from Ipsos South Africa, 2016
various countries indicate as having a significant effect on their well-being. Top Figure 1.2 Life circumstances that influence well-being in South Africa
of the list are unemployment, financial/political corruption, poverty and social
inequality, and crime and violence. It should be pointed out, however, that according to a recent worldwide
survey in which the general personal happiness of people in 155 countries
Unemployment 38% was determined (Helliwell et al., 2017), South Africa was ranked at number
Financial/political Corruption 33%
101 and the seventh happiest country in Africa. This is unfortunately a very
Poverty & social inequality 33%
Crime & violence 30% poor reflection on the general well-being of South Africans who have been
Healthcare 22% burdened with stressors such as poverty, high crime rates, corruption and
Terrorism 21% poor service delivery.
Education 19% An aspect that makes the study of age and adulthood more complex,
Taxes 16%
Immigration control 14%
interesting and challenging, is that there are conflicting and changing
Moral decline 14% reports on the question whether most present-day adults are mentally and
Inflation 11% financially better off than their parents were. For example, according to an
Rise of extremism 10% extensive research project published in England in 2007, people over 50 were
Maintaining social programmes 10%
Threats against the environment 9%
more ambitious, financially more secure, less stressed, ate more healthily,
Climate change 8% and had better prospects in later life than their parents did (Government
Childhood obesity 3% News Network, 2007). Such research findings have led to the viewpoint that
Access to credit 2% “50 is the new 30”. This means that the 50-year-olds in most respects have
Adapted from Ipsos South Africa, 2016
the same capacities and characteristics than those of 30-year-old people of
Figure 1.1 Life circumstances that influence well-being worldwide
a generation or two ago.
The histogram in Figure 1.2 reflects the life circumstances that influence However, recent research shows a changing trend concerning certain
well-being of South Africans. It is interesting that South Africans regard the aspects. For example, in England are indications that millennials (the age
same four mentioned aspects (unemployment, financial/political corruption, group who entered adulthood at the beginning of the new millennium)
poverty and social inequality, and crime and violence) as the most important, could be the first generation to earn less than their parents could in their
although in a different sequence of importance. lifetime (Resolution Foundation, 2016). A world wide survey also indicated
18 19
1.1.4 Well-being Financial/political Corruption 67%
Unemployment 58%
Well-being, in short, refers to the quality of life of an individual or group. More Crime & violence 53%
precisely it refers to a state of good physical and mental health, as well as a Poverty & social inequality 31%
sense of accomplishment, personal fulfilment and a general satisfaction with Education 23%
Inflation 18%
life. Well-being is one of the corner stones of positive psychology, a relatively
Taxes 13%
new and popular main branch of psychology that focuses on well-being and Healthcare 10%
optimal functioning. Positive psychology was established to complement Moral decline 9%
(some would say ‘as a reaction against’) the traditional overemphasis of Immigration control 7%
psychology on ‘abnormal psychology’ and mental disorders. In fact, the view Threats against the environment 3%
of positive psychologists is that optimising (improving) the lives of ‘normal’ Climate change 2%
Rise of extremism 1%
people is just as important as the treatment of mental disorders. As this book
Terrorism 1%
focuses primarily on normal adult development, the concept of well-being is an Maintaining social programmes 1%
integral part of the chapters to follow. The following graphic information will Access to credit 1%
provide you with a background for these discussions: Childhood obesity *
The histogram in Figure 1.1 gives an indication of the variables that people in Adapted from Ipsos South Africa, 2016
various countries indicate as having a significant effect on their well-being. Top Figure 1.2 Life circumstances that influence well-being in South Africa
of the list are unemployment, financial/political corruption, poverty and social
inequality, and crime and violence. It should be pointed out, however, that according to a recent worldwide
survey in which the general personal happiness of people in 155 countries
Unemployment 38% was determined (Helliwell et al., 2017), South Africa was ranked at number
Financial/political Corruption 33%
101 and the seventh happiest country in Africa. This is unfortunately a very
Poverty & social inequality 33%
Crime & violence 30% poor reflection on the general well-being of South Africans who have been
Healthcare 22% burdened with stressors such as poverty, high crime rates, corruption and
Terrorism 21% poor service delivery.
Education 19% An aspect that makes the study of age and adulthood more complex,
Taxes 16%
Immigration control 14%
interesting and challenging, is that there are conflicting and changing
Moral decline 14% reports on the question whether most present-day adults are mentally and
Inflation 11% financially better off than their parents were. For example, according to an
Rise of extremism 10% extensive research project published in England in 2007, people over 50 were
Maintaining social programmes 10%
Threats against the environment 9%
more ambitious, financially more secure, less stressed, ate more healthily,
Climate change 8% and had better prospects in later life than their parents did (Government
Childhood obesity 3% News Network, 2007). Such research findings have led to the viewpoint that
Access to credit 2% “50 is the new 30”. This means that the 50-year-olds in most respects have
Adapted from Ipsos South Africa, 2016
the same capacities and characteristics than those of 30-year-old people of
Figure 1.1 Life circumstances that influence well-being worldwide
a generation or two ago.
The histogram in Figure 1.2 reflects the life circumstances that influence However, recent research shows a changing trend concerning certain
well-being of South Africans. It is interesting that South Africans regard the aspects. For example, in England are indications that millennials (the age
same four mentioned aspects (unemployment, financial/political corruption, group who entered adulthood at the beginning of the new millennium)
poverty and social inequality, and crime and violence) as the most important, could be the first generation to earn less than their parents could in their
although in a different sequence of importance. lifetime (Resolution Foundation, 2016). A world wide survey also indicated
18 19
that the younger generation in many countries, in comparison with their The aforementioned overview is not only interesting; it is also a wake-up call
parents’ generation, is not as positive about the future as believed by many for the Government and experts in different areas to plan effectively to provide
(Ipsos Mori, 2014). Table 1.7 provides information in this regard. the necessary resources, facilities, supporting programmes and services. As we
describe the various psychological dimensions of adulthood in the next chapters, it
Table 1.7 Generation comparison about future will become clear that psychologists as experts in the field of human development
and behaviour could make a significant contribution in combating many
To what extent, if at all, do you feel that your generation will have had a better
or worse life than your parents’ generation, or will it be about the same? of the complications and challenges that will accompany these demographic
changes.
Country Better About the same Worse
China 82 10 8
Brazil 52 21 27 REVIEW THIS SECTION
India 51 17 32 1. The study of adult development is a relatively new field in developmental
Turkey 50 17 33 psychology. What contributed to neglect in this area? Which factors led to a
change in this view?
Japan 47 26 27
Russia 42 29 29 2. Identify the substages of adulthood.

South Africa 42 18 40 3. Define the following:

gerontology primary ageing
Argentina 40 33 27 geropsychology secondary ageing
Australia 40 26 34 chronological age tertiary ageing
psychological age optimal ageing
South Korea 40 25 35
social age personal age
Sweden 40 31 29 cultural age the ageless self
Germany 38 31 31 biological age the legal definition of age
functional age legal maturity
Britain 36 24 40
4. How may the ageing of the population and a decline in population growth rate
Poland 35 24 41
affect adult development?
Italy 34 17 49
5. What effects could increased urbanisation and migration patterns have on the
Canada 33 29 38 demographics of South African adults?
USA 29 25 46 6. What is meant by well-being? On which branch of psychology is well-being based?
Spain 25 24 51 How does the well-being of South Africans compare to that of other countries?
France 25 20 55
Ipsos Mori, 2014
Belgium 24 27 49

It is noteworthy that South Africa is doing relatively well, regardless of

the pessimism that South Africans often express. However, such findings
should be interpreted with care. For example, political and economic factors
could have a significant effect on feelings of optimism and could cause
optimism scores to change considerably in a relatively short time.

20 21
that the younger generation in many countries, in comparison with their The aforementioned overview is not only interesting; it is also a wake-up call
parents’ generation, is not as positive about the future as believed by many for the Government and experts in different areas to plan effectively to provide
(Ipsos Mori, 2014). Table 1.7 provides information in this regard. the necessary resources, facilities, supporting programmes and services. As we
describe the various psychological dimensions of adulthood in the next chapters, it
Table 1.7 Generation comparison about future will become clear that psychologists as experts in the field of human development
and behaviour could make a significant contribution in combating many
To what extent, if at all, do you feel that your generation will have had a better
or worse life than your parents’ generation, or will it be about the same? of the complications and challenges that will accompany these demographic
changes.
Country Better About the same Worse
China 82 10 8
Brazil 52 21 27 REVIEW THIS SECTION
India 51 17 32 1. The study of adult development is a relatively new field in developmental
Turkey 50 17 33 psychology. What contributed to neglect in this area? Which factors led to a
change in this view?
Japan 47 26 27
Russia 42 29 29 2. Identify the substages of adulthood.

South Africa 42 18 40 3. Define the following:

gerontology primary ageing
Argentina 40 33 27 geropsychology secondary ageing
Australia 40 26 34 chronological age tertiary ageing
psychological age optimal ageing
South Korea 40 25 35
social age personal age
Sweden 40 31 29 cultural age the ageless self
Germany 38 31 31 biological age the legal definition of age
functional age legal maturity
Britain 36 24 40
4. How may the ageing of the population and a decline in population growth rate
Poland 35 24 41
affect adult development?
Italy 34 17 49
5. What effects could increased urbanisation and migration patterns have on the
Canada 33 29 38 demographics of South African adults?
USA 29 25 46 6. What is meant by well-being? On which branch of psychology is well-being based?
Spain 25 24 51 How does the well-being of South Africans compare to that of other countries?
France 25 20 55
Ipsos Mori, 2014
Belgium 24 27 49

It is noteworthy that South Africa is doing relatively well, regardless of

the pessimism that South Africans often express. However, such findings
should be interpreted with care. For example, political and economic factors
could have a significant effect on feelings of optimism and could cause
optimism scores to change considerably in a relatively short time.

20 21
1.2 A LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE responsible, successful adults. In addition, many abilities such as
memory, strength and endurance can be improved significantly with
Since we view development as a life-long process that begins before birth training and practice, even late in life. Therefore, development is not
and ends with death, a major perspective of this book is the life-span cast in stone; nevertheless, the potential for change does have limits.
developmental approach. The basic premise • Development is embedded in history. Development occurs in a given
of this approach is that human development cultural-historical context. Individuals not only respond to their social-
takes place over the entire life span and cultural environments, but also interact with and actively influence
all age groups are equally important. them. For example, people who grew up during the apartheid era had
At every age, various developmental different factors influencing their development and would respond
processes are at work and each period has differently to their environment than those growing up in the post-
its own characteristics and own value. For apartheid era would. People who function in a Western-orientated
example, the early phases of development individualistic society will have different views than those functioning
(e.g. childhood and adolescence) are in a traditional African communal society, or those in a process of
characterised by rapid age-related increases enculturation where both views are incorporated.
in physical growth and abilities, while during • Development occurs in context. A person’s development is influenced
the later stages (e.g. young and middle by an interaction of biological, social and environmental factors. Some
adulthood), physical growth slows down, of these influences are also experienced by other individuals, such as
Paul Baltes
but certain abilities continue to develop as age-related changes. Others we share because of the similar times we
people adapt to the environment. Paul Baltes (1939-2006), a leader in the live in, such as historical and social changes, while others are uniquely
study of life-span developmental psychology, identified the following key experienced influences not shared by others, such as unexpected
features of this approach, which also provide a framework from which to events. Therefore, how we develop over the years is shaped by a
study adult development (Baltes, 1987, 2003; Baltes et al., 2006): variety of influences, the entire context of who we are and where we
are in time.
• Development is multidisciplinary. Development is influenced by multiple
• Development is multidimensional and multidirectional. Development factors; therefore, no single perspective can explain the complexities of
occurs in various dimensions (e.g. on physical, cognitive and personality development adequately. Many disciplines play a role in conceptualising
levels), but could also affect multiple aspects simultaneously. For and influencing development. For example, the biological (medical)
example, personality, cognitions and social functioning can all be fields address the ageing process at the organismic, molecular, cellular
changing at the same time, since any area of development is tied and neurological levels; psychology addresses adult development and
intricately to other areas of development. However, development ageing from the socio-emotional, personality and cognitive domains,
may also occur in different directions: We may improve in some while sociology examines demographical and social structural forces
areas, remain stable in others and decline in others. This implies that such as the effect of socio-economic factors, social changes and political
developmental processes increase and decrease throughout the life- and social policies.
span, since we both grow and decline: As people lose in one area (e.g.
some intellectual capacities such as processing speed) they may gain The life-span developmental perspective emphasises that human
in another (e.g. wisdom). development takes a life time to complete. It helps us to understand in
• Development shows plasticity. Plasticity refers to the ability to change. what way our many experiences influence our development. It also points
This implies that many aspects of development can be modified or out that no one part of life is any more or less important than the other
altered and that at any point people’s experiences could change their (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015).
course of development. For example, young people entering adulthood
with substance-abuse problems can overcome them and become
22 23
1.2 A LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE responsible, successful adults. In addition, many abilities such as
memory, strength and endurance can be improved significantly with
Since we view development as a life-long process that begins before birth training and practice, even late in life. Therefore, development is not
and ends with death, a major perspective of this book is the life-span cast in stone; nevertheless, the potential for change does have limits.
developmental approach. The basic premise • Development is embedded in history. Development occurs in a given
of this approach is that human development cultural-historical context. Individuals not only respond to their social-
takes place over the entire life span and cultural environments, but also interact with and actively influence
all age groups are equally important. them. For example, people who grew up during the apartheid era had
At every age, various developmental different factors influencing their development and would respond
processes are at work and each period has differently to their environment than those growing up in the post-
its own characteristics and own value. For apartheid era would. People who function in a Western-orientated
example, the early phases of development individualistic society will have different views than those functioning
(e.g. childhood and adolescence) are in a traditional African communal society, or those in a process of
characterised by rapid age-related increases enculturation where both views are incorporated.
in physical growth and abilities, while during • Development occurs in context. A person’s development is influenced
the later stages (e.g. young and middle by an interaction of biological, social and environmental factors. Some
adulthood), physical growth slows down, of these influences are also experienced by other individuals, such as
Paul Baltes
but certain abilities continue to develop as age-related changes. Others we share because of the similar times we
people adapt to the environment. Paul Baltes (1939-2006), a leader in the live in, such as historical and social changes, while others are uniquely
study of life-span developmental psychology, identified the following key experienced influences not shared by others, such as unexpected
features of this approach, which also provide a framework from which to events. Therefore, how we develop over the years is shaped by a
study adult development (Baltes, 1987, 2003; Baltes et al., 2006): variety of influences, the entire context of who we are and where we
are in time.
• Development is multidisciplinary. Development is influenced by multiple
• Development is multidimensional and multidirectional. Development factors; therefore, no single perspective can explain the complexities of
occurs in various dimensions (e.g. on physical, cognitive and personality development adequately. Many disciplines play a role in conceptualising
levels), but could also affect multiple aspects simultaneously. For and influencing development. For example, the biological (medical)
example, personality, cognitions and social functioning can all be fields address the ageing process at the organismic, molecular, cellular
changing at the same time, since any area of development is tied and neurological levels; psychology addresses adult development and
intricately to other areas of development. However, development ageing from the socio-emotional, personality and cognitive domains,
may also occur in different directions: We may improve in some while sociology examines demographical and social structural forces
areas, remain stable in others and decline in others. This implies that such as the effect of socio-economic factors, social changes and political
developmental processes increase and decrease throughout the life- and social policies.
span, since we both grow and decline: As people lose in one area (e.g.
some intellectual capacities such as processing speed) they may gain The life-span developmental perspective emphasises that human
in another (e.g. wisdom). development takes a life time to complete. It helps us to understand in
• Development shows plasticity. Plasticity refers to the ability to change. what way our many experiences influence our development. It also points
This implies that many aspects of development can be modified or out that no one part of life is any more or less important than the other
altered and that at any point people’s experiences could change their (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015).
course of development. For example, young people entering adulthood
with substance-abuse problems can overcome them and become
22 23
1.3 THE FORCES AND INFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENT age considered appropriate by the specific culture, the development
is considered ‘on time’ in terms of the social clock. However, the
From the discussion above, it is clear that different forces shape boundaries of the chronological-social clock have become broader in
development. According to Baltes, it is important to understand that recent decades. For example, it is not uncommon for young people
development is constructed through biological, sociocultural, biological to extend their training, thereby also postponing the establishment of
and individual factors working together. These interactive forces are the a career, entering into marriage and starting a family. It is also not
following (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015): uncommon for an older adult to either advance or postpone retirement
beyond the expected retirement age.
• Biological forces. These forces include all the biological, physical and ■ Normative history-graded influences. These influences result from
physiological related factors that affect development, such as changes events that most people in a specific culture experience at the same
in physical appearance, changes in organ, perceptual and reproductive time. These events may be biological (such as the AIDS epidemic),
systems, as well as health-related factors. psychological (such as stereotypes resulting from political ideologies,
• Psychological forces. These forces include all internal perceptual, attitudes towards women or the aged) or sociocultural (such as changing
cognitive, emotional and personality factors that affect development. attitudes towards sexuality, divorce or childrearing practices, changes
Collectively, these are the characteristics that we notice about people in governmental policies that affect health and education, caring
as unique individuals. practices for the aged, or adjustment to societal crime and violence).
• Sociocultural forces. These forces refer to interpersonal, societal, History-graded influences not only may affect the members of a
ethnic, gender and cultural forces that provide the overall contexts in specific culture or geographical area, but also could have a world-wide
which we develop. influence. For example, World War I and II and the Great Depression in
• Life-cycle forces. These are forces that affect the course of development the 1930s had a tremendous influence on the psychological, social and
and may be a combination of biological, psychological and sociocultural economic adjustment of nations and individuals. More recent examples
forces that affect people at different points of their lives. are globalisation which causes pressures and upheavals associated
with living in a ‘global village’, and information and communication
All of the above-mentioned forces are interrelated and combine to technologies that have a profound effect on the way people currently
influence people’s development. Some of these influences are common gather information and communicate.
to all or most individuals; others are unique to a specific individual. Paul ■ Non-normative influences. These influences result from random or rare
Baltes and his colleagues (2006) identified the following sets of influences events that may affect a particular individual, but are not experienced
that could affect development: by most people. These may be favourable events such as winning
a contest, a lottery or an election, or being promoted at work; or
■ Normative age-graded influences. These are experiences caused unfavourable ones, such as an accident, contracting a life-threatening
by biological, psychological and sociocultural forces and are usually or debilitating illness, or losing one’s job. The unpredictability of
associated with chronological age. Biological forces during adulthood these events makes them unique and could change the course of
include menopause, which signifies the end of the childbearing period, one’s life in an instant. For example, think of the profound effect on
and age-related impairments in vision, hearing and reaction speed. Nelson Mandela’s life, serving a 27-year jail sentence for his political
Psychological forces include adjustments in family life such as the convictions.
responsibility of socialising the next generation and adjusting to the
‘empty nest’ when children start leaving home, adjusting to retirement Although described separately, normative, history-graded and non-
and to the loss of a spouse. Sociocultural forces include the time of normative influences do not occur in separate vacuums. In fact, they
first marriage and the birth of the first child, establishing a career and may affect one another as life-cycle forces. For example, history-graded
ending a career through retirement. When these events occur at an influences such as information and communication technologies may

24 25
1.3 THE FORCES AND INFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENT age considered appropriate by the specific culture, the development
is considered ‘on time’ in terms of the social clock. However, the
From the discussion above, it is clear that different forces shape boundaries of the chronological-social clock have become broader in
development. According to Baltes, it is important to understand that recent decades. For example, it is not uncommon for young people
development is constructed through biological, sociocultural, biological to extend their training, thereby also postponing the establishment of
and individual factors working together. These interactive forces are the a career, entering into marriage and starting a family. It is also not
following (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015): uncommon for an older adult to either advance or postpone retirement
beyond the expected retirement age.
• Biological forces. These forces include all the biological, physical and ■ Normative history-graded influences. These influences result from
physiological related factors that affect development, such as changes events that most people in a specific culture experience at the same
in physical appearance, changes in organ, perceptual and reproductive time. These events may be biological (such as the AIDS epidemic),
systems, as well as health-related factors. psychological (such as stereotypes resulting from political ideologies,
• Psychological forces. These forces include all internal perceptual, attitudes towards women or the aged) or sociocultural (such as changing
cognitive, emotional and personality factors that affect development. attitudes towards sexuality, divorce or childrearing practices, changes
Collectively, these are the characteristics that we notice about people in governmental policies that affect health and education, caring
as unique individuals. practices for the aged, or adjustment to societal crime and violence).
• Sociocultural forces. These forces refer to interpersonal, societal, History-graded influences not only may affect the members of a
ethnic, gender and cultural forces that provide the overall contexts in specific culture or geographical area, but also could have a world-wide
which we develop. influence. For example, World War I and II and the Great Depression in
• Life-cycle forces. These are forces that affect the course of development the 1930s had a tremendous influence on the psychological, social and
and may be a combination of biological, psychological and sociocultural economic adjustment of nations and individuals. More recent examples
forces that affect people at different points of their lives. are globalisation which causes pressures and upheavals associated
with living in a ‘global village’, and information and communication
All of the above-mentioned forces are interrelated and combine to technologies that have a profound effect on the way people currently
influence people’s development. Some of these influences are common gather information and communicate.
to all or most individuals; others are unique to a specific individual. Paul ■ Non-normative influences. These influences result from random or rare
Baltes and his colleagues (2006) identified the following sets of influences events that may affect a particular individual, but are not experienced
that could affect development: by most people. These may be favourable events such as winning
a contest, a lottery or an election, or being promoted at work; or
■ Normative age-graded influences. These are experiences caused unfavourable ones, such as an accident, contracting a life-threatening
by biological, psychological and sociocultural forces and are usually or debilitating illness, or losing one’s job. The unpredictability of
associated with chronological age. Biological forces during adulthood these events makes them unique and could change the course of
include menopause, which signifies the end of the childbearing period, one’s life in an instant. For example, think of the profound effect on
and age-related impairments in vision, hearing and reaction speed. Nelson Mandela’s life, serving a 27-year jail sentence for his political
Psychological forces include adjustments in family life such as the convictions.
responsibility of socialising the next generation and adjusting to the
‘empty nest’ when children start leaving home, adjusting to retirement Although described separately, normative, history-graded and non-
and to the loss of a spouse. Sociocultural forces include the time of normative influences do not occur in separate vacuums. In fact, they
first marriage and the birth of the first child, establishing a career and may affect one another as life-cycle forces. For example, history-graded
ending a career through retirement. When these events occur at an influences such as information and communication technologies may

24 25
affect the different age cohorts (groups) differently. These technologies took a nurture approach, stating that a person’s development is entirely
may be viewed by older adults as a means of communication and accessing dependent on environmental influences and experiences. However, this
information only, while adolescents and young adults, in addition, may use nature-nurture debate took a different turn in the later part of the 20th
these technologies as a means of relaxation, social networking, venting century, as findings from research increasingly indicated that neither
frustrations and establishing identities, to such an extent that they may nature nor nurture could account for individual differences on its own.
seem inseparable from their cell phones. This behaviour may be a source Researchers therefore proposed that
of irritation to older adults, often resulting in conflict between generations. genetic and environmental factors interact
Although non-normative life events are by definition not related to age, (work together) to influence a person’s
their influence on development may depend on the age at which they occur. development. In fact, findings from behaviour
Developing cancer at age 20 will have a different effect from developing genetic studies not only emphasised the
it at age 70; divorce will have a very different effect on a person at age 25 interaction between nature and nurture, but
than it will have at age 65. Even events that are considered normative may also acknowledged the difficulty in ascribing
have different effects at different ages, or may even be considered non- the relative importance of either (Bergman
normative if they occur at an unexpected or uncommon age. For example, & Plomin, 1996). This is especially true of
retiring at age 35 or becoming a parent for the first time at age 70 will older adults, where nature and nurture
have a profoundly different effect on the individual than retiring at age 65 have interacted over a period. This makes it
and having one’s first child at age 30. particularly difficult to disentangle the major
In summary, all three of these influences play a role in development, Nature versus Nuture contributory source. As people mature, their
both separately and in combination. Because of its complexity, it is variability becomes more noticeable: Some
understandable why Paul Baltes believed that life-span development people remain healthy and physically active and cognitively intact well
requires knowledge across the various disciplines. into their later years, while others may experience health problems and
physical and cognitive impairment relatively early during the ageing
1.4 DEBATES, ISSUES AND MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT process. In both these scenarios biological characteristics (genetic make-
up; genetic inheritance) may interact with environmental factors (life-style
In our description of development thus far, it has become increasingly choices; physical environment). The more current view is that each person
clear that many forces play a role in development. However, some is genetically unique and has unique interactions with the environment;
debates continue to recur in discussions on development. These issues therefore, both these forces have to be considered to explain people’s
often concern the relative contributions of nature (hereditary, genetic and behaviour or reactions to events.
biological factors) and nurture (environmental factors and experience), the In addition to this interactionist approach to development, researchers
interaction between biological and environmental factors, and people’s also introduced the concept of reciprocity in development (Bronfenbrenner
own contribution towards their development. Other debates, intrinsically & Ceci, 1994). According to this approach, people both influence and are
related to the above, concerns whether change occurs more gradually, or influenced by events in their lives. This approach therefore proposes that
sporadically and in stages and whether the ageing process is universal to individuals take an active role in their development and not a passive
all people or whether it is culturally and contextually bound. role as mere recipients of their genetic endowment or environmental
circumstances, as proposed by the naturalists or nurturalists. This
• The nature-nurture-interactionist-reciprocity debate. During the late implies that adults are not only products of their biological make-up and
19th and early 20th centuries, researchers argued that human development experiences, but also shape their own experiences, both through active
to a large extent is related to biological processes within the individual, interpretation of the events that occur to them and through the
while the environment has minimum effect. This position was contested by actions they take. For example, a 60-year-old man who loses his leg due
the emergence of behaviourism in the mid-20th century. The behaviourists to diabetes may interpret this event as an unchangeable, uncontrollable

26 27
affect the different age cohorts (groups) differently. These technologies took a nurture approach, stating that a person’s development is entirely
may be viewed by older adults as a means of communication and accessing dependent on environmental influences and experiences. However, this
information only, while adolescents and young adults, in addition, may use nature-nurture debate took a different turn in the later part of the 20th
these technologies as a means of relaxation, social networking, venting century, as findings from research increasingly indicated that neither
frustrations and establishing identities, to such an extent that they may nature nor nurture could account for individual differences on its own.
seem inseparable from their cell phones. This behaviour may be a source Researchers therefore proposed that
of irritation to older adults, often resulting in conflict between generations. genetic and environmental factors interact
Although non-normative life events are by definition not related to age, (work together) to influence a person’s
their influence on development may depend on the age at which they occur. development. In fact, findings from behaviour
Developing cancer at age 20 will have a different effect from developing genetic studies not only emphasised the
it at age 70; divorce will have a very different effect on a person at age 25 interaction between nature and nurture, but
than it will have at age 65. Even events that are considered normative may also acknowledged the difficulty in ascribing
have different effects at different ages, or may even be considered non- the relative importance of either (Bergman
normative if they occur at an unexpected or uncommon age. For example, & Plomin, 1996). This is especially true of
retiring at age 35 or becoming a parent for the first time at age 70 will older adults, where nature and nurture
have a profoundly different effect on the individual than retiring at age 65 have interacted over a period. This makes it
and having one’s first child at age 30. particularly difficult to disentangle the major
In summary, all three of these influences play a role in development, Nature versus Nuture contributory source. As people mature, their
both separately and in combination. Because of its complexity, it is variability becomes more noticeable: Some
understandable why Paul Baltes believed that life-span development people remain healthy and physically active and cognitively intact well
requires knowledge across the various disciplines. into their later years, while others may experience health problems and
physical and cognitive impairment relatively early during the ageing
1.4 DEBATES, ISSUES AND MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT process. In both these scenarios biological characteristics (genetic make-
up; genetic inheritance) may interact with environmental factors (life-style
In our description of development thus far, it has become increasingly choices; physical environment). The more current view is that each person
clear that many forces play a role in development. However, some is genetically unique and has unique interactions with the environment;
debates continue to recur in discussions on development. These issues therefore, both these forces have to be considered to explain people’s
often concern the relative contributions of nature (hereditary, genetic and behaviour or reactions to events.
biological factors) and nurture (environmental factors and experience), the In addition to this interactionist approach to development, researchers
interaction between biological and environmental factors, and people’s also introduced the concept of reciprocity in development (Bronfenbrenner
own contribution towards their development. Other debates, intrinsically & Ceci, 1994). According to this approach, people both influence and are
related to the above, concerns whether change occurs more gradually, or influenced by events in their lives. This approach therefore proposes that
sporadically and in stages and whether the ageing process is universal to individuals take an active role in their development and not a passive
all people or whether it is culturally and contextually bound. role as mere recipients of their genetic endowment or environmental
circumstances, as proposed by the naturalists or nurturalists. This
• The nature-nurture-interactionist-reciprocity debate. During the late implies that adults are not only products of their biological make-up and
19th and early 20th centuries, researchers argued that human development experiences, but also shape their own experiences, both through active
to a large extent is related to biological processes within the individual, interpretation of the events that occur to them and through the
while the environment has minimum effect. This position was contested by actions they take. For example, a 60-year-old man who loses his leg due
the emergence of behaviourism in the mid-20th century. The behaviourists to diabetes may interpret this event as an unchangeable, uncontrollable

26 27
biological force. This person may become bedridden and become a burden all people reflects the same basic process (e.g. cognitive development
to his family, negatively affecting not only his own life, but also that of his proceeds from more concrete thinking in childhood to abstract thinking
family and immediate environment. By contrast, another person may see in adulthood). From this perspective, development proceeds in certain
such an event as a challenge by changing his own way of movement (using universal directions. Differences in development are viewed simply as
crutches, wheelchair or prosthesis) and adopting a positive attitude. variations on a fundamental developmental process. Therefore all people
• The continuous-discontinuous debate. One aspect of this issue refers will reach the level of abstract thinking, although the nature of the abstract
to whether development occurs gradually, such as a gradual or continuous thinking may be different, depending on the environment in which they
unfolding of potential, or abruptly, or discontinuously in distinct stages, function (e.g. consider a person who has to function in a high tech urban
where one stage is distinctly different from the next. The answer is that environment, as opposed to someone functioning in a traditional rural
both these processes may play a role in development. For example, environment).
consider the gradual changes in appearance as people grow older; this Other theorists believe that development is far more complex and
is a clear indication of a gradual, continuous developmental process. On varied and may not be just variations on a theme (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-
the other hand, the cessation of a female’s reproductive ability during her Fields, 2015). Proponents of this view believe that adult development
middle years, is an indication of a discontinuous, stage-like developmental and ageing are intertwined with the context in which they occur. The
process. However, this distinction is not clear cut. For example, when reasoning behind this view is that a person’s development is a product
taking physical changes on a day-to-day basis, the changes may seem of complex interactions between the individual and the environment.
continuous (we hardly notice how people we see every day change with These interactions are not fundamentally the same in all environments.
age). Conversely, when viewed over many years, the same changes would Even within a single culture, sequences of developmental change may
seem discontinuous (notice how your classmates, people who you haven’t differ from subcultural group to subcultural group, from family to family
seen for many years, have almost changed unrecognisably at your 50th and even from individual to individual. Each environment has its own set
matric reunion). of unique procedures that shape development – thus resulting in many
This links to another aspect, which concerns the question whether pathways, or directions of development.
people change or remain the same over time. For example, will the shy
person you knew in high school, still be shy as an older adult? As you may
predict, this is quite a difficult question to answer. All of us know people
who “haven’t changed at all” and others who have changed “beyond
recognition”. Why is this? For many gerontologists, considering whether
stability or change is foremost in adult development depends on which
aspect is being considered and which theoretical perspective is being
adopted. For example, although we may change in some aspects such as
physical features, others may be more difficult to detect or to prove. This
is especially true regarding personality traits, as we shall see in Chapter 4.
Even people of the same cultural group can experience adult development very differently
However, change and stability remain important concepts in development:
while stability is important to maintain a sense of continuity (that is, that Three models of development emerged from these debates on
we are still the same person), the sense that we could change (especially development, each placing a different emphasis on genetics, the
some undesirable characteristics or circumstance) is also important. environment and the interaction thereof. These models address the bigger
• The universality-context specific debate. This refers to the extent to question about what guides development (Whitbourne & Whitbourne,
which developmental changes are common to all humans (universal) or 2014). The essential elements of these models are summarised in Table 1.8.
different across cultures, subcultures and individuals (context specific)
(Sigelman & Rider, 2014). Some theorists argue that development in ■ The organismic model. Taken from the word ‘organism’, this model
proposes that people develop according to internally generated patterns
28 29
biological force. This person may become bedridden and become a burden all people reflects the same basic process (e.g. cognitive development
to his family, negatively affecting not only his own life, but also that of his proceeds from more concrete thinking in childhood to abstract thinking
family and immediate environment. By contrast, another person may see in adulthood). From this perspective, development proceeds in certain
such an event as a challenge by changing his own way of movement (using universal directions. Differences in development are viewed simply as
crutches, wheelchair or prosthesis) and adopting a positive attitude. variations on a fundamental developmental process. Therefore all people
• The continuous-discontinuous debate. One aspect of this issue refers will reach the level of abstract thinking, although the nature of the abstract
to whether development occurs gradually, such as a gradual or continuous thinking may be different, depending on the environment in which they
unfolding of potential, or abruptly, or discontinuously in distinct stages, function (e.g. consider a person who has to function in a high tech urban
where one stage is distinctly different from the next. The answer is that environment, as opposed to someone functioning in a traditional rural
both these processes may play a role in development. For example, environment).
consider the gradual changes in appearance as people grow older; this Other theorists believe that development is far more complex and
is a clear indication of a gradual, continuous developmental process. On varied and may not be just variations on a theme (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-
the other hand, the cessation of a female’s reproductive ability during her Fields, 2015). Proponents of this view believe that adult development
middle years, is an indication of a discontinuous, stage-like developmental and ageing are intertwined with the context in which they occur. The
process. However, this distinction is not clear cut. For example, when reasoning behind this view is that a person’s development is a product
taking physical changes on a day-to-day basis, the changes may seem of complex interactions between the individual and the environment.
continuous (we hardly notice how people we see every day change with These interactions are not fundamentally the same in all environments.
age). Conversely, when viewed over many years, the same changes would Even within a single culture, sequences of developmental change may
seem discontinuous (notice how your classmates, people who you haven’t differ from subcultural group to subcultural group, from family to family
seen for many years, have almost changed unrecognisably at your 50th and even from individual to individual. Each environment has its own set
matric reunion). of unique procedures that shape development – thus resulting in many
This links to another aspect, which concerns the question whether pathways, or directions of development.
people change or remain the same over time. For example, will the shy
person you knew in high school, still be shy as an older adult? As you may
predict, this is quite a difficult question to answer. All of us know people
who “haven’t changed at all” and others who have changed “beyond
recognition”. Why is this? For many gerontologists, considering whether
stability or change is foremost in adult development depends on which
aspect is being considered and which theoretical perspective is being
adopted. For example, although we may change in some aspects such as
physical features, others may be more difficult to detect or to prove. This
is especially true regarding personality traits, as we shall see in Chapter 4.
Even people of the same cultural group can experience adult development very differently
However, change and stability remain important concepts in development:
while stability is important to maintain a sense of continuity (that is, that Three models of development emerged from these debates on
we are still the same person), the sense that we could change (especially development, each placing a different emphasis on genetics, the
some undesirable characteristics or circumstance) is also important. environment and the interaction thereof. These models address the bigger
• The universality-context specific debate. This refers to the extent to question about what guides development (Whitbourne & Whitbourne,
which developmental changes are common to all humans (universal) or 2014). The essential elements of these models are summarised in Table 1.8.
different across cultures, subcultures and individuals (context specific)
(Sigelman & Rider, 2014). Some theorists argue that development in ■ The organismic model. Taken from the word ‘organism’, this model
proposes that people develop according to internally generated patterns
28 29
 of development. Development occurs in an orderly, stage-like fashion, and As we continue our discussion of adult development and the ageing
is therefore viewed as discontinuous or abrupt. Each stage is qualitatively process, you will notice that most of the theories discussed in this book
different (i.e. distinctly different in type or kind) and usually more advanced could be linked to either one of these models while the usefulness of the
than the previous one. These stages occur universally, although the precise concepts of multidimensionality, multidirectionality and plasticity will
timing of the stages may differ. People are seen to be involved actively in become apparent.
their development and although environmental influences may not cause or
significantly alter development, they could accelerate or delay development 1.5 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
(e.g. when people follow a healthy or destructive lifestyle).
■ The mechanistic model. With reference to the word ‘machine’, this model In our discussions thus far, you may have come to the conclusion that adult
proposes that human behaviour results from external forces upon which development is complex and that changes occur in several aspects of the
the individual reacts passively. Development throughout life occurs through self. As you may have realised, these changes occur in the biological,
the individual’s exposure to events and experiences that offer new learning psychological and social domains. This book will also concentrate on these
opportunities. Development is seen as gradual or continuous and quantitative domains of development. Therefore, for the purpose of covering all of the
in nature. This means that there are no distinct or identifiable stages; aspects of adult development, the following domains will be discussed:
development is a smooth, continuous set of progressions as individuals
acquire knowledge through new experiences. According to this view, human – Physical development. This concerns changes in the biological
development proceeds in a steadily positive direction until maturity, after systems and structures of the body such as sensory capacities, organ
which a steady decline begins. Therefore, physically and psychologically, older and nervous systems, endocrine and immune systems, reproductive
people will be in a less favourable position than younger adults. systems and motor skills.
■ The interactionist model. According to this model, both genetics – Cognitive development. This includes changes in mental functioning
and the environment or context interact in complex ways towards the such as memory, intelligence, problem solving, creativity and wisdom.
individual’s development. The individual actively participates in his or – Personality development. This involves the unique way in which
her own development through reciprocal relations with the environment. individuals deal with the world, how they think about themselves and
Individual differences are recognised and development is viewed as how they express thoughts and emotions.
both multidirectional (there are many pathways in development) and – Social development. This refers to changes in the person’s social
multidimensional (many processes are involved in development). The world. It encompasses the world of interpersonal relationships, social
principle of plasticity is also recognised, where development may be altered, roles, social networks and social responsibilities.
depending on the nature of the individual’s specific interactions in the
environment (e.g. a person undergoing corrective eye surgery to prevent In addition to the above-mentioned areas of development, factors that
deteriorating eyesight and improving his or her independence). contribute to successful ageing and mental health in later life, will also
be discussed. This book will end with a discussion of death as the last
Table 1.8 Models of person-environment interaction developmental stage in the life-cycle.
Issues in Organismic Mechanistic Interactionist Although these domains will be dealt with separately in individual
development
chapters, they are interrelated and each aspect of development affects
Nature of change Qualitative Quantitative Multidirectional
Multidimensional the others. For example, physical and cognitive capacities may affect
Contribution of Active Passive Active one’s choice of occupation and contribute towards self-esteem, which
individual are important aspects of social and personality development; anxiety
Main force in Internal (biological) External Reciprocal about physical health or family matters may impair physical or intellectual
development (environmental)
performance, while grief over a lost loved one may cause physical illness.
Theory of Biological theories Learning theories Ecological theories
development Stage theories In addition, as we have seen, life-cycle forces that include both normative
Adapted from Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014
30 31
 of development. Development occurs in an orderly, stage-like fashion, and As we continue our discussion of adult development and the ageing
is therefore viewed as discontinuous or abrupt. Each stage is qualitatively process, you will notice that most of the theories discussed in this book
different (i.e. distinctly different in type or kind) and usually more advanced could be linked to either one of these models while the usefulness of the
than the previous one. These stages occur universally, although the precise concepts of multidimensionality, multidirectionality and plasticity will
timing of the stages may differ. People are seen to be involved actively in become apparent.
their development and although environmental influences may not cause or
significantly alter development, they could accelerate or delay development 1.5 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
(e.g. when people follow a healthy or destructive lifestyle).
■ The mechanistic model. With reference to the word ‘machine’, this model In our discussions thus far, you may have come to the conclusion that adult
proposes that human behaviour results from external forces upon which development is complex and that changes occur in several aspects of the
the individual reacts passively. Development throughout life occurs through self. As you may have realised, these changes occur in the biological,
the individual’s exposure to events and experiences that offer new learning psychological and social domains. This book will also concentrate on these
opportunities. Development is seen as gradual or continuous and quantitative domains of development. Therefore, for the purpose of covering all of the
in nature. This means that there are no distinct or identifiable stages; aspects of adult development, the following domains will be discussed:
development is a smooth, continuous set of progressions as individuals
acquire knowledge through new experiences. According to this view, human – Physical development. This concerns changes in the biological
development proceeds in a steadily positive direction until maturity, after systems and structures of the body such as sensory capacities, organ
which a steady decline begins. Therefore, physically and psychologically, older and nervous systems, endocrine and immune systems, reproductive
people will be in a less favourable position than younger adults. systems and motor skills.
■ The interactionist model. According to this model, both genetics – Cognitive development. This includes changes in mental functioning
and the environment or context interact in complex ways towards the such as memory, intelligence, problem solving, creativity and wisdom.
individual’s development. The individual actively participates in his or – Personality development. This involves the unique way in which
her own development through reciprocal relations with the environment. individuals deal with the world, how they think about themselves and
Individual differences are recognised and development is viewed as how they express thoughts and emotions.
both multidirectional (there are many pathways in development) and – Social development. This refers to changes in the person’s social
multidimensional (many processes are involved in development). The world. It encompasses the world of interpersonal relationships, social
principle of plasticity is also recognised, where development may be altered, roles, social networks and social responsibilities.
depending on the nature of the individual’s specific interactions in the
environment (e.g. a person undergoing corrective eye surgery to prevent In addition to the above-mentioned areas of development, factors that
deteriorating eyesight and improving his or her independence). contribute to successful ageing and mental health in later life, will also
be discussed. This book will end with a discussion of death as the last
Table 1.8 Models of person-environment interaction developmental stage in the life-cycle.
Issues in Organismic Mechanistic Interactionist Although these domains will be dealt with separately in individual
development
chapters, they are interrelated and each aspect of development affects
Nature of change Qualitative Quantitative Multidirectional
Multidimensional the others. For example, physical and cognitive capacities may affect
Contribution of Active Passive Active one’s choice of occupation and contribute towards self-esteem, which
individual are important aspects of social and personality development; anxiety
Main force in Internal (biological) External Reciprocal about physical health or family matters may impair physical or intellectual
development (environmental)
performance, while grief over a lost loved one may cause physical illness.
Theory of Biological theories Learning theories Ecological theories
development Stage theories In addition, as we have seen, life-cycle forces that include both normative
Adapted from Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014
30 31
and non-normative changes could also affect people’s ageing process, 1.6 RESEARCH IN ADULT DEVELOPMENT
either favourably or unfavourably.
In the next section research methods in adult development will be Research is the proverbial life artery of any science. No science can exist
discussed. without research, because it is the only process that can be used to gather
reliable information in order to come to valid conclusions. Without research,
REVIEW THIS SECTION any science will become stagnant, lose credibility and eventually disappear.
1. What is the basic principle of the life-span developmental approach? Therefore, research is also a very important part of psychology and all its
2. Discuss the key features of the life-span developmental approach, as proposed by subdisciplines, such as developmental psychology, which in turn, is divided
Baltes and his colleagues. into child psychology and adult psychology.
3. Discuss the interactive forces that shape development. Many of you already have a basic knowledge of research that you acquired
4. Decide whether the following scenarios reflect multidirectionality, multidimensionality in your introductory psychology, child psychology and other courses. The
or plasticity: research methods used in adult development that will be discussed next
- a person who changes his lifestyle to combat a genetic heart disease are the same or at least similar to the research methods to which you have
- a person who gradually loses her hearing and becomes socially isolated
- people who experience losses in reaction speed, but increases in knowledge been introduced in these other courses, especially as far as child psychology
and wisdom. is concerned. Therefore, the outline and content of this section is based on
5. Decide whether the following examples reflect the influence of history, context or the present authors’ child and adolescent development text (Louw & Louw,
multiple disciplines on development: 2014) and introductory text (Louw & Edwards, 1998). (Also see Cavanaugh
- examining the social structural forces, organismic and socio-emotional factors & Blanchard-Fields, 2015; Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014.)
involved in the ageing process
- examining whether marriage or co-habitation (living together without getting
married) will have different effects on a person’s psycho-social development
1.6.1 Kinds of research
- examining the influence of information technologies on the development of
young and older adults. Research in psychology is usually divided into two categories: quantitative
6. Discuss the following sets of influences that could affect development: and qualitative research.
- normative age-graded influences Quantitative research developed from the natural sciences and,
- normative history-graded influences very simply put, is a process in which mainly statistical data, for example
- non-normative influences
frequencies (i.e. how many times something occurs), are used to obtain
7. Decide whether the following influences are normative, non-normative or history information and to make predictions concerning a specific topic. For
graded: Give a reason(s) for your answer:
- a person of 30, still living with his or her parents
example, researchers may send questionnaires to 1000 students on campus
- the influence of the apartheid system of government on South-Africans to determine how many of them engage in unprotected sex. From existing
- having a child at age 15 statistical data on what the chances are of contracting HIV/AIDS if one
- a person who lost his legs due to a disease exercises unprotected sex, they will then use statistical techniques to predict
8. How may age and culture reflect normative or non-normative influences? what percentage of students on campus have, or could contract, HIV/AIDS.
9. Discuss the following debates and issues in development: Qualitative research developed as a backlash against the quantitative
- the nature-nurture-interactionist-reciprocity debate method which, it believes, reduces people to numbers without considering
- the continuity-discontinuity debate
- the universality-context specific debate
either their feelings and thoughts, or the person as a unique individual.
Therefore, the qualitative method attempts to provide an in-depth
10. Discuss the models of person-environment interaction that arose from these debates.
understanding of what people experience. By way of illustration: To know
11. Taking the above models into account, which do you regard as the most relevant model
how many students on campus regularly experience racism, by which groups,
of development today? Give reasons for your answer.
and under what circumstances (information obtained through quantitative
12. Reflect on your own development thus far. Which forces, influences and issues may
have shaped you into the person you are?
research), is only one perspective of the problem; however, discovering
the inner emotions and thoughts of such students (information obtained
32 33
and non-normative changes could also affect people’s ageing process, 1.6 RESEARCH IN ADULT DEVELOPMENT
either favourably or unfavourably.
In the next section research methods in adult development will be Research is the proverbial life artery of any science. No science can exist
discussed. without research, because it is the only process that can be used to gather
reliable information in order to come to valid conclusions. Without research,
REVIEW THIS SECTION any science will become stagnant, lose credibility and eventually disappear.
1. What is the basic principle of the life-span developmental approach? Therefore, research is also a very important part of psychology and all its
2. Discuss the key features of the life-span developmental approach, as proposed by subdisciplines, such as developmental psychology, which in turn, is divided
Baltes and his colleagues. into child psychology and adult psychology.
3. Discuss the interactive forces that shape development. Many of you already have a basic knowledge of research that you acquired
4. Decide whether the following scenarios reflect multidirectionality, multidimensionality in your introductory psychology, child psychology and other courses. The
or plasticity: research methods used in adult development that will be discussed next
- a person who changes his lifestyle to combat a genetic heart disease are the same or at least similar to the research methods to which you have
- a person who gradually loses her hearing and becomes socially isolated
- people who experience losses in reaction speed, but increases in knowledge been introduced in these other courses, especially as far as child psychology
and wisdom. is concerned. Therefore, the outline and content of this section is based on
5. Decide whether the following examples reflect the influence of history, context or the present authors’ child and adolescent development text (Louw & Louw,
multiple disciplines on development: 2014) and introductory text (Louw & Edwards, 1998). (Also see Cavanaugh
- examining the social structural forces, organismic and socio-emotional factors & Blanchard-Fields, 2015; Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014.)
involved in the ageing process
- examining whether marriage or co-habitation (living together without getting
married) will have different effects on a person’s psycho-social development
1.6.1 Kinds of research
- examining the influence of information technologies on the development of
young and older adults. Research in psychology is usually divided into two categories: quantitative
6. Discuss the following sets of influences that could affect development: and qualitative research.
- normative age-graded influences Quantitative research developed from the natural sciences and,
- normative history-graded influences very simply put, is a process in which mainly statistical data, for example
- non-normative influences
frequencies (i.e. how many times something occurs), are used to obtain
7. Decide whether the following influences are normative, non-normative or history information and to make predictions concerning a specific topic. For
graded: Give a reason(s) for your answer:
- a person of 30, still living with his or her parents
example, researchers may send questionnaires to 1000 students on campus
- the influence of the apartheid system of government on South-Africans to determine how many of them engage in unprotected sex. From existing
- having a child at age 15 statistical data on what the chances are of contracting HIV/AIDS if one
- a person who lost his legs due to a disease exercises unprotected sex, they will then use statistical techniques to predict
8. How may age and culture reflect normative or non-normative influences? what percentage of students on campus have, or could contract, HIV/AIDS.
9. Discuss the following debates and issues in development: Qualitative research developed as a backlash against the quantitative
- the nature-nurture-interactionist-reciprocity debate method which, it believes, reduces people to numbers without considering
- the continuity-discontinuity debate
- the universality-context specific debate
either their feelings and thoughts, or the person as a unique individual.
Therefore, the qualitative method attempts to provide an in-depth
10. Discuss the models of person-environment interaction that arose from these debates.
understanding of what people experience. By way of illustration: To know
11. Taking the above models into account, which do you regard as the most relevant model
how many students on campus regularly experience racism, by which groups,
of development today? Give reasons for your answer.
and under what circumstances (information obtained through quantitative
12. Reflect on your own development thus far. Which forces, influences and issues may
have shaped you into the person you are?
research), is only one perspective of the problem; however, discovering
the inner emotions and thoughts of such students (information obtained
32 33
through qualitative research) provides us with such unique information that age’. Should one prefer the research question format it will be in question
the study would be poorer without it. It is often stated that quantitative form of course: ‘Are women older than 60 more prone to depression than
researchers obtain information about people, while qualitative researchers men of the same age are?’. The main goal of a hypothesis is to provide a
obtain information from people. guideline for the study, especially concerning the objectives and type of
Table 1.9 shows some of the most important differences between information needed.
quantitative and qualitative research. The next step is to decide how the information will be gathered. (In
research the term ‘data’ is usually used to refer to information gathered
Table 1.9 Main differences between quantitative and qualitative research
by means of research. Note that ‘data’ is the plural for the Latin ‘datum’,
Quantitative Qualitative although it is widely accepted that the term could be used as singular.) Two
1. Obtain information through numbers 1. Obtain information through words aspects are especially relevant: sampling and research methods.
2. Research process is largely objective 2. Research process is largely subjective
3. Large number of research participants 3. Small number of research participants 1.6.2.1 Sampling
with emphasis on averages, frequencies, with emphasis on individual emotions,
etc. thoughts, etc.
Sampling refers to the process in which a limited number of research
4. Data gathering done by more structured 4. Data gathering done by less structured
research instruments, e.g. psychological techniques, e.g. interviews and participants are selected in such a way that they are representative of the
tests and questionnaires observations total group from which they are selected. This enables the researcher to
5. Results largely generalisable 5. Results usually not generalisable generalise from the small to the total group. However, this is not nearly as easy
6. Attempt to control and structure 6. Relative absence of control and structure as it may sound. For example, should you want to investigate the attitudes of
research environment in research environment
South Africans towards mixed marriages, you will have to consider that there
7. Employ data analyses that rely on 7. Focus is on description and could be huge differences among the participants, for example regarding
statistical procedures interpretation of behaviour
Allwood, 2012; Louw & Kail, 2007
their race, age, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status and type of exposure
to other races. Another example: We want to study students’ attitudes to
However, it should be taken into account that the aforementioned pre-marital sex and our university has 10 000 students. It is not possible to
differences between qualitative and quantitative research are not always as study every student; so we decide to limit our study to a small group of 100.
significant as they may seem. They overlap in several ways; for example, both The total of 10 000 students is called the population and the group of 100 is
kinds of research may make use of interviews and questionnaires, albeit that called the sample. There are many methods of sampling:
in the case of qualitative research, they may be less structured. Convenience sampling means taking the first 100 students that we
Mixed-method research has become very popular during the last few can conveniently find. However, this is unlikely to yield results that are
decades (Mertens et al., 2016). This means researchers use both quantitative representative of the population as a whole. If possible, we should not ask
and qualitative research methods in one study. This approach enables for volunteers because people who volunteer to take part in psychological
them to get the best of both worlds and thus obtain a much more research are not representative either. They tend to be better educated,
comprehensive picture of human behaviour. more intelligent, higher in need for social approval, more sociable, more
unconventional and less authoritarian than people in general (Gangule et al.,
1.6.2 Methods of gathering information 2015; Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1975). Instead we must use a sampling strategy
such as random sampling or stratified sampling. In random sampling, we
After a researcher has decided on the research topic, a hypothesis or research select students at random so that the sample is not biased. This could involve
question is formulated. A hypothesis is a tentative assumption (‘educated getting a list of all the students and getting someone to stick a pin into the
prediction’) about what the outcome of the study will be. It is usually in the list at random to get 100 names. In stratified sampling, we create a sample
form of a statement but could also be in question format, in which case it is that has the same characteristics as the population as a whole, that is, the
often called a research question. The following is an example of a hypothesis: same proportion of males and females, the same proportion of students from
‘Women older than 60 are more prone to depression than men of the same
34 35
through qualitative research) provides us with such unique information that age’. Should one prefer the research question format it will be in question
the study would be poorer without it. It is often stated that quantitative form of course: ‘Are women older than 60 more prone to depression than
researchers obtain information about people, while qualitative researchers men of the same age are?’. The main goal of a hypothesis is to provide a
obtain information from people. guideline for the study, especially concerning the objectives and type of
Table 1.9 shows some of the most important differences between information needed.
quantitative and qualitative research. The next step is to decide how the information will be gathered. (In
research the term ‘data’ is usually used to refer to information gathered
Table 1.9 Main differences between quantitative and qualitative research
by means of research. Note that ‘data’ is the plural for the Latin ‘datum’,
Quantitative Qualitative although it is widely accepted that the term could be used as singular.) Two
1. Obtain information through numbers 1. Obtain information through words aspects are especially relevant: sampling and research methods.
2. Research process is largely objective 2. Research process is largely subjective
3. Large number of research participants 3. Small number of research participants 1.6.2.1 Sampling
with emphasis on averages, frequencies, with emphasis on individual emotions,
etc. thoughts, etc.
Sampling refers to the process in which a limited number of research
4. Data gathering done by more structured 4. Data gathering done by less structured
research instruments, e.g. psychological techniques, e.g. interviews and participants are selected in such a way that they are representative of the
tests and questionnaires observations total group from which they are selected. This enables the researcher to
5. Results largely generalisable 5. Results usually not generalisable generalise from the small to the total group. However, this is not nearly as easy
6. Attempt to control and structure 6. Relative absence of control and structure as it may sound. For example, should you want to investigate the attitudes of
research environment in research environment
South Africans towards mixed marriages, you will have to consider that there
7. Employ data analyses that rely on 7. Focus is on description and could be huge differences among the participants, for example regarding
statistical procedures interpretation of behaviour
Allwood, 2012; Louw & Kail, 2007
their race, age, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status and type of exposure
to other races. Another example: We want to study students’ attitudes to
However, it should be taken into account that the aforementioned pre-marital sex and our university has 10 000 students. It is not possible to
differences between qualitative and quantitative research are not always as study every student; so we decide to limit our study to a small group of 100.
significant as they may seem. They overlap in several ways; for example, both The total of 10 000 students is called the population and the group of 100 is
kinds of research may make use of interviews and questionnaires, albeit that called the sample. There are many methods of sampling:
in the case of qualitative research, they may be less structured. Convenience sampling means taking the first 100 students that we
Mixed-method research has become very popular during the last few can conveniently find. However, this is unlikely to yield results that are
decades (Mertens et al., 2016). This means researchers use both quantitative representative of the population as a whole. If possible, we should not ask
and qualitative research methods in one study. This approach enables for volunteers because people who volunteer to take part in psychological
them to get the best of both worlds and thus obtain a much more research are not representative either. They tend to be better educated,
comprehensive picture of human behaviour. more intelligent, higher in need for social approval, more sociable, more
unconventional and less authoritarian than people in general (Gangule et al.,
1.6.2 Methods of gathering information 2015; Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1975). Instead we must use a sampling strategy
such as random sampling or stratified sampling. In random sampling, we
After a researcher has decided on the research topic, a hypothesis or research select students at random so that the sample is not biased. This could involve
question is formulated. A hypothesis is a tentative assumption (‘educated getting a list of all the students and getting someone to stick a pin into the
prediction’) about what the outcome of the study will be. It is usually in the list at random to get 100 names. In stratified sampling, we create a sample
form of a statement but could also be in question format, in which case it is that has the same characteristics as the population as a whole, that is, the
often called a research question. The following is an example of a hypothesis: same proportion of males and females, the same proportion of students from
‘Women older than 60 are more prone to depression than men of the same
34 35
different faculties and years of study and the same proportion of different could be invited to visit a laboratory at a university where they are exposed
languages and ethnic groups. to various situations to determine (usually through a one-way mirror or
Now that you know how important representativeness is, how by video) how they would react in certain situations. The observations of
representative do you think psychological (and other) research is in South people’s behaviour by family members or colleagues, for example, may also
Africa? Unfortunately, the answer is not encouraging. For many decades be used.
the primary focus of psychological research in South Africa was on whites, As will be discussed later (see 1.6.6), it is very important to remember that
just like most psychological research in the USA (on which most of our it is unethical to make any recording of a person without his or her permission.
prescribed textbooks are based) has been conducted on white, middle-
class and educated Americans (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015). (b) Self-reports
Fortunately, the situation in South Africa has changed significantly and many
research studies now reflect a much more representative and thus realistic The two most common forms of self-reports used by psychologists are
perspective, especially concerning groups and subgroups that were almost interviews and questionnaires. With all the sophisticated techniques
totally ignored in the past. However, there is still a long way to go before we available, people sometimes neglect using one of the best ways to get
can proverbially pat ourselves on the back in this regard. information: ask for it: that is, interview the person about whom you would
like to know more. Interviews are particularly reliable, especially when a
1.6.2.2 Research methods to gather information relationship of trust exists between the interviewer and interviewee and
when the interviewer has been trained in interviewing skills. Interviews are
Another important decision in any research process is which research method particularly useful when the behaviour in which the psychologist is interested
will be used for gathering information. Many different methods are available cannot be observed directly and no other suitable technique is available. In
and you will have to decide which method or methods (various methods addition interviews are often used in the early stages of an investigation to
may be used in one research project) would best suit the proposed research obtain preliminary information about the issue.
project. These research methods range from relatively simple procedures to A questionnaire may be regarded as an interview in written form. More
sophisticated techniques using highly refined tests or technical apparatus. specifically, it is a set of written questions to which people have to respond.
The following are some of the research methods most often used to gather Self-report questionnaires are valuable tools to investigate people’s attitudes,
scientific information in developmental psychology: feelings and behaviours. Questionnaires may be used with individuals or
groups.
(a) Systematic observation of behaviour
(c) Psychological tests
As the name implies, systematic observation involves watching people and
carefully recording (for example, by means of video or sound recordings, or Psychological tests are instruments that have been compiled for the purpose
taking notes) what they do or say. Although this method is used mostly in of measuring psychological qualities such as personality characteristics and
research with children, it is also used with adults. Two forms of systematic intelligence. A test consists of questions, statements, problems or pictures to
observation are common: which the research participants must respond. It is important to distinguish
Firstly, naturalistic observation is used where people are observed in between popular non-scientific tests that appear freely on the Internet and
some natural or real-life situation such as on campus, as part of a sports in magazines and psychological tests that are standardised. Standardisation
crowd, in a mall or in an old age home. Because people may act differently means that a psychological test has been compiled in such a way that it is
when they know they are being watched, observers often do not make their reliable, valid and has norms. Reliability refers to the fact that the results are
presence or intentions known. However, this is not always possible. consistent over time; that is, that similar scores are obtained by the same
Secondly, in structured observation the researcher creates a setting individuals when they are tested on different occasions. Validity requires
likely to elicit the behaviour that is being researched. For example, students that a test should measure what it is supposed to measure. For example,

36 37
different faculties and years of study and the same proportion of different could be invited to visit a laboratory at a university where they are exposed
languages and ethnic groups. to various situations to determine (usually through a one-way mirror or
Now that you know how important representativeness is, how by video) how they would react in certain situations. The observations of
representative do you think psychological (and other) research is in South people’s behaviour by family members or colleagues, for example, may also
Africa? Unfortunately, the answer is not encouraging. For many decades be used.
the primary focus of psychological research in South Africa was on whites, As will be discussed later (see 1.6.6), it is very important to remember that
just like most psychological research in the USA (on which most of our it is unethical to make any recording of a person without his or her permission.
prescribed textbooks are based) has been conducted on white, middle-
class and educated Americans (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015). (b) Self-reports
Fortunately, the situation in South Africa has changed significantly and many
research studies now reflect a much more representative and thus realistic The two most common forms of self-reports used by psychologists are
perspective, especially concerning groups and subgroups that were almost interviews and questionnaires. With all the sophisticated techniques
totally ignored in the past. However, there is still a long way to go before we available, people sometimes neglect using one of the best ways to get
can proverbially pat ourselves on the back in this regard. information: ask for it: that is, interview the person about whom you would
like to know more. Interviews are particularly reliable, especially when a
1.6.2.2 Research methods to gather information relationship of trust exists between the interviewer and interviewee and
when the interviewer has been trained in interviewing skills. Interviews are
Another important decision in any research process is which research method particularly useful when the behaviour in which the psychologist is interested
will be used for gathering information. Many different methods are available cannot be observed directly and no other suitable technique is available. In
and you will have to decide which method or methods (various methods addition interviews are often used in the early stages of an investigation to
may be used in one research project) would best suit the proposed research obtain preliminary information about the issue.
project. These research methods range from relatively simple procedures to A questionnaire may be regarded as an interview in written form. More
sophisticated techniques using highly refined tests or technical apparatus. specifically, it is a set of written questions to which people have to respond.
The following are some of the research methods most often used to gather Self-report questionnaires are valuable tools to investigate people’s attitudes,
scientific information in developmental psychology: feelings and behaviours. Questionnaires may be used with individuals or
groups.
(a) Systematic observation of behaviour
(c) Psychological tests
As the name implies, systematic observation involves watching people and
carefully recording (for example, by means of video or sound recordings, or Psychological tests are instruments that have been compiled for the purpose
taking notes) what they do or say. Although this method is used mostly in of measuring psychological qualities such as personality characteristics and
research with children, it is also used with adults. Two forms of systematic intelligence. A test consists of questions, statements, problems or pictures to
observation are common: which the research participants must respond. It is important to distinguish
Firstly, naturalistic observation is used where people are observed in between popular non-scientific tests that appear freely on the Internet and
some natural or real-life situation such as on campus, as part of a sports in magazines and psychological tests that are standardised. Standardisation
crowd, in a mall or in an old age home. Because people may act differently means that a psychological test has been compiled in such a way that it is
when they know they are being watched, observers often do not make their reliable, valid and has norms. Reliability refers to the fact that the results are
presence or intentions known. However, this is not always possible. consistent over time; that is, that similar scores are obtained by the same
Secondly, in structured observation the researcher creates a setting individuals when they are tested on different occasions. Validity requires
likely to elicit the behaviour that is being researched. For example, students that a test should measure what it is supposed to measure. For example,

36 37
if you want to measure general intelligence, the test should not focus on is changeable and can take on different numbers, quantities or values. To take
a specific area or even on a related characteristic, such as interest. A norm the variables age and IQ as examples: People’s ages could vary, for instance, 21,
is a statistical number (for example, an average) that makes it possible to 35, 42, 55 or 67 or their IQs could vary; for instance it could be low (below 90),
compare any individual’s test score with the achievement of a comparable average (90 – 110) or above average (more than 110). Differences in age and
group. The availability of norms for psychological tests is a very important differences in IQ may have different effects on behaviour. For example, younger
problem, especially in multi-cultural countries such as South Africa. Many people, or people with higher intellectual ability may be better at information
tests used in South Africa were standardised in western cultures (mainly processing than the elderly or people with lower intellectual ability.
the USA) and are therefore not appropriate for most cultural groups in this In experimental research, an experimental and control group are
country. For example, a member of one cultural group relatively easily may be often used. The experimental group is exposed to a certain variable (e.g.
classified inaccurately as intellectually disabled if he or she has to respond to treatment) while the control group is not exposed to the variable (e.g.
questions that were compiled according to the norms of another culture. The receives another type of treatment or no treatment at all). Thus, should
problem is aggravated when the questions are in a language other than the researchers want to conduct an experiment to find out what the effect of a
testee’s mother tongue or have even been translated poorly. In South Africa, specific training programme would be on the cognitive development of older
it is regarded as unprofessional and unethical to use such tests. However, adults, they could divide a group of older adults into an experimental and a
when psychological tests meet the necessary scientific criteria, they may control group. The experimental group would be subjected to the training
provide the researcher with valuable information. programme, but not the control group. In this case, the training programme
would be called the independent variable and cognitive development the
1.6.3 General research designs dependent variable. Therefore, in an experiment an independent variable is
any factor the researcher expects to cause change in another variable. The
What is the difference between the research methods that we have dependent variable is the factor the researcher expects to be influenced by
just discussed and a research design? Let us use the building metaphor the independent variable in an experiment.
(comparison): When a building contractor wants to build a building he Although the experimental method is a particularly good research
cannot just begin without having a clear purpose and an overall plan for the method because it allows researchers to identify and isolate factors
building. He must also have an architect’s drawing and a time schedule, and (variables) in order to investigate their effect on behaviour, it also has several
obtain permits. This resembles the design of a research project. The methods disadvantages. One major disadvantage is that many questions cannot
that we have already discussed correspond with the specific techniques be investigated because of ethical objections. For instance, you may want
the building contractor will use to build the building (that is, the practical to investigate experimentally the effect of poor nutrition or long-lasting
construction of the building). isolation on adult cognitive development. Of course, It would be totally
Just like there are various methods of gathering information, there are unethical to subject the experimental group to poor nutrition or isolate
different acknowledged designs that can be used to conduct research. them for a relatively long time. Another problem stems from the difficulty
Researchers can also be very innovative and come up with adapted or new of generalising from experimentally obtained results to real-life situations
ways to do research. However, the following may be regarded as the main because the experimental situation is largely artificial and may differ
designs used by developmental psychologists to do research. significantly from everyday life situations.

1.6.3.1 Experimental research 1.6.3.2 Correlational research

In experimental research, it is possible for the researcher to control the In correlational research the goal is to determine whether there is a correlation
conditions in such a way that it is possible to determine to what extent a (relationship) between variables. The goal is to describe the strength of the
given factor influences the behaviour to be investigated. A factor is usually relationship between two or more events or characteristics (variables).
called a ‘variable’. As the name indicates, a variable refers to anything that For example, if you wish to determine whether there is a relationship

38 39
if you want to measure general intelligence, the test should not focus on is changeable and can take on different numbers, quantities or values. To take
a specific area or even on a related characteristic, such as interest. A norm the variables age and IQ as examples: People’s ages could vary, for instance, 21,
is a statistical number (for example, an average) that makes it possible to 35, 42, 55 or 67 or their IQs could vary; for instance it could be low (below 90),
compare any individual’s test score with the achievement of a comparable average (90 – 110) or above average (more than 110). Differences in age and
group. The availability of norms for psychological tests is a very important differences in IQ may have different effects on behaviour. For example, younger
problem, especially in multi-cultural countries such as South Africa. Many people, or people with higher intellectual ability may be better at information
tests used in South Africa were standardised in western cultures (mainly processing than the elderly or people with lower intellectual ability.
the USA) and are therefore not appropriate for most cultural groups in this In experimental research, an experimental and control group are
country. For example, a member of one cultural group relatively easily may be often used. The experimental group is exposed to a certain variable (e.g.
classified inaccurately as intellectually disabled if he or she has to respond to treatment) while the control group is not exposed to the variable (e.g.
questions that were compiled according to the norms of another culture. The receives another type of treatment or no treatment at all). Thus, should
problem is aggravated when the questions are in a language other than the researchers want to conduct an experiment to find out what the effect of a
testee’s mother tongue or have even been translated poorly. In South Africa, specific training programme would be on the cognitive development of older
it is regarded as unprofessional and unethical to use such tests. However, adults, they could divide a group of older adults into an experimental and a
when psychological tests meet the necessary scientific criteria, they may control group. The experimental group would be subjected to the training
provide the researcher with valuable information. programme, but not the control group. In this case, the training programme
would be called the independent variable and cognitive development the
1.6.3 General research designs dependent variable. Therefore, in an experiment an independent variable is
any factor the researcher expects to cause change in another variable. The
What is the difference between the research methods that we have dependent variable is the factor the researcher expects to be influenced by
just discussed and a research design? Let us use the building metaphor the independent variable in an experiment.
(comparison): When a building contractor wants to build a building he Although the experimental method is a particularly good research
cannot just begin without having a clear purpose and an overall plan for the method because it allows researchers to identify and isolate factors
building. He must also have an architect’s drawing and a time schedule, and (variables) in order to investigate their effect on behaviour, it also has several
obtain permits. This resembles the design of a research project. The methods disadvantages. One major disadvantage is that many questions cannot
that we have already discussed correspond with the specific techniques be investigated because of ethical objections. For instance, you may want
the building contractor will use to build the building (that is, the practical to investigate experimentally the effect of poor nutrition or long-lasting
construction of the building). isolation on adult cognitive development. Of course, It would be totally
Just like there are various methods of gathering information, there are unethical to subject the experimental group to poor nutrition or isolate
different acknowledged designs that can be used to conduct research. them for a relatively long time. Another problem stems from the difficulty
Researchers can also be very innovative and come up with adapted or new of generalising from experimentally obtained results to real-life situations
ways to do research. However, the following may be regarded as the main because the experimental situation is largely artificial and may differ
designs used by developmental psychologists to do research. significantly from everyday life situations.

1.6.3.1 Experimental research 1.6.3.2 Correlational research

In experimental research, it is possible for the researcher to control the In correlational research the goal is to determine whether there is a correlation
conditions in such a way that it is possible to determine to what extent a (relationship) between variables. The goal is to describe the strength of the
given factor influences the behaviour to be investigated. A factor is usually relationship between two or more events or characteristics (variables).
called a ‘variable’. As the name indicates, a variable refers to anything that For example, if you wish to determine whether there is a relationship

38 39
 use the correlational method to determine whether there is a relationship
between brain damage and behaviour in adults who are already brain
damaged. Although such a relationship is not necessarily causal in nature, it
may at least identify a potential causal relationship.

1.6.3.3 Case studies

The case study method is an in-depth study of especially a single person

“Why do they switch on the seatbelt light? A correlation does not indicate causality. The
but it may also be of a single event, situation or other unit (e.g. a family).
Every time they do that, it gets bumpy” sun does not rise because the cock crows! It is particularly useful in the research of rare and unique cases where,
due to a lack of enough research participants, it is not possible to use the
between watching violent TV and aggressive behaviour, you will be doing experimental or correlational method. The information for a case study may
correlational research. However, an important note of caution – a correlation be obtained by using techniques such as interviews, psychological tests,
does not necessarily imply a causal relationship (i.e. that the one factor therapy sessions, prolonged observations and diaries. Examples of the
causes the other). For example, should you find a strong (high) correlation case study method would be if a researcher wishes to study a well-known
between adults who watch violent sport such as boxing and their exhibition scientist, politician or sportsperson.
of violent behaviour, there could be at least four explanations. The first Therefore it goes without saying that the case study method may
possibility actually speaks for itself: Watching violent TV may cause adults contribute significantly to our knowledge. In fact, prominent figures such as
to become violent themselves. The second possibility is, in fact, just the Freud and Piaget relied heavily on this method. Nevertheless, this method
opposite: Adults who are violent like watching violent TV. In other words, also has its disadvantages. Firstly, as the subject of a case study is usually
they are not violent because they watch violent TV; they watch violent TV unique, the findings cannot be generalised to other subjects. Secondly, the
because they are violent. A third possibility is that another variable or factor results of a case study could be subjective and therefore not very reliable. For
that has not been investigated is responsible for both the violent behaviour example, case studies may have a strong retrospective component, meaning
and the watching of violent TV. Let us consider, for instance, family or that events of the past play an important role. As memory is not always
interpersonal conflict as a third variable. If there is continuous conflict in reliable, it is obvious that past events could be forgotten and even distorted.
the family, some adults may try to escape from the unpleasant situation by Additionally, the researcher could deliberately or not deliberately study the
watching TV. They prefer violent programmes because these programmes
are full of action and tend to occupy their thinking (a way of escaping) more
than non-violent programmes. Furthermore, they exhibit violent behaviour
because they are acting out their anger, frustration and irritability about A sketch of the skull
of Phineas Gage, an
the unpleasant family situation. A fourth possibility could simply be that American construction
the person’s violent behaviour could have a genetic basis and that watching worker who survived
an accident in which
violent TV or family conflict has not significantly contributed to his or her a large iron rod was
violent behaviour. Supporters of this genetic viewpoint would add that driven through his head.
He became a well-
many people watch violent TV and are exposed to family conflict, yet do not known case study to
determine the effect of
necessarily show any violent behaviour. brain damage.
Although correlational research does not indicate causality, it remains
a valuable research method. In many cases it is impossible to use the
experimental method, as interference by the researcher to change a variable
would be unethical. For example, you cannot cause brain damage in adults
to determine its effect on their behaviour. In such cases, the researcher could
40 41
 use the correlational method to determine whether there is a relationship
between brain damage and behaviour in adults who are already brain
damaged. Although such a relationship is not necessarily causal in nature, it
may at least identify a potential causal relationship.

1.6.3.3 Case studies

The case study method is an in-depth study of especially a single person

“Why do they switch on the seatbelt light? A correlation does not indicate causality. The
but it may also be of a single event, situation or other unit (e.g. a family).
Every time they do that, it gets bumpy” sun does not rise because the cock crows! It is particularly useful in the research of rare and unique cases where,
due to a lack of enough research participants, it is not possible to use the
between watching violent TV and aggressive behaviour, you will be doing experimental or correlational method. The information for a case study may
correlational research. However, an important note of caution – a correlation be obtained by using techniques such as interviews, psychological tests,
does not necessarily imply a causal relationship (i.e. that the one factor therapy sessions, prolonged observations and diaries. Examples of the
causes the other). For example, should you find a strong (high) correlation case study method would be if a researcher wishes to study a well-known
between adults who watch violent sport such as boxing and their exhibition scientist, politician or sportsperson.
of violent behaviour, there could be at least four explanations. The first Therefore it goes without saying that the case study method may
possibility actually speaks for itself: Watching violent TV may cause adults contribute significantly to our knowledge. In fact, prominent figures such as
to become violent themselves. The second possibility is, in fact, just the Freud and Piaget relied heavily on this method. Nevertheless, this method
opposite: Adults who are violent like watching violent TV. In other words, also has its disadvantages. Firstly, as the subject of a case study is usually
they are not violent because they watch violent TV; they watch violent TV unique, the findings cannot be generalised to other subjects. Secondly, the
because they are violent. A third possibility is that another variable or factor results of a case study could be subjective and therefore not very reliable. For
that has not been investigated is responsible for both the violent behaviour example, case studies may have a strong retrospective component, meaning
and the watching of violent TV. Let us consider, for instance, family or that events of the past play an important role. As memory is not always
interpersonal conflict as a third variable. If there is continuous conflict in reliable, it is obvious that past events could be forgotten and even distorted.
the family, some adults may try to escape from the unpleasant situation by Additionally, the researcher could deliberately or not deliberately study the
watching TV. They prefer violent programmes because these programmes
are full of action and tend to occupy their thinking (a way of escaping) more
than non-violent programmes. Furthermore, they exhibit violent behaviour
because they are acting out their anger, frustration and irritability about A sketch of the skull
of Phineas Gage, an
the unpleasant family situation. A fourth possibility could simply be that American construction
the person’s violent behaviour could have a genetic basis and that watching worker who survived
an accident in which
violent TV or family conflict has not significantly contributed to his or her a large iron rod was
violent behaviour. Supporters of this genetic viewpoint would add that driven through his head.
He became a well-
many people watch violent TV and are exposed to family conflict, yet do not known case study to
determine the effect of
necessarily show any violent behaviour. brain damage.
Although correlational research does not indicate causality, it remains
a valuable research method. In many cases it is impossible to use the
experimental method, as interference by the researcher to change a variable
would be unethical. For example, you cannot cause brain damage in adults
to determine its effect on their behaviour. In such cases, the researcher could
40 41
subject from his or her theoretical viewpoint and even ignore information study such questions. Secondly, there are questions about developmental
that does not support the viewpoint. For example, a researcher who is a changes (changes that accompany an increase in age). The study of
supporter of the biological perspective may focus on the role of biological developmental change is more complex, as it is often difficult to distinguish
factors in development, while a supporter of contextual theories may focus between different kinds of change; thus, various research designs have been
more on socio-cultural factors. developed specifically for this purpose. Developmental psychologists are
interested mainly in changes that are the natural or ‘automatic’ result of an
1.6.3.4 Meta-analysis increase in age. However, the changes that occur in people over the course
of time are not always the result of only an increase in age. Changes in the
It often happens that numerous studies have been done on a particular topic, individual may also be the result of physical, emotional or social changes.
but that the results are so contradictory, that no final conclusion can be Therefore, psychologists have developed various research designs to
reached. In such cases, a researcher may make use of meta-analysis. This is a overcome this problem. Next, some of the most important research designs
research method where a statistical analysis is made of the results of existing in this regard will be discussed.
studies on the topic to determine whether greater clarity could be reached,
especially concerning the role of a specific variable. There are several topics 1.6.4.1 The longitudinal design
in psychology where the results of different studies have been inconsistent
or in conflict with one another; for example, the effect of age on intellectual When the longitudinal design is used, the same sample of people is
abilities or self-concept. Only when meta-analytic studies are conducted on studied at different stages over a long period. Almost all aspects of behaviour
topics such as these, better understanding of the issue may be reached. As may be studied, while any method of gathering information and method of
the body of knowledge on a specific topic is growing constantly, it becomes research may be used in longitudinal research. More importantly, it is the
more common that research results are in conflict (think, for example, of only way to answer questions on the continuity or discontinuity of behaviour.
all the inconsistent findings in the medical field on what and what not to For example, will characteristics such as aggression and extraversion (being
eat). Therefore, it is understandable that meta-analysis is becoming an outgoing and sociable) observed in childhood continue into adulthood? To
increasingly popular research method in psychological research. answer this question, a large number of children will be assessed, for instance
As in any other research method, meta-analysis is not without its every two years, to determine if the mentioned characteristics continue to
shortcomings. One of the biggest problems is that, as researchers have exist. Such a study will continue into adulthood and even into old age. A
not gathered the research data themselves, there is no guarantee that the variation of the longitudinal design is the prospective method. In this case,
variables studied were defined in the same way in the different studies. The the researchers sample a group of people before they develop a specific
consequence may then be that the researchers are under the impression that type of behaviour or experience a particular event. An example is where
they are researching the same variable, while this may not be the case. Think, researchers want to study divorce and then sample only married couples
for instance, of how the concept of intelligence may be defined (totally) and then study those who later get divorced. Although valuable information
differently by different researchers. Additionally, the original researchers may be obtained by using the longitudinal design, it has disadvantages that
may have gathered and analysed the data in different ways. This will make may overshadow its strengths, for example the following:
comparisons very difficult and even impossible.
• Apart from the staggering financial implications of such long-term
1.6.4 Research designs for studying adult development research, the practical implications are abundant. For instance, to get
hold of all the participants every time, is a massive task.
There are certain questions with which developmental psychologists in • When people are given the same test or task many times, they may
particular are concerned. Firstly, there are questions about determinants become ‘test-wise’. Improved achievement over time that is attributed
of development (factors that influence development). General research to development may actually stem from practice with a particular test or
designs such as experimental and correlational research are well-suited to task (also called the practice effect). Changing the test or task from one

42 43
subject from his or her theoretical viewpoint and even ignore information study such questions. Secondly, there are questions about developmental
that does not support the viewpoint. For example, a researcher who is a changes (changes that accompany an increase in age). The study of
supporter of the biological perspective may focus on the role of biological developmental change is more complex, as it is often difficult to distinguish
factors in development, while a supporter of contextual theories may focus between different kinds of change; thus, various research designs have been
more on socio-cultural factors. developed specifically for this purpose. Developmental psychologists are
interested mainly in changes that are the natural or ‘automatic’ result of an
1.6.3.4 Meta-analysis increase in age. However, the changes that occur in people over the course
of time are not always the result of only an increase in age. Changes in the
It often happens that numerous studies have been done on a particular topic, individual may also be the result of physical, emotional or social changes.
but that the results are so contradictory, that no final conclusion can be Therefore, psychologists have developed various research designs to
reached. In such cases, a researcher may make use of meta-analysis. This is a overcome this problem. Next, some of the most important research designs
research method where a statistical analysis is made of the results of existing in this regard will be discussed.
studies on the topic to determine whether greater clarity could be reached,
especially concerning the role of a specific variable. There are several topics 1.6.4.1 The longitudinal design
in psychology where the results of different studies have been inconsistent
or in conflict with one another; for example, the effect of age on intellectual When the longitudinal design is used, the same sample of people is
abilities or self-concept. Only when meta-analytic studies are conducted on studied at different stages over a long period. Almost all aspects of behaviour
topics such as these, better understanding of the issue may be reached. As may be studied, while any method of gathering information and method of
the body of knowledge on a specific topic is growing constantly, it becomes research may be used in longitudinal research. More importantly, it is the
more common that research results are in conflict (think, for example, of only way to answer questions on the continuity or discontinuity of behaviour.
all the inconsistent findings in the medical field on what and what not to For example, will characteristics such as aggression and extraversion (being
eat). Therefore, it is understandable that meta-analysis is becoming an outgoing and sociable) observed in childhood continue into adulthood? To
increasingly popular research method in psychological research. answer this question, a large number of children will be assessed, for instance
As in any other research method, meta-analysis is not without its every two years, to determine if the mentioned characteristics continue to
shortcomings. One of the biggest problems is that, as researchers have exist. Such a study will continue into adulthood and even into old age. A
not gathered the research data themselves, there is no guarantee that the variation of the longitudinal design is the prospective method. In this case,
variables studied were defined in the same way in the different studies. The the researchers sample a group of people before they develop a specific
consequence may then be that the researchers are under the impression that type of behaviour or experience a particular event. An example is where
they are researching the same variable, while this may not be the case. Think, researchers want to study divorce and then sample only married couples
for instance, of how the concept of intelligence may be defined (totally) and then study those who later get divorced. Although valuable information
differently by different researchers. Additionally, the original researchers may be obtained by using the longitudinal design, it has disadvantages that
may have gathered and analysed the data in different ways. This will make may overshadow its strengths, for example the following:
comparisons very difficult and even impossible.
• Apart from the staggering financial implications of such long-term
1.6.4 Research designs for studying adult development research, the practical implications are abundant. For instance, to get
hold of all the participants every time, is a massive task.
There are certain questions with which developmental psychologists in • When people are given the same test or task many times, they may
particular are concerned. Firstly, there are questions about determinants become ‘test-wise’. Improved achievement over time that is attributed
of development (factors that influence development). General research to development may actually stem from practice with a particular test or
designs such as experimental and correlational research are well-suited to task (also called the practice effect). Changing the test or task from one

42 43
 session to the next solves the practice problem but evokes the following
question: How do we know that the different tests or tasks are of the
In a cross-sectional In a longitudinal
same standard? design, the same design, different
• Another problem is the constancy of the sample over the course of the individual is individuals are studied
research. Some people may drop out (called the drop-out effect) because examined at at different times.
different ages.
they move away, while others may simply lose interest and choose not to
continue. This is called selective attrition. This could reduce the number
The main advantage of the cross-sectional design is that in comparison
of participants in the group significantly. Furthermore, these ‘dropouts’
with the longitudinal design, it is much more time-saving as the researcher
are often significantly different from their more research-minded peers
does not have to wait for the research participants to grow older. This design
and this fact alone may distort the outcome. For example, a study may
also avoids other problems such as the effect of repeated practice and the
find that intelligence improves between 20 and 60 years. What actually
constancy of the sample.
may have happened, however, is that especially the lower performers
Despite these advantages, the cross-sectional design also has its
who found the testing too difficult gradually gave up the study. This
disadvantages. For example, it provides no information on how the same
automatically shrinks the group and eliminates the less intelligent
individuals change over time and what the continuity/discontinuity of their
performers from the group. When the group finally reaches 60 years,
characteristics is. However, the most serious problems of the cross-sectional
they may therefore not be representative of the ‘average’ 60-year-old
design result from the fact that different groups of individuals are used and
anymore. In addition, the drop-out effect among older participants is
compared with one another. The observed differences, therefore, may be the
exceptionally large.
result of coincidental differences between the groups that need not have
• A disadvantage, which is also applicable to other research designs, is
anything to do with age differences. Indeed, the fact that the groups represent
that the mere fact that people know they are being studied may bring
different cohorts (a group of people of the same age) means that their
about changes in them that would not be the result of an increase in age.
environmental influences differ from group to group. These environmental
For instance, if people know that they are being observed, this could
differences are potentially as important a cause of the observed differences
lead to changes in behaviour, such as older adults suddenly becoming
between the groups, as the age difference. These differences are called the
more active. This effect, called the measurement effect, is also known as
cohort effect and are also applicable to several other research designs.
the Hawthorne effect.
Cohort effects refer to the effects of history-related influence on research:
people born in one period of time are influenced by particular historical
Because of these and other problems with the longitudinal method,
and cultural conditions that could differ from those in another historical
researchers often use cross-sectional designs instead.
period. Let us take the example of measuring cognitive development by
means of computer literacy. You may find that the 20-year-olds do best,
1.6.4.2 The cross-sectional design
followed by the 40-year-olds, with the 60-year-olds doing the worst. (As
already mentioned, developmental psychologists are mainly interested in
In a cross-sectional study, persons of different age groups are studied
the changes that are the natural or ‘automatic’ result of an increase in age.)
together on a single occasion and the results of the different age groups are
Therefore, they could conclude that computer literacy decreases with age
then compared. Moreover, basically all aspects of behaviour may be studied
but the real reason for the differences, however, is that the 60-year-olds and
and any method of research may be used. For instance, you may wish to
even the 40-year-olds did not grow up with computers like the 20-year-
compare cognitive development as it is expressed in computer literacy at
olds did. An additional and external factor, namely that 20-year-olds were
different ages. You could then, for example, include three groups in your
exposed to computers from a very young age, was thus responsible for the
study: groups of 20-, 40- and 60-year-olds respectively and measure their
differences between the groups.
computer literacy on the same day. The basic assumption is that differences
Any change in habits, attitudes and general culture may cause people
between the groups could be attributed to the age effect.
to develop differently, but these differences cannot simply be attributed to
44 45
 session to the next solves the practice problem but evokes the following
question: How do we know that the different tests or tasks are of the
In a cross-sectional In a longitudinal
same standard? design, the same design, different
• Another problem is the constancy of the sample over the course of the individual is individuals are studied
research. Some people may drop out (called the drop-out effect) because examined at at different times.
different ages.
they move away, while others may simply lose interest and choose not to
continue. This is called selective attrition. This could reduce the number
The main advantage of the cross-sectional design is that in comparison
of participants in the group significantly. Furthermore, these ‘dropouts’
with the longitudinal design, it is much more time-saving as the researcher
are often significantly different from their more research-minded peers
does not have to wait for the research participants to grow older. This design
and this fact alone may distort the outcome. For example, a study may
also avoids other problems such as the effect of repeated practice and the
find that intelligence improves between 20 and 60 years. What actually
constancy of the sample.
may have happened, however, is that especially the lower performers
Despite these advantages, the cross-sectional design also has its
who found the testing too difficult gradually gave up the study. This
disadvantages. For example, it provides no information on how the same
automatically shrinks the group and eliminates the less intelligent
individuals change over time and what the continuity/discontinuity of their
performers from the group. When the group finally reaches 60 years,
characteristics is. However, the most serious problems of the cross-sectional
they may therefore not be representative of the ‘average’ 60-year-old
design result from the fact that different groups of individuals are used and
anymore. In addition, the drop-out effect among older participants is
compared with one another. The observed differences, therefore, may be the
exceptionally large.
result of coincidental differences between the groups that need not have
• A disadvantage, which is also applicable to other research designs, is
anything to do with age differences. Indeed, the fact that the groups represent
that the mere fact that people know they are being studied may bring
different cohorts (a group of people of the same age) means that their
about changes in them that would not be the result of an increase in age.
environmental influences differ from group to group. These environmental
For instance, if people know that they are being observed, this could
differences are potentially as important a cause of the observed differences
lead to changes in behaviour, such as older adults suddenly becoming
between the groups, as the age difference. These differences are called the
more active. This effect, called the measurement effect, is also known as
cohort effect and are also applicable to several other research designs.
the Hawthorne effect.
Cohort effects refer to the effects of history-related influence on research:
people born in one period of time are influenced by particular historical
Because of these and other problems with the longitudinal method,
and cultural conditions that could differ from those in another historical
researchers often use cross-sectional designs instead.
period. Let us take the example of measuring cognitive development by
means of computer literacy. You may find that the 20-year-olds do best,
1.6.4.2 The cross-sectional design
followed by the 40-year-olds, with the 60-year-olds doing the worst. (As
already mentioned, developmental psychologists are mainly interested in
In a cross-sectional study, persons of different age groups are studied
the changes that are the natural or ‘automatic’ result of an increase in age.)
together on a single occasion and the results of the different age groups are
Therefore, they could conclude that computer literacy decreases with age
then compared. Moreover, basically all aspects of behaviour may be studied
but the real reason for the differences, however, is that the 60-year-olds and
and any method of research may be used. For instance, you may wish to
even the 40-year-olds did not grow up with computers like the 20-year-
compare cognitive development as it is expressed in computer literacy at
olds did. An additional and external factor, namely that 20-year-olds were
different ages. You could then, for example, include three groups in your
exposed to computers from a very young age, was thus responsible for the
study: groups of 20-, 40- and 60-year-olds respectively and measure their
differences between the groups.
computer literacy on the same day. The basic assumption is that differences
Any change in habits, attitudes and general culture may cause people
between the groups could be attributed to the age effect.
to develop differently, but these differences cannot simply be attributed to
44 45
the age effect. Even in a time-span of 10 years, opinions about marriage,
tertiary education and sexual norms, for example, may change radically
and this could lead to far-reaching changes in lifestyle and living standards.
This, in turn, may cause members of separate cohorts to develop different
characteristics. Because of these problems, a third alternative design is
sometimes used, namely the sequential design.

1.6.4.3 The sequential design

In a sequential design, the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs are both

used in one study. The sequential design can be very complex, but in its
simpler form it means that different groups of people (cross-sectional) are
studied on various occasions (longitudinal), but only for a few years. For
example, should you want to determine whether there are developmental
changes in memory for stories, you could select three groups (a group of
25-year-olds, 40-year-olds and 60-year-olds, respectively) and study these Cross-cultural research is an important research design in developmental psychology
groups every six months for a period of two years. Although the sequential
design attempts to neutralise the weaknesses of the longitudinal and cross-
Africa has a very unfortunate history, as many researchers in the apartheid
sectional designs, it usually succeeds only in minimising them. However, it
era tended to focus on differences between the racial groups, as well as
does show how researchers become more innovative in their attempts to
on differences within cultures in South Africa. Because of methodological
reach reliable and valid answers regarding the development of adults.
flaws and subjective interpretations, the research results more often than
not favoured the white population. The tragic result was that the research,
1.6.5 Cross-cultural research
in essence, gave support to the apartheid government’s policy of ‘separate
development’, while it also confirmed whites’ belief that “we are different”
Cross-cultural research is often regarded as unique research that stands
(read: “superior”). This abuse of cross-cultural research was, however, not
loose and independent from mainstream psychology, but this perception
limited to South Africa; other countries such as the USA have similar histories.
is incorrect. Cross-cultural psychology and its methods are rooted firmly
Fortunately, subsequently South African psychologists have largely
in basic psychological methodology (Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2011). In other
outgrown their past and have made significant contributions not only to
words, all the different kinds of research, methods of gathering information,
national, but also to international research data. In fact, with its unique
general research designs and developmental research designs that we have
history and multiculturalism, it is not far-fetched to state that South African
discussed, are also used in cross-cultural research. Moreover, cross-cultural
researchers could become world leaders in this area. In the process, an
research does not target only a specific area or areas; it is the proverbial
important goal of cross-cultural research is to identify both the similarities
golden thread that runs through psychology. This is especially true in
and differences between cultures, in order to take the necessary steps to
South Africa with its unique multicultural composition where cross-cultural
improve people’s lives.
research could be employed in basically all areas of psychology and in all
As has been pointed out, although cross-cultural researchers make use
spheres of life.
of the same research methods as mainstream psychology, it is also true that
One of the most important goals of cross-cultural research in psychology
they face unique challenges. For example, if the researcher is an outsider
is to discover principles that are universal to all (or most) cultures, as well as
to the cultural group being studied, he or she may not only be met with
principles that are unique or specific to certain cultures. Therefore, it is clear
suspicion, but may also elicit behavioural responses that are not ‘typical’
that it should not be an either/or situation: the focus should be on both the
of the group. These responses may then be interpreted wrongly as being
similarities and differences. In this regard, cross-cultural research in South
46 47
the age effect. Even in a time-span of 10 years, opinions about marriage,
tertiary education and sexual norms, for example, may change radically
and this could lead to far-reaching changes in lifestyle and living standards.
This, in turn, may cause members of separate cohorts to develop different
characteristics. Because of these problems, a third alternative design is
sometimes used, namely the sequential design.

1.6.4.3 The sequential design

In a sequential design, the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs are both

used in one study. The sequential design can be very complex, but in its
simpler form it means that different groups of people (cross-sectional) are
studied on various occasions (longitudinal), but only for a few years. For
example, should you want to determine whether there are developmental
changes in memory for stories, you could select three groups (a group of
25-year-olds, 40-year-olds and 60-year-olds, respectively) and study these Cross-cultural research is an important research design in developmental psychology
groups every six months for a period of two years. Although the sequential
design attempts to neutralise the weaknesses of the longitudinal and cross-
Africa has a very unfortunate history, as many researchers in the apartheid
sectional designs, it usually succeeds only in minimising them. However, it
era tended to focus on differences between the racial groups, as well as
does show how researchers become more innovative in their attempts to
on differences within cultures in South Africa. Because of methodological
reach reliable and valid answers regarding the development of adults.
flaws and subjective interpretations, the research results more often than
not favoured the white population. The tragic result was that the research,
1.6.5 Cross-cultural research
in essence, gave support to the apartheid government’s policy of ‘separate
development’, while it also confirmed whites’ belief that “we are different”
Cross-cultural research is often regarded as unique research that stands
(read: “superior”). This abuse of cross-cultural research was, however, not
loose and independent from mainstream psychology, but this perception
limited to South Africa; other countries such as the USA have similar histories.
is incorrect. Cross-cultural psychology and its methods are rooted firmly
Fortunately, subsequently South African psychologists have largely
in basic psychological methodology (Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2011). In other
outgrown their past and have made significant contributions not only to
words, all the different kinds of research, methods of gathering information,
national, but also to international research data. In fact, with its unique
general research designs and developmental research designs that we have
history and multiculturalism, it is not far-fetched to state that South African
discussed, are also used in cross-cultural research. Moreover, cross-cultural
researchers could become world leaders in this area. In the process, an
research does not target only a specific area or areas; it is the proverbial
important goal of cross-cultural research is to identify both the similarities
golden thread that runs through psychology. This is especially true in
and differences between cultures, in order to take the necessary steps to
South Africa with its unique multicultural composition where cross-cultural
improve people’s lives.
research could be employed in basically all areas of psychology and in all
As has been pointed out, although cross-cultural researchers make use
spheres of life.
of the same research methods as mainstream psychology, it is also true that
One of the most important goals of cross-cultural research in psychology
they face unique challenges. For example, if the researcher is an outsider
is to discover principles that are universal to all (or most) cultures, as well as
to the cultural group being studied, he or she may not only be met with
principles that are unique or specific to certain cultures. Therefore, it is clear
suspicion, but may also elicit behavioural responses that are not ‘typical’
that it should not be an either/or situation: the focus should be on both the
of the group. These responses may then be interpreted wrongly as being
similarities and differences. In this regard, cross-cultural research in South
46 47
representative of the group. Communication also creates significant and perspectives, which can add to the quality of the research.
often insurmountable problems: in many cases, the researcher is not able • It creates opportunities for research collaboration that would have been
to speak the language of the cultural group being studied and has to make almost impossible otherwise. International collaboration is an example.
use of an interpreter. • It enables the researcher to gather much larger and representative
In turn, this may easily lead to misinterpretations, especially if the samples of participants than would have been possible otherwise.
interpreter is not fluent in the language of the researcher and does not have • The Internet offers a very inexpensive and much less time-consuming
knowledge of the professional-technical terms and concepts used in the method of collecting research data. For example, travelling to interview
participants individually is now unnecessary.
study. A related problem that frequently creates methodological problems
in countries such as South Africa is the use of foreign psychological tests, • Internet data is at least as valid and reliable as data collected off-line
(Hewson, 2014).
which are more often than not unsuitable and irrelevant to the unique
South African situation. Many of the items (i.e. questions) in these tests are
However, the aforementioned advantages of conducting research on the
so foreign to the research participants that they often misinterpret them. Internet does not mean that there are no pitfalls. The following are examples
Even the translation of the tests into the home language of the participants usually mentioned in this regard:
does not always solve the problem. For example, it is very difficult, if not
impossible, to translate certain terms and concepts, especially when they are ■ It is asserted that Internet-based samples of research participants are not
not part of the culture being studied. Furthermore, the language of some as representative as for example, random sampling recruitment strategies
black cultural groups in South Africa tends towards elaborate descriptions are, such as when participants are contacted at random (Maniacci &
rather than brief, precise definitions of concepts which are common in Rogge, 2014). There are several reasons for this. In many experiments,
English, for example. participants respond to advertisements placed by the researcher.
Nonetheless, cross-cultural research remains very exciting and However, people who respond to these advertisement could be different
challenging, and is one of the research areas that may contribute most to from those who do not respond, with the result that the sample is not
finding answers to the South African situation. Not only could the results representative of the population investigated. An even more important
lead to a better understanding of one another, but also to the improvement factor that is especially applicable in developing countries such as
of the lives of many. South Africa is that a large number of people do not have access to the
Internet and are therefore excluded. This is particularly true for poor, less
1.6.6 Conducting research on the Internet educated and elderly people. Of course, the exclusion of such people will
also make the sample significantly less representative.
Few devices in history have changed our lives and daily functioning like the ■ The lack of researcher management can also have an effect. This means
Internet. For some people, it is almost a complete substitute for life. This is that the researcher has less direct management control over, and
understandable, because in many life spheres, high-level daily functioning is knowledge of, participant behaviour (Hewson, 2003). In a traditional
hardly possible without the Internet. interview, the researcher is present and can therefore make observations
The Internet has also changed the ways in which research is conducted of body language or tone of voice. In online research, the researcher
significantly (Reips et al., 2015; Woods et al., 2015). In psychology, most is ‘locked out’ and loses much of this information. For example, how
researchers make use of the Internet to do fundamental research such as does the researcher know whether the participants have carried out
gathering literature, recruit participants, and collect empirical data. Doing the procedure as instructed, or whether they were distracted or even
research on the Internet has several advantages, for example the following: intoxicated?

• It has almost replaced the traditional library, especially by broadening Notwithstanding the fact that conducting research on the Internet is
still in its infancy, it holds tremendous promise. As technology advances,
the scope and availability of scientific resources dramatically.
• It creates opportunities to contact and discuss ideas with colleagues researchers not only will be able to solve many of the present problems
worldwide, within minutes. This creates new insights and different and limitations, but also will have ever-increasing opportunities to employ

48 49
representative of the group. Communication also creates significant and perspectives, which can add to the quality of the research.
often insurmountable problems: in many cases, the researcher is not able • It creates opportunities for research collaboration that would have been
to speak the language of the cultural group being studied and has to make almost impossible otherwise. International collaboration is an example.
use of an interpreter. • It enables the researcher to gather much larger and representative
In turn, this may easily lead to misinterpretations, especially if the samples of participants than would have been possible otherwise.
interpreter is not fluent in the language of the researcher and does not have • The Internet offers a very inexpensive and much less time-consuming
knowledge of the professional-technical terms and concepts used in the method of collecting research data. For example, travelling to interview
participants individually is now unnecessary.
study. A related problem that frequently creates methodological problems
in countries such as South Africa is the use of foreign psychological tests, • Internet data is at least as valid and reliable as data collected off-line
(Hewson, 2014).
which are more often than not unsuitable and irrelevant to the unique
South African situation. Many of the items (i.e. questions) in these tests are
However, the aforementioned advantages of conducting research on the
so foreign to the research participants that they often misinterpret them. Internet does not mean that there are no pitfalls. The following are examples
Even the translation of the tests into the home language of the participants usually mentioned in this regard:
does not always solve the problem. For example, it is very difficult, if not
impossible, to translate certain terms and concepts, especially when they are ■ It is asserted that Internet-based samples of research participants are not
not part of the culture being studied. Furthermore, the language of some as representative as for example, random sampling recruitment strategies
black cultural groups in South Africa tends towards elaborate descriptions are, such as when participants are contacted at random (Maniacci &
rather than brief, precise definitions of concepts which are common in Rogge, 2014). There are several reasons for this. In many experiments,
English, for example. participants respond to advertisements placed by the researcher.
Nonetheless, cross-cultural research remains very exciting and However, people who respond to these advertisement could be different
challenging, and is one of the research areas that may contribute most to from those who do not respond, with the result that the sample is not
finding answers to the South African situation. Not only could the results representative of the population investigated. An even more important
lead to a better understanding of one another, but also to the improvement factor that is especially applicable in developing countries such as
of the lives of many. South Africa is that a large number of people do not have access to the
Internet and are therefore excluded. This is particularly true for poor, less
1.6.6 Conducting research on the Internet educated and elderly people. Of course, the exclusion of such people will
also make the sample significantly less representative.
Few devices in history have changed our lives and daily functioning like the ■ The lack of researcher management can also have an effect. This means
Internet. For some people, it is almost a complete substitute for life. This is that the researcher has less direct management control over, and
understandable, because in many life spheres, high-level daily functioning is knowledge of, participant behaviour (Hewson, 2003). In a traditional
hardly possible without the Internet. interview, the researcher is present and can therefore make observations
The Internet has also changed the ways in which research is conducted of body language or tone of voice. In online research, the researcher
significantly (Reips et al., 2015; Woods et al., 2015). In psychology, most is ‘locked out’ and loses much of this information. For example, how
researchers make use of the Internet to do fundamental research such as does the researcher know whether the participants have carried out
gathering literature, recruit participants, and collect empirical data. Doing the procedure as instructed, or whether they were distracted or even
research on the Internet has several advantages, for example the following: intoxicated?

• It has almost replaced the traditional library, especially by broadening Notwithstanding the fact that conducting research on the Internet is
still in its infancy, it holds tremendous promise. As technology advances,
the scope and availability of scientific resources dramatically.
• It creates opportunities to contact and discuss ideas with colleagues researchers not only will be able to solve many of the present problems
worldwide, within minutes. This creates new insights and different and limitations, but also will have ever-increasing opportunities to employ

48 49
innovative methods and designs. Emerging hardware and software obtained from the participant’s next of kin or caregivers.
technology are beginning to enable the collection of original data using • Deception. If the research necessitates concealment or deception
sensors available on advanced mobile devices. For instance, some of these concerning the nature of the study, the researcher should ensure that
devices can monitor movement and activity precisely throughout the day; the person understands the reasons for the deception after the study is
others may be used to assess social proximity and patterns of interaction, concluded.
while custom sensors can be used to collect physiological data such as • Confidentiality. All information about participants in the research
blood pressure and heart rate remotely (Maniacci & Rogge, 2014). must be kept confidential. Participants should be informed of how
It is important to remember that although conducting research on the confidentiality will be maintained, for example, that names will not be
Internet poses new ethical challenges, the fundamental guidelines that are placed on test protocols, test protocols will be coded with a number and
discussed next will still have to be adhered to. stored separately from consent forms, and test protocols will be stored
safely and be accessible only to the researcher.
1.6.7 Research ethics • Informing participants. The researcher should clarify any misconceptions
that may arise on the part of the participant during the study. The
When psychologists conduct research with humans (and animals), they researcher should also report general findings to participants in terms
have to ensure that their research participants are protected against they can understand.
psychological and physical harm. This is especially true for older adults who
are often more vulnerable and sensitive. Research ethics are the guidelines
researchers have to follow to protect the rights of humans (and animals)
participating in the research. These guidelines are usually compiled by
professional organisations such as the Psychological Society of South Africa
(PsySSA), although some governmental and private agencies have their
own ethical guidelines. Therefore, an important step in any research is to
get approval from the Ethics Committee of the organisation under whose
auspices the research is to be done.
The following are examples of guidelines that will be found in most ethical
codes (Bukatko & Daehler, 2012). Also see American Psychological association,
2016):

• Non-harmful procedures. The researcher may not use any procedures

that could impose physical or psychological harm to the individual. In A researcher must obtain written informed consent
addition, the researcher should use the least stressful research method
whenever possible.
• Informed consent. The researcher should inform the participant of
all features of the research that might affect his or her willingness to
participate and should answer all questions in a way the participant can
comprehend. The researcher must obtain written consent (permission),
and the participant has the right to discontinue participation at any
time. Special issues may arise with older adult populations. For example,
research with individuals with dementia (such as Alzheimer’s disease
which affects cognitive abilities) could imply that consent may have to be

50 51
innovative methods and designs. Emerging hardware and software obtained from the participant’s next of kin or caregivers.
technology are beginning to enable the collection of original data using • Deception. If the research necessitates concealment or deception
sensors available on advanced mobile devices. For instance, some of these concerning the nature of the study, the researcher should ensure that
devices can monitor movement and activity precisely throughout the day; the person understands the reasons for the deception after the study is
others may be used to assess social proximity and patterns of interaction, concluded.
while custom sensors can be used to collect physiological data such as • Confidentiality. All information about participants in the research
blood pressure and heart rate remotely (Maniacci & Rogge, 2014). must be kept confidential. Participants should be informed of how
It is important to remember that although conducting research on the confidentiality will be maintained, for example, that names will not be
Internet poses new ethical challenges, the fundamental guidelines that are placed on test protocols, test protocols will be coded with a number and
discussed next will still have to be adhered to. stored separately from consent forms, and test protocols will be stored
safely and be accessible only to the researcher.
1.6.7 Research ethics • Informing participants. The researcher should clarify any misconceptions
that may arise on the part of the participant during the study. The
When psychologists conduct research with humans (and animals), they researcher should also report general findings to participants in terms
have to ensure that their research participants are protected against they can understand.
psychological and physical harm. This is especially true for older adults who
are often more vulnerable and sensitive. Research ethics are the guidelines
researchers have to follow to protect the rights of humans (and animals)
participating in the research. These guidelines are usually compiled by
professional organisations such as the Psychological Society of South Africa
(PsySSA), although some governmental and private agencies have their
own ethical guidelines. Therefore, an important step in any research is to
get approval from the Ethics Committee of the organisation under whose
auspices the research is to be done.
The following are examples of guidelines that will be found in most ethical
codes (Bukatko & Daehler, 2012). Also see American Psychological association,
2016):

• Non-harmful procedures. The researcher may not use any procedures

that could impose physical or psychological harm to the individual. In A researcher must obtain written informed consent
addition, the researcher should use the least stressful research method
whenever possible.
• Informed consent. The researcher should inform the participant of
all features of the research that might affect his or her willingness to
participate and should answer all questions in a way the participant can
comprehend. The researcher must obtain written consent (permission),
and the participant has the right to discontinue participation at any
time. Special issues may arise with older adult populations. For example,
research with individuals with dementia (such as Alzheimer’s disease
which affects cognitive abilities) could imply that consent may have to be

50 51
 REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. What is research? Why is it important to do research on adult development?
2. You have to research older adults’ memory functioning. Indicate how you will use
quantitative, qualitative and mixed-method research methods.
3. You have to study older adults’ eating habits. How would you gather data for your
research?
4. What are the qualities of a good psychological test?
5. You want to study the effect of physical exercise on older adults’ memory
functioning. How would you conduct this research using
- an experimental design?
- a correlational design?
6. Say you find that there is a correlation between physical exercise and memory
functioning, does it mean that physical exercise causes good memory functioning?
Could there be other explanations?
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
- experimental research?
- correlational research?
8. Under what circumstances would a case study method be used? What are the advantages
and disadvantages of the case study method?
9. In what circumstances would a meta-analysis be used as research method? What are
the advantages and disadvantages of this method?
10. What are the typical research questions in which a developmental psychologist would
be interested?
11. Compare the longitudinal, cross-sectional and sequential designs. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of each of these designs?
12. Discuss cross-cultural research.
13. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Internet research.
14. Discuss the ethics involved in doing research with adults.

52 53
 REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. What is research? Why is it important to do research on adult development?
2. You have to research older adults’ memory functioning. Indicate how you will use
quantitative, qualitative and mixed-method research methods.
3. You have to study older adults’ eating habits. How would you gather data for your
research?
4. What are the qualities of a good psychological test?
5. You want to study the effect of physical exercise on older adults’ memory
functioning. How would you conduct this research using
- an experimental design?
- a correlational design?
6. Say you find that there is a correlation between physical exercise and memory
functioning, does it mean that physical exercise causes good memory functioning?
Could there be other explanations?
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
- experimental research?
- correlational research?
8. Under what circumstances would a case study method be used? What are the advantages
and disadvantages of the case study method?
9. In what circumstances would a meta-analysis be used as research method? What are
the advantages and disadvantages of this method?
10. What are the typical research questions in which a developmental psychologist would
be interested?
11. Compare the longitudinal, cross-sectional and sequential designs. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of each of these designs?
12. Discuss cross-cultural research.
13. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Internet research.
14. Discuss the ethics involved in doing research with adults.

52 53
54
The body achieves what the mind believes.
2
Physical Development and
Sexuality
55
54
The body achieves what the mind believes.
2
Physical Development and
Sexuality
55
 You know you’re getting old when you stop to tie your shoes and • The senses, such as the eye and the ear, detect or ‘capture’ the different
wonder what else you can do while you’re down there. George Burns forms of stimuli from our bodies or from the environment in which we live.
The senses then send this information to the brain, where it is interpreted.
Growing physically older is an issue of mind over matter. If you don’t
mind, it doesn’t matter. Adapted from Mark Twain The inability of the senses to detect stimuli adequately could have a
significant effect on an individual’s functioning and even on the ability to
Thirty-five is when you finally get your head together, but then your survive.
body starts falling apart. Caryn Leschen • The central nervous system, especially the brain, is responsible for the
Time may be a great healer, but it’s a lousy beautician. Unknown interpretation of this incoming information. Therefore, it plays a crucial
role in all aspects of the cognitive functioning of an individual.
Middle age is when your classmates are so grey and wrinkled and
bald they don’t recognise you. Bennett Cerf
• The endocrine glands, which secrete hormones, play an important role
in a variety of developmental changes. For instance, hormones can affect
the sexual behaviour, metabolism and energy levels of individuals.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
It is generally accepted that most of us reach the peak of our muscle
The quotations above provide a glimpse into people’s reactions to a
power, stamina, elasticity, agility, sensory perception, and other aspects of
changing body. In fact, physical development and change is a constant
physical development between 20 and 30 years of age. Thereafter, there is a
feature of life. During the earlier life stages, individuals acquire new
gradual decline, which usually becomes noticeable only after the age of 40.
capabilities and skills that enable them to perform new tasks and to
As in the other developmental stages, individual differences regarding
explore new environments. During middle and late adulthood, physical
physical development are also found during adulthood. For example, the
changes continue to take place. However, most of these changes become
South African Wally Hayward was 80 years old when he completed the
indicative of deterioration or even loss to which the person has to adjust
gruelling Comrades Marathon in 1989. (The annual Comrades Marathon
physically and psychologically.
between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, a distance of 90 kilometres, is known
worldwide for its body-sapping demands.) South African Deirdre Larkin (85)
is the holder of the half marathon world record in the 85+ category. Gary
Player, one of the best golf players the world has seen, still plays golf and
does more than 1000 sit-ups every day – at the age of 81. The South African
boxers, Sugarboy Malinga and ‘Baby Jake’ Matlala, were both 40 years
old when they were world champions in a sport where success is largely
determined by speed, power, and endurance. Both Francois Steyn and Johan
Ackerman played for the Springbok rugby team in 2007, the year they won
the World Cup. Steyn was only 19 years old, while Ackerman was 37: an age
difference of 18 years in a professional sport where extremely high demands
are placed on one’s physical condition. The international sports world also
abounds in examples of older persons who stood more than their own. For
Various physical changes take place during young, middle and example, Oscar Swahn of Sweden was 64 when he received a gold medal
late adulthood
as a marksman at the Olympic Games. (Eight years later, when he was 72,
he received a silver medal.) George Foreman of the USA was 45 when he
Physical development and changes have important psychological
became the heavyweight boxing champion of the world, and Albert Milla
implications. As we have seen in Chapter 1, physical development constitutes
played World Cup soccer for Cameroon when he was 42.
an important force in the development of an individual. For example:
From these examples, it is clear how scientifically dangerous it is to

56 57
 You know you’re getting old when you stop to tie your shoes and • The senses, such as the eye and the ear, detect or ‘capture’ the different
wonder what else you can do while you’re down there. George Burns forms of stimuli from our bodies or from the environment in which we live.
The senses then send this information to the brain, where it is interpreted.
Growing physically older is an issue of mind over matter. If you don’t
mind, it doesn’t matter. Adapted from Mark Twain The inability of the senses to detect stimuli adequately could have a
significant effect on an individual’s functioning and even on the ability to
Thirty-five is when you finally get your head together, but then your survive.
body starts falling apart. Caryn Leschen • The central nervous system, especially the brain, is responsible for the
Time may be a great healer, but it’s a lousy beautician. Unknown interpretation of this incoming information. Therefore, it plays a crucial
role in all aspects of the cognitive functioning of an individual.
Middle age is when your classmates are so grey and wrinkled and
bald they don’t recognise you. Bennett Cerf
• The endocrine glands, which secrete hormones, play an important role
in a variety of developmental changes. For instance, hormones can affect
the sexual behaviour, metabolism and energy levels of individuals.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
It is generally accepted that most of us reach the peak of our muscle
The quotations above provide a glimpse into people’s reactions to a
power, stamina, elasticity, agility, sensory perception, and other aspects of
changing body. In fact, physical development and change is a constant
physical development between 20 and 30 years of age. Thereafter, there is a
feature of life. During the earlier life stages, individuals acquire new
gradual decline, which usually becomes noticeable only after the age of 40.
capabilities and skills that enable them to perform new tasks and to
As in the other developmental stages, individual differences regarding
explore new environments. During middle and late adulthood, physical
physical development are also found during adulthood. For example, the
changes continue to take place. However, most of these changes become
South African Wally Hayward was 80 years old when he completed the
indicative of deterioration or even loss to which the person has to adjust
gruelling Comrades Marathon in 1989. (The annual Comrades Marathon
physically and psychologically.
between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, a distance of 90 kilometres, is known
worldwide for its body-sapping demands.) South African Deirdre Larkin (85)
is the holder of the half marathon world record in the 85+ category. Gary
Player, one of the best golf players the world has seen, still plays golf and
does more than 1000 sit-ups every day – at the age of 81. The South African
boxers, Sugarboy Malinga and ‘Baby Jake’ Matlala, were both 40 years
old when they were world champions in a sport where success is largely
determined by speed, power, and endurance. Both Francois Steyn and Johan
Ackerman played for the Springbok rugby team in 2007, the year they won
the World Cup. Steyn was only 19 years old, while Ackerman was 37: an age
difference of 18 years in a professional sport where extremely high demands
are placed on one’s physical condition. The international sports world also
abounds in examples of older persons who stood more than their own. For
Various physical changes take place during young, middle and example, Oscar Swahn of Sweden was 64 when he received a gold medal
late adulthood
as a marksman at the Olympic Games. (Eight years later, when he was 72,
he received a silver medal.) George Foreman of the USA was 45 when he
Physical development and changes have important psychological
became the heavyweight boxing champion of the world, and Albert Milla
implications. As we have seen in Chapter 1, physical development constitutes
played World Cup soccer for Cameroon when he was 42.
an important force in the development of an individual. For example:
From these examples, it is clear how scientifically dangerous it is to

56 57
classify people according to rigid criteria such as age. Therefore, the golden die – ageing is simply some terrible accident that has to be overcome and
rule in psychology – every person is unique – should also be taken into corrected!
account as far as physical development is concerned. On the other hand, The question of why people grow old and die has been debated and
it remains useful and convenient to have broad guidelines or averages that researched for centuries. This has resulted in various theories, but a definite
could be used as a norm. answer still evades us. Because most people assume that ageing has a
biological basis and that physical ageing is also more prominent than other
forms of ageing (e.g. emotional), by far the majority of these theories are
biologically based. However, the international expert Hayflick (1974, p. 88)
wrote: “There is probably no area of scientific inquiry that abounds with
as many untested or untestable theories as does the biology of aging.”
Although this was stated in 1974, the viewpoint is still true to a large extent.
In fact, hundreds of theories of ageing exist (Da Costa et al., 2016; Lipsky,
2015).
Biological theories of ageing include a variety of theories that address
the ageing process at organismic, molecular, and cellular levels. Most of
Deirdre Larkin ‘Baby Jake’ Matlala Gary Player Francois Steyn these theories fall into two general categories: programmed ageing theories
and error theories.
Before we discuss the most important physical developments and
changes during adulthood, we shall first give a brief overview of some of the 2.2.1 Programmed ageing theories
prominent biological theories of ageing (theories that attribute the ageing
process to biological factors). Theories are attempts to organise and explain These theories are based on the assumption that ageing and death are
certain phenomena. Biological theories of ageing concern developmental built into the genetic blueprint of all organisms. These theories propose a
changes that occur across the life span. The main questions that arise are: variety of viewpoints regarding the ageing process, for instance that the
Why do we change on a physical and biological level with age? What is the length of life is programmed genetically; that ageing is programmed to
nature of these changes? Could we enhance our physical development or begin after reproductive ability ends; that molecular changes cause cells
delay the changes? to age and lose their ability to divide and reproduce; that changes occur in
the hypothalamus, causing changes in the hormones that eventually bring
2.2 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGEING about ageing in the organism; and that loss of neurons in the brain cause
ageing.
Although various psycho-social factors determine the functioning and An example of the programmed ageing theories is the genetic
ageing of an individual, the fact remains that the body sets the limit of the programming theory. The following two explanations are offered for this
life span (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014). However, why must people and theory:
other organisms grow old and die? Overpopulation and lack of resources are
two logical answers. • One explanation of ageing according to this theory is that the cells of the
Or possibly, it is just more efficient to sweep the older generations aside body age in accordance with a master genetic programme innate to every
to make room for younger people in order to ensure population vitality. specific species. This means that every species has its own programme of
Or what about the following: being old and ‘full of years’ is actually the ageing and life expectancy, subject only to minor individual differences.
ideal state, while being young is only an unpleasant hurdle that one must For example, the approximate maximum life span for rats is 4 years,
suffer through to reach this ideal state. Maybe we are not even meant to sheep 15, cows 20, dogs 20, cats 30, rhinoceroses 40, chimpanzees 50,
elephants 70, whales 80 and human beings 120. Note that figures in this

58 59
classify people according to rigid criteria such as age. Therefore, the golden die – ageing is simply some terrible accident that has to be overcome and
rule in psychology – every person is unique – should also be taken into corrected!
account as far as physical development is concerned. On the other hand, The question of why people grow old and die has been debated and
it remains useful and convenient to have broad guidelines or averages that researched for centuries. This has resulted in various theories, but a definite
could be used as a norm. answer still evades us. Because most people assume that ageing has a
biological basis and that physical ageing is also more prominent than other
forms of ageing (e.g. emotional), by far the majority of these theories are
biologically based. However, the international expert Hayflick (1974, p. 88)
wrote: “There is probably no area of scientific inquiry that abounds with
as many untested or untestable theories as does the biology of aging.”
Although this was stated in 1974, the viewpoint is still true to a large extent.
In fact, hundreds of theories of ageing exist (Da Costa et al., 2016; Lipsky,
2015).
Biological theories of ageing include a variety of theories that address
the ageing process at organismic, molecular, and cellular levels. Most of
Deirdre Larkin ‘Baby Jake’ Matlala Gary Player Francois Steyn these theories fall into two general categories: programmed ageing theories
and error theories.
Before we discuss the most important physical developments and
changes during adulthood, we shall first give a brief overview of some of the 2.2.1 Programmed ageing theories
prominent biological theories of ageing (theories that attribute the ageing
process to biological factors). Theories are attempts to organise and explain These theories are based on the assumption that ageing and death are
certain phenomena. Biological theories of ageing concern developmental built into the genetic blueprint of all organisms. These theories propose a
changes that occur across the life span. The main questions that arise are: variety of viewpoints regarding the ageing process, for instance that the
Why do we change on a physical and biological level with age? What is the length of life is programmed genetically; that ageing is programmed to
nature of these changes? Could we enhance our physical development or begin after reproductive ability ends; that molecular changes cause cells
delay the changes? to age and lose their ability to divide and reproduce; that changes occur in
the hypothalamus, causing changes in the hormones that eventually bring
2.2 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGEING about ageing in the organism; and that loss of neurons in the brain cause
ageing.
Although various psycho-social factors determine the functioning and An example of the programmed ageing theories is the genetic
ageing of an individual, the fact remains that the body sets the limit of the programming theory. The following two explanations are offered for this
life span (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014). However, why must people and theory:
other organisms grow old and die? Overpopulation and lack of resources are
two logical answers. • One explanation of ageing according to this theory is that the cells of the
Or possibly, it is just more efficient to sweep the older generations aside body age in accordance with a master genetic programme innate to every
to make room for younger people in order to ensure population vitality. specific species. This means that every species has its own programme of
Or what about the following: being old and ‘full of years’ is actually the ageing and life expectancy, subject only to minor individual differences.
ideal state, while being young is only an unpleasant hurdle that one must For example, the approximate maximum life span for rats is 4 years,
suffer through to reach this ideal state. Maybe we are not even meant to sheep 15, cows 20, dogs 20, cats 30, rhinoceroses 40, chimpanzees 50,
elephants 70, whales 80 and human beings 120. Note that figures in this

58 59
 regard depend on various factors and should be seen only as a broad divide but still deteriorate. Clearly, it seems that more research is needed
indication. It is interesting that the oldest verified age of a human is before the genetic programming theory can be accepted as the final answer.
122 years and 164 days: Jeanne Calment of France, who died in 1997.
• Another viewpoint that is perhaps more compelling relates to cell- 2.2.2 Error theories
division. A cell can divide a limited number of times. For example, cells
from a human fetus can divide between 40 and 60 times. However, These theories are based on the assumption that ageing reflects unplanned
cells of a human adult are capable of dividing only about 20 times changes in an organism over time. This class of theories explains ageing
(Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015). This means that, as the individual as a result of external or environmental factors that gradually damage the
grows older, this ability of cells to divide decreases; therefore, the cells internal cells and organs. For example, the stress of everyday life erodes
deteriorate until the person dies. For what reason does the number of biochemical processes in the cells and interferes with their operation of
cell divisions become limited? One theory suggests that telomeres, basic functions, while chemical reaction with oxygen causes unstable ‘free
the small tips of the chromosomes, play a major role and serve as a radicals’ that unite with other molecules and interfere with their functioning.
biological clock, determining the life span of the cell (Hudson et al., The wear and tear, free radical, and cross-linking theories are probably the
2014). Telomeres contain an important enzyme called telomerase, best known examples of the error theories:
which is needed to replicate the telomeres and thus the cells. However,
telomeres are shortened with each cell division, and the result is that • The wear and tear theory. This theory argues that bodies age because of
telomeres eventually become so short and contain so little telomerase constant use, more or less like machines, rather than being attributable to
that cell division cannot continue. an innate genetic programme. Decades of illnesses, injuries, and wear and
tear cause damage to the cells, tissues and organs. The inevitable result
The genetic programming theory has an interesting link with cancer. is that the body becomes progressively less able to repair damaged and
Cancer cells seem to be immortal: they do not stop dividing normally and worn-out components. Eventually, for example, we die of heart, kidney
they have no upper limit as far as dividing is concerned (Foos & Clark, 2016). and lung failure – diseases that we could resist when we were younger.
One theory is that cancer Note that environmental factors such as toxins, radiation and poor diet
cells can keep the telomerase can exacerbate (worsen) the wear and tear process. An example of the
level intact, which ordinary wear and tear theory is osteoarthritis, where the cartilage protecting the
cells cannot. joints wears out and the joints become stiff and painful.
The genetic programming Although the wear and tear theory sounds very logical, it is not
theory is one of the most supported as widely as would be expected. For example, critics point
popular biological theories of out that if the theory were true, it would mean that we would contribute
ageing. One reason for this is to the wear and tear by doing regular and strenuous exercises. Thus,
that it is logical and simple. we would live longer if we simply sit on a couch and watch TV! Another
However, this does not mean point of criticism is that wear and tear could just as well be the result or
that the theory provides all symptom of ageing, and not necessarily the cause of it. In other words, it
the answers. For example, is possible that the ageing process (which is characterised by wear and
researchers have discovered tear) is caused by other factors.
•
According to the genetic programming theory, telomeres
play a role in the ageing process that not all deteriorating cells The free radical theory. The nucleus of an atom (the smallest part of
shorten with cell division any material) is surrounded by a cloud of electrons, which could be
(Ferenec et al., 2005). Very important is that the essential cause-effect described as elementary particles. These electrons surround the nucleus
question still has to be answered: Do shortened telomeres cause ageing, or in pairs, but occasionally, an atom loses an electron, leaving the atom
are they the effect (result) of ageing? Moreover, brain cells do not typically with an unpaired electron (Nelson, 2008). The atom is then called a ‘free

60 61
 regard depend on various factors and should be seen only as a broad divide but still deteriorate. Clearly, it seems that more research is needed
indication. It is interesting that the oldest verified age of a human is before the genetic programming theory can be accepted as the final answer.
122 years and 164 days: Jeanne Calment of France, who died in 1997.
• Another viewpoint that is perhaps more compelling relates to cell- 2.2.2 Error theories
division. A cell can divide a limited number of times. For example, cells
from a human fetus can divide between 40 and 60 times. However, These theories are based on the assumption that ageing reflects unplanned
cells of a human adult are capable of dividing only about 20 times changes in an organism over time. This class of theories explains ageing
(Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015). This means that, as the individual as a result of external or environmental factors that gradually damage the
grows older, this ability of cells to divide decreases; therefore, the cells internal cells and organs. For example, the stress of everyday life erodes
deteriorate until the person dies. For what reason does the number of biochemical processes in the cells and interferes with their operation of
cell divisions become limited? One theory suggests that telomeres, basic functions, while chemical reaction with oxygen causes unstable ‘free
the small tips of the chromosomes, play a major role and serve as a radicals’ that unite with other molecules and interfere with their functioning.
biological clock, determining the life span of the cell (Hudson et al., The wear and tear, free radical, and cross-linking theories are probably the
2014). Telomeres contain an important enzyme called telomerase, best known examples of the error theories:
which is needed to replicate the telomeres and thus the cells. However,
telomeres are shortened with each cell division, and the result is that • The wear and tear theory. This theory argues that bodies age because of
telomeres eventually become so short and contain so little telomerase constant use, more or less like machines, rather than being attributable to
that cell division cannot continue. an innate genetic programme. Decades of illnesses, injuries, and wear and
tear cause damage to the cells, tissues and organs. The inevitable result
The genetic programming theory has an interesting link with cancer. is that the body becomes progressively less able to repair damaged and
Cancer cells seem to be immortal: they do not stop dividing normally and worn-out components. Eventually, for example, we die of heart, kidney
they have no upper limit as far as dividing is concerned (Foos & Clark, 2016). and lung failure – diseases that we could resist when we were younger.
One theory is that cancer Note that environmental factors such as toxins, radiation and poor diet
cells can keep the telomerase can exacerbate (worsen) the wear and tear process. An example of the
level intact, which ordinary wear and tear theory is osteoarthritis, where the cartilage protecting the
cells cannot. joints wears out and the joints become stiff and painful.
The genetic programming Although the wear and tear theory sounds very logical, it is not
theory is one of the most supported as widely as would be expected. For example, critics point
popular biological theories of out that if the theory were true, it would mean that we would contribute
ageing. One reason for this is to the wear and tear by doing regular and strenuous exercises. Thus,
that it is logical and simple. we would live longer if we simply sit on a couch and watch TV! Another
However, this does not mean point of criticism is that wear and tear could just as well be the result or
that the theory provides all symptom of ageing, and not necessarily the cause of it. In other words, it
the answers. For example, is possible that the ageing process (which is characterised by wear and
researchers have discovered tear) is caused by other factors.
•
According to the genetic programming theory, telomeres
play a role in the ageing process that not all deteriorating cells The free radical theory. The nucleus of an atom (the smallest part of
shorten with cell division any material) is surrounded by a cloud of electrons, which could be
(Ferenec et al., 2005). Very important is that the essential cause-effect described as elementary particles. These electrons surround the nucleus
question still has to be answered: Do shortened telomeres cause ageing, or in pairs, but occasionally, an atom loses an electron, leaving the atom
are they the effect (result) of ageing? Moreover, brain cells do not typically with an unpaired electron (Nelson, 2008). The atom is then called a ‘free

60 61
 radical’. These free radicals have been described as scavengers that
attack the structure of the cell membranes, thus causing cellular damage
and resulting dysfunction. Free radicals are continuously produced
over the life span and have been linked to dementia and other brain
changes associated with old age, heart disease, cancer, cataracts and the
formation of ‘ageing spots’ (the
darkening of the skin in certain
areas) (Erber, 2013; Saha et al.,
2016). The effect that probably
causes most concern is that
free radicals also damage
the DNA of normal cells. The
result is that the genetic Hands of elderly and young person. The older person’s less elastic skin with a leathery
code contained in the DNA appearance, illustrates the cross-linking theory.
becomes scrambled and the
body’s repairing mechanisms blocked because of the stiffening of the walls of the arteries, which do
simply cannot keep up with the not allow the normal passage of nutrients.
reparation. When free radicals Free radical molecule with one missing electron The basic rationale of cross-linking is accepted widely. However,
kill or damage enough cells in inside the human cell whether it is a primary cause of ageing still has to be established
an organism, the organism ages conclusively. At this stage, research results are too diverse to reach a
and eventually dies (Sigelman & Rider, 2015). definite conclusion while (just as in several other theories) we also do
• The cross-linking theory. This theory is based on the observation that not know whether cross-linking is a cause or merely a feature of ageing
with age, many body tissues become less flexible and therefore less (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014).
functional. The skin that becomes less elastic and takes on a leathery
appearance illustrates the rationale of this theory. Certain proteins Evidence for each of the aforementioned and other theories is mixed:
(nutrients that are necessary for the growth, maintenance and repair While some provide empirical evidence to our knowledge of the ageing
of the body) cross-link (bind or interact) and produce molecules (the process, others are more difficult to prove or have less substance. However,
smallest particle of a substance) in such a way that they make the body each theory may play a role in the process, although on its own, one
stiffer. These proteins are called collagen, which is partly responsible for particular theory is unlikely to account for the ageing process (Li, 2013;
wrinkled skin. In soft body tissue, collagen acts much like reinforcing Rathus, 2014). Based on present scientific evidence it is probably safest to
rods in concrete. The more collagen there is, the stiffer and therefore less conclude that the importance of the nature-nurture interaction could, in all
flexible and functional the tissue becomes. (You can actually see cross- likelihood, also be applied here: the maximum life expectancy of human
linking in action when you cut an apple in half and observe the reaction beings may be biologically determined, but other factors such a healthy
of the oxygen in the air with the glucose in the apple: it turns brown and lifestyle, availability of good medical care, and effective coping with stress
eventually becomes tough and less tasty.) will determine whether or not a particular individual achieves his or her
The number of cross-links increases as we grow older. As the muscles, potential maximum age.
arteries, and tissue become less flexible and effective, the functioning
of the body is affected negatively. For example, the stiffening of the
heart muscles forces the heart to work harder, with the result that the
possibility of a heart attack increases. Or metabolic processes can be

62 63
 radical’. These free radicals have been described as scavengers that
attack the structure of the cell membranes, thus causing cellular damage
and resulting dysfunction. Free radicals are continuously produced
over the life span and have been linked to dementia and other brain
changes associated with old age, heart disease, cancer, cataracts and the
formation of ‘ageing spots’ (the
darkening of the skin in certain
areas) (Erber, 2013; Saha et al.,
2016). The effect that probably
causes most concern is that
free radicals also damage
the DNA of normal cells. The
result is that the genetic Hands of elderly and young person. The older person’s less elastic skin with a leathery
code contained in the DNA appearance, illustrates the cross-linking theory.
becomes scrambled and the
body’s repairing mechanisms blocked because of the stiffening of the walls of the arteries, which do
simply cannot keep up with the not allow the normal passage of nutrients.
reparation. When free radicals Free radical molecule with one missing electron The basic rationale of cross-linking is accepted widely. However,
kill or damage enough cells in inside the human cell whether it is a primary cause of ageing still has to be established
an organism, the organism ages conclusively. At this stage, research results are too diverse to reach a
and eventually dies (Sigelman & Rider, 2015). definite conclusion while (just as in several other theories) we also do
• The cross-linking theory. This theory is based on the observation that not know whether cross-linking is a cause or merely a feature of ageing
with age, many body tissues become less flexible and therefore less (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014).
functional. The skin that becomes less elastic and takes on a leathery
appearance illustrates the rationale of this theory. Certain proteins Evidence for each of the aforementioned and other theories is mixed:
(nutrients that are necessary for the growth, maintenance and repair While some provide empirical evidence to our knowledge of the ageing
of the body) cross-link (bind or interact) and produce molecules (the process, others are more difficult to prove or have less substance. However,
smallest particle of a substance) in such a way that they make the body each theory may play a role in the process, although on its own, one
stiffer. These proteins are called collagen, which is partly responsible for particular theory is unlikely to account for the ageing process (Li, 2013;
wrinkled skin. In soft body tissue, collagen acts much like reinforcing Rathus, 2014). Based on present scientific evidence it is probably safest to
rods in concrete. The more collagen there is, the stiffer and therefore less conclude that the importance of the nature-nurture interaction could, in all
flexible and functional the tissue becomes. (You can actually see cross- likelihood, also be applied here: the maximum life expectancy of human
linking in action when you cut an apple in half and observe the reaction beings may be biologically determined, but other factors such a healthy
of the oxygen in the air with the glucose in the apple: it turns brown and lifestyle, availability of good medical care, and effective coping with stress
eventually becomes tough and less tasty.) will determine whether or not a particular individual achieves his or her
The number of cross-links increases as we grow older. As the muscles, potential maximum age.
arteries, and tissue become less flexible and effective, the functioning
of the body is affected negatively. For example, the stiffening of the
heart muscles forces the heart to work harder, with the result that the
possibility of a heart attack increases. Or metabolic processes can be

62 63
 Another significant change is that blood flow to the brain starts
REVIEW THIS SECTION decreasing. This implies a decrease in oxygen and glucose consumption,
1. How may physical changes have important psychological consequences for an with the result that there is often a decrease in cerebral metabolism and
individual? functioning (Salminen & Paul, 2014; Van der Merwe, 1996).
2. What do the general findings regarding age-related change indicate? Why may it For centuries, it was believed that our bodies cannot make new neurons.
be risky to use chronological age as an indicator of change? The brain specifically was seen as an organ that is unable to reproduce or
3. Discuss examples of theories of ageing: repair neurons. However, earlier research indicated that the reproduction of
- Programmed ageing theories adult brain cells, also called neurogenesis, does take place in many other
- Error theories species (Khamsi, 2007; Zupanc, 2006). In the 1990s, it was proved ultimately
4. Evaluate these theories. Does any single theory give a complete explanation of the that neurogenesis also takes place in the adult human brain (Erikson et al.,
ageing process? What may be the safest assumption regarding the theories of
1998), which was confirmed by later research (Migaud et al., 2016).
ageing?
However, because of the ageing
processes in especially the neurons
and neurotransmitters, signals may
2.3. SPECIFIC PHYSICAL CHANGES be conducted more slowly in old
age. Usually, these changes are so
As mentioned previously, various physical developments and changes have minimal that people do not notice
a significant effect on the lifestyle and general adjustment of adults and it, but because of these changes,
especially the elderly. Some of the specific developments and changes in the brain may function slightly less
this regard will be discussed next. well. For example, older people
may react and perform tasks
2.3.1 The brain somewhat more slowly, while some
Neurogenesis mental functions may be reduced
The growth of the brain continues into adolescence or early adulthood, as subtly. These include vocabulary,
brain size and weight reach their maximum during early adulthood. However, short-term memory, the ability to learn new material and the ability to recall
the weight of the brain begins to decline during middle-age and especially words (The Merck Manual of Health & Aging, 2005).
after age 50, because of the deterioration and the resulting decrease in the Does education affect the ageing of the brain in this regard? Interestingly,
number of neurons (nerve cells). The percentage of this loss varies from 10% the brains of well- and poorly educated elderly adults do not differ in areas
to 60%, depending on the methodology employed and the specific group of that are less involved in academic learning. However, research has indicated
neurons studied (Martinez-Pinilla et al., 2016). that adults between 60 and 90 with higher levels of education show
significantly less atrophy (deterioration) of the cerebral cortex (the grey
matter of the brain that involves, amongst others, higher order processes
such as thought and reasoning) than those with less schooling. This is
probably because more highly educated people are more inclined to use,
and thus stimulate, the cerebral cortex (see Boyd & Bee, 2006; Kim et al.,
2015).
Using neuro-imaging (brain scanning) techniques such as the MRI
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging), researchers have recently discovered
that brain activity in the prefrontal cortex is less lateralised (one-sided) in
Human brain cut in half Human brain from the side older adults than in younger adults when they are engaging in cognitive

64 65
 Another significant change is that blood flow to the brain starts
REVIEW THIS SECTION decreasing. This implies a decrease in oxygen and glucose consumption,
1. How may physical changes have important psychological consequences for an with the result that there is often a decrease in cerebral metabolism and
individual? functioning (Salminen & Paul, 2014; Van der Merwe, 1996).
2. What do the general findings regarding age-related change indicate? Why may it For centuries, it was believed that our bodies cannot make new neurons.
be risky to use chronological age as an indicator of change? The brain specifically was seen as an organ that is unable to reproduce or
3. Discuss examples of theories of ageing: repair neurons. However, earlier research indicated that the reproduction of
- Programmed ageing theories adult brain cells, also called neurogenesis, does take place in many other
- Error theories species (Khamsi, 2007; Zupanc, 2006). In the 1990s, it was proved ultimately
4. Evaluate these theories. Does any single theory give a complete explanation of the that neurogenesis also takes place in the adult human brain (Erikson et al.,
ageing process? What may be the safest assumption regarding the theories of
1998), which was confirmed by later research (Migaud et al., 2016).
ageing?
However, because of the ageing
processes in especially the neurons
and neurotransmitters, signals may
2.3. SPECIFIC PHYSICAL CHANGES be conducted more slowly in old
age. Usually, these changes are so
As mentioned previously, various physical developments and changes have minimal that people do not notice
a significant effect on the lifestyle and general adjustment of adults and it, but because of these changes,
especially the elderly. Some of the specific developments and changes in the brain may function slightly less
this regard will be discussed next. well. For example, older people
may react and perform tasks
2.3.1 The brain somewhat more slowly, while some
Neurogenesis mental functions may be reduced
The growth of the brain continues into adolescence or early adulthood, as subtly. These include vocabulary,
brain size and weight reach their maximum during early adulthood. However, short-term memory, the ability to learn new material and the ability to recall
the weight of the brain begins to decline during middle-age and especially words (The Merck Manual of Health & Aging, 2005).
after age 50, because of the deterioration and the resulting decrease in the Does education affect the ageing of the brain in this regard? Interestingly,
number of neurons (nerve cells). The percentage of this loss varies from 10% the brains of well- and poorly educated elderly adults do not differ in areas
to 60%, depending on the methodology employed and the specific group of that are less involved in academic learning. However, research has indicated
neurons studied (Martinez-Pinilla et al., 2016). that adults between 60 and 90 with higher levels of education show
significantly less atrophy (deterioration) of the cerebral cortex (the grey
matter of the brain that involves, amongst others, higher order processes
such as thought and reasoning) than those with less schooling. This is
probably because more highly educated people are more inclined to use,
and thus stimulate, the cerebral cortex (see Boyd & Bee, 2006; Kim et al.,
2015).
Using neuro-imaging (brain scanning) techniques such as the MRI
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging), researchers have recently discovered
that brain activity in the prefrontal cortex is less lateralised (one-sided) in
Human brain cut in half Human brain from the side older adults than in younger adults when they are engaging in cognitive

64 65
tasks (see Santrock, 2015). For example, when younger adults are given objects nearby may be blurry. Because the lens gradually loses its capacity
the task of recognising words they have previously seen, they process the to accommodate to close objects, people in their middle years tend to hold a
information primarily in the right hemisphere, while older adults are more book or newspaper at a greater distance from their eyes if they do not wear
likely to use both hemispheres, which could result in more imaginative or glasses or contact lenses to compensate for this loss. Dark adaptation (i.e.
creative processes. changing from a brightly lit to a dimly lit environment) also becomes slower.
For example, driving at night may become more difficult because of the glare
of oncoming traffic and the subsequent return to a dimly lit environment.
Among the elderly, peripheral vision (all that is visible to the eye outside the
central area of focus), depth vision, colour vision and adaptation to the dark
become poorer, while sensitivity to glare increases (DeLoss, 2015; Lefrançois,
1996).
Because of the deterioration of vision, at least 80% of 50-year-olds
need to wear glasses, especially reading glasses. The seriousness of vision
deterioration in older people is illustrated by the fact that about 80% of
people living with blindness are aged 50 and above (WHO, 2017).
As one grows older, especially after the age of 50, visual dysfunction
A MRI scanner A MRI scan image of the brain becomes more common. Some of the most common of these visual
dysfunctions are the following:
2.3.2 The senses

A sense is the physiological capacity of organisms that provides information • Glaucoma, a group of eye diseases which result in damage to the optic
nerve and vision lens. It generally develops because of increasing pressure
for perception or interpretation of the world around them. The sensory
of the ocular fluid inside the eye that does not drain normally, causing
nervous system forms part of the central nervous system and includes a sense
visual defects and even blindness (Dictionary of Medical Terms, 2013).
organ, sensory neurons, neural pathways and specific areas of the brain.
However, if treated early it is possible to slow or stop the progression of
Commonly recognised sensory systems are those for sight (vision), hearing
the disease with medication, laser treatment, or surgery. Glaucoma has
(audition), taste (gustation), smell (olfaction) and touch (somatosensation).
been called the “silent thief of sight” because the loss of vision usually
occurs slowly over a long period of time. Worldwide, glaucoma is the
2.3.2.1 Sight
second-leading cause of blindness.
Sight (vision) is at its best at approximately age 20 and after that remains • Cataracts, the loss of the transparency of the lens of the eye. This means
that the lens becomes cloudy, causing faded colours, blurry vision, as well
relatively constant until approximately age 40. Between 20 and 30 years of
as trouble with bright lights and seeing at night. Cataracts often develop
age, visual acuity (sharpness) is enhanced, because pupils are larger in early
slowly and can affect one or both eyes. Cataracts are most commonly
adulthood than during middle-age. This facilitates adjustment to strong or
due to ageing but may be due to other factors such as physical trauma.
dim light, and to sudden changes from dim light to bright light.
Risk factors such as illnesses (e.g. diabetes mellitus, a metabolic disorder
Vision begins to deteriorate with the onset of middle age. Because of
characterised by high blood sugar levels), alcohol, smoking, or prolonged
the gradual thickening of the lens, loss of lens elasticity, and increased lens
exposure to the sun may also play a role. Cataracts are the major cause
density, there is a decline in the process of accommodation (the ability of
of blindness worldwide, especially in the developing world where even
the lens to change shape to focus and maintain an image on the retina).
children are affected. Glasses may improve eyesight, but in severe cases
This could lead to myopia or near-sightedness where distant objects appear
surgery is recommended (Harvard Medical School, 2013).
blurred, while close objects appear normal. Most people become farsighted, a
condition called presbyopia, in which one can see distant objects clearly, but
66 67
tasks (see Santrock, 2015). For example, when younger adults are given objects nearby may be blurry. Because the lens gradually loses its capacity
the task of recognising words they have previously seen, they process the to accommodate to close objects, people in their middle years tend to hold a
information primarily in the right hemisphere, while older adults are more book or newspaper at a greater distance from their eyes if they do not wear
likely to use both hemispheres, which could result in more imaginative or glasses or contact lenses to compensate for this loss. Dark adaptation (i.e.
creative processes. changing from a brightly lit to a dimly lit environment) also becomes slower.
For example, driving at night may become more difficult because of the glare
of oncoming traffic and the subsequent return to a dimly lit environment.
Among the elderly, peripheral vision (all that is visible to the eye outside the
central area of focus), depth vision, colour vision and adaptation to the dark
become poorer, while sensitivity to glare increases (DeLoss, 2015; Lefrançois,
1996).
Because of the deterioration of vision, at least 80% of 50-year-olds
need to wear glasses, especially reading glasses. The seriousness of vision
deterioration in older people is illustrated by the fact that about 80% of
people living with blindness are aged 50 and above (WHO, 2017).
As one grows older, especially after the age of 50, visual dysfunction
A MRI scanner A MRI scan image of the brain becomes more common. Some of the most common of these visual
dysfunctions are the following:
2.3.2 The senses

A sense is the physiological capacity of organisms that provides information • Glaucoma, a group of eye diseases which result in damage to the optic
nerve and vision lens. It generally develops because of increasing pressure
for perception or interpretation of the world around them. The sensory
of the ocular fluid inside the eye that does not drain normally, causing
nervous system forms part of the central nervous system and includes a sense
visual defects and even blindness (Dictionary of Medical Terms, 2013).
organ, sensory neurons, neural pathways and specific areas of the brain.
However, if treated early it is possible to slow or stop the progression of
Commonly recognised sensory systems are those for sight (vision), hearing
the disease with medication, laser treatment, or surgery. Glaucoma has
(audition), taste (gustation), smell (olfaction) and touch (somatosensation).
been called the “silent thief of sight” because the loss of vision usually
occurs slowly over a long period of time. Worldwide, glaucoma is the
2.3.2.1 Sight
second-leading cause of blindness.
Sight (vision) is at its best at approximately age 20 and after that remains • Cataracts, the loss of the transparency of the lens of the eye. This means
that the lens becomes cloudy, causing faded colours, blurry vision, as well
relatively constant until approximately age 40. Between 20 and 30 years of
as trouble with bright lights and seeing at night. Cataracts often develop
age, visual acuity (sharpness) is enhanced, because pupils are larger in early
slowly and can affect one or both eyes. Cataracts are most commonly
adulthood than during middle-age. This facilitates adjustment to strong or
due to ageing but may be due to other factors such as physical trauma.
dim light, and to sudden changes from dim light to bright light.
Risk factors such as illnesses (e.g. diabetes mellitus, a metabolic disorder
Vision begins to deteriorate with the onset of middle age. Because of
characterised by high blood sugar levels), alcohol, smoking, or prolonged
the gradual thickening of the lens, loss of lens elasticity, and increased lens
exposure to the sun may also play a role. Cataracts are the major cause
density, there is a decline in the process of accommodation (the ability of
of blindness worldwide, especially in the developing world where even
the lens to change shape to focus and maintain an image on the retina).
children are affected. Glasses may improve eyesight, but in severe cases
This could lead to myopia or near-sightedness where distant objects appear
surgery is recommended (Harvard Medical School, 2013).
blurred, while close objects appear normal. Most people become farsighted, a
condition called presbyopia, in which one can see distant objects clearly, but
66 67
 Presbycusis usually occurs after age 50, but deterioration in hearing has
been found to start very early, from about the age of 18 years. Nonetheless, the
incidence of hearing problems among individuals in their middle-age seems
to be relatively low: Only about 5% of the general population experiences
significant hearing problems at age 50. This is opposed to approximately
25% to 40% over the age of 65, 50% of those over age 75, and 80% of those
over 85 years (Bance, 2007; Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015).
Loss of hearing affects basically all spheres of a person’s daily physical
Glaucoma Cataracts and mental functioning. Therefore, people with hearing loss are faced with
numerous adjustments on educational, occupational, interpersonal, and
Visual dysfunctions may affect a person’s functioning on social, physical, other levels. As far as psychological well-being is concerned, depression,
cognitive and psychological levels. For example, people may have trouble low self-esteem, irritation, social isolation and a general low quality of life
reading and recognising faces. It may also result in increased risk of falling, are not uncommon among people with a hearing impairment. These effects
while depression is not uncommon. seem to be stronger among the young (20–44 years) and the middle-
aged (45–64 years) than among older (65+ years) people (Tambs, 2004).
2.3.2.2 Hearing This is understandable, as life’s demands are usually fewer at a higher age.
Fortunately, recent advances in hearing aids and surgery have significantly
As in the case of vision, there is also a gradual decline in hearing (auditory) improved the lives of people with hearing impairments.
acuity with increasing age. This is known as presbycusis, a progressive and
irreversible age-related hearing loss resulting from the degeneration of 2.3.2.3 Taste, smell and touch
structures in the inner ear or auditory nerves. The cause of presbycusis is a
combination of genetics, cumulative environmental exposures (such as loud • The sense of taste. It is well documented that the sense of taste typically
noise or toxic drugs and chemicals) and physiological changes related to becomes less sensitive with ageing due to the loss in sensitivity of the
ageing (Basner et al., 2014; Stucken & Hong, 2014). Presbycusis is the most taste buds. The mouth also produces less saliva, which can cause a dry
common cause of hearing loss and is the second most common illness next mouth, which in turn can affect the sense of taste. However, it is also
to arthritis in aged people. associated with heavy drinking, smoking, certain medications, nasal and
The most characteristic symptom is the inability to hear high notes. Men sinus problems, and poor oral hygiene. The loss of taste usually becomes
are generally affected more than women. Other primary symptoms are: noticeable after approximately the age of 60, and is especially true
with regard to spices and salts. Most studies indicate that sweetness
– sounds or speech becoming dull, muted or weakened perception is preserved best against the detrimental effects of ageing
– the need for increased volume on television, radio, music and other audio (Giacalone et al., 2014). A diminished sense of taste can lead to poor
sources such as the telephone appetite and nutrition. In addition, a person suffering from a deficiency in
– difficulty in understanding soft speech, such as whispering or the speech taste might unintentionally eat contaminated food that put them at risk
of women and children of food poisoning or other illnesses.
– difficulty in speech discrimination against background noise (the cocktail • The sense of smell. The effectiveness of the sense of smell decreases
party effect). significantly with ageing. About 30% of all adults older than 65 suffer from
some form of smell impairment, with almost 50% of people older than 80
Secondary symptoms are hyperacusis, the sensitivity to certain volumes having almost no ability to smell (see Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014).
and frequencies of sound, and tinnitus, the ringing, buzzing, hissing or other This has important implications for safety issues, as such people are, for
sounds in the ear when no external sound is present. example, less likely to respond to dangerous gas leaks, fire and smoke,

68 69
 Presbycusis usually occurs after age 50, but deterioration in hearing has
been found to start very early, from about the age of 18 years. Nonetheless, the
incidence of hearing problems among individuals in their middle-age seems
to be relatively low: Only about 5% of the general population experiences
significant hearing problems at age 50. This is opposed to approximately
25% to 40% over the age of 65, 50% of those over age 75, and 80% of those
over 85 years (Bance, 2007; Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015).
Loss of hearing affects basically all spheres of a person’s daily physical
Glaucoma Cataracts and mental functioning. Therefore, people with hearing loss are faced with
numerous adjustments on educational, occupational, interpersonal, and
Visual dysfunctions may affect a person’s functioning on social, physical, other levels. As far as psychological well-being is concerned, depression,
cognitive and psychological levels. For example, people may have trouble low self-esteem, irritation, social isolation and a general low quality of life
reading and recognising faces. It may also result in increased risk of falling, are not uncommon among people with a hearing impairment. These effects
while depression is not uncommon. seem to be stronger among the young (20–44 years) and the middle-
aged (45–64 years) than among older (65+ years) people (Tambs, 2004).
2.3.2.2 Hearing This is understandable, as life’s demands are usually fewer at a higher age.
Fortunately, recent advances in hearing aids and surgery have significantly
As in the case of vision, there is also a gradual decline in hearing (auditory) improved the lives of people with hearing impairments.
acuity with increasing age. This is known as presbycusis, a progressive and
irreversible age-related hearing loss resulting from the degeneration of 2.3.2.3 Taste, smell and touch
structures in the inner ear or auditory nerves. The cause of presbycusis is a
combination of genetics, cumulative environmental exposures (such as loud • The sense of taste. It is well documented that the sense of taste typically
noise or toxic drugs and chemicals) and physiological changes related to becomes less sensitive with ageing due to the loss in sensitivity of the
ageing (Basner et al., 2014; Stucken & Hong, 2014). Presbycusis is the most taste buds. The mouth also produces less saliva, which can cause a dry
common cause of hearing loss and is the second most common illness next mouth, which in turn can affect the sense of taste. However, it is also
to arthritis in aged people. associated with heavy drinking, smoking, certain medications, nasal and
The most characteristic symptom is the inability to hear high notes. Men sinus problems, and poor oral hygiene. The loss of taste usually becomes
are generally affected more than women. Other primary symptoms are: noticeable after approximately the age of 60, and is especially true
with regard to spices and salts. Most studies indicate that sweetness
– sounds or speech becoming dull, muted or weakened perception is preserved best against the detrimental effects of ageing
– the need for increased volume on television, radio, music and other audio (Giacalone et al., 2014). A diminished sense of taste can lead to poor
sources such as the telephone appetite and nutrition. In addition, a person suffering from a deficiency in
– difficulty in understanding soft speech, such as whispering or the speech taste might unintentionally eat contaminated food that put them at risk
of women and children of food poisoning or other illnesses.
– difficulty in speech discrimination against background noise (the cocktail • The sense of smell. The effectiveness of the sense of smell decreases
party effect). significantly with ageing. About 30% of all adults older than 65 suffer from
some form of smell impairment, with almost 50% of people older than 80
Secondary symptoms are hyperacusis, the sensitivity to certain volumes having almost no ability to smell (see Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014).
and frequencies of sound, and tinnitus, the ringing, buzzing, hissing or other This has important implications for safety issues, as such people are, for
sounds in the ear when no external sound is present. example, less likely to respond to dangerous gas leaks, fire and smoke,

68 69
 and spoiled food, and may be less aware of body odours. A delicious- hands and feet. Other reasons may be that the density of nerve endings
smelling meal or pleasant aroma can improve one’s appetite and quality in skin decreases, or that myelin (the insulating material that coats the
of life; therefore, this aspect is also compromised increasingly as people nerve fibres to get information quickly to the brain) breaks down. The
age, which may lead to loss of appetite and cause poor nutrition. As with result is that the information gets to the brain more slowly (Tremblay
taste, smell can be affected by a number of factors such as smoking, & Master, 2015). However, the decline in the sense of touch does not
certain medications, poor nasal hygiene, nasal congestion, diseases occur in all individuals; some are affected more than others. For example,
affecting the nose, nasal passageways or sinuses, as well as neurological people who lead a sedentary or inactive lifestyle, or people with arthritis,
disease. diabetes or vascular disease may be more at risk than those who do not
• The sense of touch. Touch is an important part of our daily experience, have these additional challenges.
influencing many of our activities and areas of development (Gallace,
2012; Gardner, 2001). Throughout life people use their sense of touch to In summary, although the ageing process is unique for every individual,
learn, protect themselves from harm, relate to others, and to experience most persons will experience some alteration in their sensory organs. Some
pleasure. The sense of touch allows a person to determine an object’s size, individuals may have problems with communication and social interactions,
shape, weight, texture and temperature, and whether the object causes making them feel isolated. Hearing and vision changes are familiar, whereas
pain or pleasure. In this way, touch allows individuals to learn about the decline in other senses, though not so visibly dramatic, are equally
the environment and to change their behaviour accordingly. The skin is debilitating. Whether these changes are induced by ageing or by diseases
the sensory organ for touch, and is the largest organ of the body. The common to the ageing process, is unimportant. A proper understanding of the
skin consists of many sensory neurons or nerve endings. Some sensory situation, taking appropriate action, and a caring attitude from the members
neurons react to the location of touch on the skin, the amount of force of the family can greatly reduce the problems faced by the affected person.
or pressure and its velocity (speed). Other sensory neurons react to an
object’s temperature and to the presence of chemicals on the skin. 2.3.3 Muscle strength
The sense of touch steadily deteriorates as people get older, starting
around the age of 18, but the rate of loss is greater after than before the Muscle strength reaches a peak between ages 25 and 30 (Wilmore et al.,
age of 65 (Gescheider et al., 2009). People often experience substantial 2008). It then begins to decline slowly but significantly. The reason is that
decline in their ability to detect and discriminate touch stimuli such as muscles do not deteriorate only with regard to strength and elasticity, but
pressure, vibrations, spatial acuity, and pain and temperature. These they are also gradually replaced by fat. Thus, there is a decline in the amount
declines may have the following functional implications (Wickremaratchi of muscle fibre. More specifically, research indicates that muscle strength
& Llewelyn, 2006): declines in both men and women starting in the 40s and at a rate of about
– Speech articulation may be affected due to diminished sensitivity and 8% to 10% decline per decade in both genders (Katzel & Steinbrenner,
sense of vibration of the lip and palatal areas. 2016). By the age of 80, the loss in strength could be as high as 40%,
– Hand grip and tasks requiring fine manipulations may be affected and it appears to be more severe in the legs than in the hands and arms
due to impaired spatial acuity at the fingertips. (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015). Loss of strength and muscle mass
– Postural stability (or sense of balance) may be affected because of may result in frailty, a syndrome characterised by weakness, weight loss,
reduced foot tactile (touch) sense and feedback from the big toe. exercise intolerance, immobility and incontinence, while balance, walking
– A diminished sense of pain and temperature may put older adults at performance and ability to respond to stressors may also be affected (Katzel
an increased risk of sustaining serious injuries, such as pressure sores, & Steinbrenner, 2016).
skin ulcers, heat stroke, burns and hypothermia (abnormally low body Together with the reduction in muscle power, there is also a decrease in
temperature). reaction speed. These changes increase the possibility of elderly persons
Reasons for the age-related declines in the sense of touch may be falling and hurting themselves; a danger of which younger people are not
due to changes in the skin such as thinning and wear and tear on the always aware. For example, in the USA, about 25% of Americans older than 65
experience a serious fall every year (National Council on Aging, 2017). Kalula
70 71
 and spoiled food, and may be less aware of body odours. A delicious- hands and feet. Other reasons may be that the density of nerve endings
smelling meal or pleasant aroma can improve one’s appetite and quality in skin decreases, or that myelin (the insulating material that coats the
of life; therefore, this aspect is also compromised increasingly as people nerve fibres to get information quickly to the brain) breaks down. The
age, which may lead to loss of appetite and cause poor nutrition. As with result is that the information gets to the brain more slowly (Tremblay
taste, smell can be affected by a number of factors such as smoking, & Master, 2015). However, the decline in the sense of touch does not
certain medications, poor nasal hygiene, nasal congestion, diseases occur in all individuals; some are affected more than others. For example,
affecting the nose, nasal passageways or sinuses, as well as neurological people who lead a sedentary or inactive lifestyle, or people with arthritis,
disease. diabetes or vascular disease may be more at risk than those who do not
• The sense of touch. Touch is an important part of our daily experience, have these additional challenges.
influencing many of our activities and areas of development (Gallace,
2012; Gardner, 2001). Throughout life people use their sense of touch to In summary, although the ageing process is unique for every individual,
learn, protect themselves from harm, relate to others, and to experience most persons will experience some alteration in their sensory organs. Some
pleasure. The sense of touch allows a person to determine an object’s size, individuals may have problems with communication and social interactions,
shape, weight, texture and temperature, and whether the object causes making them feel isolated. Hearing and vision changes are familiar, whereas
pain or pleasure. In this way, touch allows individuals to learn about the decline in other senses, though not so visibly dramatic, are equally
the environment and to change their behaviour accordingly. The skin is debilitating. Whether these changes are induced by ageing or by diseases
the sensory organ for touch, and is the largest organ of the body. The common to the ageing process, is unimportant. A proper understanding of the
skin consists of many sensory neurons or nerve endings. Some sensory situation, taking appropriate action, and a caring attitude from the members
neurons react to the location of touch on the skin, the amount of force of the family can greatly reduce the problems faced by the affected person.
or pressure and its velocity (speed). Other sensory neurons react to an
object’s temperature and to the presence of chemicals on the skin. 2.3.3 Muscle strength
The sense of touch steadily deteriorates as people get older, starting
around the age of 18, but the rate of loss is greater after than before the Muscle strength reaches a peak between ages 25 and 30 (Wilmore et al.,
age of 65 (Gescheider et al., 2009). People often experience substantial 2008). It then begins to decline slowly but significantly. The reason is that
decline in their ability to detect and discriminate touch stimuli such as muscles do not deteriorate only with regard to strength and elasticity, but
pressure, vibrations, spatial acuity, and pain and temperature. These they are also gradually replaced by fat. Thus, there is a decline in the amount
declines may have the following functional implications (Wickremaratchi of muscle fibre. More specifically, research indicates that muscle strength
& Llewelyn, 2006): declines in both men and women starting in the 40s and at a rate of about
– Speech articulation may be affected due to diminished sensitivity and 8% to 10% decline per decade in both genders (Katzel & Steinbrenner,
sense of vibration of the lip and palatal areas. 2016). By the age of 80, the loss in strength could be as high as 40%,
– Hand grip and tasks requiring fine manipulations may be affected and it appears to be more severe in the legs than in the hands and arms
due to impaired spatial acuity at the fingertips. (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015). Loss of strength and muscle mass
– Postural stability (or sense of balance) may be affected because of may result in frailty, a syndrome characterised by weakness, weight loss,
reduced foot tactile (touch) sense and feedback from the big toe. exercise intolerance, immobility and incontinence, while balance, walking
– A diminished sense of pain and temperature may put older adults at performance and ability to respond to stressors may also be affected (Katzel
an increased risk of sustaining serious injuries, such as pressure sores, & Steinbrenner, 2016).
skin ulcers, heat stroke, burns and hypothermia (abnormally low body Together with the reduction in muscle power, there is also a decrease in
temperature). reaction speed. These changes increase the possibility of elderly persons
Reasons for the age-related declines in the sense of touch may be falling and hurting themselves; a danger of which younger people are not
due to changes in the skin such as thinning and wear and tear on the always aware. For example, in the USA, about 25% of Americans older than 65
experience a serious fall every year (National Council on Aging, 2017). Kalula
70 71
and his co-workers (2016) in South Africa found that the annual prevalence 2.3.4 Stamina
rate of falling among a representative multi-ethnic community sample was
somewhat higher than 25%. They also found that a poor cognitive score was Owing to changes in muscle power, as well as the less effective functioning of
a significant predictor for falling. Hip fractures resulting from these falls are the heart and lungs, stamina (endurance) decreases with age. Less oxygen is
especially dangerous, and complications could lead to a 35% mortality rate available, and the heart disperses it slower through the bloodstream to the
in the first year following a fall (Dave & Kalula, 2006). The main reason why muscles. A healthy 70-year-old can still run a marathon with proper training,
bone fractures are common in the elderly is that there is a loss in bone mass, but it will take him or her at least an hour longer than would have been the
which means that bones become more brittle and therefore fracture more case at age 30. It is estimated that our stamina decreases by approximately
easily. 15% between ages 30 and 50, and then with a further 15% between ages 50
However, research has shown that regular exercise and fitness can and 70 (Schulz & Ewen, 1993).
counteract the deterioration of muscles to a great extent (Barbieri et al.,
2015; Zampieri et al., 2015). This in turn decreases the risk of falling and the 2.3.5 Physical appearance
resulting injuries, increases the blood circulation and thus improves heart
and lung functions, and prevents arteriosclerosis, while the functioning of The physical changes that take place during adulthood contribute to a
the immune system may also be enhanced. The degree to which exercise and change in adults’ physical appearance. These changes are usually only minor
fitness can contribute to counteracting muscle deterioration is illustrated in the 20s, as the first significant changes usually become noticeable only
by research, which has shown that the handgrip power of 70-year-old men after the middle 30s and especially after the 40s. Physical changes that
who participated in sports was higher than 60% of 17- to 19-year-olds, and contribute in this regard include the skin that becomes wrinkled and loose,
that 70-year-old sportswomen were as flexible as the average adolescent the thinning and greying of hair; slackening of the breasts in women, and
(O’Brien & Conger, 1991). Regular fitness exercises also have the important the appearance of longer, stiffer hair in the eyebrows, ears and nose in men.
additional advantage of increasing the general quality of life of the elderly, Although changes in physical appearance occur in all life stages,
creating a feeling of general well-being, increasing general psychological deterioration is nowhere as obvious as during late adulthood. The physical
functioning, and decreasing anxiety and depression. changes that began during the middle years continue and increase in
intensity. For example, the skin becomes less elastic, more wrinkled, dry and
thin. ‘Ageing spots’ now also start making an appearance. Warts are now
also more common, while small blood vessels sometimes break and cause
small black and blue marks. Wounds tend to heal less quickly than they did
previously because the repair function of cells and blood vessels slows down.
Skin cells are also now replaced slower. Skin cells in an average 70-year-
old live only 46 days compared to approximately 100 days in a 30-year-old
(Turner & Helms, 1995). Hair progressively loses its gloss, becomes grey and
thinner (particularly in the case of males). The body posture may become
stooped, and the muscles may lose their elasticity, making movement slower
and more strenuous.
Adjustment to this changing appearance is not always easy and requires
the individual to reformulate his or her body image. This is especially true
in cases where the individual’s self-concept is based mainly on appearance
Exercise and fitness can improve stamina and muscle strength
(e.g. actors or a person who regards his or her physical appearance as being
the main attraction for the opposite gender or the most important aspect
of their identity). Thus, middle age could be a traumatic phase. Therefore, it

72 73
and his co-workers (2016) in South Africa found that the annual prevalence 2.3.4 Stamina
rate of falling among a representative multi-ethnic community sample was
somewhat higher than 25%. They also found that a poor cognitive score was Owing to changes in muscle power, as well as the less effective functioning of
a significant predictor for falling. Hip fractures resulting from these falls are the heart and lungs, stamina (endurance) decreases with age. Less oxygen is
especially dangerous, and complications could lead to a 35% mortality rate available, and the heart disperses it slower through the bloodstream to the
in the first year following a fall (Dave & Kalula, 2006). The main reason why muscles. A healthy 70-year-old can still run a marathon with proper training,
bone fractures are common in the elderly is that there is a loss in bone mass, but it will take him or her at least an hour longer than would have been the
which means that bones become more brittle and therefore fracture more case at age 30. It is estimated that our stamina decreases by approximately
easily. 15% between ages 30 and 50, and then with a further 15% between ages 50
However, research has shown that regular exercise and fitness can and 70 (Schulz & Ewen, 1993).
counteract the deterioration of muscles to a great extent (Barbieri et al.,
2015; Zampieri et al., 2015). This in turn decreases the risk of falling and the 2.3.5 Physical appearance
resulting injuries, increases the blood circulation and thus improves heart
and lung functions, and prevents arteriosclerosis, while the functioning of The physical changes that take place during adulthood contribute to a
the immune system may also be enhanced. The degree to which exercise and change in adults’ physical appearance. These changes are usually only minor
fitness can contribute to counteracting muscle deterioration is illustrated in the 20s, as the first significant changes usually become noticeable only
by research, which has shown that the handgrip power of 70-year-old men after the middle 30s and especially after the 40s. Physical changes that
who participated in sports was higher than 60% of 17- to 19-year-olds, and contribute in this regard include the skin that becomes wrinkled and loose,
that 70-year-old sportswomen were as flexible as the average adolescent the thinning and greying of hair; slackening of the breasts in women, and
(O’Brien & Conger, 1991). Regular fitness exercises also have the important the appearance of longer, stiffer hair in the eyebrows, ears and nose in men.
additional advantage of increasing the general quality of life of the elderly, Although changes in physical appearance occur in all life stages,
creating a feeling of general well-being, increasing general psychological deterioration is nowhere as obvious as during late adulthood. The physical
functioning, and decreasing anxiety and depression. changes that began during the middle years continue and increase in
intensity. For example, the skin becomes less elastic, more wrinkled, dry and
thin. ‘Ageing spots’ now also start making an appearance. Warts are now
also more common, while small blood vessels sometimes break and cause
small black and blue marks. Wounds tend to heal less quickly than they did
previously because the repair function of cells and blood vessels slows down.
Skin cells are also now replaced slower. Skin cells in an average 70-year-
old live only 46 days compared to approximately 100 days in a 30-year-old
(Turner & Helms, 1995). Hair progressively loses its gloss, becomes grey and
thinner (particularly in the case of males). The body posture may become
stooped, and the muscles may lose their elasticity, making movement slower
and more strenuous.
Adjustment to this changing appearance is not always easy and requires
the individual to reformulate his or her body image. This is especially true
in cases where the individual’s self-concept is based mainly on appearance
Exercise and fitness can improve stamina and muscle strength
(e.g. actors or a person who regards his or her physical appearance as being
the main attraction for the opposite gender or the most important aspect
of their identity). Thus, middle age could be a traumatic phase. Therefore, it

72 73
is understandable that people who live in a society that emphasises fitness, Adults’ weight tends to increase as they approach middle-age. Many
youth, slenderness and beauty, spend millions of rand per year on various people are less active during this period, and there is a decrease in the
chemical, pharmacological, surgical and other methods to fight the external rate at which the resting body converts food into energy (this is the basal
characteristics of ageing. metabolism, which slows down by about 3% every 10 years). The number
It is important to realise that one may feel a different age to one’s looks, of calories adults require every day to maintain their present weight
as though one is wearing a mask; the so-called “mask of aging” (Longino & declines by about 10% every 10 years; therefore, if they could reduce their
Powell, 2004, p. 206). That is, while external appearance changes with age, food intake accordingly, their weight would remain the same. However, the
the essential identity does not. Unless they are ill or depressed, old people typical pattern is to eat the same amount of food (perhaps even more) as
do not necessarily feel old in themselves. As mentioned in Chapter 1, there people enter middle-age. The result is the inability of the body to convert
is generally a significant difference between chronological age (with certain food into energy, which means that body fat accumulates (in men usually
accompanied age-related physical characteristics) and psychological- around the waist and in women usually around the hips). This is generally
emotional age. This is why many elderly people refer to the residents in known as ‘middle-age spread’. The increase in weight between age 20 and
their own nursing home as “the old people”, for example, although there 50 varies between 10% and 15%. Although it is widely known that correct
may not be a large difference, if any at all, between their chronological ages. eating habits and regular exercise can help to counteract this process, there
As previously discussed, this is referred to as the ageless self. are now more overweight South Africans than ever before. In fact, a national
survey undertaken in all South African population groups revealed that more
2.3.6 Height and weight than 30% of men and more than 50% of women were overweight or obese
(Puoane et al., 2002). Being overweight or obese demands adjustments in
Although there are significant changes with age, there are large individual order to avoid a variety of possible side-effects, including health problems,
differences in height and weight. However, if one wants to consider averages, social rejection, and discrimination in areas such as employment.
the following are probably the most important changes in this regard: In many cases, weight levels off and then decreases from middle
On average, people lose about 0,65 cm to 1,30 cm every decade after adulthood to late adulthood (Foos & Clark, 2008). The ageing of tissue
age 40 to 50. Losses increase in later years, with women generally losing and muscles results in weight loss as heavier muscle tissue is replaced by
more than men (Berkley, 2015). This is due to the weakening of the muscles less heavy fat. Older adults also tend to eat less than adults in their middle
and the resulting deterioration and compression of the bones in the spine. adulthood years do.
One of the reasons for the significantly higher height loss in women is that
osteoporosis (bone disease) is more frequent in women after menopause.
(With osteoporosis, there is loss of bone mass and increased porosity
(absorbency) in the bone.)

Deterioration of
vertebral support

Adults’ weight tends to increase as they approach middle-age

Osteoporosis
74 75
is understandable that people who live in a society that emphasises fitness, Adults’ weight tends to increase as they approach middle-age. Many
youth, slenderness and beauty, spend millions of rand per year on various people are less active during this period, and there is a decrease in the
chemical, pharmacological, surgical and other methods to fight the external rate at which the resting body converts food into energy (this is the basal
characteristics of ageing. metabolism, which slows down by about 3% every 10 years). The number
It is important to realise that one may feel a different age to one’s looks, of calories adults require every day to maintain their present weight
as though one is wearing a mask; the so-called “mask of aging” (Longino & declines by about 10% every 10 years; therefore, if they could reduce their
Powell, 2004, p. 206). That is, while external appearance changes with age, food intake accordingly, their weight would remain the same. However, the
the essential identity does not. Unless they are ill or depressed, old people typical pattern is to eat the same amount of food (perhaps even more) as
do not necessarily feel old in themselves. As mentioned in Chapter 1, there people enter middle-age. The result is the inability of the body to convert
is generally a significant difference between chronological age (with certain food into energy, which means that body fat accumulates (in men usually
accompanied age-related physical characteristics) and psychological- around the waist and in women usually around the hips). This is generally
emotional age. This is why many elderly people refer to the residents in known as ‘middle-age spread’. The increase in weight between age 20 and
their own nursing home as “the old people”, for example, although there 50 varies between 10% and 15%. Although it is widely known that correct
may not be a large difference, if any at all, between their chronological ages. eating habits and regular exercise can help to counteract this process, there
As previously discussed, this is referred to as the ageless self. are now more overweight South Africans than ever before. In fact, a national
survey undertaken in all South African population groups revealed that more
2.3.6 Height and weight than 30% of men and more than 50% of women were overweight or obese
(Puoane et al., 2002). Being overweight or obese demands adjustments in
Although there are significant changes with age, there are large individual order to avoid a variety of possible side-effects, including health problems,
differences in height and weight. However, if one wants to consider averages, social rejection, and discrimination in areas such as employment.
the following are probably the most important changes in this regard: In many cases, weight levels off and then decreases from middle
On average, people lose about 0,65 cm to 1,30 cm every decade after adulthood to late adulthood (Foos & Clark, 2008). The ageing of tissue
age 40 to 50. Losses increase in later years, with women generally losing and muscles results in weight loss as heavier muscle tissue is replaced by
more than men (Berkley, 2015). This is due to the weakening of the muscles less heavy fat. Older adults also tend to eat less than adults in their middle
and the resulting deterioration and compression of the bones in the spine. adulthood years do.
One of the reasons for the significantly higher height loss in women is that
osteoporosis (bone disease) is more frequent in women after menopause.
(With osteoporosis, there is loss of bone mass and increased porosity
(absorbency) in the bone.)

Deterioration of
vertebral support

Adults’ weight tends to increase as they approach middle-age

Osteoporosis
74 75
2.3.7 Internal organs oxygen consumption of fit elderly persons seems to equal or even exceed
that of many of their younger counterparts.
Several changes occur in the internal organs as one ages:
2.3.7.2 Other internal changes
2.3.7.1 Cardiovascular and respiratory systems
Several other changes also take place in the internal organs of older persons.
Although the weight of the heart, expressed as a percentage of the body For example:
weight, increases with age, it is thought by some that this is due to the
age-related reduction in overall body weight rather than to an increase in • The capacity of the bladder is reduced and the bladder muscles also
the weight and size of the heart as such (Van der Merwe, 1996). However, weaken. Thus, there is an increase in the frequency of urinating.
more recent research has indicated that, when adjusted for body weight
and gender, heart weight increases with increasing age (Kumar et al.,
2014). In addition, atrophy (deterioration) of the heart tissue takes place.
The aorta, the large artery which receives blood from the heart and whose
branches carry blood to all body parts, loses its elasticity. The hardening
and shrinking of the arteries also restrict the free blood flow in the body.
As a result, the heart has to work harder to accomplish less. The output of
the heart of a 75-year-old person is estimated at approximately 70% of that
of the average 30-year-old (Kart, 1990; Quarles et al., 2015). The heartbeat
remains about the same during adulthood and late adulthood, but there is
a significant change in the maximum heartbeat during exercise (Schulz &
Ewen, 1993). For example, at the age of 30, the heartbeat could be as high
as 200 beats per minute during intense activity. This maximum decreases to
approximately 170 heartbeats per minute at age 50 and 150 approximately
at 70 years. It also takes longer for the heart of an elderly person to return
to a resting state than it would at a younger age.
As with most aspects relating to the body, exercise and fitness may also • One of the most recognised consequences of ageing is a decline in the
play an important role in improving the cardiovascular health of the elderly effectiveness of the immune system, a situation that is worsened by
(Katzel & Steinbrenner, 2016). For example, fitness contributes to a decrease older persons’ poor response to vaccination (Montecino-Rodriguez et
in hypertension. Regular exercise can decrease the risk of initial and recurrent al., 2013). The result is an increase in various infections and illnesses such
heart attacks, while it could also make the satisfactory recovery after a heart as flu and colds, pneumonia, and cancer.
attack more likely (Macnair, 2007; Menezes et al., 2014).
As far as the lungs are concerned, the elasticity of the lungs declines 2.3.8 Physical health
with ageing. More specifically, our lungs mature between the ages of 20
and 25, but after the age of 35, their function declines and breathing can Generally speaking, adults younger than about 45 enjoy excellent or very
slowly become more difficult over time (American Lung Association, 2017). good health. Hospitalisation before this age is mostly because of an accident
This loss of lung elasticity in the elderly is known as senile emphysema or (sport) injury rather than illness. Nevertheless, it is important to pay
(Mercado et al., 2015). It has been found that the lung capacity decreases attention to the promotion of good health during early adulthood so that
significantly by approximately 40% between the ages of 20 and 70 years factors that might jeopardise it later in life can be avoided. Factors that have
(Zaugg & Lucchinetti, 2003). However, the lung capacity and therefore been identified by research in this regard include a balanced diet, regular

76 77
2.3.7 Internal organs oxygen consumption of fit elderly persons seems to equal or even exceed
that of many of their younger counterparts.
Several changes occur in the internal organs as one ages:
2.3.7.2 Other internal changes
2.3.7.1 Cardiovascular and respiratory systems
Several other changes also take place in the internal organs of older persons.
Although the weight of the heart, expressed as a percentage of the body For example:
weight, increases with age, it is thought by some that this is due to the
age-related reduction in overall body weight rather than to an increase in • The capacity of the bladder is reduced and the bladder muscles also
the weight and size of the heart as such (Van der Merwe, 1996). However, weaken. Thus, there is an increase in the frequency of urinating.
more recent research has indicated that, when adjusted for body weight
and gender, heart weight increases with increasing age (Kumar et al.,
2014). In addition, atrophy (deterioration) of the heart tissue takes place.
The aorta, the large artery which receives blood from the heart and whose
branches carry blood to all body parts, loses its elasticity. The hardening
and shrinking of the arteries also restrict the free blood flow in the body.
As a result, the heart has to work harder to accomplish less. The output of
the heart of a 75-year-old person is estimated at approximately 70% of that
of the average 30-year-old (Kart, 1990; Quarles et al., 2015). The heartbeat
remains about the same during adulthood and late adulthood, but there is
a significant change in the maximum heartbeat during exercise (Schulz &
Ewen, 1993). For example, at the age of 30, the heartbeat could be as high
as 200 beats per minute during intense activity. This maximum decreases to
approximately 170 heartbeats per minute at age 50 and 150 approximately
at 70 years. It also takes longer for the heart of an elderly person to return
to a resting state than it would at a younger age.
As with most aspects relating to the body, exercise and fitness may also • One of the most recognised consequences of ageing is a decline in the
play an important role in improving the cardiovascular health of the elderly effectiveness of the immune system, a situation that is worsened by
(Katzel & Steinbrenner, 2016). For example, fitness contributes to a decrease older persons’ poor response to vaccination (Montecino-Rodriguez et
in hypertension. Regular exercise can decrease the risk of initial and recurrent al., 2013). The result is an increase in various infections and illnesses such
heart attacks, while it could also make the satisfactory recovery after a heart as flu and colds, pneumonia, and cancer.
attack more likely (Macnair, 2007; Menezes et al., 2014).
As far as the lungs are concerned, the elasticity of the lungs declines 2.3.8 Physical health
with ageing. More specifically, our lungs mature between the ages of 20
and 25, but after the age of 35, their function declines and breathing can Generally speaking, adults younger than about 45 enjoy excellent or very
slowly become more difficult over time (American Lung Association, 2017). good health. Hospitalisation before this age is mostly because of an accident
This loss of lung elasticity in the elderly is known as senile emphysema or (sport) injury rather than illness. Nevertheless, it is important to pay
(Mercado et al., 2015). It has been found that the lung capacity decreases attention to the promotion of good health during early adulthood so that
significantly by approximately 40% between the ages of 20 and 70 years factors that might jeopardise it later in life can be avoided. Factors that have
(Zaugg & Lucchinetti, 2003). However, the lung capacity and therefore been identified by research in this regard include a balanced diet, regular

76 77
exercise, sufficient sleep, no smoking, moderate drinking or abstinence from Table 2.1. Estimated number of people (all ages) in the world living
alcohol, avoidance of drugs, a healthy sex life, the avoidance of promiscuity, with HIV
and coping effectively with stress. In an extensive South African study with World Region Number of people
participants 50 years and older, it was found that nearly 80% rated their Africa 25 500 000
health as moderate or good. Men reported very good or good health more Americas 3 400 000
often than women did. It seems that health declines relatively sharply after South-East Asia 3 500 000
the age of 70 (Phaswana-Mafuya et al., 2013). Europe 2 500 000
Eastern Mediterranean 330 000
Western Pacific 1 400 000
Global 36 700 000
World health Organisation, 2016

Table 2.2. HIV prevalence estimates and the number of people living
with HIV in South Africa, 2002–2016
Year Percentage of total poulation HIV poulation (in millions)
2002 10,3 4,72
2003 10,8 4,87
2004 10,7 5,00
“I’m so old I can laugh, cough, sneeze and pee at the same time. I believe they
call it multi-tasking!” 2005 10,8 5,13
2006 11,0 5,26
However, it is important to realise that socio-economic and cultural
2007 11,1 5,40
factors also affect a person’s health status. In South Africa, with its extremes
2008 11,3 5,56
of affluence and poverty, the incidence of certain diseases and mortality
2009 11,5 5,73
rates may vary considerably. Therefore, it is important to remember: “When
2010 11,8 5,89
it comes to health there is no typical older person” (Lindh et al., p. 752).
As indicated, health tends to deteriorate after the age of approximately 2011 11,8 6,07
45. Apart from general problems such as muscle and general body pains, 2012 12,0 6,27
indigestion, and sleeplessness, specific illnesses may now develop. However, 2013 12,2 6,47
all illnesses can also occur at an earlier age or may never occur at all. The 2014 12,4 6,67
following are examples of serious and often fatal illnesses that are prominent 2015 12,5 6,85
during adulthood and that could create significant stress and demand 2016 12,7 7,03
serious adjustments, thus significantly affecting the psychological well- Statistics South Africa, 2016
being, development and ageing of the individual:

2.3.8.1 HIV/AIDS It is alarming that with only about 5% of the world’s population, Eastern
and Southern Africa is home to about 50% of the world’s population living
This illness has reached pandemic proportions in the world, and South with HIV (UNICEF, 2016). South Africa has one of the largest HIV epidemics
Africa has not escaped its disastrous consequences. This is reflected clearly in the world, with an estimated 7 million people living with HIV in 2015. In
in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 the same year, there were 380,000 new infections, while 180,000 South

78 79
exercise, sufficient sleep, no smoking, moderate drinking or abstinence from Table 2.1. Estimated number of people (all ages) in the world living
alcohol, avoidance of drugs, a healthy sex life, the avoidance of promiscuity, with HIV
and coping effectively with stress. In an extensive South African study with World Region Number of people
participants 50 years and older, it was found that nearly 80% rated their Africa 25 500 000
health as moderate or good. Men reported very good or good health more Americas 3 400 000
often than women did. It seems that health declines relatively sharply after South-East Asia 3 500 000
the age of 70 (Phaswana-Mafuya et al., 2013). Europe 2 500 000
Eastern Mediterranean 330 000
Western Pacific 1 400 000
Global 36 700 000
World health Organisation, 2016

Table 2.2. HIV prevalence estimates and the number of people living
with HIV in South Africa, 2002–2016
Year Percentage of total poulation HIV poulation (in millions)
2002 10,3 4,72
2003 10,8 4,87
2004 10,7 5,00
“I’m so old I can laugh, cough, sneeze and pee at the same time. I believe they
call it multi-tasking!” 2005 10,8 5,13
2006 11,0 5,26
However, it is important to realise that socio-economic and cultural
2007 11,1 5,40
factors also affect a person’s health status. In South Africa, with its extremes
2008 11,3 5,56
of affluence and poverty, the incidence of certain diseases and mortality
2009 11,5 5,73
rates may vary considerably. Therefore, it is important to remember: “When
2010 11,8 5,89
it comes to health there is no typical older person” (Lindh et al., p. 752).
As indicated, health tends to deteriorate after the age of approximately 2011 11,8 6,07
45. Apart from general problems such as muscle and general body pains, 2012 12,0 6,27
indigestion, and sleeplessness, specific illnesses may now develop. However, 2013 12,2 6,47
all illnesses can also occur at an earlier age or may never occur at all. The 2014 12,4 6,67
following are examples of serious and often fatal illnesses that are prominent 2015 12,5 6,85
during adulthood and that could create significant stress and demand 2016 12,7 7,03
serious adjustments, thus significantly affecting the psychological well- Statistics South Africa, 2016
being, development and ageing of the individual:

2.3.8.1 HIV/AIDS It is alarming that with only about 5% of the world’s population, Eastern
and Southern Africa is home to about 50% of the world’s population living
This illness has reached pandemic proportions in the world, and South with HIV (UNICEF, 2016). South Africa has one of the largest HIV epidemics
Africa has not escaped its disastrous consequences. This is reflected clearly in the world, with an estimated 7 million people living with HIV in 2015. In
in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 the same year, there were 380,000 new infections, while 180,000 South

78 79
Africans died from AIDS-related illnesses. The prevalence varies markedly respondents who had revealed their HIV positive status were met with a
between regions. For example, HIV prevalence is almost 40% in Kwazulu- positive response in their communities. One in ten said that they had been
Natal compared with just less than 20% in the Northern Cape and the met with outright hostility and rejection (Steinberg et al., 2002). According
Western Cape (Avert, 2017). to another recent South African study, stigma is a major obstruction in
Although HIV/AIDS is a household term, relatively few people have the fight against HIV/AIDS, presenting a significant barrier to testing and
any meaningful knowledge of it. A brief summary follows (World Health treatment (Treves-Kagan et al., 2017). Disregarding the stigma and in an
Organisation, 2016): effort to challenge the suspicion that surrounds HIV infection and AIDS,
HIV is the abbreviation for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus that various prominent community leaders have announced their HIV status.
targets the immune system and weakens people’s defence systems against For example, in 2000, Justice Edwin Cameron of the South African Appeal
infections and some types of cancer. As the virus destroys and impairs Court announced that he was HIV positive; and when his son died of AIDS in
the function of immune cells, infected individuals gradually become 2005, Nelson Mandela publicised the cause of his death.
immunodeficient (develop a lack of immunity). The most advanced stage When the psychological effect of living with AIDS is taken into account, it
of HIV infection is Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), which is understandable that persons with HIV/AIDS are at a higher risk for mental
can take from 2 to 15 years to develop. This varies from person to person. health disorders (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016). According to a
The symptoms of HIV vary, depending on the stage of infection. Though review of published research on the mental health of HIV-infected adults in
people living with HIV tend to be most infectious in the first few months, Africa, almost all studies found that at least about 20% of HIV-infected adults
many are unaware of their status until later stages. The first few weeks after had some form of psychiatric disorder (Breuer et al., 2011). Depression seems
initial infection, individuals may experience no symptoms or an influenza- to be the most common individual problem, with about 5% to 20% of HIV/
like illness including fever, headache, rash, or sore throat. As the infection AIDS patients in South Africa suffering from major depression (Chibanda
progressively weakens the immune system, an individual may develop et al., 2014). (See Table 2.3 for the prevalence of mental disorders in South
other signs and symptoms, such as swollen lymph nodes, weight loss, fever, Africans living with HIV/AIDS.) With the high prevalence of especially
diarrhoea and cough. Without treatment, they could also develop severe depression, it is understandable that HIV-infected people are also more
illnesses such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, meningitis and cancers. At this likely to think about and actually commit suicide than do people who are
point, a person is said to have AIDS. Therefore, people do not die from AIDS, not infected. In fact, patients with HIV and AIDS are about 2 to 9 times more
but from diseases caused by AIDS. likely to commit suicide (Gurm et al., 2015).
HIV can be transmitted via the exchange of a variety of body fluids An important aspect that is often overshadowed by the effect of HIV/
from infected individuals, such as blood (also transmission from a pregnant AIDS on the individual is the effect and pervasiveness of the illness on
woman to her unborn child through their shared blood circulation), breast families and households (Schatz & Ogunmefun, 2007). The aforementioned
milk, semen, vaginal/anal secretions, sharing contaminated injecting authors refer to various studies that indicate that especially the elderly are
equipment, and blood transfusions. Individuals cannot become infected often on the receiving end as the burden of financial, physical and emotional
through ordinary day-to-day contact such as kissing, hugging, shaking care falls to them. The elderly are often left with high medical and funeral
hands, or sharing personal objects, food or water. expenses of the deceased, and with grandchildren (some who may be HIV
Although individuals suffering from HIV/AIDS have to deal with similar positive) for whom they now have to provide and care (see Ardington et al.,
adjustments and constraints as in the case of other chronic diseases, additional 2014). For example, according to a study of HIV-/AIDS-affected households
factors hinder their fight against the disease. The fear of contracting an in South Africa, nearly 70% of such households had a lower financial income
incurable fatal disease, coupled with a high level of misinformation about because of HIV/AIDS, while almost 50% reported not having enough food
AIDS, has created a climate in which prejudice against people living with (Steinberg et al., 2002).
HIV thrives. In many cases, having AIDS or being HIV positive can have a
negative effect on employment and housing opportunities, as well as social
relationships. Research in South Africa has revealed that only one third of

80 81
Africans died from AIDS-related illnesses. The prevalence varies markedly respondents who had revealed their HIV positive status were met with a
between regions. For example, HIV prevalence is almost 40% in Kwazulu- positive response in their communities. One in ten said that they had been
Natal compared with just less than 20% in the Northern Cape and the met with outright hostility and rejection (Steinberg et al., 2002). According
Western Cape (Avert, 2017). to another recent South African study, stigma is a major obstruction in
Although HIV/AIDS is a household term, relatively few people have the fight against HIV/AIDS, presenting a significant barrier to testing and
any meaningful knowledge of it. A brief summary follows (World Health treatment (Treves-Kagan et al., 2017). Disregarding the stigma and in an
Organisation, 2016): effort to challenge the suspicion that surrounds HIV infection and AIDS,
HIV is the abbreviation for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus that various prominent community leaders have announced their HIV status.
targets the immune system and weakens people’s defence systems against For example, in 2000, Justice Edwin Cameron of the South African Appeal
infections and some types of cancer. As the virus destroys and impairs Court announced that he was HIV positive; and when his son died of AIDS in
the function of immune cells, infected individuals gradually become 2005, Nelson Mandela publicised the cause of his death.
immunodeficient (develop a lack of immunity). The most advanced stage When the psychological effect of living with AIDS is taken into account, it
of HIV infection is Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), which is understandable that persons with HIV/AIDS are at a higher risk for mental
can take from 2 to 15 years to develop. This varies from person to person. health disorders (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016). According to a
The symptoms of HIV vary, depending on the stage of infection. Though review of published research on the mental health of HIV-infected adults in
people living with HIV tend to be most infectious in the first few months, Africa, almost all studies found that at least about 20% of HIV-infected adults
many are unaware of their status until later stages. The first few weeks after had some form of psychiatric disorder (Breuer et al., 2011). Depression seems
initial infection, individuals may experience no symptoms or an influenza- to be the most common individual problem, with about 5% to 20% of HIV/
like illness including fever, headache, rash, or sore throat. As the infection AIDS patients in South Africa suffering from major depression (Chibanda
progressively weakens the immune system, an individual may develop et al., 2014). (See Table 2.3 for the prevalence of mental disorders in South
other signs and symptoms, such as swollen lymph nodes, weight loss, fever, Africans living with HIV/AIDS.) With the high prevalence of especially
diarrhoea and cough. Without treatment, they could also develop severe depression, it is understandable that HIV-infected people are also more
illnesses such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, meningitis and cancers. At this likely to think about and actually commit suicide than do people who are
point, a person is said to have AIDS. Therefore, people do not die from AIDS, not infected. In fact, patients with HIV and AIDS are about 2 to 9 times more
but from diseases caused by AIDS. likely to commit suicide (Gurm et al., 2015).
HIV can be transmitted via the exchange of a variety of body fluids An important aspect that is often overshadowed by the effect of HIV/
from infected individuals, such as blood (also transmission from a pregnant AIDS on the individual is the effect and pervasiveness of the illness on
woman to her unborn child through their shared blood circulation), breast families and households (Schatz & Ogunmefun, 2007). The aforementioned
milk, semen, vaginal/anal secretions, sharing contaminated injecting authors refer to various studies that indicate that especially the elderly are
equipment, and blood transfusions. Individuals cannot become infected often on the receiving end as the burden of financial, physical and emotional
through ordinary day-to-day contact such as kissing, hugging, shaking care falls to them. The elderly are often left with high medical and funeral
hands, or sharing personal objects, food or water. expenses of the deceased, and with grandchildren (some who may be HIV
Although individuals suffering from HIV/AIDS have to deal with similar positive) for whom they now have to provide and care (see Ardington et al.,
adjustments and constraints as in the case of other chronic diseases, additional 2014). For example, according to a study of HIV-/AIDS-affected households
factors hinder their fight against the disease. The fear of contracting an in South Africa, nearly 70% of such households had a lower financial income
incurable fatal disease, coupled with a high level of misinformation about because of HIV/AIDS, while almost 50% reported not having enough food
AIDS, has created a climate in which prejudice against people living with (Steinberg et al., 2002).
HIV thrives. In many cases, having AIDS or being HIV positive can have a
negative effect on employment and housing opportunities, as well as social
relationships. Research in South Africa has revealed that only one third of

80 81
 is quite good if the cancer is discovered at an early stage. In South African
Table 2.3 Prevalence of mental disorders in a group of South Africans women, the leading cause of cancer deaths is cancer of the cervix (the lower
with AIDS part of the uterus in the human female reproductive system), followed by
Type of mental disorder Percentage tracheal/bronchial/lung cancer (Cancer Association of South Africa, 2014).
Major depression 11,1%
Minor depression 29,1% 2.3.8.5 Hypertension
Alcohol abuse disorder 12,9%
Hypertension is characterised by an abnormally high blood pressure in the
Alcohol dependence 2,9%
blood vessels of the body. (Therefore, the illness is also known as ‘high blood
Intermittent explosive disorder 3,9% pressure’.) The most important symptoms include headaches, dizziness and
Posttraumatic stress disorder (event: HIV) 4,2% tiredness. The risk of hypertension sufferers developing serious illnesses such
All other disorders Less than 2% as arteriosclerosis (hardening and thickening of the walls of the blood vessels,
Freeman et al., 2007 which are caused mainly by calcification), heart failure, stroke, kidney failure
and damage to the retina of the eye, is very high. With more than six million
2.3.8.2 Ischemic heart disease people living with high blood pressure, South Africa has one of the highest
rates of hypertension worldwide. Several community studies done by the South
This refers to heart problems that are caused by a lack of blood and therefore
African Medical Research Council showed that one out of every four people
an insufficient supply of oxygen to the heart. The illness is caused mainly by
between the ages of 15 and 64 suffer from high blood pressure (The Heart and
the thickening and hardening of the blood vessels, which obstruct normal
Stroke Foundation South Africa, 2016). In a sample of adults 50 years and older,
blood flow. Ischemic heart disease is the leading cause of death (nearly
the prevalence was 77% (males 74% and females 80%) (Peltzer & Phaswana-
20%) in South African men and women 60 years and older (Onen, 2013).
Mafuya, 2013). There are strong indications that severe stress experienced in
2.3.8.3 Stroke early life can lead to hypertension in later life (Alastalo et al., 2013).

This refers to a condition that occurs when blood flow to the brain is 2.3.8.6 Tuberculosis (TB)
obstructed due to the rupture or blockage of a blood vessel in the brain.
This is a disease that usually destroys the soft tissue of the lungs, resulting in
The symptoms are determined by the specific area that is affected and may
difficulty with breathing. However, it may occur in any part of the body. The
include paralysis. Stroke is the third largest cause of death and is a leading
disease is highly infectious and is usually spread when a TB patient coughs,
cause of disability in South Africa. Every hour 11 people in South Africa may
sneezes, or spits. Currently, South Africa ranks the third highest in the world
suffer a stroke (The Heart and Stroke Foundation South Africa, 2016).
in terms of TB burden, with an incidence rate that has increased by 400%
2.3.8.4 Cancer over the past 15 years. In South Africa, TB is a leading cause of death. As
in the case of HIV, there is a wide variation in TB prevalence across age,
Cancer is a general term that refers to any malignant growth that may lead to race, gender, socio-economic status and geographical location (National
the death of a person. The illness is caused by a wide variety of factors such Strategic Plan for HIV, STIS and TB 2012-2016; TB facts.org 2017).
as smoking, some diets (e.g. high-fat diets and diets low in fibre), sunlight,
X-rays and heredity. In South Africa, the cancer causing most deaths among 2.3.8.7 Diabetes mellitus
men is cancer of the trachea (‘windpipe’), bronchi (tubes going from the
Diabetes mellitus, usually referred to as diabetes, involves an abnormally
trachea to the lungs) and lungs. This is followed by cancer of the oesophagus
high blood glucose (sugar) level caused by the inability of the body to either
(the tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach) and prostate
produce or respond to insulin properly. Insulin is a hormone necessary to
cancer. Excluding skin cancer, prostate cancer is the most common cancer
carry glucose from the bloodstream into the body cells, where it is used
in males, especially in those older than 65 (Louw, 2017). However, it has only
for energy. If there is too little insulin, blood glucose levels continue to rise,
the second highest mortality rate of all male cancers, because the prognosis
82 83
 is quite good if the cancer is discovered at an early stage. In South African
Table 2.3 Prevalence of mental disorders in a group of South Africans women, the leading cause of cancer deaths is cancer of the cervix (the lower
with AIDS part of the uterus in the human female reproductive system), followed by
Type of mental disorder Percentage tracheal/bronchial/lung cancer (Cancer Association of South Africa, 2014).
Major depression 11,1%
Minor depression 29,1% 2.3.8.5 Hypertension
Alcohol abuse disorder 12,9%
Hypertension is characterised by an abnormally high blood pressure in the
Alcohol dependence 2,9%
blood vessels of the body. (Therefore, the illness is also known as ‘high blood
Intermittent explosive disorder 3,9% pressure’.) The most important symptoms include headaches, dizziness and
Posttraumatic stress disorder (event: HIV) 4,2% tiredness. The risk of hypertension sufferers developing serious illnesses such
All other disorders Less than 2% as arteriosclerosis (hardening and thickening of the walls of the blood vessels,
Freeman et al., 2007 which are caused mainly by calcification), heart failure, stroke, kidney failure
and damage to the retina of the eye, is very high. With more than six million
2.3.8.2 Ischemic heart disease people living with high blood pressure, South Africa has one of the highest
rates of hypertension worldwide. Several community studies done by the South
This refers to heart problems that are caused by a lack of blood and therefore
African Medical Research Council showed that one out of every four people
an insufficient supply of oxygen to the heart. The illness is caused mainly by
between the ages of 15 and 64 suffer from high blood pressure (The Heart and
the thickening and hardening of the blood vessels, which obstruct normal
Stroke Foundation South Africa, 2016). In a sample of adults 50 years and older,
blood flow. Ischemic heart disease is the leading cause of death (nearly
the prevalence was 77% (males 74% and females 80%) (Peltzer & Phaswana-
20%) in South African men and women 60 years and older (Onen, 2013).
Mafuya, 2013). There are strong indications that severe stress experienced in
2.3.8.3 Stroke early life can lead to hypertension in later life (Alastalo et al., 2013).

This refers to a condition that occurs when blood flow to the brain is 2.3.8.6 Tuberculosis (TB)
obstructed due to the rupture or blockage of a blood vessel in the brain.
This is a disease that usually destroys the soft tissue of the lungs, resulting in
The symptoms are determined by the specific area that is affected and may
difficulty with breathing. However, it may occur in any part of the body. The
include paralysis. Stroke is the third largest cause of death and is a leading
disease is highly infectious and is usually spread when a TB patient coughs,
cause of disability in South Africa. Every hour 11 people in South Africa may
sneezes, or spits. Currently, South Africa ranks the third highest in the world
suffer a stroke (The Heart and Stroke Foundation South Africa, 2016).
in terms of TB burden, with an incidence rate that has increased by 400%
2.3.8.4 Cancer over the past 15 years. In South Africa, TB is a leading cause of death. As
in the case of HIV, there is a wide variation in TB prevalence across age,
Cancer is a general term that refers to any malignant growth that may lead to race, gender, socio-economic status and geographical location (National
the death of a person. The illness is caused by a wide variety of factors such Strategic Plan for HIV, STIS and TB 2012-2016; TB facts.org 2017).
as smoking, some diets (e.g. high-fat diets and diets low in fibre), sunlight,
X-rays and heredity. In South Africa, the cancer causing most deaths among 2.3.8.7 Diabetes mellitus
men is cancer of the trachea (‘windpipe’), bronchi (tubes going from the
Diabetes mellitus, usually referred to as diabetes, involves an abnormally
trachea to the lungs) and lungs. This is followed by cancer of the oesophagus
high blood glucose (sugar) level caused by the inability of the body to either
(the tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach) and prostate
produce or respond to insulin properly. Insulin is a hormone necessary to
cancer. Excluding skin cancer, prostate cancer is the most common cancer
carry glucose from the bloodstream into the body cells, where it is used
in males, especially in those older than 65 (Louw, 2017). However, it has only
for energy. If there is too little insulin, blood glucose levels continue to rise,
the second highest mortality rate of all male cancers, because the prognosis
82 83
as glucose is not removed from the bloodstream (The Heart and Stroke
Foundation, South Africa, 2006). There are different types of diabetes, and 2.3.9 Climacteric and menopause
symptoms vary from individual to individual. In general, the most common
symptoms include visual disturbances, constant thirst, increased hunger and Although the terms climacteric and menopause are closely related and
frequent urinating. In the long term, complications such as visual problems, sometimes used synonymously, there is a distinct difference.
kidney disease, neuropathy (gradual damaging of the nerves), gangrene The climacteric, also known as perimenopause, refers to the transitional
and heart disease could be the result. Psychological symptoms such as a period in middle-age during which a woman’s reproductive capacity ends
feeling of weakness and fatigue, depression, anxiety, irritability and even and ovulation stops. It usually begins in the 40s and is completed by age 50
serious psychiatric disorders, for instance where the person loses contact to 55, although individual variations exist. It is characterised by physiological
with reality, are also common. and especially hormonal changes associated with the decrease in the
In addition to the above-mentioned illnesses, many other illnesses that are woman’s reproductive ability. Up to 90% of women experience a change in
not fatal but nonetheless cause significant suffering and hardship are prominent menstrual patterns and sexual response during the climacteric (Alves et al.,
during especially middle and late adulthood. A typical example is arthritis, an 2015; Crooks & Baur, 2005).
inflammation of the joints that causes pain, loss of movement and flexibility. The menopause, on the other hand, refers specifically to the cessation
In more serious cases, it can lead to malformation of the joints that can be so of menstruation and the childbearing capacity in women. The menopause
serious that the person may be housebound. There are several types of arthritis. occurs when the hormonal cycle of a woman changes because the ovaries
One in seven South Africans has some form of arthritis, while some forms may secrete less oestrogen.
afflict even young adults (Arthritis Foundation of South Africa, 2008).
However, it is important to realise that not all patients with chronic or
even fatal diseases (including AIDS) experience significant adjustment
and/or psychological problems. Many such individuals develop effective
coping skills (sometimes with professional help) to manage their daily lives
effectively and without serious distress. (Table 2.4 provides an indication of
the leading causes of death for South African adults.)

Table 2.4 Leading causes of death for South Africa

Leading causes of death Number of deaths
1. HIV/AIDS 251,912 (40,6%)
2. Cerebrovascular disease 34,795 (5,6%)
3. Lower respiratory infections 31,672 (5,1%) Menstrual cycle: Graphic illustration of average
menstrual cycle days. Bleeding period (red colour),
4. Ischaemic heart disease 30,939 (5,0%) and ovulation (yellow) when egg is released and
5. Diabetes 24,634 (4,0%) fertile for 24 hours.

6. Tuberculosis 19,918 (3,2%)

7. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 15,759 (2,5%) Two hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are of particular
8. Diarrhoeal diseases 15,671 (2,5%) importance in the menstrual cycle: the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
9. Hypertensive heart disease 11,919 (1,9%) and the luteinising hormone (LH). Every menstrual cycle begins with a low
10. Interpersonal violence 11,443 (1,8%) hormonal level, leading to the release of FSH, which stimulates the ovaries
Top 10 causes 448,661 (72,3%)
to secrete oestrogen. Subsequently, the oestrogen level rises gradually for
about 14 days. The pituitary gland then begins to secrete LH, which in turn
Total 620,594 (100,0%)
activates the ovaries to produce both oestrogen and progesterone. Thus,
Pillay-van Wyk et al. (2016)

84 85
as glucose is not removed from the bloodstream (The Heart and Stroke
Foundation, South Africa, 2006). There are different types of diabetes, and 2.3.9 Climacteric and menopause
symptoms vary from individual to individual. In general, the most common
symptoms include visual disturbances, constant thirst, increased hunger and Although the terms climacteric and menopause are closely related and
frequent urinating. In the long term, complications such as visual problems, sometimes used synonymously, there is a distinct difference.
kidney disease, neuropathy (gradual damaging of the nerves), gangrene The climacteric, also known as perimenopause, refers to the transitional
and heart disease could be the result. Psychological symptoms such as a period in middle-age during which a woman’s reproductive capacity ends
feeling of weakness and fatigue, depression, anxiety, irritability and even and ovulation stops. It usually begins in the 40s and is completed by age 50
serious psychiatric disorders, for instance where the person loses contact to 55, although individual variations exist. It is characterised by physiological
with reality, are also common. and especially hormonal changes associated with the decrease in the
In addition to the above-mentioned illnesses, many other illnesses that are woman’s reproductive ability. Up to 90% of women experience a change in
not fatal but nonetheless cause significant suffering and hardship are prominent menstrual patterns and sexual response during the climacteric (Alves et al.,
during especially middle and late adulthood. A typical example is arthritis, an 2015; Crooks & Baur, 2005).
inflammation of the joints that causes pain, loss of movement and flexibility. The menopause, on the other hand, refers specifically to the cessation
In more serious cases, it can lead to malformation of the joints that can be so of menstruation and the childbearing capacity in women. The menopause
serious that the person may be housebound. There are several types of arthritis. occurs when the hormonal cycle of a woman changes because the ovaries
One in seven South Africans has some form of arthritis, while some forms may secrete less oestrogen.
afflict even young adults (Arthritis Foundation of South Africa, 2008).
However, it is important to realise that not all patients with chronic or
even fatal diseases (including AIDS) experience significant adjustment
and/or psychological problems. Many such individuals develop effective
coping skills (sometimes with professional help) to manage their daily lives
effectively and without serious distress. (Table 2.4 provides an indication of
the leading causes of death for South African adults.)

Table 2.4 Leading causes of death for South Africa

Leading causes of death Number of deaths
1. HIV/AIDS 251,912 (40,6%)
2. Cerebrovascular disease 34,795 (5,6%)
3. Lower respiratory infections 31,672 (5,1%) Menstrual cycle: Graphic illustration of average
menstrual cycle days. Bleeding period (red colour),
4. Ischaemic heart disease 30,939 (5,0%) and ovulation (yellow) when egg is released and
5. Diabetes 24,634 (4,0%) fertile for 24 hours.

6. Tuberculosis 19,918 (3,2%)

7. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 15,759 (2,5%) Two hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are of particular
8. Diarrhoeal diseases 15,671 (2,5%) importance in the menstrual cycle: the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
9. Hypertensive heart disease 11,919 (1,9%) and the luteinising hormone (LH). Every menstrual cycle begins with a low
10. Interpersonal violence 11,443 (1,8%) hormonal level, leading to the release of FSH, which stimulates the ovaries
Top 10 causes 448,661 (72,3%)
to secrete oestrogen. Subsequently, the oestrogen level rises gradually for
about 14 days. The pituitary gland then begins to secrete LH, which in turn
Total 620,594 (100,0%)
activates the ovaries to produce both oestrogen and progesterone. Thus,
Pillay-van Wyk et al. (2016)

84 85
the menstrual cycle is completed, only to begin all over again. not. Two important factors that influence these perceptions and experiences
When menopause is reached, the levels of these hormones drop are culture and socio-economic factors. It seems that menopausal symptoms
gradually. As a reaction and as an attempt to activate the ovaries again, the are understood better by women in developed and well-resourced cultures
pituitary gland secretes exceptionally large quantities of FSH and LH. This than by women in developing and under-resourced cultures (Friderichs &
may produce an imbalance in the hormonal system. This imbalance underlies Hall, 2005). For example, in a study with urban African women in Durban,
the typical menopausal symptoms, which will be mentioned below. The it was found that although 40% of the women experienced menopausal
decrease in oestrogen eventually leads to the cessation of menstruation. symptoms, only 19% believed that hot flushes were connected to the
This usually occurs at approximately age 50, an age that is more or less the menopause (Mashiloane et al., 2002). This is significantly less than in
same for women from all races and socio-economic circumstances (Cronjé, Westernised cultures. It could be hypothesised that women from rural areas
2017). are even less knowledgeable. Another example is that the majority of older
The hormonal changes directly associated with menopause could result women in the rural villages of the Vhembe district in the Limpopo Province
in symptoms such as hot flushes and night sweating. Other symptoms in South Africa had negative attitudes towards sexuality at menopause due
that are linked to the menopause are decreased sexual energy, anxiety, to values and cultural beliefs (Ramakuela et al., 2014). There was also strong
emotional instability, depression, sleeplessness, poor memory, inability to evidence that that the women did not link lack of sexual desire to hormonal
concentrate, and irritability. In many menopausal women, the mentioned changes during menopause and therefore could not make informed choices
symptoms become so intense that they have to seek professional help regarding their sexuality during menopause.
(Guthrie et al., 2003). It seems that these symptoms occur more often in These differences in menopausal experience could probably be attributed
women who often suffered physical or psychological symptoms during to the fact that women in well-resourced environments are often more
menstruation and pregnancy, or who exhibited psychosomatic symptoms educated and more exposed to relevant resources such as health clinics
(physical symptoms such as pain and discomfort caused or made worse by and the mass media than women in under-resourced areas are. In South
emotional or psychological factors such as stress and low self-acceptance) Africa, to a great extent, the relatively high rate of illiteracy, low educational
before the onset of menopause. Treatment for menopausal symptoms is level, and poor socio-economic status among the majority of people are
available, although somewhat controversial at present. The main reason for responsible for the low levels of awareness of the menopause in certain
this controversy is that some researchers have found that the most popular groups. The role of existing social norms should also not be underestimated.
therapy for decades, hormone therapy (HT) or hormone replacement For example, many women in cultures where fertility is highly valued may
therapy (HRT), increases the risk of heart attacks, strokes, blood clots and perceive and experience the menopause more negatively, while in other
breast cancer (Carroll, 2007). However, the South African Menopause Society cultures where women receive more respect and gain more power as they
(Guidozzi, 2014, p. 542), consisting of prominent experts in the country, get older, menopause may be regarded as an indication that a woman has
stated, “Many of those data have since been reinterpreted and revisited ... reached a certain level of social status.
HRT will remain the treatment of choice for acute menopausal symptoms for As far as cultural differences in the physiological symptoms of the
the immediate future”. (Also see Hodis & Mack, 2013.) menopause are concerned, the data are often contradictory. It seems that
Some women experience no symptoms at all, although most women in most countries there are significant similarities concerning the core
report at least some of the mentioned symptoms. Furthermore, many symptoms of menopause (e.g. Obermeyer et al., 2007). In South Africa, a
women feel ‘liberated’ and relieved that they do not have to be concerned study also showed that the symptoms reported by rural Xhosa women were
about contraception, pregnancy and menstruation any longer. Consequently, similar to those of white women (Friderichs & Hall, 2005). However, other
they may also experience an increased sense of freedom in sexual intimacy researchers have found significant differences regarding the symptoms
(Crooks & Baur, 2005). reported (see Melby et al., 2005; Ramakuela et al., 2014). For example,
Although the physiological changes associated with menopause are although hot flushes are common in menopausal women in the USA, Canada
universal, the way in which women perceive and experience menopause is and Europe, this symptom is uncommon among women in Japan and many

86 87
the menstrual cycle is completed, only to begin all over again. not. Two important factors that influence these perceptions and experiences
When menopause is reached, the levels of these hormones drop are culture and socio-economic factors. It seems that menopausal symptoms
gradually. As a reaction and as an attempt to activate the ovaries again, the are understood better by women in developed and well-resourced cultures
pituitary gland secretes exceptionally large quantities of FSH and LH. This than by women in developing and under-resourced cultures (Friderichs &
may produce an imbalance in the hormonal system. This imbalance underlies Hall, 2005). For example, in a study with urban African women in Durban,
the typical menopausal symptoms, which will be mentioned below. The it was found that although 40% of the women experienced menopausal
decrease in oestrogen eventually leads to the cessation of menstruation. symptoms, only 19% believed that hot flushes were connected to the
This usually occurs at approximately age 50, an age that is more or less the menopause (Mashiloane et al., 2002). This is significantly less than in
same for women from all races and socio-economic circumstances (Cronjé, Westernised cultures. It could be hypothesised that women from rural areas
2017). are even less knowledgeable. Another example is that the majority of older
The hormonal changes directly associated with menopause could result women in the rural villages of the Vhembe district in the Limpopo Province
in symptoms such as hot flushes and night sweating. Other symptoms in South Africa had negative attitudes towards sexuality at menopause due
that are linked to the menopause are decreased sexual energy, anxiety, to values and cultural beliefs (Ramakuela et al., 2014). There was also strong
emotional instability, depression, sleeplessness, poor memory, inability to evidence that that the women did not link lack of sexual desire to hormonal
concentrate, and irritability. In many menopausal women, the mentioned changes during menopause and therefore could not make informed choices
symptoms become so intense that they have to seek professional help regarding their sexuality during menopause.
(Guthrie et al., 2003). It seems that these symptoms occur more often in These differences in menopausal experience could probably be attributed
women who often suffered physical or psychological symptoms during to the fact that women in well-resourced environments are often more
menstruation and pregnancy, or who exhibited psychosomatic symptoms educated and more exposed to relevant resources such as health clinics
(physical symptoms such as pain and discomfort caused or made worse by and the mass media than women in under-resourced areas are. In South
emotional or psychological factors such as stress and low self-acceptance) Africa, to a great extent, the relatively high rate of illiteracy, low educational
before the onset of menopause. Treatment for menopausal symptoms is level, and poor socio-economic status among the majority of people are
available, although somewhat controversial at present. The main reason for responsible for the low levels of awareness of the menopause in certain
this controversy is that some researchers have found that the most popular groups. The role of existing social norms should also not be underestimated.
therapy for decades, hormone therapy (HT) or hormone replacement For example, many women in cultures where fertility is highly valued may
therapy (HRT), increases the risk of heart attacks, strokes, blood clots and perceive and experience the menopause more negatively, while in other
breast cancer (Carroll, 2007). However, the South African Menopause Society cultures where women receive more respect and gain more power as they
(Guidozzi, 2014, p. 542), consisting of prominent experts in the country, get older, menopause may be regarded as an indication that a woman has
stated, “Many of those data have since been reinterpreted and revisited ... reached a certain level of social status.
HRT will remain the treatment of choice for acute menopausal symptoms for As far as cultural differences in the physiological symptoms of the
the immediate future”. (Also see Hodis & Mack, 2013.) menopause are concerned, the data are often contradictory. It seems that
Some women experience no symptoms at all, although most women in most countries there are significant similarities concerning the core
report at least some of the mentioned symptoms. Furthermore, many symptoms of menopause (e.g. Obermeyer et al., 2007). In South Africa, a
women feel ‘liberated’ and relieved that they do not have to be concerned study also showed that the symptoms reported by rural Xhosa women were
about contraception, pregnancy and menstruation any longer. Consequently, similar to those of white women (Friderichs & Hall, 2005). However, other
they may also experience an increased sense of freedom in sexual intimacy researchers have found significant differences regarding the symptoms
(Crooks & Baur, 2005). reported (see Melby et al., 2005; Ramakuela et al., 2014). For example,
Although the physiological changes associated with menopause are although hot flushes are common in menopausal women in the USA, Canada
universal, the way in which women perceive and experience menopause is and Europe, this symptom is uncommon among women in Japan and many

86 87
other areas of Asia, as well as in a certain ethnic group (the Mayans) in
Mexico. Therefore, more research is needed to arrive at a final conclusion. In REVIEW THIS SECTION
the process, research methodological questions such as the following should 1. Discuss age related changes in the following bodily organs and systems, and
be answered: Do women in certain cultures really not experience symptoms indicate how these changes may affect the individual on a psychological level:
such as hot flushes, or is it rather the fact that they are too shy to talk about – the brain
– the senses
something that is actually taboo in their culture? Another question comes to
– muscle strength
mind: Do men experience menopause? See Box 2.1 in this regard. – internal organs
2. How does the ageing process affect stamina, physical appearance, and bodily
height and weight? How may these changes affect the individual?
3. Which health-related problems may become more prevalent in older people?
Box 2.1. Is there a male menopause?
4. What effect does HIV/AIDS have on the individual? What do you think are the
This question is asked because it is often referred to in the popular media. Strictly reasons for the increase in the AIDS epidemic, despite all the information available?
speaking, the answer is ‘no’, as males do not menstruate. They also do not experience
5. What effect does HIV/AIDS have specifically with regard to the elderly?
the sharp drop in hormones that accompanies menopause in women. Nonetheless,
certain symptoms that resemble the female climacteric in some ways do occur in 6. Define the concepts climacteric and menopause. How are women affected
some men. These symptoms include insomnia, anxiety, loss of energy, poor appetite, physically and psychologically? Do men also experience a ‘menopause’?
decreased sexual desire, irritability and memory problems (Mayo Clinic, 2014; Sigelman 7. Refer to Chapter 1. Taking a life-span developmental perspective, indicate the effect
& Rider, 2015). These symptoms are caused by testosterone and are often referred to of physical development on the individual.
as the male andropause. The symptoms are attributed to slowly decreasing levels of
testosterone: Between the ages of 40 and 70 years, testosterone levels decrease by
about 1% per year (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). Note that the male does not lose his ability
to reproduce, as most men remain fertile until their death. Also, most cases of erectile
dysfunction (inability to achieve or sustain an erection for intercourse) are caused 2.4 SEXUALITY
by medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus and prostrate problems, but not by
lower hormone production. Erectile dysfunction among older men is often treatable by Sexuality includes all components and facets of human functioning. It is both
medication such as Viagra (Sigelman & Rider, 2015). an integral component of, as well as a key contributor to well-being and the
Most mental health professionals believe that psychological factors such as stress
play a role in the so-called male andropause. The male climacteric corresponds with a quality of relationships in midlife and late life (Lodge et al., 2016; McCarthy
time in a man’s life that is often characterised by significant changes to which he has to & Pierpaoli, 2015). However, because of the widely held view that sexuality
adjust. Several physical and mental symptoms compel the person to face the fact that has a strong biological basis, it was decided to include it in this chapter on
he is ageing: his children are leaving home; a career plateau and even a dead-end may
physical development.
have been reached, while other vocational opportunities may have become limited;
a decrease in sexual interest and behaviour may be experienced, which could add to The biological basis of human sexuality becomes particularly evident
disheartened feelings and less confidence. during puberty and adolescence when the reproductive organs and
associated external characteristics begin to develop. However, sexuality
and emotional intimacy begin to converge during early adulthood. This is in
contrast to adolescent sexuality, which tends to be more egocentric because
the individual’s identity is not yet fully developed (see Louw & Louw, 2014).
Owing to their identity development during adolescence, individuals are
still too uncertain of who they are and are therefore unable to give freely
of themselves in a love relationship. Therefore, the establishment of a
personal identity is a prerequisite for a mature adult sexual relationship that
is characterised by emotional intimacy and by caring and respect for the
other person. (Intimate relationships in adulthood will be discussed in more
detail in Chapter 5.)
88 89
other areas of Asia, as well as in a certain ethnic group (the Mayans) in
Mexico. Therefore, more research is needed to arrive at a final conclusion. In REVIEW THIS SECTION
the process, research methodological questions such as the following should 1. Discuss age related changes in the following bodily organs and systems, and
be answered: Do women in certain cultures really not experience symptoms indicate how these changes may affect the individual on a psychological level:
such as hot flushes, or is it rather the fact that they are too shy to talk about – the brain
– the senses
something that is actually taboo in their culture? Another question comes to
– muscle strength
mind: Do men experience menopause? See Box 2.1 in this regard. – internal organs
2. How does the ageing process affect stamina, physical appearance, and bodily
height and weight? How may these changes affect the individual?
3. Which health-related problems may become more prevalent in older people?
Box 2.1. Is there a male menopause?
4. What effect does HIV/AIDS have on the individual? What do you think are the
This question is asked because it is often referred to in the popular media. Strictly reasons for the increase in the AIDS epidemic, despite all the information available?
speaking, the answer is ‘no’, as males do not menstruate. They also do not experience
5. What effect does HIV/AIDS have specifically with regard to the elderly?
the sharp drop in hormones that accompanies menopause in women. Nonetheless,
certain symptoms that resemble the female climacteric in some ways do occur in 6. Define the concepts climacteric and menopause. How are women affected
some men. These symptoms include insomnia, anxiety, loss of energy, poor appetite, physically and psychologically? Do men also experience a ‘menopause’?
decreased sexual desire, irritability and memory problems (Mayo Clinic, 2014; Sigelman 7. Refer to Chapter 1. Taking a life-span developmental perspective, indicate the effect
& Rider, 2015). These symptoms are caused by testosterone and are often referred to of physical development on the individual.
as the male andropause. The symptoms are attributed to slowly decreasing levels of
testosterone: Between the ages of 40 and 70 years, testosterone levels decrease by
about 1% per year (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). Note that the male does not lose his ability
to reproduce, as most men remain fertile until their death. Also, most cases of erectile
dysfunction (inability to achieve or sustain an erection for intercourse) are caused 2.4 SEXUALITY
by medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus and prostrate problems, but not by
lower hormone production. Erectile dysfunction among older men is often treatable by Sexuality includes all components and facets of human functioning. It is both
medication such as Viagra (Sigelman & Rider, 2015). an integral component of, as well as a key contributor to well-being and the
Most mental health professionals believe that psychological factors such as stress
play a role in the so-called male andropause. The male climacteric corresponds with a quality of relationships in midlife and late life (Lodge et al., 2016; McCarthy
time in a man’s life that is often characterised by significant changes to which he has to & Pierpaoli, 2015). However, because of the widely held view that sexuality
adjust. Several physical and mental symptoms compel the person to face the fact that has a strong biological basis, it was decided to include it in this chapter on
he is ageing: his children are leaving home; a career plateau and even a dead-end may
physical development.
have been reached, while other vocational opportunities may have become limited;
a decrease in sexual interest and behaviour may be experienced, which could add to The biological basis of human sexuality becomes particularly evident
disheartened feelings and less confidence. during puberty and adolescence when the reproductive organs and
associated external characteristics begin to develop. However, sexuality
and emotional intimacy begin to converge during early adulthood. This is in
contrast to adolescent sexuality, which tends to be more egocentric because
the individual’s identity is not yet fully developed (see Louw & Louw, 2014).
Owing to their identity development during adolescence, individuals are
still too uncertain of who they are and are therefore unable to give freely
of themselves in a love relationship. Therefore, the establishment of a
personal identity is a prerequisite for a mature adult sexual relationship that
is characterised by emotional intimacy and by caring and respect for the
other person. (Intimate relationships in adulthood will be discussed in more
detail in Chapter 5.)
88 89
 values. This is particularly true for a country such as South Africa that is
widely recognised for its unique multicultural status. Thus, care should be
taken not to apply the results of a specific country, culture or any group to
another country, culture or group without reservation. Of course, this is true
for all research data on human behaviour.
Fourthly, it should be taken into account that research data on sexual
behaviour, as in most cases in psychology and related sciences, usually
report only averages. The result is that all variations from the average remain
unknown to the reader. Therefore, one of the golden rules in psychology,
namely that every individual is unique, should also always be applied here.
In the following sections, international and South African research on
sexuality will be discussed.

A sexual relationship should be characterised by emotional intimacy and 2.4.1 International research
respect for each other

Examples of international research on sexual behaviour are the following:

Relatively little research has been conducted on human sexuality. One
reason for this is that many people feel that sexuality is such a personal 2.4.1.1 The Kinsey Reports
thing that they are reluctant to share intimate details with other people. The
result is that relatively few researchers are committed to conduct research These reports, published in 1948 on men and in 1953 on women, were
on sexuality, as relatively few people are willing to participate in such a regarded as the ‘Bible’ of sexual research for decades. The Kinsey Reports
research project. brought interesting information to light; for example, concerning the
Several points of criticism are also levelled against data reported by frequency of sexual intercourse, the incidence of extramarital sexual
researchers: Firstly, the samples are not representative because relatively activity and homosexuality. Incidentally, the latter two were reported to be
few people are willing to participate. Generally, only individuals with a more significantly higher than the then more conservative norms had led one to
‘liberal’ attitude towards sex will participate in such a research project, with expect.
the result that the attitudes of more sexually conservative individuals are not However, the Kinsey Reports are no longer regarded as authoritative, for
documented. This implies that the research findings cannot be generalised two main reasons. Firstly, it is generally accepted that sexual norms have
to the population. An example of unrepresentativeness of research data is changed worldwide to such an extent that it is highly questionable whether
that of a researcher who uses readers of a specific sex magazine as research the results of the Kinsey Reports are still relevant today. Secondly, the Kinsey
participants. It is possible that readers of these magazines may be more Reports are criticised on the grounds of faulty methodology (especially
liberal and permissive regarding sexuality than individuals who do not read concerning one-sided interpretations and non-representative samples of
such magazines. participants). It is even alleged that some of the results are false and based
Secondly, an issue in sex research is to what extent people are willing to purely on speculation (Wildavsky, 1997). The main contribution of the Kinsey
answer questions of this nature openly and honestly (even if their answers Reports probably lies in the fact that they, to a large extent, opened the
are anonymous), as it concerns behaviour that is extremely personal in research door to a ‘forbidden’ area and thus stimulated future research.
nature and could evoke feelings of guilt and trauma.
Thirdly, although sexual behaviour has a strong biological basis, it is 2.4.1.2 Australian Study of Health and Relationships
equally true that, as we know by now, it could be influenced strongly by
environmental factors such as cultural and societal norms, customs and One of the most recent comprehensive studies on sexual attitudes was done
in Australia by De Visser et al. (2014) in a population-representative sample
90 91
 values. This is particularly true for a country such as South Africa that is
widely recognised for its unique multicultural status. Thus, care should be
taken not to apply the results of a specific country, culture or any group to
another country, culture or group without reservation. Of course, this is true
for all research data on human behaviour.
Fourthly, it should be taken into account that research data on sexual
behaviour, as in most cases in psychology and related sciences, usually
report only averages. The result is that all variations from the average remain
unknown to the reader. Therefore, one of the golden rules in psychology,
namely that every individual is unique, should also always be applied here.
In the following sections, international and South African research on
sexuality will be discussed.

A sexual relationship should be characterised by emotional intimacy and 2.4.1 International research
respect for each other

Examples of international research on sexual behaviour are the following:

Relatively little research has been conducted on human sexuality. One
reason for this is that many people feel that sexuality is such a personal 2.4.1.1 The Kinsey Reports
thing that they are reluctant to share intimate details with other people. The
result is that relatively few researchers are committed to conduct research These reports, published in 1948 on men and in 1953 on women, were
on sexuality, as relatively few people are willing to participate in such a regarded as the ‘Bible’ of sexual research for decades. The Kinsey Reports
research project. brought interesting information to light; for example, concerning the
Several points of criticism are also levelled against data reported by frequency of sexual intercourse, the incidence of extramarital sexual
researchers: Firstly, the samples are not representative because relatively activity and homosexuality. Incidentally, the latter two were reported to be
few people are willing to participate. Generally, only individuals with a more significantly higher than the then more conservative norms had led one to
‘liberal’ attitude towards sex will participate in such a research project, with expect.
the result that the attitudes of more sexually conservative individuals are not However, the Kinsey Reports are no longer regarded as authoritative, for
documented. This implies that the research findings cannot be generalised two main reasons. Firstly, it is generally accepted that sexual norms have
to the population. An example of unrepresentativeness of research data is changed worldwide to such an extent that it is highly questionable whether
that of a researcher who uses readers of a specific sex magazine as research the results of the Kinsey Reports are still relevant today. Secondly, the Kinsey
participants. It is possible that readers of these magazines may be more Reports are criticised on the grounds of faulty methodology (especially
liberal and permissive regarding sexuality than individuals who do not read concerning one-sided interpretations and non-representative samples of
such magazines. participants). It is even alleged that some of the results are false and based
Secondly, an issue in sex research is to what extent people are willing to purely on speculation (Wildavsky, 1997). The main contribution of the Kinsey
answer questions of this nature openly and honestly (even if their answers Reports probably lies in the fact that they, to a large extent, opened the
are anonymous), as it concerns behaviour that is extremely personal in research door to a ‘forbidden’ area and thus stimulated future research.
nature and could evoke feelings of guilt and trauma.
Thirdly, although sexual behaviour has a strong biological basis, it is 2.4.1.2 Australian Study of Health and Relationships
equally true that, as we know by now, it could be influenced strongly by
environmental factors such as cultural and societal norms, customs and One of the most recent comprehensive studies on sexual attitudes was done
in Australia by De Visser et al. (2014) in a population-representative sample
90 91
of more than 20 000 men and women aged 16 to 69 years. Table 2.5 reflects 2.4.1.3 Durex Global Sex Report
the main findings.
In an international study including many countries, Durex (2012) (a company
Table 2.5 Sexual attitudes among Australian men and women involved in the manufacturing of condoms) interviewed nearly 30 000
Men Women people about their sexual attitudes and experiences. Some of the interesting
Statement findings were the following:
Agree Agree
– More than 80% said that sex is vital for general psychological and
Sex before marriage is acceptable 87,1 86,3
physical well-being.
An active sex life is important for my sense of – 54% were not completely satisfied with their sex life.
86,8 78,8
well-being
– 60% were willing to experiment in the bedroom.
If two people had oral sex, but not intercourse, I
68,3 68,2
would still be considered that they had sex
2.4.2 South African research
Having an affair when in a committed relationship is
83,7 81,5
always wrong
There is a serious lack of solid and extensive scientific research on sexual
Abortion is always wrong 20,2 14,8
behaviour in South Africa. The result is that the research data of other
Sex between two adult women is always wrong 16,7 12,9 countries (especially the USA) is often applied unconditionally to the unique
Sex between two adult men is always wrong 26,5 13,4 South African situation, or research on one particular South African group is
Pornography degrades the women shown in it 41,6 49,0 generalised to another local group without reservation. As mentioned before,
Pornography degrades the men shown in it 30,0 37,2 this is scientifically unacceptable, and several authors have warned against
Pornography can improve sexual relations among such generalisations, pointing out that many forms of sexual behaviour are
65,6 53,7
adults not universal (Wellings et al., 2006).
Sexual health education for adolescents increases the Fortunately, there has been a growing tendency over the last decade
31,0 16,4
likelihood of early sexual activity or two to conduct research on the sexual attitudes and behaviour of South
De Visser et al., 2014 Africans. The following are some important examples:

In this Australian study was general agreement that premarital sex was 2.4.2.1 The Pfizer Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviours
acceptable (87%); that sex was important for well-being (83%); and that
sex outside a committed relationship was unacceptable (83%). Respondents Pfizer (2002), a large international pharmaceutical company, conducted
were accepting of homosexual behaviour and abortion, and few believed this study in 29 countries, interviewing 27 000 participants between the
that sex education encouraged earlier sexual activity. Attitudes that were ages of 40 and 80 years, of which 999 were South Africans. The South
more liberal were associated with being female, English as home language, African participants were selected randomly from 2 500 initial door-to-
homosexual or bisexual identity, not being religious, greater education, door interviews. Of these interviews, the most representative group was
and higher incomes. Respondents who expressed attitudes that were more the English-speaking population of the country (32% men, 29% women),
liberal had more diverse patterns of sexual experience. Predicted gender followed by Afrikaans-speaking men (29%) and women (30%), and 20% for
differences were found in response to the jealousy-evoking scenario: Men both Zulu men and women (the rest included other SA language groups).
were more jealous of a partner having sex with someone else, and women Among the South Africa participants, 58% of men and 30% of women
were more jealous of a partner forming an emotional attachment (De Visser believed that sex played an important role in their overall lives, which was
et al., 2014). respectively 8% and 1% higher than their global peers. The study indicated
the frequency of sexual intercourse of men and women respectively as
follows: less than once per month: 10% and 11%; 1-4 times per month: 34%

92 93
of more than 20 000 men and women aged 16 to 69 years. Table 2.5 reflects 2.4.1.3 Durex Global Sex Report
the main findings.
In an international study including many countries, Durex (2012) (a company
Table 2.5 Sexual attitudes among Australian men and women involved in the manufacturing of condoms) interviewed nearly 30 000
Men Women people about their sexual attitudes and experiences. Some of the interesting
Statement findings were the following:
Agree Agree
– More than 80% said that sex is vital for general psychological and
Sex before marriage is acceptable 87,1 86,3
physical well-being.
An active sex life is important for my sense of – 54% were not completely satisfied with their sex life.
86,8 78,8
well-being
– 60% were willing to experiment in the bedroom.
If two people had oral sex, but not intercourse, I
68,3 68,2
would still be considered that they had sex
2.4.2 South African research
Having an affair when in a committed relationship is
83,7 81,5
always wrong
There is a serious lack of solid and extensive scientific research on sexual
Abortion is always wrong 20,2 14,8
behaviour in South Africa. The result is that the research data of other
Sex between two adult women is always wrong 16,7 12,9 countries (especially the USA) is often applied unconditionally to the unique
Sex between two adult men is always wrong 26,5 13,4 South African situation, or research on one particular South African group is
Pornography degrades the women shown in it 41,6 49,0 generalised to another local group without reservation. As mentioned before,
Pornography degrades the men shown in it 30,0 37,2 this is scientifically unacceptable, and several authors have warned against
Pornography can improve sexual relations among such generalisations, pointing out that many forms of sexual behaviour are
65,6 53,7
adults not universal (Wellings et al., 2006).
Sexual health education for adolescents increases the Fortunately, there has been a growing tendency over the last decade
31,0 16,4
likelihood of early sexual activity or two to conduct research on the sexual attitudes and behaviour of South
De Visser et al., 2014 Africans. The following are some important examples:

In this Australian study was general agreement that premarital sex was 2.4.2.1 The Pfizer Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviours
acceptable (87%); that sex was important for well-being (83%); and that
sex outside a committed relationship was unacceptable (83%). Respondents Pfizer (2002), a large international pharmaceutical company, conducted
were accepting of homosexual behaviour and abortion, and few believed this study in 29 countries, interviewing 27 000 participants between the
that sex education encouraged earlier sexual activity. Attitudes that were ages of 40 and 80 years, of which 999 were South Africans. The South
more liberal were associated with being female, English as home language, African participants were selected randomly from 2 500 initial door-to-
homosexual or bisexual identity, not being religious, greater education, door interviews. Of these interviews, the most representative group was
and higher incomes. Respondents who expressed attitudes that were more the English-speaking population of the country (32% men, 29% women),
liberal had more diverse patterns of sexual experience. Predicted gender followed by Afrikaans-speaking men (29%) and women (30%), and 20% for
differences were found in response to the jealousy-evoking scenario: Men both Zulu men and women (the rest included other SA language groups).
were more jealous of a partner having sex with someone else, and women Among the South Africa participants, 58% of men and 30% of women
were more jealous of a partner forming an emotional attachment (De Visser believed that sex played an important role in their overall lives, which was
et al., 2014). respectively 8% and 1% higher than their global peers. The study indicated
the frequency of sexual intercourse of men and women respectively as
follows: less than once per month: 10% and 11%; 1-4 times per month: 34%

92 93
and 40%; 5-8 times per month: 20% and 19%; 9-12 times per month:15% and Table 2.6 Health24 Survey
17%; 13-16 times per month: 7% and 5%; 17-20 times per month: 4% and 3%; 1. How important is sex in your life?
more than 20 times per month: 4% and 3%. It was also found that 54% of Males Females
South African men and 53% of South African women had experienced sexual Extremely 35,04% Extremely 30,41 %
difficulties for more than two months in the previous twelve months. These
Moderately 17,15% Moderately 22,37%
numbers were significantly higher than the global results of 42% percent for
men and 47% for women. Not at all 1,05% Not at all 2,01%
Slightly 2,22% Slightly 6,92%
2.4.2.2 The Health24 study Very 44,48% Very 38,28%
Other 0,05% Other N/A
Health24, a South African Internet health information provider, conducted 2. What feature of a person most affects whether you might fall in love with them?
research online on their Health24 website between mid-December 2007 and Males Females
the end of January 2008, attracting just under 11 000 entries. The majority Body 20,36% Body 7,10%
of the participants were urban adults, educated to Grade 12 level or higher Conversation 8,53% Conversation 14,76%
(one in four had tertiary education degrees or diplomas). Just under two-
Face 11,87% Face 4,44%
thirds were aged 25-49, with the remaining third falling on either side of
Personality 49,06% Personality 68,38%
this age group. About half had English or Afrikaans as their home language,
Status 0,69% Status 0,76%
while the balance was made up with the other national language groups in
South Africa. The results are shown in Table 2.6. Style 8,49% Style 3,54%

Health24 did a follow-up study in 2010. One of the interesting findings None of the above 1,00% None of the above 1,01%
was the significant differences in defining ‘having sex’. For example, some 3. How frequently do you fantasise about sex?
regarded oral sex and mutual masturbation as having sex, but others did Males Females
not. This illustrates how important it is to have clear definitions when one Monthly 3,54% Monthly 10,36%
does research, as different interpretations by the participants can have a Weekly 13,43% Weekly 35,16%
significant effect on the results. Other findings of the 2010 study include the Daily 50,85% Daily 47,24%
following: 74% of men and 72% of women find premarital sex acceptable;
Hourly 17,44% Hourly 5,10%
49% of men and 42% of women have cheated on their partners sexually;
More than hourly 14,74% More than hourly 2,15%
95% of men and 84% of women have watched pornography; and 74% of
men and 74% of women have had unprotected sex. 4. Do you believe the best sex happens with someone you love?
The most important criticism against the Health24 studies is that the Males Females
participants were not representative of the general South African population. No 29,55% No 20,44%
For example, many South Africans did not have access to the Internet and Yes 70,45% Yes 79,56%
could therefore not participate in the study. Therefore, it may be probable 5. Can you remember all the names of all the people you’ve ever had sex with?
that the results primarily reflect the sexual attitudes and behaviour of more Males Females
affluent and/or urbanised South Africans. Moreover, as mentioned before, No 25,02% No 8,48%
many people may feel uneasy or have objections to completing such a
Yes 49,41% Yes 75,61%
questionnaire on the Internet, thus leaving out a portion of the population
Mostly 23,99% Mostly 14,25%
that could have influenced the data significantly.
Not applicable 1,57% Not applicable 1,66%
However, taking the criticism into account, the data remain interesting,
especially as it does correlate with international data to a great extent.

94 95
and 40%; 5-8 times per month: 20% and 19%; 9-12 times per month:15% and Table 2.6 Health24 Survey
17%; 13-16 times per month: 7% and 5%; 17-20 times per month: 4% and 3%; 1. How important is sex in your life?
more than 20 times per month: 4% and 3%. It was also found that 54% of Males Females
South African men and 53% of South African women had experienced sexual Extremely 35,04% Extremely 30,41 %
difficulties for more than two months in the previous twelve months. These
Moderately 17,15% Moderately 22,37%
numbers were significantly higher than the global results of 42% percent for
men and 47% for women. Not at all 1,05% Not at all 2,01%
Slightly 2,22% Slightly 6,92%
2.4.2.2 The Health24 study Very 44,48% Very 38,28%
Other 0,05% Other N/A
Health24, a South African Internet health information provider, conducted 2. What feature of a person most affects whether you might fall in love with them?
research online on their Health24 website between mid-December 2007 and Males Females
the end of January 2008, attracting just under 11 000 entries. The majority Body 20,36% Body 7,10%
of the participants were urban adults, educated to Grade 12 level or higher Conversation 8,53% Conversation 14,76%
(one in four had tertiary education degrees or diplomas). Just under two-
Face 11,87% Face 4,44%
thirds were aged 25-49, with the remaining third falling on either side of
Personality 49,06% Personality 68,38%
this age group. About half had English or Afrikaans as their home language,
Status 0,69% Status 0,76%
while the balance was made up with the other national language groups in
South Africa. The results are shown in Table 2.6. Style 8,49% Style 3,54%

Health24 did a follow-up study in 2010. One of the interesting findings None of the above 1,00% None of the above 1,01%
was the significant differences in defining ‘having sex’. For example, some 3. How frequently do you fantasise about sex?
regarded oral sex and mutual masturbation as having sex, but others did Males Females
not. This illustrates how important it is to have clear definitions when one Monthly 3,54% Monthly 10,36%
does research, as different interpretations by the participants can have a Weekly 13,43% Weekly 35,16%
significant effect on the results. Other findings of the 2010 study include the Daily 50,85% Daily 47,24%
following: 74% of men and 72% of women find premarital sex acceptable;
Hourly 17,44% Hourly 5,10%
49% of men and 42% of women have cheated on their partners sexually;
More than hourly 14,74% More than hourly 2,15%
95% of men and 84% of women have watched pornography; and 74% of
men and 74% of women have had unprotected sex. 4. Do you believe the best sex happens with someone you love?
The most important criticism against the Health24 studies is that the Males Females
participants were not representative of the general South African population. No 29,55% No 20,44%
For example, many South Africans did not have access to the Internet and Yes 70,45% Yes 79,56%
could therefore not participate in the study. Therefore, it may be probable 5. Can you remember all the names of all the people you’ve ever had sex with?
that the results primarily reflect the sexual attitudes and behaviour of more Males Females
affluent and/or urbanised South Africans. Moreover, as mentioned before, No 25,02% No 8,48%
many people may feel uneasy or have objections to completing such a
Yes 49,41% Yes 75,61%
questionnaire on the Internet, thus leaving out a portion of the population
Mostly 23,99% Mostly 14,25%
that could have influenced the data significantly.
Not applicable 1,57% Not applicable 1,66%
However, taking the criticism into account, the data remain interesting,
especially as it does correlate with international data to a great extent.

94 95
6. Do you enjoy sex? 2.4.2.3 Research on university students
Males Females
All of the time 59,93% All of the time 28,51%
A number of researchers have conducted research on the sexual attitudes
and behaviour of university students, as well as to determine the influence
Most of the time 31,68% Most of the time 54,67%
of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. For example:
Never 0,13% Never 0,05%
Seldom
Some of the time
1,36%
6,90%
Seldom
Some of the time
1,77%
15,00%
• Peltzer (2005), from the Human Sciences Research Council in Pretoria,
conducted a study including more than 400 black male and female
7. Have you ever had sex with: third-year university students from a historically rural black university.
Males Females The mean age was 22,5 years. Results indicated that on average,
Both women and 3,00% Both women and 8,83% men had their first experience of sexual intercourse at 16,8 years and
men men women at 17,6 years. One third of the females and one quarter of the
Men only 2,22% Men only 90,48% males reported that they had felt pressurised with the first intercourse.
Women only 94,78% Women only 0,69% Men indicated having had a mean of 10 sexual partners. The average
8. Have you ever had unprotected sex with a partner you weren’t in a relationship for women was 3,5. Most men and many women also had concurrent
with? sexual relationships outside their steady relationships. There was a lack
Males Females of condom use (only about 50% of men used them), and most male and
No 45,48% No 67,36% female students (83%) indicated that they had never been worried that
Yes 54,52% Yes 32,64% they could contract HIV.
9. Do you find pornography arousing? • Mwaba and Naidoo (2005) from the University of the Western Cape
conducted research on 153 black, coloured and Indian students at a
Males Females
historically urban black university. The mean age was 19,7 years, and
Depends on the 31,60% Depends on the 42,17%
porn porn
about 75% were female. Fewer than half of the students approved of
premarital sex, more than 40% of the students said it was too difficult
No 7,74% No 15,83%
to abstain from sex until marriage, while 70% found sex between people
Yes 60,65% Yes 42,00%
in love acceptable. Nearly 60% had had sexual intercourse and about
10. Have you ever been sexually abused? 50% oral sex. Peer pressure to engage in sex seemed to play a role
Males Females in only about 20% of the students. By far the majority believed that
No 91,23% No 72,03% contraceptives, particularly condoms, should be used during intercourse.
Yes 8,77% Yes 27,97% Unfortunately, the researchers did not investigate subgroup differences
11. Is sex a source of conflict in your relationship? such as gender. The fact that significantly more females than males were
Males Females included in the study could have affected the results; probably giving
No 74,71% No 74,10% the data a more conservative trend than if an equal number of males had
been included.
Yes 25,29% Yes 25,90%

2.4.3 Sexual behaviour patterns in adulthood

It cannot be denied that present sexual behavioural patterns reflect much

greater permissiveness than in the past. The sexual behavioural patterns
and attitudes of especially young persons, such as university students, have

96 97
6. Do you enjoy sex? 2.4.2.3 Research on university students
Males Females
All of the time 59,93% All of the time 28,51%
A number of researchers have conducted research on the sexual attitudes
and behaviour of university students, as well as to determine the influence
Most of the time 31,68% Most of the time 54,67%
of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. For example:
Never 0,13% Never 0,05%
Seldom
Some of the time
1,36%
6,90%
Seldom
Some of the time
1,77%
15,00%
• Peltzer (2005), from the Human Sciences Research Council in Pretoria,
conducted a study including more than 400 black male and female
7. Have you ever had sex with: third-year university students from a historically rural black university.
Males Females The mean age was 22,5 years. Results indicated that on average,
Both women and 3,00% Both women and 8,83% men had their first experience of sexual intercourse at 16,8 years and
men men women at 17,6 years. One third of the females and one quarter of the
Men only 2,22% Men only 90,48% males reported that they had felt pressurised with the first intercourse.
Women only 94,78% Women only 0,69% Men indicated having had a mean of 10 sexual partners. The average
8. Have you ever had unprotected sex with a partner you weren’t in a relationship for women was 3,5. Most men and many women also had concurrent
with? sexual relationships outside their steady relationships. There was a lack
Males Females of condom use (only about 50% of men used them), and most male and
No 45,48% No 67,36% female students (83%) indicated that they had never been worried that
Yes 54,52% Yes 32,64% they could contract HIV.
9. Do you find pornography arousing? • Mwaba and Naidoo (2005) from the University of the Western Cape
conducted research on 153 black, coloured and Indian students at a
Males Females
historically urban black university. The mean age was 19,7 years, and
Depends on the 31,60% Depends on the 42,17%
porn porn
about 75% were female. Fewer than half of the students approved of
premarital sex, more than 40% of the students said it was too difficult
No 7,74% No 15,83%
to abstain from sex until marriage, while 70% found sex between people
Yes 60,65% Yes 42,00%
in love acceptable. Nearly 60% had had sexual intercourse and about
10. Have you ever been sexually abused? 50% oral sex. Peer pressure to engage in sex seemed to play a role
Males Females in only about 20% of the students. By far the majority believed that
No 91,23% No 72,03% contraceptives, particularly condoms, should be used during intercourse.
Yes 8,77% Yes 27,97% Unfortunately, the researchers did not investigate subgroup differences
11. Is sex a source of conflict in your relationship? such as gender. The fact that significantly more females than males were
Males Females included in the study could have affected the results; probably giving
No 74,71% No 74,10% the data a more conservative trend than if an equal number of males had
been included.
Yes 25,29% Yes 25,90%

2.4.3 Sexual behaviour patterns in adulthood

It cannot be denied that present sexual behavioural patterns reflect much

greater permissiveness than in the past. The sexual behavioural patterns
and attitudes of especially young persons, such as university students, have

96 97
changed dramatically over the last few decades. This seems to be true
for most countries in the world. Mainly, three findings stand out: Firstly, Box 2.2 Gender differences in casual sex
the percentage of young unmarried people who have had intercourse has The evidence is persuasive that men have a more positive attitude toward casual sex,
increased dramatically. Secondly, the percentage of females who have had fantasise more than women about having sex with multiple, anonymous sexual partners
sexual intercourse has increased more rapidly than in the case of males. and desire a greater variety and number of sexual partners. To determine whether the
sexual and feminist revolutions have freed women to enjoy casual sex just as men have
(However, males seem to have intercourse more frequently.) Thirdly, there always had, Campbell (2008) looked at whether women have adapted to casual sex by
is a movement away from the double standards of the past when it was examining their feelings following a night of casual sex (a one-night stand). A total of
more acceptable for males than for females to engage in premarital sexual nearly 2000 men and women who had experienced a one-night stand were asked to
rate both their positive and negative feelings the following morning. Overall, women’s
intercourse and many other forms of sexual behaviour that previously were
feelings were more negative than men’s. Eighty per cent of men, compared to 54% of
preserved for males. women, had overall positive feelings about the experience. Men were more likely than
A finding that has also been generally accepted by sexologists is that women to want their friends to hear about it secretly. Men also reported greater sexual
there are certain differences in the sexuality of persons in early adulthood satisfaction and contentment following the event, as well as a greater sense of well-
being and confidence about themselves. The predominantly negative feeling reported
and those in middle adulthood. Between the ages of approximately 46 and by women was regret at having been ‘used’. Women were also more likely to feel that
55, most men and women become aware of a decline in their sexual interest they had let themselves down and were worried about the potential damage to their
and activity. However, it should be taken into account that these are averages reputation if other people found out. Contrary to popular belief, women did not seem
and that great variability occurs. For example, there are many 55-year-olds to view taking part in casual sex as a prelude to long-term relationships.
In a study among university students in the USA, it was also found that women face
with a higher sexual frequency than many 25-year-olds. Furthermore, what more judgement than men when they are known to engage in casual sex, and they
people in their middle-age lose in quantity, they make up with quality; also reported less interest in casual sex than men did. When asked if they disrespected
their sexual relationships are often more complete and satisfying, and the men and women who hook up or have sex with many people, both men and women
condemned the other sex more than they did their own (England & Bearak, 2014).
foreplay more leisurely and imaginative. Sexual activity also tends to be
Interestingly, it seems that today’s university students do not have more casual
focused more on psychological intimacy than on physical intimacy. This is in sex or more sexual partners than students in previous eras (Momto & Carey, 2014).
contrast with the youth, where ”Sex is fast and furious. It is ignited easily and Unfortunately, no statistics for South Africa could be found.
fizzles out like fireworks” (Kachadourian, 1987, p. 57).
Another important finding is that it seems that adults from countries
with more gender-equal sexual attitudes (e.g. the USA and other Western
countries) report higher levels of sexual satisfaction across multiple domains Box 2.3 Hysterectomy and sexual functioning
than do societies or countries that do not embrace gender-equality. These Hysterectomy refers to the removal of the uterus. Some or all of the other reproductive
findings suggest that sexual attitudes may jeopardise sexual well-being organs, including the ovaries, may be removed as well. The removal of the uterus means
in different ways for men and women because of differential sociocultural that menstrual periods and the ability to have children comes to an end. The operation is
recommended for a variety of conditions, such as cancers of the uterus, non-cancerous
messages regarding sexual behaviour (Graf & Patrick, 2014). (See also Box
growths in the uterus, and excessive menstrual bleeding. Although many lay people
2.2 on gender differences in casual sex.) believe that a hysterectomy may result in sexual problems, researchers have found that
There are several reasons why middle adulthood brings new sexual this is not the case (Pouwels et al., 2015; Qatawneh, 2013).
satisfaction to many couples. For women, there is reduced fear of pregnancy However, some women report that their sexual desire and orgasm improved after
the hysterectomy. It seems that this improvement has a strong psychological basis.
and, after menopause, little fear at all. Therefore, birth control can be safely Many women who have suffered from prolonged or heavy bleeding or pelvic pain may
ignored. As this is the life stage where children usually leave home, privacy feel revitalised after being freed from these painful and frustrating conditions. The
and the possibility of free sexual expression is enhanced. (See also Box 2.3 fact that the fear of pregnancy is now gone, could also result in an improved sense
on the effect of a hysterectomy on sexual functioning.) of well-being and quality of life, which in turn could lead to improved sexual relations.
On the other hand, premenopausal women who must undergo a hysterectomy for
health reasons may experience a sense of loss after a hysterectomy and even grief and
depression over the loss of their fertility. Additionally, because the uterus is associated
strongly with femininity, some may experience rejection and feelings of inferiority.

98 99
changed dramatically over the last few decades. This seems to be true
for most countries in the world. Mainly, three findings stand out: Firstly, Box 2.2 Gender differences in casual sex
the percentage of young unmarried people who have had intercourse has The evidence is persuasive that men have a more positive attitude toward casual sex,
increased dramatically. Secondly, the percentage of females who have had fantasise more than women about having sex with multiple, anonymous sexual partners
sexual intercourse has increased more rapidly than in the case of males. and desire a greater variety and number of sexual partners. To determine whether the
sexual and feminist revolutions have freed women to enjoy casual sex just as men have
(However, males seem to have intercourse more frequently.) Thirdly, there always had, Campbell (2008) looked at whether women have adapted to casual sex by
is a movement away from the double standards of the past when it was examining their feelings following a night of casual sex (a one-night stand). A total of
more acceptable for males than for females to engage in premarital sexual nearly 2000 men and women who had experienced a one-night stand were asked to
rate both their positive and negative feelings the following morning. Overall, women’s
intercourse and many other forms of sexual behaviour that previously were
feelings were more negative than men’s. Eighty per cent of men, compared to 54% of
preserved for males. women, had overall positive feelings about the experience. Men were more likely than
A finding that has also been generally accepted by sexologists is that women to want their friends to hear about it secretly. Men also reported greater sexual
there are certain differences in the sexuality of persons in early adulthood satisfaction and contentment following the event, as well as a greater sense of well-
being and confidence about themselves. The predominantly negative feeling reported
and those in middle adulthood. Between the ages of approximately 46 and by women was regret at having been ‘used’. Women were also more likely to feel that
55, most men and women become aware of a decline in their sexual interest they had let themselves down and were worried about the potential damage to their
and activity. However, it should be taken into account that these are averages reputation if other people found out. Contrary to popular belief, women did not seem
and that great variability occurs. For example, there are many 55-year-olds to view taking part in casual sex as a prelude to long-term relationships.
In a study among university students in the USA, it was also found that women face
with a higher sexual frequency than many 25-year-olds. Furthermore, what more judgement than men when they are known to engage in casual sex, and they
people in their middle-age lose in quantity, they make up with quality; also reported less interest in casual sex than men did. When asked if they disrespected
their sexual relationships are often more complete and satisfying, and the men and women who hook up or have sex with many people, both men and women
condemned the other sex more than they did their own (England & Bearak, 2014).
foreplay more leisurely and imaginative. Sexual activity also tends to be
Interestingly, it seems that today’s university students do not have more casual
focused more on psychological intimacy than on physical intimacy. This is in sex or more sexual partners than students in previous eras (Momto & Carey, 2014).
contrast with the youth, where ”Sex is fast and furious. It is ignited easily and Unfortunately, no statistics for South Africa could be found.
fizzles out like fireworks” (Kachadourian, 1987, p. 57).
Another important finding is that it seems that adults from countries
with more gender-equal sexual attitudes (e.g. the USA and other Western
countries) report higher levels of sexual satisfaction across multiple domains Box 2.3 Hysterectomy and sexual functioning
than do societies or countries that do not embrace gender-equality. These Hysterectomy refers to the removal of the uterus. Some or all of the other reproductive
findings suggest that sexual attitudes may jeopardise sexual well-being organs, including the ovaries, may be removed as well. The removal of the uterus means
in different ways for men and women because of differential sociocultural that menstrual periods and the ability to have children comes to an end. The operation is
recommended for a variety of conditions, such as cancers of the uterus, non-cancerous
messages regarding sexual behaviour (Graf & Patrick, 2014). (See also Box
growths in the uterus, and excessive menstrual bleeding. Although many lay people
2.2 on gender differences in casual sex.) believe that a hysterectomy may result in sexual problems, researchers have found that
There are several reasons why middle adulthood brings new sexual this is not the case (Pouwels et al., 2015; Qatawneh, 2013).
satisfaction to many couples. For women, there is reduced fear of pregnancy However, some women report that their sexual desire and orgasm improved after
the hysterectomy. It seems that this improvement has a strong psychological basis.
and, after menopause, little fear at all. Therefore, birth control can be safely Many women who have suffered from prolonged or heavy bleeding or pelvic pain may
ignored. As this is the life stage where children usually leave home, privacy feel revitalised after being freed from these painful and frustrating conditions. The
and the possibility of free sexual expression is enhanced. (See also Box 2.3 fact that the fear of pregnancy is now gone, could also result in an improved sense
on the effect of a hysterectomy on sexual functioning.) of well-being and quality of life, which in turn could lead to improved sexual relations.
On the other hand, premenopausal women who must undergo a hysterectomy for
health reasons may experience a sense of loss after a hysterectomy and even grief and
depression over the loss of their fertility. Additionally, because the uterus is associated
strongly with femininity, some may experience rejection and feelings of inferiority.

98 99
 As far as late adulthood is concerned, it is a common myth that older (Brechner, 1985, p. 22).
people are sexually inactive and are to all intents and purposes ‘sexless’. In Nevertheless, there does seem to be an age-related decline in sexual
fact, media often portrays older people’s sexuality as either non-existent, activity during the later years of life. For example, in a recent study, Lindau
unacceptable, or the subject of humour, and this contributes to wider social and her co-workers (2007) from the University of Chicago, found the
myths and stereotypes about sex and older people (Tarzia et al., 2013). following prevalence of sexual activity among adults: a prevalence rate
Although there is a decrease in most cases, sexual needs, interest and of 73% in respondents who were 57 to 64 years old; a prevalence rate of
capacity remain very much alive, even at a very advanced age. In a South 53% in respondents who were 65 to 74 years old; and a prevalence rate of
African study, the following prevalence of sexual activity was found: 73% 26% in respondents who were 75 to 85 years old. More men than women in
for ages 57-64; 53% for ages 65-74; and 26% for ages 75-85 (Geffen, 2014). all the mentioned age groups reported sexual activity. On the other hand,
However, there are indications that a more accepting and positive attitude about half of both sexually active men and women reported at least one
towards sexuality in later life is developing. As may be expected, cultural bothersome sexual problem. The most prevalent sexual problems among
differences exist in people’s attitudes towards sexuality in the later years women were low desire (43%), difficulty with vaginal lubrication (39%), and
(see, for example, Box 2.4). an inability to reach orgasm (34%), whereas among men, the most prevalent
sexual problems were erectile difficulties (37%). Both men and women who
rated their health as poor were less likely to be sexually active and more
Box 2.4 Sexuality and ageing in Uganda
likely to report sexual problems. Especially diabetes and hypertension seem
Ugandan people still regard sexuality for older people as taboo. While the majority to play a role in these sexual concerns.
of older adults regard a good sexual relationship as important to quality of life, the
It is also true that elderly people who wish to express themselves sexually
quantity of interpersonal relationships is even more important. Cultural biases have
tended to stereotype older people as asexual, devoid of feelings or emotion. This is might do this not only by means of intercourse, but also in a wide variety
because a woman’s sexuality is often linked to the ability to bear children, and for of ways, including daydreaming, dressing up, looking for emotional and
women, their concept of themselves as sexual beings may also be tied to their ability to intellectual intimacy, stroking, caressing and kissing (Mahieu & Gastmans,
reproduce, which they lose after menopause. However, men’s sexuality is not expected
to change in a lifetime. In her study, Okiria (2014) found that men feel that women
2015). As Rathus (2014, p. 354) puts it, “If older people fine tune their
should give up sexual activity earlier than they should, because it is shameful for expectations, they may find themselves leading some of their most sexually
ageing women to be sexually active. Women themselves feel that beyond the age of fulfilling years.”
40-45 years, when they start experiencing body changes including menopause, sexual In conclusion: An impressive number of studies have found a correlation
activity should be ruled out. Despite the assumption that traditional African women are
not supposed to discuss their sexuality, the women in this study were very open about between the frequency of sex and greater personal happiness (Jarrett, 2017).
sharing their experiences. There are various pleasurable activities, of course, but many of them do not
have the long-term emotional benefits of sex, especially in a stable adult
relationship. Debrot and her colleagues (2017) found that more sex leads
Similar to many other geropsychological aspects, there is a positive to more happiness because it promotes affection. In this regard, they found
correlation between the degree of sexual activity during old age and earlier that the participants regarded the cuddling, love, security and affection that
life stages. This means that people who were sexually more active during accompany sex as very important. They also emphasised that sex promotes a
their younger years tend to be more active during old age (in other words, stronger and more positive emotional bond with their partners. Debrot et al.
the rank order remains the same). It was also found that a positive self- also believe that sexual activity could compensate for the faded well-being
concept has a significant influence on the sexual behaviour of middle-aged in partners who experience difficulties to exchange affection adequately.
and older adults (Ekundayo et al., 2015). Furthermore, an earlier study
indicated that 98% of the 70-year-olds and 93% of the 80- to 90-year-old 2.4.4 Sexual orientation
respondents stated that they were still interested in sex. The overall finding
was that “the life stories (of the respondents) reveal the decades after 50 There are few, if any, topics in the field of sexuality that are so clouded in both
to be far more exciting and far more fulfilling than is commonly supposed” controversy and sensitivity than sexual orientation. As sexual orientation
plays such an integral role in the development of all individuals, and research
100 101
 As far as late adulthood is concerned, it is a common myth that older (Brechner, 1985, p. 22).
people are sexually inactive and are to all intents and purposes ‘sexless’. In Nevertheless, there does seem to be an age-related decline in sexual
fact, media often portrays older people’s sexuality as either non-existent, activity during the later years of life. For example, in a recent study, Lindau
unacceptable, or the subject of humour, and this contributes to wider social and her co-workers (2007) from the University of Chicago, found the
myths and stereotypes about sex and older people (Tarzia et al., 2013). following prevalence of sexual activity among adults: a prevalence rate
Although there is a decrease in most cases, sexual needs, interest and of 73% in respondents who were 57 to 64 years old; a prevalence rate of
capacity remain very much alive, even at a very advanced age. In a South 53% in respondents who were 65 to 74 years old; and a prevalence rate of
African study, the following prevalence of sexual activity was found: 73% 26% in respondents who were 75 to 85 years old. More men than women in
for ages 57-64; 53% for ages 65-74; and 26% for ages 75-85 (Geffen, 2014). all the mentioned age groups reported sexual activity. On the other hand,
However, there are indications that a more accepting and positive attitude about half of both sexually active men and women reported at least one
towards sexuality in later life is developing. As may be expected, cultural bothersome sexual problem. The most prevalent sexual problems among
differences exist in people’s attitudes towards sexuality in the later years women were low desire (43%), difficulty with vaginal lubrication (39%), and
(see, for example, Box 2.4). an inability to reach orgasm (34%), whereas among men, the most prevalent
sexual problems were erectile difficulties (37%). Both men and women who
rated their health as poor were less likely to be sexually active and more
Box 2.4 Sexuality and ageing in Uganda
likely to report sexual problems. Especially diabetes and hypertension seem
Ugandan people still regard sexuality for older people as taboo. While the majority to play a role in these sexual concerns.
of older adults regard a good sexual relationship as important to quality of life, the
It is also true that elderly people who wish to express themselves sexually
quantity of interpersonal relationships is even more important. Cultural biases have
tended to stereotype older people as asexual, devoid of feelings or emotion. This is might do this not only by means of intercourse, but also in a wide variety
because a woman’s sexuality is often linked to the ability to bear children, and for of ways, including daydreaming, dressing up, looking for emotional and
women, their concept of themselves as sexual beings may also be tied to their ability to intellectual intimacy, stroking, caressing and kissing (Mahieu & Gastmans,
reproduce, which they lose after menopause. However, men’s sexuality is not expected
to change in a lifetime. In her study, Okiria (2014) found that men feel that women
2015). As Rathus (2014, p. 354) puts it, “If older people fine tune their
should give up sexual activity earlier than they should, because it is shameful for expectations, they may find themselves leading some of their most sexually
ageing women to be sexually active. Women themselves feel that beyond the age of fulfilling years.”
40-45 years, when they start experiencing body changes including menopause, sexual In conclusion: An impressive number of studies have found a correlation
activity should be ruled out. Despite the assumption that traditional African women are
not supposed to discuss their sexuality, the women in this study were very open about between the frequency of sex and greater personal happiness (Jarrett, 2017).
sharing their experiences. There are various pleasurable activities, of course, but many of them do not
have the long-term emotional benefits of sex, especially in a stable adult
relationship. Debrot and her colleagues (2017) found that more sex leads
Similar to many other geropsychological aspects, there is a positive to more happiness because it promotes affection. In this regard, they found
correlation between the degree of sexual activity during old age and earlier that the participants regarded the cuddling, love, security and affection that
life stages. This means that people who were sexually more active during accompany sex as very important. They also emphasised that sex promotes a
their younger years tend to be more active during old age (in other words, stronger and more positive emotional bond with their partners. Debrot et al.
the rank order remains the same). It was also found that a positive self- also believe that sexual activity could compensate for the faded well-being
concept has a significant influence on the sexual behaviour of middle-aged in partners who experience difficulties to exchange affection adequately.
and older adults (Ekundayo et al., 2015). Furthermore, an earlier study
indicated that 98% of the 70-year-olds and 93% of the 80- to 90-year-old 2.4.4 Sexual orientation
respondents stated that they were still interested in sex. The overall finding
was that “the life stories (of the respondents) reveal the decades after 50 There are few, if any, topics in the field of sexuality that are so clouded in both
to be far more exciting and far more fulfilling than is commonly supposed” controversy and sensitivity than sexual orientation. As sexual orientation
plays such an integral role in the development of all individuals, and research
100 101
and discussions are usually focused on heterosexual orientation (the major This range of behaviour and attractions has been described in various
sexual orientation), it is important that it should receive the necessary cultures and nations throughout the world. Many cultures use identity labels
attention. The American Psychological Association (2017) provides the to describe people who express these attractions. The most frequent labels
following overview of sexual orientation: are lesbian (women attracted to women), gay (men attracted to men), and
bisexual (men or women attracted to both sexes). The abbreviation LGBT
2.4.4.1 What is sexual orientation? (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) is often used as an umbrella term
for all non-heterosexual orientations.
Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, Sexual orientation is distinct from other components of sex and
and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes. People express gender, including biological sex (the anatomical, physiological, and genetic
their sexual orientation through their behaviour with others, including such characteristics associated with being male or female), gender identity (the
simple actions as holding hands or kissing. In addition to sexual behaviour, psychological sense of being male or female), and social gender role (the
these bonds include nonsexual physical affection between partners, shared cultural norms that define feminine and masculine behaviour).
goals and values, mutual support, and ongoing commitment. It is important to know that by far the majority of individuals state that
Findings on the prevalence of different sexual orientations differ. By they had little or no choice regarding their sexual orientation. (For example,
far most people are heterosexual, with the findings of numerous studies this is why, when a heterosexual asks a homosexual when he/she decided to
worldwide that varies between 1% and 10% regarding non-heterosexual be homosexual, the homosexual person will usually answer, “I don’t know,
orientations. About one in four people (27%) in South Africa reported but when did you decide to become heterosexual?”)
having a friend or family member who is homosexual, and more than half
the population (55%) said that they would “accept” a gay family member 2.4.4.2 What causes a person to have a particular sexual
(The Other Foundation, 2016). orientation?
Research over several decades has demonstrated that sexual orientation
ranges along a continuum, from exclusive attraction to the opposite sex to There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons why an
exclusive attraction to the same sex. However, usually, sexual orientation individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, gay, or lesbian orientation.
is discussed in terms of three categories: heterosexual (having emotional, Although much research has examined the possible genetic, hormonal,
romantic, or sexual attractions to members of the opposite sex), homosexual developmental, social and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings
(having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to members of one’s own have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is
sex), and bisexual (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to both determined by any particular factor or factors. However, although most hold
sexes). the opinion that nature and nurture both play complex roles, there is an
indication that genetic/biological factors may play a more important role
than previously thought (Academy of Science in South Africa, 2015; Ginicola
et al., 2017). This viewpoint is strengthened by the fact that homosexual
behaviour has been observed from 450 to 1500 species, ranging from
primates to fish and insects (Bagemihl, 2000; Ferydooni, 2012). However, in
this regard, LeVay (1996, p. 207) states, “Although homosexual behaviour
is very common in the animal world, it seems to be very uncommon that
individual animals have a long-lasting predisposition to engage in such
behaviour to the exclusion of heterosexual activities. Thus, a homosexual
orientation, if one can speak of such thing in animals, seems to be a rarity.”

Mental health professionals do not regard homosexuality as a mental disorder

102 103
and discussions are usually focused on heterosexual orientation (the major This range of behaviour and attractions has been described in various
sexual orientation), it is important that it should receive the necessary cultures and nations throughout the world. Many cultures use identity labels
attention. The American Psychological Association (2017) provides the to describe people who express these attractions. The most frequent labels
following overview of sexual orientation: are lesbian (women attracted to women), gay (men attracted to men), and
bisexual (men or women attracted to both sexes). The abbreviation LGBT
2.4.4.1 What is sexual orientation? (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) is often used as an umbrella term
for all non-heterosexual orientations.
Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, Sexual orientation is distinct from other components of sex and
and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes. People express gender, including biological sex (the anatomical, physiological, and genetic
their sexual orientation through their behaviour with others, including such characteristics associated with being male or female), gender identity (the
simple actions as holding hands or kissing. In addition to sexual behaviour, psychological sense of being male or female), and social gender role (the
these bonds include nonsexual physical affection between partners, shared cultural norms that define feminine and masculine behaviour).
goals and values, mutual support, and ongoing commitment. It is important to know that by far the majority of individuals state that
Findings on the prevalence of different sexual orientations differ. By they had little or no choice regarding their sexual orientation. (For example,
far most people are heterosexual, with the findings of numerous studies this is why, when a heterosexual asks a homosexual when he/she decided to
worldwide that varies between 1% and 10% regarding non-heterosexual be homosexual, the homosexual person will usually answer, “I don’t know,
orientations. About one in four people (27%) in South Africa reported but when did you decide to become heterosexual?”)
having a friend or family member who is homosexual, and more than half
the population (55%) said that they would “accept” a gay family member 2.4.4.2 What causes a person to have a particular sexual
(The Other Foundation, 2016). orientation?
Research over several decades has demonstrated that sexual orientation
ranges along a continuum, from exclusive attraction to the opposite sex to There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons why an
exclusive attraction to the same sex. However, usually, sexual orientation individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, gay, or lesbian orientation.
is discussed in terms of three categories: heterosexual (having emotional, Although much research has examined the possible genetic, hormonal,
romantic, or sexual attractions to members of the opposite sex), homosexual developmental, social and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings
(having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to members of one’s own have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is
sex), and bisexual (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to both determined by any particular factor or factors. However, although most hold
sexes). the opinion that nature and nurture both play complex roles, there is an
indication that genetic/biological factors may play a more important role
than previously thought (Academy of Science in South Africa, 2015; Ginicola
et al., 2017). This viewpoint is strengthened by the fact that homosexual
behaviour has been observed from 450 to 1500 species, ranging from
primates to fish and insects (Bagemihl, 2000; Ferydooni, 2012). However, in
this regard, LeVay (1996, p. 207) states, “Although homosexual behaviour
is very common in the animal world, it seems to be very uncommon that
individual animals have a long-lasting predisposition to engage in such
behaviour to the exclusion of heterosexual activities. Thus, a homosexual
orientation, if one can speak of such thing in animals, seems to be a rarity.”

Mental health professionals do not regard homosexuality as a mental disorder

102 103
2.4.4.3 Is homosexuality a mental disorder? 2.4.4.6 What is a transgender person?

A psychological state is considered a mental disorder only if it causes Transgender is a general term for persons whose gender identity, gender
significant distress or disability. Although originally classified as such, expression, or behaviour does not conform to that typically associated
since 1973, lesbian, gay and bisexual orientations are no longer regarded with the sex to which they were assigned at birth. Transgender people are
as mental disorders in the Western world. Research has found no inherent sometimes called transsexual if they desire medical assistance to change
association between any of these sexual orientations and psychopathology. from one sex to another. Such people will often describe themselves as ‘being
Both heterosexual behaviour and homosexual behaviour are normal aspects born in the wrong body’. Surgery to change the appearance of the external
of human sexuality and both have been documented in many different genitals is known as sex reassignment surgery. Surgery and hormonal
cultures and historical eras. Despite the persistence of stereotypes that treatments for gender reassignment are available for both male and female
portray lesbian, gay and bisexual people as disturbed, several decades of transsexuals. The Transgender Clinic at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town
research and clinical experience have led all mainstream medical and mental has a waiting list of many years for gender reassignment surgery.
health organisations to conclude that these orientations represent normal
forms of human experience.
REVIEW THIS SECTION
2.4.4.4 What about therapy intended to change sexual 1. How does human sexuality relate to all the domains of human functioning?
orientation from homosexual to heterosexual? 2. Why is research on human sexuality so difficult? What points of criticism are levelled
against data reported by researchers?
Mental health professionals generally express concerns about therapies that 3. Discuss the major findings from international research regarding the following:
claim to modify sexual orientation. The Academy of Science of South Africa – Kinsey Reports
(2015, p. 63) states, “There is no evidence that same-sex orientation can be – Australian Study of Health and Relationships
changed through ‘conversion’ or ‘reparative’ therapy. Given the documented – Durex Global Sex Report

dangers of such therapy and its direct conflict with medical ethics, these 4. Discuss the major findings of the following South African research:
interventions are contra-indicated.” – Pfizer study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviour
– Health24 survey
Helpful responses of a therapist treating an individual who is troubled
– Research studies conducted at various universities
about her or his same-sex attractions include helping that person to cope
5. Discuss the sexual behaviour patterns in adulthood:
actively with social prejudices against homosexuality, successfully resolve
– How have the sexual behavioural patterns of young adults changed over the
issues associated with and resulting from internal conflicts, and actively lead decades?
a happy and satisfying life. – What are the changes in sexual behaviour between young adulthood and middle
adulthood?
2.4.4.5 What is the nature of same-sex relationships? – How is sexuality affected in late adulthood?
6. What is sexual orientation? What causes a specific sexual orientation? Is homosexuality
Just as in the case of heterosexual people, homosexual people want a mental disorder? Should a person’s sexual orientation be changed through therapeutic
intervention? What should the nature of a therapeutic intervention be in this regard?
and have committed relationships. In fact, studies have found same-sex
Do same-sex relationships differ from opposite-sex relationships?
and heterosexual couples to be equivalent to each other with regard to
7. Define the following:
relationship satisfaction, commitment and durable relationships. In 2006,
– heterosexual
South Africa legalised same-sex marriage. However, same-sex relationships – homosexual
are still illegal in more than 70 countries (Academy of Science of South – bisexual
Africa, 2015). – transgender
– transsexual

104 105
2.4.4.3 Is homosexuality a mental disorder? 2.4.4.6 What is a transgender person?

A psychological state is considered a mental disorder only if it causes Transgender is a general term for persons whose gender identity, gender
significant distress or disability. Although originally classified as such, expression, or behaviour does not conform to that typically associated
since 1973, lesbian, gay and bisexual orientations are no longer regarded with the sex to which they were assigned at birth. Transgender people are
as mental disorders in the Western world. Research has found no inherent sometimes called transsexual if they desire medical assistance to change
association between any of these sexual orientations and psychopathology. from one sex to another. Such people will often describe themselves as ‘being
Both heterosexual behaviour and homosexual behaviour are normal aspects born in the wrong body’. Surgery to change the appearance of the external
of human sexuality and both have been documented in many different genitals is known as sex reassignment surgery. Surgery and hormonal
cultures and historical eras. Despite the persistence of stereotypes that treatments for gender reassignment are available for both male and female
portray lesbian, gay and bisexual people as disturbed, several decades of transsexuals. The Transgender Clinic at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town
research and clinical experience have led all mainstream medical and mental has a waiting list of many years for gender reassignment surgery.
health organisations to conclude that these orientations represent normal
forms of human experience.
REVIEW THIS SECTION
2.4.4.4 What about therapy intended to change sexual 1. How does human sexuality relate to all the domains of human functioning?
orientation from homosexual to heterosexual? 2. Why is research on human sexuality so difficult? What points of criticism are levelled
against data reported by researchers?
Mental health professionals generally express concerns about therapies that 3. Discuss the major findings from international research regarding the following:
claim to modify sexual orientation. The Academy of Science of South Africa – Kinsey Reports
(2015, p. 63) states, “There is no evidence that same-sex orientation can be – Australian Study of Health and Relationships
changed through ‘conversion’ or ‘reparative’ therapy. Given the documented – Durex Global Sex Report

dangers of such therapy and its direct conflict with medical ethics, these 4. Discuss the major findings of the following South African research:
interventions are contra-indicated.” – Pfizer study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviour
– Health24 survey
Helpful responses of a therapist treating an individual who is troubled
– Research studies conducted at various universities
about her or his same-sex attractions include helping that person to cope
5. Discuss the sexual behaviour patterns in adulthood:
actively with social prejudices against homosexuality, successfully resolve
– How have the sexual behavioural patterns of young adults changed over the
issues associated with and resulting from internal conflicts, and actively lead decades?
a happy and satisfying life. – What are the changes in sexual behaviour between young adulthood and middle
adulthood?
2.4.4.5 What is the nature of same-sex relationships? – How is sexuality affected in late adulthood?
6. What is sexual orientation? What causes a specific sexual orientation? Is homosexuality
Just as in the case of heterosexual people, homosexual people want a mental disorder? Should a person’s sexual orientation be changed through therapeutic
intervention? What should the nature of a therapeutic intervention be in this regard?
and have committed relationships. In fact, studies have found same-sex
Do same-sex relationships differ from opposite-sex relationships?
and heterosexual couples to be equivalent to each other with regard to
7. Define the following:
relationship satisfaction, commitment and durable relationships. In 2006,
– heterosexual
South Africa legalised same-sex marriage. However, same-sex relationships – homosexual
are still illegal in more than 70 countries (Academy of Science of South – bisexual
Africa, 2015). – transgender
– transsexual

104 105
 Cognitive processes such as information processing, memory, intelligence,

106
problem solving, decision-making, language and creativity
should be the focus of Psychology.
3
Cognitive Development
107
 Cognitive processes such as information processing, memory, intelligence,

106
problem solving, decision-making, language and creativity
should be the focus of Psychology.
3
Cognitive Development
107
 I never met anyone who didn’t have a very smart child. What 1950s: “Nearly all studies have shown that most human abilities decline
happens to these children, you wonder, when they reach adulthood? progressively after reaching a peak somewhere between ages 18 and 25.”
Fran Lebowitz Freud’s ageism is especially poignant, since he himself demonstrated
By the time a man realises that maybe his father was right, he usually an extraordinary mental agility in his capacity to continue to revise and
has a son who thinks he’s wrong. Charles Wadsworth develop his theories until he died in his eighties (Terry, 2008). Owing to
the refinement of research methodologies, Wechsler’s pessimistic view
In youth, we learn; in age, we understand. Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach has been challenged to a large extent. Researchers have discovered that
The intellect is always fooled by the heart. Francois De La Rochefoucauld cognitive development is an extremely complex process and that there are
no simple answers to the question whether cognitions generally decline
Wisdom doesn’t necessarily come with age. Sometimes, age just as we age. However, the controversy continues with some researchers
shows up all by itself. Tom Wilson indicating that a general cognitive decline and slowing is an age-related
A young person knows the rules, but the old person knows the phenomenon, while others maintain that this is not necessarily true (Dirk
exception. Oliver Wendell Holmes & Schmiedek, 2016).
Therefore, the resulting question is where we currently stand regarding
The day the child realises that all the adults are imperfect, he this dispute. To comment on this, we need to consider the following issues:
becomes an adolescent; the day he forgives them, he becomes an
adult; the day he forgives himself, he becomes wise. Alden Nowlan – Do cognitive skills change as we age?
– If so, what is the extent of these changes?
3.1. INTRODUCTION – Do all cognitive abilities change at the same rate?
– If there is a decline in general cognitive ability, do all people
The popular concepts of a ‘senior moment’ and ‘you can’t teach an old dog experience this?
new tricks’ are intended to be humorous reflections of adults’ reference – Can something be done to delay these changes or inhibit them
to a temporary memory lapse or an inability to learn new material or altogether?
skills. However, they may be related to a more deep-rooted anxiety that
many older individuals have about general cognitive decline as they age.
Cognition refers to the ability to learn, remember, solve problems, and
be knowledgeable about the world. These cognitive skills are important
not only in managing everyday life (e.g. job performance, driving, social
interactions, health care and enjoyment of leisure activities), but also in
terms of the way people view themselves (e.g. the extent to which they
are able to perform these activities). Therefore, it is understandable that
as individuals age, they may become concerned about their continued
abilities to adapt to and cope with the demands of everyday life.
This concern may have been made worse by early researchers and
theorists who concluded that because of biological deterioration, most
cognitive abilities inevitably decline as people age. For example, Sigmund
Freud, the well-known psychoanalyst, made the pronouncement when Do cognitive skills change as we age?

he was 48 years old that “near or above the age of fifty the elasticity of
mental processes on which the psychoanalytic treatment depends, is as a To obtain more clarity on these questions, in this chapter, the basic
rule, lacking” (Freud, 1905, p. 264). David Wechsler (1958, p. 135), a well- cognitive functions, such as information processing and memory, and
known expert in the field of intelligence testing, wrote the following in the the higher cognitive functions, such as intelligence, problem solving and
108 109
 I never met anyone who didn’t have a very smart child. What 1950s: “Nearly all studies have shown that most human abilities decline
happens to these children, you wonder, when they reach adulthood? progressively after reaching a peak somewhere between ages 18 and 25.”
Fran Lebowitz Freud’s ageism is especially poignant, since he himself demonstrated
By the time a man realises that maybe his father was right, he usually an extraordinary mental agility in his capacity to continue to revise and
has a son who thinks he’s wrong. Charles Wadsworth develop his theories until he died in his eighties (Terry, 2008). Owing to
the refinement of research methodologies, Wechsler’s pessimistic view
In youth, we learn; in age, we understand. Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach has been challenged to a large extent. Researchers have discovered that
The intellect is always fooled by the heart. Francois De La Rochefoucauld cognitive development is an extremely complex process and that there are
no simple answers to the question whether cognitions generally decline
Wisdom doesn’t necessarily come with age. Sometimes, age just as we age. However, the controversy continues with some researchers
shows up all by itself. Tom Wilson indicating that a general cognitive decline and slowing is an age-related
A young person knows the rules, but the old person knows the phenomenon, while others maintain that this is not necessarily true (Dirk
exception. Oliver Wendell Holmes & Schmiedek, 2016).
Therefore, the resulting question is where we currently stand regarding
The day the child realises that all the adults are imperfect, he this dispute. To comment on this, we need to consider the following issues:
becomes an adolescent; the day he forgives them, he becomes an
adult; the day he forgives himself, he becomes wise. Alden Nowlan – Do cognitive skills change as we age?
– If so, what is the extent of these changes?
3.1. INTRODUCTION – Do all cognitive abilities change at the same rate?
– If there is a decline in general cognitive ability, do all people
The popular concepts of a ‘senior moment’ and ‘you can’t teach an old dog experience this?
new tricks’ are intended to be humorous reflections of adults’ reference – Can something be done to delay these changes or inhibit them
to a temporary memory lapse or an inability to learn new material or altogether?
skills. However, they may be related to a more deep-rooted anxiety that
many older individuals have about general cognitive decline as they age.
Cognition refers to the ability to learn, remember, solve problems, and
be knowledgeable about the world. These cognitive skills are important
not only in managing everyday life (e.g. job performance, driving, social
interactions, health care and enjoyment of leisure activities), but also in
terms of the way people view themselves (e.g. the extent to which they
are able to perform these activities). Therefore, it is understandable that
as individuals age, they may become concerned about their continued
abilities to adapt to and cope with the demands of everyday life.
This concern may have been made worse by early researchers and
theorists who concluded that because of biological deterioration, most
cognitive abilities inevitably decline as people age. For example, Sigmund
Freud, the well-known psychoanalyst, made the pronouncement when Do cognitive skills change as we age?

he was 48 years old that “near or above the age of fifty the elasticity of
mental processes on which the psychoanalytic treatment depends, is as a To obtain more clarity on these questions, in this chapter, the basic
rule, lacking” (Freud, 1905, p. 264). David Wechsler (1958, p. 135), a well- cognitive functions, such as information processing and memory, and
known expert in the field of intelligence testing, wrote the following in the the higher cognitive functions, such as intelligence, problem solving and
108 109
language, will be considered. Issues regarding expertise, wisdom and The possible influence of ageing on these steps or cognitive processes is
creativity will also be addressed, as well as factors that may affect cognitive discussed in the following sections.
development. Lastly, we shall focus on current models and theories to explain
adult cognitive development. 3.2.1.1 Sensory input

3.2 BASIC COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: The first step in information processing is sensory input, in which the brain
receives information from the environment via the senses. As we have seen
INFORMATION PROCESSING AND MEMORY
in the previous chapter, sensory acuity tends to decline with age and may
3.2.1 Information processing affect various levels of the individual’s functioning. Although many people
who experience declines in sensory acuity take corrective action (such as
Information processing theory focuses on the processes of thought. This in using glasses and hearing aids), more subtle sensory deficits that often
means that information processing theorists are interested in not only how are not even noticed by the individual may also impair cognition (Harada et
the mind works before a response is given, but also in the many ways in al., 2013). For example, people may be unaware that they are becoming less
which a response might be given. For example, a person may hear a sound adept at ‘reading’ other’s facial expressions or hearing emotional content in
and may either run away from or approach the source of the sound based speech, which may affect their understanding of social interactions. Therefore,
on the way in which the particular sound is analysed and interpreted. The the hypothesis is that a decline in sensory acuity leads to a decline in sensory
underlying theoretical basis of information processing is that the specific input; therefore, cognitive functioning or output will be compromised. Studies
aspects of the process (such as attention and memory) largely explain the in this regard indicated the following (Stuart-Hamilton, 2012):
specific response or action such as the type of problem-solving strategy (i.e. • A significant positive correlation was found between sensory abilities
how a situation is handled). and cognitive functioning (i.e. the poorer the quality of sensory input, the
The computer is often used as an analogy to explain how information- poorer the quality of cognitive output).
processing tasks, such as remembering and decision making, are carried out. • Sensory decline correlates significantly with cognitive changes. However,
Just as a computer follows various steps to process incoming data to a stage the size of the correlation is small, indicating that other factors probably
where it produces the required output, the human cognitive system also also play a key role.
proceeds through a series of steps: The information (or ’data‘) is entered • Sensory decline correlates with a decline in some cognitive abilities but
into the brain through the various sensory routes, such as the smell, taste, not in others.
visual, auditory and tactile (touch) senses (i.e. the input stage), where it is • No correlation was found between sensory acuity and cognitive change.
encoded and interpreted or analysed by means of various brain reactions,
connections and memories (i.e. the processing stage). The cognitive process What do these findings indicate? In general, sensory changes appear to
concludes with some form of response or reaction (i.e. the output stage). be a useful indicator of cognitive change, but only at a relatively broad level,
with much of the variance (discrepancy or difference) left unexplained. This
is often labelled as a general ageing effect, which means that the effect
is known to be linked to the effects of the ageing process, but the precise
nature is largely unknown.
Explanations for the discrepancy in research findings could be any or a
combination of the following factors:

■ Differences in sampling, research methods and techniques of analysis

used could lead to differences in findings.
■ Most of the research methods are correlational in nature; therefore,
The computer is often used as an analogy to explain information processing

110 111
language, will be considered. Issues regarding expertise, wisdom and The possible influence of ageing on these steps or cognitive processes is
creativity will also be addressed, as well as factors that may affect cognitive discussed in the following sections.
development. Lastly, we shall focus on current models and theories to explain
adult cognitive development. 3.2.1.1 Sensory input

3.2 BASIC COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: The first step in information processing is sensory input, in which the brain
receives information from the environment via the senses. As we have seen
INFORMATION PROCESSING AND MEMORY
in the previous chapter, sensory acuity tends to decline with age and may
3.2.1 Information processing affect various levels of the individual’s functioning. Although many people
who experience declines in sensory acuity take corrective action (such as
Information processing theory focuses on the processes of thought. This in using glasses and hearing aids), more subtle sensory deficits that often
means that information processing theorists are interested in not only how are not even noticed by the individual may also impair cognition (Harada et
the mind works before a response is given, but also in the many ways in al., 2013). For example, people may be unaware that they are becoming less
which a response might be given. For example, a person may hear a sound adept at ‘reading’ other’s facial expressions or hearing emotional content in
and may either run away from or approach the source of the sound based speech, which may affect their understanding of social interactions. Therefore,
on the way in which the particular sound is analysed and interpreted. The the hypothesis is that a decline in sensory acuity leads to a decline in sensory
underlying theoretical basis of information processing is that the specific input; therefore, cognitive functioning or output will be compromised. Studies
aspects of the process (such as attention and memory) largely explain the in this regard indicated the following (Stuart-Hamilton, 2012):
specific response or action such as the type of problem-solving strategy (i.e. • A significant positive correlation was found between sensory abilities
how a situation is handled). and cognitive functioning (i.e. the poorer the quality of sensory input, the
The computer is often used as an analogy to explain how information- poorer the quality of cognitive output).
processing tasks, such as remembering and decision making, are carried out. • Sensory decline correlates significantly with cognitive changes. However,
Just as a computer follows various steps to process incoming data to a stage the size of the correlation is small, indicating that other factors probably
where it produces the required output, the human cognitive system also also play a key role.
proceeds through a series of steps: The information (or ’data‘) is entered • Sensory decline correlates with a decline in some cognitive abilities but
into the brain through the various sensory routes, such as the smell, taste, not in others.
visual, auditory and tactile (touch) senses (i.e. the input stage), where it is • No correlation was found between sensory acuity and cognitive change.
encoded and interpreted or analysed by means of various brain reactions,
connections and memories (i.e. the processing stage). The cognitive process What do these findings indicate? In general, sensory changes appear to
concludes with some form of response or reaction (i.e. the output stage). be a useful indicator of cognitive change, but only at a relatively broad level,
with much of the variance (discrepancy or difference) left unexplained. This
is often labelled as a general ageing effect, which means that the effect
is known to be linked to the effects of the ageing process, but the precise
nature is largely unknown.
Explanations for the discrepancy in research findings could be any or a
combination of the following factors:

■ Differences in sampling, research methods and techniques of analysis

used could lead to differences in findings.
■ Most of the research methods are correlational in nature; therefore,
The computer is often used as an analogy to explain information processing

110 111
 only a link between sensory acuity and cognitive functioning could be Attention is important in everyday life, especially when cognitive
established. As we have seen in Chapter 1, a correlation or link between resources must be utilised to focus on some target or goal and when further
two variables does not necessarily indicate that the one causes the other. cognitive operations, such as memory tasks or problem solving, have to be
■ Factors such as intelligence, occupation, health and lifestyle factors, performed. Attentional skills are strongly correlated with other cognitive
rather than sensory ageing as such, may affect cognitive output in later skills (Howieson, 2015). Therefore, declines in attention can have far-reaching
life. effects on a person’s ability to function adequately and efficiently in everyday
■ Other variables in the input stage of information processing, such as life (Glisky, 2007).
attention, memory and speed of processing, may also affect cognitive Multiple processes are involved in attention, which manifests itself in
output. different levels of attention (Blanchet, 2016; Hartley & Maquestiaux, 2016;
Santrock, 2015; Stuart-Hamilton, 2012):
3.2.1.2 Attention
• Sustained attention. This refers to the ability to concentrate on a task
Large amounts of information enter the sensory register (i.e. the physiological without being distracted. The ability to sustain attention seems to be
point or sensory organ such as the eyes, ears, mouth, nose and skin where quite well preserved in later life. Although there is some decline with
information such as sight, sound, taste, smell and touch enters the sensory age, it is difficult to determine the exact nature and extent of the decline,
information system). This is the first step in information processing. To as different measures of sustained attention yield different patterns of
process the information, the individual needs to pay attention to the incoming change.
sensory stimulus. Attention is the state in which cognitive resources are • Selective attention. This is the ability to concentrate on a task while
focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others, while there are other distracting stimuli present. Many situations in life require
the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli selective attention; for example, screening out perceptual noise (e.g.
(American Psychological Association, 2015). Although attention is often a concentrating on one’s studies while a party is going on in the room next
short-lived cognitive state (e.g. who of us will be able to draw a R2-coin from door), or tasks requiring visual search (e.g. looking for a particular brand
memory even though we practically handle it every day?), it is a necessary of washing powder on a shelf in a supermarket that contains a whole range
step to subsequent and more detailed and complex analysis of incoming of washing powders). Although studies yield different results (largely due
information. For example, the inability to focus attention can have serious to differences in which aspect of selective attention is being measured),
consequences for children and for adults (think for example of the effect of there is ample evidence to suggest that older adults exhibit a decline
attention deficit disorder on a variety of psychological developments), while in selective attention. For example, while the ability to select relevant
a lapse in attention at a crucial moment of decision-making, such as missing information is well preserved in ageing, older adults tend to experience
an important piece of information or not noticing that the car ahead of you more difficulty in ignoring or suppressing irrelevant or unimportant
has slowed down, can be disastrous. information. They also show a decline in suppressing perceptual noise.
However, older adults seem to employ additional neural connectivity to
perform the task at the same level as young adults (Geerligs et al., 2014).
• Switching attention. This refers to alternating attention between two or
more tasks. More specifically, individuals must carry out two different
tasks, shifting between them according to some rule (e.g. alternate tasks
such as reading a recipe and executing the steps provided), or follow a
cue (e.g. follow the prompts on your cell phone or computer and execute
these commands). This switching or shifting of attention reflects the
demands of holding two sets of task rules in working memory (see the
discussion on working memory later in this section) and managing their
A lapse in attention could be disastrous

112 113
 only a link between sensory acuity and cognitive functioning could be Attention is important in everyday life, especially when cognitive
established. As we have seen in Chapter 1, a correlation or link between resources must be utilised to focus on some target or goal and when further
two variables does not necessarily indicate that the one causes the other. cognitive operations, such as memory tasks or problem solving, have to be
■ Factors such as intelligence, occupation, health and lifestyle factors, performed. Attentional skills are strongly correlated with other cognitive
rather than sensory ageing as such, may affect cognitive output in later skills (Howieson, 2015). Therefore, declines in attention can have far-reaching
life. effects on a person’s ability to function adequately and efficiently in everyday
■ Other variables in the input stage of information processing, such as life (Glisky, 2007).
attention, memory and speed of processing, may also affect cognitive Multiple processes are involved in attention, which manifests itself in
output. different levels of attention (Blanchet, 2016; Hartley & Maquestiaux, 2016;
Santrock, 2015; Stuart-Hamilton, 2012):
3.2.1.2 Attention
• Sustained attention. This refers to the ability to concentrate on a task
Large amounts of information enter the sensory register (i.e. the physiological without being distracted. The ability to sustain attention seems to be
point or sensory organ such as the eyes, ears, mouth, nose and skin where quite well preserved in later life. Although there is some decline with
information such as sight, sound, taste, smell and touch enters the sensory age, it is difficult to determine the exact nature and extent of the decline,
information system). This is the first step in information processing. To as different measures of sustained attention yield different patterns of
process the information, the individual needs to pay attention to the incoming change.
sensory stimulus. Attention is the state in which cognitive resources are • Selective attention. This is the ability to concentrate on a task while
focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others, while there are other distracting stimuli present. Many situations in life require
the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli selective attention; for example, screening out perceptual noise (e.g.
(American Psychological Association, 2015). Although attention is often a concentrating on one’s studies while a party is going on in the room next
short-lived cognitive state (e.g. who of us will be able to draw a R2-coin from door), or tasks requiring visual search (e.g. looking for a particular brand
memory even though we practically handle it every day?), it is a necessary of washing powder on a shelf in a supermarket that contains a whole range
step to subsequent and more detailed and complex analysis of incoming of washing powders). Although studies yield different results (largely due
information. For example, the inability to focus attention can have serious to differences in which aspect of selective attention is being measured),
consequences for children and for adults (think for example of the effect of there is ample evidence to suggest that older adults exhibit a decline
attention deficit disorder on a variety of psychological developments), while in selective attention. For example, while the ability to select relevant
a lapse in attention at a crucial moment of decision-making, such as missing information is well preserved in ageing, older adults tend to experience
an important piece of information or not noticing that the car ahead of you more difficulty in ignoring or suppressing irrelevant or unimportant
has slowed down, can be disastrous. information. They also show a decline in suppressing perceptual noise.
However, older adults seem to employ additional neural connectivity to
perform the task at the same level as young adults (Geerligs et al., 2014).
• Switching attention. This refers to alternating attention between two or
more tasks. More specifically, individuals must carry out two different
tasks, shifting between them according to some rule (e.g. alternate tasks
such as reading a recipe and executing the steps provided), or follow a
cue (e.g. follow the prompts on your cell phone or computer and execute
these commands). This switching or shifting of attention reflects the
demands of holding two sets of task rules in working memory (see the
discussion on working memory later in this section) and managing their
A lapse in attention could be disastrous

112 113
 application. Although older adults are slower than younger adults are at increases in slips of action and thought, and difficulties in remembering
some of these tasks, they do not make more errors than younger adults do. details. However, it seems that inhibitory efficiency also may be related
• Divided attention is required when the individual has to attend to and to other factors. For example, as with the attentional resources theory,
process more than one source of information at the same time. A typical task complexity may play a role. As tasks become more complex, the
example is driving: While managing the vehicle, one simultaneously also sources of distraction are likely to be more extensive, thus affecting the
has to follow the road signs or instructions along the road or on the performance of older adults, often slowing responses and increasing
GPS. Age-related effects on attentional processes become more obvious errors in a wide range of tasks. However, older adults also tend to
when cognitive or daily life tasks require multiple or divided attentional encode the distractive information more than younger adults do. This
skills, for both younger and older adults. However, the more difficult the information may actually help them perform well in new tasks, especially
competing tasks are, the less effectively older adults divide attention when it is relevant to the new task (Hasher, 2016). Additionally, it seems
than younger adults do. that inhibitory efficiency changes throughout the course of the day. At
• Executive attention involves aspects of thinking that include the planning times of peak circadian arousal (wakefulness), people generally function
of actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for at their highest level of efficiency with optimal control over distracting
errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with new or difficult thoughts or stimuli. This suggests that both older and younger adults’
circumstances. Older adults in particular are affected in novel (new or inhibitory functioning may be influenced by their alertness. For older
unusual), complex tasks that require more than one attentional process adults, this peak seems to be in the morning, and for many younger
and performing high-level cognitive activities involving memory, adults in the afternoon/evening (Hasher, 2016).
reasoning, language, problem-solving and planning. ■ The neurological approach. According to the neurological approach,
a decline in frontal lobe functioning, which is associated strongly with
Therefore, tasks involving attention require the individual to focus executive functioning such as planning and the selection of important
or select cognitive resources for a specific task or stimulus input. Various stimuli from distracting stimuli, may also play a role in attentional
theories have been proposed to explain the possible decline or change in the processes. Essentially, it seems that older adults lose the accuracy and
attentional processes during the ageing process: speed of functioning necessary to maintain control over attentional
processes. More generally, there seems to be a failure in the brain to
■ The attentional resources theory. Attentional resources refer to the screen neural signals effectively from one another. However, although
amount of attention available to perform cognitive tasks that require frontal lobes may play an important
effort and where the ability to distribute attention is under the control role in age differences in many
of the individual. This theory proposes that the availability of attentional cognitive tasks, they are rarely
capacity and efficient distribution of attentional resources decline with the only area of the brain that is
age. This is especially true for some complex cognitive tasks as well as involved significantly. Other areas
everyday multitasking situations that require attention to be divided of the brain, such as the parietal
between two or more sources (Blanchet, 2016). and temporal lobes, may also play a
■ The inhibitory deficit theory. This theory focuses on the ability to ignore role. Moreover, each of the different
or suppress irrelevant/interrupting information or stimuli (distracters) areas of the brain may contribute
and to focus on relevant stimuli or goals (targets). While it seems that something to the age-related
the ability to select relevant information is preserved, older adults’ ability change, in conjunction with other
to block out irrelevant stimuli tends to be affected negatively (Geerligs ageing changes (Stuart-Hamilton,
et al., 2014). This implies that if attention to distracters is not inhibited, 2012).
some attentional resources will be wasted on unimportant stimuli, with
the result that too little attentional capacity will remain to process the
important target stimuli. This could result in the slowing of responses, The frontal lobes play a role in attention
114 115
 application. Although older adults are slower than younger adults are at increases in slips of action and thought, and difficulties in remembering
some of these tasks, they do not make more errors than younger adults do. details. However, it seems that inhibitory efficiency also may be related
• Divided attention is required when the individual has to attend to and to other factors. For example, as with the attentional resources theory,
process more than one source of information at the same time. A typical task complexity may play a role. As tasks become more complex, the
example is driving: While managing the vehicle, one simultaneously also sources of distraction are likely to be more extensive, thus affecting the
has to follow the road signs or instructions along the road or on the performance of older adults, often slowing responses and increasing
GPS. Age-related effects on attentional processes become more obvious errors in a wide range of tasks. However, older adults also tend to
when cognitive or daily life tasks require multiple or divided attentional encode the distractive information more than younger adults do. This
skills, for both younger and older adults. However, the more difficult the information may actually help them perform well in new tasks, especially
competing tasks are, the less effectively older adults divide attention when it is relevant to the new task (Hasher, 2016). Additionally, it seems
than younger adults do. that inhibitory efficiency changes throughout the course of the day. At
• Executive attention involves aspects of thinking that include the planning times of peak circadian arousal (wakefulness), people generally function
of actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for at their highest level of efficiency with optimal control over distracting
errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with new or difficult thoughts or stimuli. This suggests that both older and younger adults’
circumstances. Older adults in particular are affected in novel (new or inhibitory functioning may be influenced by their alertness. For older
unusual), complex tasks that require more than one attentional process adults, this peak seems to be in the morning, and for many younger
and performing high-level cognitive activities involving memory, adults in the afternoon/evening (Hasher, 2016).
reasoning, language, problem-solving and planning. ■ The neurological approach. According to the neurological approach,
a decline in frontal lobe functioning, which is associated strongly with
Therefore, tasks involving attention require the individual to focus executive functioning such as planning and the selection of important
or select cognitive resources for a specific task or stimulus input. Various stimuli from distracting stimuli, may also play a role in attentional
theories have been proposed to explain the possible decline or change in the processes. Essentially, it seems that older adults lose the accuracy and
attentional processes during the ageing process: speed of functioning necessary to maintain control over attentional
processes. More generally, there seems to be a failure in the brain to
■ The attentional resources theory. Attentional resources refer to the screen neural signals effectively from one another. However, although
amount of attention available to perform cognitive tasks that require frontal lobes may play an important
effort and where the ability to distribute attention is under the control role in age differences in many
of the individual. This theory proposes that the availability of attentional cognitive tasks, they are rarely
capacity and efficient distribution of attentional resources decline with the only area of the brain that is
age. This is especially true for some complex cognitive tasks as well as involved significantly. Other areas
everyday multitasking situations that require attention to be divided of the brain, such as the parietal
between two or more sources (Blanchet, 2016). and temporal lobes, may also play a
■ The inhibitory deficit theory. This theory focuses on the ability to ignore role. Moreover, each of the different
or suppress irrelevant/interrupting information or stimuli (distracters) areas of the brain may contribute
and to focus on relevant stimuli or goals (targets). While it seems that something to the age-related
the ability to select relevant information is preserved, older adults’ ability change, in conjunction with other
to block out irrelevant stimuli tends to be affected negatively (Geerligs ageing changes (Stuart-Hamilton,
et al., 2014). This implies that if attention to distracters is not inhibited, 2012).
some attentional resources will be wasted on unimportant stimuli, with
the result that too little attentional capacity will remain to process the
important target stimuli. This could result in the slowing of responses, The frontal lobes play a role in attention
114 115
 As mentioned, several explanations are offered for the loss of It is a well-established fact that the reaction times of people
attentional abilities in older adults. However, none of the theories seems become slower as they grow older. Reaction time is at its peak in young
to provide a clear answer, and it is possible that the decline is attributable adulthood, then gradually begins to decline during the third decade, and
to several factors that may or may not be related to one another. For more dramatically during the seventh and eighth decades (Keil, 2014).
example, the decline may be due to a general decline, a decline specific to Some of the theories attempting to explain this phenomenon are the
the task, or to older adults being more cautious to perform the task. Most following (Dirk & Schmiedek, 2016; Li et al., 2010; Pollock & Allen, 2016):
of the studies performed are also laboratory experiments with their own
methodological flaws, such as a lack of clarity on operational definitions • The generalised slowing hypothesis. According to this hypothesis,
(e.g. concepts are defined and therefore measured differently by various age-related slowing is a general phenomenon apparent in any given
researchers). In addition, attention is a multifaceted construct, consisting task – from initial encoding to response execution – and could be
of many facets and processes. Therefore, change in attentional function considered a fundamental characteristic of the central nervous
is not a uniform picture of increasing impairment. In fact, losses in some system. Several reasons have been proposed, one of which is the
facets are accompanied by constancies in others (Hartley & Maquestiaux, neural noise hypothesis. Neural noise refers to irrelevant activity
2016). from residual (left-over) neural activity from previous processing.
This interference or distraction, together with age-related changes
3.2.1.3 Information processing speed in the sense organs, progressive loss of brain cells, and poorer
cerebral blood flow, may cause information to be brought more
Once information has entered the brain via the senses and the individual slowly into the nervous system, which causes a delay in the ability
has given attention to it, the information is processed. Information to produce a response. Another reason may reflect changes in
processing speed refers to the amount of time it takes a person to neurotransmission. This is caused by either a loss of neurons,
process a stimulus, prepare a response, and then react to the stimulus. a slowing of synaptic communication, or a loss of information at
The ability to process information quickly is advantageous in various each synaptic transmission. Age-related deficiencies in dopamine
cognitive tasks and many areas of everyday life where decision and action neurotransmission have received much attention. Indications are
have to be taken within limited periods. Therefore, it is important to take that this could lead to poor input to the frontal cortex, thereby
a closer look at the speed at which individuals process information, affecting a range of cognitive functions, including processing speed.
since this could affect their general cognitive functioning. Information
processing speed is generally measured by an individual’s reaction time.
Therefore, reaction time is a measure of how long it takes a person to
respond to a stimulus.

The speed of neural transmission can affect reaction time

Reaction times of people get slower as they grow older
116 117
 As mentioned, several explanations are offered for the loss of It is a well-established fact that the reaction times of people
attentional abilities in older adults. However, none of the theories seems become slower as they grow older. Reaction time is at its peak in young
to provide a clear answer, and it is possible that the decline is attributable adulthood, then gradually begins to decline during the third decade, and
to several factors that may or may not be related to one another. For more dramatically during the seventh and eighth decades (Keil, 2014).
example, the decline may be due to a general decline, a decline specific to Some of the theories attempting to explain this phenomenon are the
the task, or to older adults being more cautious to perform the task. Most following (Dirk & Schmiedek, 2016; Li et al., 2010; Pollock & Allen, 2016):
of the studies performed are also laboratory experiments with their own
methodological flaws, such as a lack of clarity on operational definitions • The generalised slowing hypothesis. According to this hypothesis,
(e.g. concepts are defined and therefore measured differently by various age-related slowing is a general phenomenon apparent in any given
researchers). In addition, attention is a multifaceted construct, consisting task – from initial encoding to response execution – and could be
of many facets and processes. Therefore, change in attentional function considered a fundamental characteristic of the central nervous
is not a uniform picture of increasing impairment. In fact, losses in some system. Several reasons have been proposed, one of which is the
facets are accompanied by constancies in others (Hartley & Maquestiaux, neural noise hypothesis. Neural noise refers to irrelevant activity
2016). from residual (left-over) neural activity from previous processing.
This interference or distraction, together with age-related changes
3.2.1.3 Information processing speed in the sense organs, progressive loss of brain cells, and poorer
cerebral blood flow, may cause information to be brought more
Once information has entered the brain via the senses and the individual slowly into the nervous system, which causes a delay in the ability
has given attention to it, the information is processed. Information to produce a response. Another reason may reflect changes in
processing speed refers to the amount of time it takes a person to neurotransmission. This is caused by either a loss of neurons,
process a stimulus, prepare a response, and then react to the stimulus. a slowing of synaptic communication, or a loss of information at
The ability to process information quickly is advantageous in various each synaptic transmission. Age-related deficiencies in dopamine
cognitive tasks and many areas of everyday life where decision and action neurotransmission have received much attention. Indications are
have to be taken within limited periods. Therefore, it is important to take that this could lead to poor input to the frontal cortex, thereby
a closer look at the speed at which individuals process information, affecting a range of cognitive functions, including processing speed.
since this could affect their general cognitive functioning. Information
processing speed is generally measured by an individual’s reaction time.
Therefore, reaction time is a measure of how long it takes a person to
respond to a stimulus.

The speed of neural transmission can affect reaction time

Reaction times of people get slower as they grow older
116 117
 tasks; they only become slower. In fact, automatic responses (those skills
• Age-complexity hypothesis. In general, the complexity of a task affects
that are well rehearsed though a lifetime of accumulated knowledge) are
how quickly people respond. With simple tasks, there is little difference
relatively unaffected by age. In certain instances, older adults may even
between younger and older adults’ reaction times. For both younger
outperform younger adults (Pollock & Allen, 2016). In addition, a decrease
and older adults, the more complex the task, the slower the response
in information processing speed does not hold for all individuals and may
will be. However, as tasks increase in complexity, the difference between
vary between groups (i.e. younger and older adults). Furthermore, although
younger and older adults’ reaction times also increases: Older adults
reaction time is important, this is not the most important factor in intellectual
become disproportionately slow as the complexity of the task increases.
change. Conversely, although declining processing speed may be related to
Since complex tasks require more extensive processing at a central level
biological factors (functional, anatomical, and neuromodulatory changes in
(an attentional control system; see 3.2.1.4 for a more detailed explanation
the brain), the role of contextual and environmental influences as well as
of the central executive), the differences noted between younger and
experience and training should not be excluded in explanatory models for
older adults’ reaction times could be related to age-related differences
age-related slowing (Dirk & Schmiedek, 2016).
at the level of central processing.
• The diffusion model. This model takes several important aspects of
performance into account and thereby provides a comprehensive picture REVIEW THIS SECTION
of the processes at work in information processing. Three parameters are
1. What is cognition?
described in this model: Drift rate refers to the rate of accumulation of
2. Why may individuals be concerned about cognitive ageing?
information over time. Larger drift rates indicate faster accumulation of
information and therefore higher efficiency in responding. For example, 3. What were David Wechsler and Sigmund Freud’s views about cognitive capacities
as we age? How are these views challenged?
in recognition tasks, well-remembered items would have larger drift rates
than items that are not well remembered would. Boundary separation 4. What are the current controversies regarding cognitive ageing? What issues need
to be considered?
describes an individual’s response conservativeness. This reflects a
5. What are the assumptions of the information processing theory? In what way is
person’s need for more information to generate a response. For example,
the computer used as an analogy in the processing of information?
some individuals may prefer accuracy to speed of responding. The third
6. What is sensory input? How is sensory input affected by age? What may account
parameter is called non-decision time, which refers to the sensorimotor for the discrepancies in research findings?
processes necessary for sensory encoding as well as motor response
7. What is the importance of attention in processing information? Why is attention
preparation and execution. Comparing old-old adults (75-90) with important in everyday life?
young-old (60-75) and younger adults, results indicate that the effects
8. Discuss the different levels of attention, and how the ageing process may affect
of ageing cannot be attributed to a single slowing factor. However, them.
for most tasks, motor performance (non-decision time) and response 9. What is information processing speed? Why is this ability important in everyday
cautiousness (boundary separation) contribute quite substantially to life? How is processing speed assessed?
older adults’ slower reaction time compared to that of younger adults. 10. Discuss the proposed theories that attempt to explain a decline in processing
Therefore, older adults are slower than younger adults are because they speed as individuals age.
set more conservative response criteria, taking great care not to make 11. Do older adults necessarily become disadvantaged because of a decline in
mistakes. Regarding the drift rate, age-related differences have been processing speed? Is a decline in processing speed true for all ageing adults? What
found, depending on the type of task. For example, older adults show factors may play a role in the variability of the decline of processing speed?
lower drift rates for tasks in which the perceptual information is limited
(i.e. in tasks for which they have less accumulated information).

However, it should be noted that older adults do not become

disadvantaged or less efficient during any particular component of processing
118 119
 tasks; they only become slower. In fact, automatic responses (those skills
• Age-complexity hypothesis. In general, the complexity of a task affects
that are well rehearsed though a lifetime of accumulated knowledge) are
how quickly people respond. With simple tasks, there is little difference
relatively unaffected by age. In certain instances, older adults may even
between younger and older adults’ reaction times. For both younger
outperform younger adults (Pollock & Allen, 2016). In addition, a decrease
and older adults, the more complex the task, the slower the response
in information processing speed does not hold for all individuals and may
will be. However, as tasks increase in complexity, the difference between
vary between groups (i.e. younger and older adults). Furthermore, although
younger and older adults’ reaction times also increases: Older adults
reaction time is important, this is not the most important factor in intellectual
become disproportionately slow as the complexity of the task increases.
change. Conversely, although declining processing speed may be related to
Since complex tasks require more extensive processing at a central level
biological factors (functional, anatomical, and neuromodulatory changes in
(an attentional control system; see 3.2.1.4 for a more detailed explanation
the brain), the role of contextual and environmental influences as well as
of the central executive), the differences noted between younger and
experience and training should not be excluded in explanatory models for
older adults’ reaction times could be related to age-related differences
age-related slowing (Dirk & Schmiedek, 2016).
at the level of central processing.
• The diffusion model. This model takes several important aspects of
performance into account and thereby provides a comprehensive picture REVIEW THIS SECTION
of the processes at work in information processing. Three parameters are
1. What is cognition?
described in this model: Drift rate refers to the rate of accumulation of
2. Why may individuals be concerned about cognitive ageing?
information over time. Larger drift rates indicate faster accumulation of
information and therefore higher efficiency in responding. For example, 3. What were David Wechsler and Sigmund Freud’s views about cognitive capacities
as we age? How are these views challenged?
in recognition tasks, well-remembered items would have larger drift rates
than items that are not well remembered would. Boundary separation 4. What are the current controversies regarding cognitive ageing? What issues need
to be considered?
describes an individual’s response conservativeness. This reflects a
5. What are the assumptions of the information processing theory? In what way is
person’s need for more information to generate a response. For example,
the computer used as an analogy in the processing of information?
some individuals may prefer accuracy to speed of responding. The third
6. What is sensory input? How is sensory input affected by age? What may account
parameter is called non-decision time, which refers to the sensorimotor for the discrepancies in research findings?
processes necessary for sensory encoding as well as motor response
7. What is the importance of attention in processing information? Why is attention
preparation and execution. Comparing old-old adults (75-90) with important in everyday life?
young-old (60-75) and younger adults, results indicate that the effects
8. Discuss the different levels of attention, and how the ageing process may affect
of ageing cannot be attributed to a single slowing factor. However, them.
for most tasks, motor performance (non-decision time) and response 9. What is information processing speed? Why is this ability important in everyday
cautiousness (boundary separation) contribute quite substantially to life? How is processing speed assessed?
older adults’ slower reaction time compared to that of younger adults. 10. Discuss the proposed theories that attempt to explain a decline in processing
Therefore, older adults are slower than younger adults are because they speed as individuals age.
set more conservative response criteria, taking great care not to make 11. Do older adults necessarily become disadvantaged because of a decline in
mistakes. Regarding the drift rate, age-related differences have been processing speed? Is a decline in processing speed true for all ageing adults? What
found, depending on the type of task. For example, older adults show factors may play a role in the variability of the decline of processing speed?
lower drift rates for tasks in which the perceptual information is limited
(i.e. in tasks for which they have less accumulated information).

However, it should be noted that older adults do not become

disadvantaged or less efficient during any particular component of processing
118 119
 3.2.2 Memory It is often believed that memory is a homogeneous skill – that everything
is memorised in the same way. However, the more psychologists study
Memory is an essential step in processing incoming stimuli, information memory, the more they realise that memory is not one function but many,
and experiences. Memory refers to the ability to encode, store and each with a specific pattern of decline as we age. This implies that different
retrieve information and experiences. Encoding is the process of getting types of memories (e.g. for words, pictures, or physical skills) are stored
information into the memory system. Storage involves the way in in different sections of the brain. Memory systems behave in different
which information is represented and kept in memory, while retrieval is ways; for example, ‘verbal’ or ‘visual’ memories represent anatomically and
the accessing of information from the memory system. Memory is an functionally distinct systems.
essential capacity in our cognitive functioning, whether we have to make
immediate or later use of the information encoded from our environment. 3.2.2.1 Memory and ageing
For example, functioning in academic settings and in everyday life
would be difficult, if not impossible, without the ability to remember. Given the number of different systems of memory, it can be assumed that
In addition, memory failures can cause inconvenience, embarrassment not all memory domains show the same pattern of age-related decline. Some
and even danger. People are also largely defined by their memories. This memory systems may be affected more by age effects than others may be,
is perhaps the reason why many people, especially older people, feel while some may remain intact or even improve as people age. Therefore,
threatened when they experience lapses in memory. For many people, the effects of ageing are highly dependent on the type of memory task
memory lapses may be the most concerning and troublesome aspect (Kikomoto & Mayr, 2017; Willis & Boron, 2015). In this section, the effects
of cognitive change. Older adults often complain that their memory is of the ageing process on the different domains or systems of memory are
not as good as it used to be. Many complain that they have increased considered. Memory systems can be differentiated by their (i) processing
difficulty in finding words, remembering names, recalling where they requirements; (ii) temporal characteristics; (iii) types of memory; and (iv)
have put items, or what they want to do next. They often worry that this stimulus domains.
is the beginning of Alzheimer’s disease. (As will be discussed in Chapter
6, memory impairment is one of the major symptoms of this disease.) (i) Processing requirements
However, some memory declines are normal processes of ageing (e.g. As mentioned earlier, to remember information, it has to be encoded (the
due to changes in brain structures or functioning), while others may be process of getting information into memory) and retrieved (the process of
due to pathology (e.g. diseases) generally more typical in older than in getting the information out). There is considerable debate within psychology
younger people (Berger, 2014; Keil, 2014). as to whether memories are lost through inefficient encoding or inefficient
retrieval (Stuart-Hamilton, 2012). The inefficient encoding hypothesis
postulates that memories that are encoded inefficiently will be lost because
they cannot be retrieved (much as a library book that was placed on the
wrong shelf and cannot be found in its rightful place). The inefficient
retrieval hypothesis argues that memories are lost because although they
are stored properly, the search for them is inefficient.
Research indicates an age-related decline in both encoding and retrieval
processes (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015; Park & Festini, 2017). A
reason for this is that adults’ spontaneous use of encoding and retrieval
strategies (anything that people use to make the task of encoding or
retrieval easier) during the learning of new information declines with age.
Certainly, if information is not encoded well, it is less likely to be accessible
to be retrieved later. Poorer encoding, at least partially, could be the reason
Lapses in memory increase with age
120 121
 3.2.2 Memory It is often believed that memory is a homogeneous skill – that everything
is memorised in the same way. However, the more psychologists study
Memory is an essential step in processing incoming stimuli, information memory, the more they realise that memory is not one function but many,
and experiences. Memory refers to the ability to encode, store and each with a specific pattern of decline as we age. This implies that different
retrieve information and experiences. Encoding is the process of getting types of memories (e.g. for words, pictures, or physical skills) are stored
information into the memory system. Storage involves the way in in different sections of the brain. Memory systems behave in different
which information is represented and kept in memory, while retrieval is ways; for example, ‘verbal’ or ‘visual’ memories represent anatomically and
the accessing of information from the memory system. Memory is an functionally distinct systems.
essential capacity in our cognitive functioning, whether we have to make
immediate or later use of the information encoded from our environment. 3.2.2.1 Memory and ageing
For example, functioning in academic settings and in everyday life
would be difficult, if not impossible, without the ability to remember. Given the number of different systems of memory, it can be assumed that
In addition, memory failures can cause inconvenience, embarrassment not all memory domains show the same pattern of age-related decline. Some
and even danger. People are also largely defined by their memories. This memory systems may be affected more by age effects than others may be,
is perhaps the reason why many people, especially older people, feel while some may remain intact or even improve as people age. Therefore,
threatened when they experience lapses in memory. For many people, the effects of ageing are highly dependent on the type of memory task
memory lapses may be the most concerning and troublesome aspect (Kikomoto & Mayr, 2017; Willis & Boron, 2015). In this section, the effects
of cognitive change. Older adults often complain that their memory is of the ageing process on the different domains or systems of memory are
not as good as it used to be. Many complain that they have increased considered. Memory systems can be differentiated by their (i) processing
difficulty in finding words, remembering names, recalling where they requirements; (ii) temporal characteristics; (iii) types of memory; and (iv)
have put items, or what they want to do next. They often worry that this stimulus domains.
is the beginning of Alzheimer’s disease. (As will be discussed in Chapter
6, memory impairment is one of the major symptoms of this disease.) (i) Processing requirements
However, some memory declines are normal processes of ageing (e.g. As mentioned earlier, to remember information, it has to be encoded (the
due to changes in brain structures or functioning), while others may be process of getting information into memory) and retrieved (the process of
due to pathology (e.g. diseases) generally more typical in older than in getting the information out). There is considerable debate within psychology
younger people (Berger, 2014; Keil, 2014). as to whether memories are lost through inefficient encoding or inefficient
retrieval (Stuart-Hamilton, 2012). The inefficient encoding hypothesis
postulates that memories that are encoded inefficiently will be lost because
they cannot be retrieved (much as a library book that was placed on the
wrong shelf and cannot be found in its rightful place). The inefficient
retrieval hypothesis argues that memories are lost because although they
are stored properly, the search for them is inefficient.
Research indicates an age-related decline in both encoding and retrieval
processes (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015; Park & Festini, 2017). A
reason for this is that adults’ spontaneous use of encoding and retrieval
strategies (anything that people use to make the task of encoding or
retrieval easier) during the learning of new information declines with age.
Certainly, if information is not encoded well, it is less likely to be accessible
to be retrieved later. Poorer encoding, at least partially, could be the reason
Lapses in memory increase with age
120 121
why older adults perform less well than younger adults do in memory recall. visuospatial scratch pad, the episodic buffer of the long-term memory, and
Conversely, if people do not use retrieval cues to remember information, the central executive (see Fig. 3.1). Auditory memory (i.e. sound- and speech-
recalling information may be more difficult. In fact, some researchers believe based information) goes to the phonological loop. This information can
that retrieval problems resulting from the less spontaneous use of retrieval be rehearsed by repeating the material several times (like when you try to
strategies are mostly responsible for the age-related decline in memory. remember a telephone number and have no means to write it down). Memory
Evidence from cognitive neuroscience also indicates age differences in for information that you see is maintained in the visuospatial scratch pad
encoding and retrieval, and suggests that older adults process information and is used to manipulate visual and spatial images (like trying to remember
differently than younger adults do due to changes in neural networking. your way to a specific lecture hall on campus). The third component, the
Patterns of neural decline with ageing seem to be larger for retrieval than episodic buffer, is responsible for recalling information that is already in
they are for encoding. the long-term memory by bringing it temporarily into working memory. The
However, the type of task also has an effect on adults’ memory fourth component, the central executive (an attentional control system),
performance and whether age differences are found. For example, consider is responsible for deciding how to allocate cognitive resources to specific
the presentation of material (organised information is much easier to learn operations, for example for language and other auditory-based information
than randomly presented information); how fast information is presented (e.g. to remember a name or a tune) or to manipulate visual and spatial
(slower may be better); how familiar people are with information (familiarity images (e.g. to read a map). The central executive also helps to coordinate
may be easier); and whether information must be recalled (i.e. remembering concurrent processing – that is when the individual has to maintain a memory
information without hints or clues) or recognised (selecting previously while performing another attention-demanding task at the same time. For
learned information from among several items) (recognition is usually example, in reading this paragraph, it is necessary to keep in mind what
better). In addition, consider the fact that memory processes are usually you have just read in order to make sense of what is currently being read
tested in laboratories and may not reflect older adults’ performance in – this means that something has to be remembered while another mental
everyday memory tasks. operation is taking place.

(ii) The temporal characteristics of memory Visuospatial

The temporal characteristics of memory refer to the length of time (or scratch pad
memory span) over which memories are retained. In this regard, memories
are identified as working memory (WM) (previously called short-term
memory) and long-term memory (LTM).
Working memory is described as the workplace of the mind. It acts as
a temporary buffer for information or events perceived very recently, and it
lasts for a few seconds at most. Working memory assists to simultaneously Input via Episodic
Central
passively store and actively manipulate information necessary in activities sensory buffer: Long
memory Executive term memory
such as learning, reasoning and comprehension (Verhaeghen, 2016). Working
memory is regarded as an umbrella term for many similar short-term storage
and processing procedures relating to a wide range of cognitive skills and
fields of knowledge. Therefore, working memory plays an active, critical, and
central role in encoding, storage, and retrieval. The passive storage aspect
of working memory is often referred to as short-term memory or primary Rehearsal
memory. Phonological
The multicomponent model of working memory (Baddeley, 2012) loop
identifies four components in working memory: the phonological loop, the
Figure 3.1. The multicomponent model of working memory
122 Adapted from Santrock, 2015 123
why older adults perform less well than younger adults do in memory recall. visuospatial scratch pad, the episodic buffer of the long-term memory, and
Conversely, if people do not use retrieval cues to remember information, the central executive (see Fig. 3.1). Auditory memory (i.e. sound- and speech-
recalling information may be more difficult. In fact, some researchers believe based information) goes to the phonological loop. This information can
that retrieval problems resulting from the less spontaneous use of retrieval be rehearsed by repeating the material several times (like when you try to
strategies are mostly responsible for the age-related decline in memory. remember a telephone number and have no means to write it down). Memory
Evidence from cognitive neuroscience also indicates age differences in for information that you see is maintained in the visuospatial scratch pad
encoding and retrieval, and suggests that older adults process information and is used to manipulate visual and spatial images (like trying to remember
differently than younger adults do due to changes in neural networking. your way to a specific lecture hall on campus). The third component, the
Patterns of neural decline with ageing seem to be larger for retrieval than episodic buffer, is responsible for recalling information that is already in
they are for encoding. the long-term memory by bringing it temporarily into working memory. The
However, the type of task also has an effect on adults’ memory fourth component, the central executive (an attentional control system),
performance and whether age differences are found. For example, consider is responsible for deciding how to allocate cognitive resources to specific
the presentation of material (organised information is much easier to learn operations, for example for language and other auditory-based information
than randomly presented information); how fast information is presented (e.g. to remember a name or a tune) or to manipulate visual and spatial
(slower may be better); how familiar people are with information (familiarity images (e.g. to read a map). The central executive also helps to coordinate
may be easier); and whether information must be recalled (i.e. remembering concurrent processing – that is when the individual has to maintain a memory
information without hints or clues) or recognised (selecting previously while performing another attention-demanding task at the same time. For
learned information from among several items) (recognition is usually example, in reading this paragraph, it is necessary to keep in mind what
better). In addition, consider the fact that memory processes are usually you have just read in order to make sense of what is currently being read
tested in laboratories and may not reflect older adults’ performance in – this means that something has to be remembered while another mental
everyday memory tasks. operation is taking place.

(ii) The temporal characteristics of memory Visuospatial

The temporal characteristics of memory refer to the length of time (or scratch pad
memory span) over which memories are retained. In this regard, memories
are identified as working memory (WM) (previously called short-term
memory) and long-term memory (LTM).
Working memory is described as the workplace of the mind. It acts as
a temporary buffer for information or events perceived very recently, and it
lasts for a few seconds at most. Working memory assists to simultaneously Input via Episodic
Central
passively store and actively manipulate information necessary in activities sensory buffer: Long
memory Executive term memory
such as learning, reasoning and comprehension (Verhaeghen, 2016). Working
memory is regarded as an umbrella term for many similar short-term storage
and processing procedures relating to a wide range of cognitive skills and
fields of knowledge. Therefore, working memory plays an active, critical, and
central role in encoding, storage, and retrieval. The passive storage aspect
of working memory is often referred to as short-term memory or primary Rehearsal
memory. Phonological
The multicomponent model of working memory (Baddeley, 2012) loop
identifies four components in working memory: the phonological loop, the
Figure 3.1. The multicomponent model of working memory
122 Adapted from Santrock, 2015 123
 However, information does not remain in working memory forever Everyday life is full of examples of the functioning of the long-term memory
because the vast majority of information is of value only at the time and system, such as remembering routines, performing in an exam, summarising
becomes redundant after a while. In fact, a crucial feature of the working information, recounting an event, or remembering an appointment. Some
memory is its capacity limit. Depending on the task, the memory store can information such as one’s name and those of one’s loved ones or native
hold on average between four and seven items. For example, the average language may never be lost, probably because of its importance to one, and/
adult can hold between five and nine verbal items in working memory, but or may be very well rehearsed. However, information can be lost from long-
fewer visual items can be retained (Cockroft, 2015). The capacity limit of term memory especially if it becomes less important, has been replaced, is
working memory (thus, the short-term memory system) is important in rehearsed infrequently, or due to a neurological disorder, such as dementia.
clearing the memory system of irrelevant information. For example, in a
mental arithmetic task, remembering numbers is necessary when executing
the task, but will be both an irritation and a waste of memory space if one
keeps on remembering them afterwards. However, some information needs
to be held in working memory to keep information active. This is usually
accomplished by using encoding techniques such as rehearsal or making
a meaningful connection between the information in working memory and
information already known (Cowan, 2014).
How is working memory affected by age? The bulk of research indicates
that working memory capacity declines with age. Small age differences are
already found in short-term memory tasks that rely on passive storage of
information. Significantly larger age-related deficits are apparent in working
memory when information must be processed and reorganised actively.
These deficits may vary across tasks; for example, the age-related decline
is greater in spatial working memory than it is in verbal working memory
(Verhaeghen, 2016). Memories are affected by the importance of the event (e.g.
Some of the deficits in working memory may be attributable to age- the first free elections in South Africa in 1994)
related slowing in processing speed, especially regarding tasks that are more
complex. This may limit the amount of information that can be activated in Working memory interacts with long-term memory by transmitting
working memory, since older adults may have more trouble than younger information to long-term memory for longer storage (Marton & Eichorn,
adults may to coordinate all the elements. Second, failures in clearing the 2014; Nyberg & Eriksson, 2016). Long-term memory has a relatively large
working memory of information that is no longer relevant to the current capacity store where information can be kept for long periods. Since there
task (as suggested by the inhibitory deficit hypothesis) may cause clutter are age-related deficits in working memory, a logical deduction is that there
in older adults’ working memory. This limits its functional capacity. Third, will also be deficits in long-term memory. The reason for this is that much
older adults may experience a decline in the ability to update the contents of the information passing into long-term memory must first be processed
of working memory flexibly (McCabe & Loaiza, 2016). by working memory, and any defects in working memory may be reflected
Deficits in working memory have negative consequences for higher- in long-term memory. A reason for this may be that older adults engage
order cognition, especially episodic memory and reasoning (as we shall see in encoding and retrieval strategies that are less effective, with the result
later in our discussions). On the question whether working memory can be that their recall may suffer. However, this may be true of new information.
trained, research indicates contradictory findings: Some researchers found Therefore, the question is how other aspects or types of long-term memory
benefits of such training and that it may even transfer to other aspects of may be affected.
cognition, while others found no benefit at all. Clearly, more research in this
regard is needed (e.g. Covey et al., 2018; Reddick et al., 2015). (iii) Types of memory
Long-term memory refers to the ability to retain memory for longer Research has suggested that long-term memory is not a unitary construct,
periods, ranging from a few seconds to a few hours to several decades. but consists of distinct, functionally different multiple systems and is served

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 However, information does not remain in working memory forever Everyday life is full of examples of the functioning of the long-term memory
because the vast majority of information is of value only at the time and system, such as remembering routines, performing in an exam, summarising
becomes redundant after a while. In fact, a crucial feature of the working information, recounting an event, or remembering an appointment. Some
memory is its capacity limit. Depending on the task, the memory store can information such as one’s name and those of one’s loved ones or native
hold on average between four and seven items. For example, the average language may never be lost, probably because of its importance to one, and/
adult can hold between five and nine verbal items in working memory, but or may be very well rehearsed. However, information can be lost from long-
fewer visual items can be retained (Cockroft, 2015). The capacity limit of term memory especially if it becomes less important, has been replaced, is
working memory (thus, the short-term memory system) is important in rehearsed infrequently, or due to a neurological disorder, such as dementia.
clearing the memory system of irrelevant information. For example, in a
mental arithmetic task, remembering numbers is necessary when executing
the task, but will be both an irritation and a waste of memory space if one
keeps on remembering them afterwards. However, some information needs
to be held in working memory to keep information active. This is usually
accomplished by using encoding techniques such as rehearsal or making
a meaningful connection between the information in working memory and
information already known (Cowan, 2014).
How is working memory affected by age? The bulk of research indicates
that working memory capacity declines with age. Small age differences are
already found in short-term memory tasks that rely on passive storage of
information. Significantly larger age-related deficits are apparent in working
memory when information must be processed and reorganised actively.
These deficits may vary across tasks; for example, the age-related decline
is greater in spatial working memory than it is in verbal working memory
(Verhaeghen, 2016). Memories are affected by the importance of the event (e.g.
Some of the deficits in working memory may be attributable to age- the first free elections in South Africa in 1994)
related slowing in processing speed, especially regarding tasks that are more
complex. This may limit the amount of information that can be activated in Working memory interacts with long-term memory by transmitting
working memory, since older adults may have more trouble than younger information to long-term memory for longer storage (Marton & Eichorn,
adults may to coordinate all the elements. Second, failures in clearing the 2014; Nyberg & Eriksson, 2016). Long-term memory has a relatively large
working memory of information that is no longer relevant to the current capacity store where information can be kept for long periods. Since there
task (as suggested by the inhibitory deficit hypothesis) may cause clutter are age-related deficits in working memory, a logical deduction is that there
in older adults’ working memory. This limits its functional capacity. Third, will also be deficits in long-term memory. The reason for this is that much
older adults may experience a decline in the ability to update the contents of the information passing into long-term memory must first be processed
of working memory flexibly (McCabe & Loaiza, 2016). by working memory, and any defects in working memory may be reflected
Deficits in working memory have negative consequences for higher- in long-term memory. A reason for this may be that older adults engage
order cognition, especially episodic memory and reasoning (as we shall see in encoding and retrieval strategies that are less effective, with the result
later in our discussions). On the question whether working memory can be that their recall may suffer. However, this may be true of new information.
trained, research indicates contradictory findings: Some researchers found Therefore, the question is how other aspects or types of long-term memory
benefits of such training and that it may even transfer to other aspects of may be affected.
cognition, while others found no benefit at all. Clearly, more research in this
regard is needed (e.g. Covey et al., 2018; Reddick et al., 2015). (iii) Types of memory
Long-term memory refers to the ability to retain memory for longer Research has suggested that long-term memory is not a unitary construct,
periods, ranging from a few seconds to a few hours to several decades. but consists of distinct, functionally different multiple systems and is served

124 125
by different brain structures (Light, 2016). Therefore, the different types When a complex skill is first learned, the frontal lobes are heavily involved.
of memory will be affected differently by age. Several types of memory After having accomplished that skill thoroughly, this knowledge becomes
have been distinguished within the long-term memory (Small et al., 2016; automatic and migrates to a lower brain centre, which clears the frontal
Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014; Willis & Boron, 2015): cortex for mastering other higher-level thinking tasks.

• Explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memory (also called declarative

memory) refers to the conscious and intentional retrieval of information that
was stored or learned deliberately (such as the telephone number of a loved
one). Implicit memory (or non-declarative memory) involves the retrieval of
information without conscious or intentional recollection. Implicit memory
is much like getting into a routine – we do things from memory but we do
not have to think about them (e.g. brushing one’s teeth). Implicit memory is
important in everyday life and is used, for example, in making judgements,
forming opinions, and understanding language. In these instances, people
draw upon memories that have not been stored explicitly as fact. Age-related decline in procedural memory is insignificant
Research on implicit memory indicates no significant age difference to
only a slight decline, while findings on explicit memory show significant • Semantic and episodic memory. Semantic and episodic memory is closely
decline. This could be interpreted in two ways. Firstly, the implicit and related to declarative (explicit) memory. Semantic memory is a store of facts
explicit memory systems may be associated with different regions of such as general knowledge or academic learning. It includes a person’s fields
the brain that are differentially impaired by ageing. Secondly, different of expertise and “everyday knowledge”, such as accumulated knowledge
processing resources may be involved: Implicit memory tasks rely on about people, places and things. Episodic memories are memories for events
automatic processes, while explicit memory tasks require processing that is (episodes) of personal experiences; it is typically the knowledge acquired at a
more demanding and effortful. specific time and place. From an anatomical perspective, episodic memory is
Linked to implicit-explicit memory, is procedural memory. Procedural situated more prominently in the temporal lobe, whereas semantic memory
memory underlies the acquisition of skills and other aspects of knowledge often is distributed across multiple cortical areas.
that are not directly accessible to consciousness and whose presence can Semantic memory seems to survive ageing to a large extent. Memory
be demonstrated only indirectly by action (e.g. walking, typing, driving for facts and information (i.e. general knowledge) and vocabulary seems
and reading). Initially, learning these skills may require effort (learning to to be unaffected by age, and in general, older adults are just as good as, if
read, drive a car, play a musical instrument, or riding a bicycle; therefore, not better than, younger adults at recalling facts held in semantic memory.
applying explicit memory skills) but later, especially with practice, become Semantic memory typically does not overburden working memory;
quite automatic (implicit memory skills). Once a skill has become part of therefore, older adults can draw upon experience in word meanings and
procedural memory, it can be carried out relatively automatically, requiring general world knowledge. However, age changes in semantic memory may
fewer attentional resources. In contrast to other types of knowledge, occur if it becomes difficult to access and retrieve information. A reason
procedural knowledge is largely unaffected by age. This is reflected by for this is that the knowledge in semantic memory is not used regularly
the fact that we can still adequately perform skills that we may not have (e.g. learning a foreign language at school or university, but not using it any
practised in years. The incredible resilience of procedural memory explains further). A second reason is a momentary retrieval failure for information
why your 85-year-old aunt, who was a musician, can still beautifully play the that is otherwise accessible or well known. A typical example is the tip-
piano, but may not remember all the family members’ names. The reason of-the-tongue phenomenon or word-finding deficit. Older adults report
why procedural memory remains robust even in old age may be that the experiencing this phenomenon more often than younger adults do.
information in procedural memory resides in a different region of the brain. Episodic memory on the other hand, seems to decline markedly with

126 127
by different brain structures (Light, 2016). Therefore, the different types When a complex skill is first learned, the frontal lobes are heavily involved.
of memory will be affected differently by age. Several types of memory After having accomplished that skill thoroughly, this knowledge becomes
have been distinguished within the long-term memory (Small et al., 2016; automatic and migrates to a lower brain centre, which clears the frontal
Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014; Willis & Boron, 2015): cortex for mastering other higher-level thinking tasks.

• Explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memory (also called declarative

memory) refers to the conscious and intentional retrieval of information that
was stored or learned deliberately (such as the telephone number of a loved
one). Implicit memory (or non-declarative memory) involves the retrieval of
information without conscious or intentional recollection. Implicit memory
is much like getting into a routine – we do things from memory but we do
not have to think about them (e.g. brushing one’s teeth). Implicit memory is
important in everyday life and is used, for example, in making judgements,
forming opinions, and understanding language. In these instances, people
draw upon memories that have not been stored explicitly as fact. Age-related decline in procedural memory is insignificant
Research on implicit memory indicates no significant age difference to
only a slight decline, while findings on explicit memory show significant • Semantic and episodic memory. Semantic and episodic memory is closely
decline. This could be interpreted in two ways. Firstly, the implicit and related to declarative (explicit) memory. Semantic memory is a store of facts
explicit memory systems may be associated with different regions of such as general knowledge or academic learning. It includes a person’s fields
the brain that are differentially impaired by ageing. Secondly, different of expertise and “everyday knowledge”, such as accumulated knowledge
processing resources may be involved: Implicit memory tasks rely on about people, places and things. Episodic memories are memories for events
automatic processes, while explicit memory tasks require processing that is (episodes) of personal experiences; it is typically the knowledge acquired at a
more demanding and effortful. specific time and place. From an anatomical perspective, episodic memory is
Linked to implicit-explicit memory, is procedural memory. Procedural situated more prominently in the temporal lobe, whereas semantic memory
memory underlies the acquisition of skills and other aspects of knowledge often is distributed across multiple cortical areas.
that are not directly accessible to consciousness and whose presence can Semantic memory seems to survive ageing to a large extent. Memory
be demonstrated only indirectly by action (e.g. walking, typing, driving for facts and information (i.e. general knowledge) and vocabulary seems
and reading). Initially, learning these skills may require effort (learning to to be unaffected by age, and in general, older adults are just as good as, if
read, drive a car, play a musical instrument, or riding a bicycle; therefore, not better than, younger adults at recalling facts held in semantic memory.
applying explicit memory skills) but later, especially with practice, become Semantic memory typically does not overburden working memory;
quite automatic (implicit memory skills). Once a skill has become part of therefore, older adults can draw upon experience in word meanings and
procedural memory, it can be carried out relatively automatically, requiring general world knowledge. However, age changes in semantic memory may
fewer attentional resources. In contrast to other types of knowledge, occur if it becomes difficult to access and retrieve information. A reason
procedural knowledge is largely unaffected by age. This is reflected by for this is that the knowledge in semantic memory is not used regularly
the fact that we can still adequately perform skills that we may not have (e.g. learning a foreign language at school or university, but not using it any
practised in years. The incredible resilience of procedural memory explains further). A second reason is a momentary retrieval failure for information
why your 85-year-old aunt, who was a musician, can still beautifully play the that is otherwise accessible or well known. A typical example is the tip-
piano, but may not remember all the family members’ names. The reason of-the-tongue phenomenon or word-finding deficit. Older adults report
why procedural memory remains robust even in old age may be that the experiencing this phenomenon more often than younger adults do.
information in procedural memory resides in a different region of the brain. Episodic memory on the other hand, seems to decline markedly with

126 127
advancing age. Although adults of all ages, including young adults, report is primarily a form of episodic memory but also involves semantic memory.
episodic memory complaints, longitudinal research has suggested that The episodic component of autobiographical memory is the recollection of
episodic memory decline begins in the 60s. Impairments in episodic memory temporal and spatial memories (e.g. the what, when, and where of birthday
involve both encoding and retrieving information. Older adults seem to be parties, holidays and graduations). The semantic component consists of
both slower and less accurate in performing episodic memory tasks, and knowledge and facts of one’s past (e.g. personal characteristics) without
while they may be able to recall the main points of an event, their memory having to remember exactly what or when things occurred. Autobiographical
for details seems to worsen. memory remains relatively intact in the face of healthy ageing, although
Some aspects of episodic memory are considered to be non-content memories do become more general and less detailed with age. Concerning
attributes (i.e. not containing specific facts) of the particular episode or the vividness of recall, some memories are clearer than others, and earlier
event that has occurred. These attributes supplement information in the memories tend to be less vivid than later ones. In addition, people are
episode, but in most instances, there is no conscious effort to remember generally affected by how emotionally charged or important the event was
them. Examples are source memory (remembering when, where, and – the more intense the feelings or the greater the importance, the greater
from whom information was acquired), temporal memory (remembering the vividness.
whether one event occurred more recently than another did) and frequency- A number of different phenomena underlie autobiographical memory,
of-occurrence memory (remembering how frequently a specific event depending on the point in the life span a person is recalling. For example,
occurred). Older adults show small deficits in these attributes. Changes may memories from the very early years (before age 3) are relatively non-existent
be related to changes in working memory and frontal lobe functioning. and are referred to as childhood amnesia. Possible mechanisms responsible
Although semantic and episodic memory are often contrasted with each for this phenomenon are the following: First, the brain may not be developed
other, the two skills seem to be correlated and may even become more enough to encode early experiences fully for long-term retrieval. Second, the
strongly related in later life, although each retains its unique properties. This linguistic sophistication necessary to form verbal memory and language-
is perhaps not surprising, since changes in episodic memory are viewed related retrieval cues is lacking in the early years. Third, infants and very young
as a good guide to general changes in cognitive skills and other memory children lack the self-awareness around which to form autobiographical
processes such as working memory. memory. Another example of the link between autobiographical recall and
• Remote memory involves recalling information from the distant past. life span is the so-called reminiscence peak or reminiscence bump. This
Older people often report that, while their memory is poor for what happened refers to the phenomenon that most autobiographical memories seem to
recently, they have very clear recollections of what happened a long time come from when the individual was between 10 and 30 years old, since this
ago. However, this is a popular myth and not supported by research. In is the time when most key life events (e.g. first sexual experiences, tertiary
general, information stored and not accessed from remote memory becomes studies, employment, marriage, parenthood) took place. This is typically the
increasingly difficult to retrieve with passing years. Furthermore, assessing time when people form their identities and the age at which self-awareness
reports of remote memories is problematic for the following reasons: (1) is emerging and maturing.
Personal memories recalled from the distant past are usually those that are What distinguishes memorable events from those that are not? What
highly salient to the person (that is, they stand out and are not typical of makes a moment we will remember for the rest of our lives? It is often believed
everyday-to-be-remembered memories); (2) Remote events are more likely that highly traumatic or surprising and unexpected events are the ones that
to have been rehearsed and recounted frequently; (3) Remote memories are etched in memory. Memories for personally traumatic or unexpected
may be subject to unconscious distortion and embellishment. This could events are called flashbulb memories. The theory of flashbulb memory
mean that older people are mistaken in their impressions of generally emerged from observations that people could give detailed accounts of
presented remote memories (e.g. people may forget details and add their such events even years after the event. Therefore, it was suggested that our
own (incorrect) facts to enhance or “colour in” their recollections). memories might function more optimally under such conditions. However,
• Autobiographical memory is long-term memory for one’s own personal this assumption has been disproven largely. When researchers are able to
life experiences (Lodi-Smith & Goodsell, 2016). Autobiographical memory test what people claim they remember against independent records of the

128 129
advancing age. Although adults of all ages, including young adults, report is primarily a form of episodic memory but also involves semantic memory.
episodic memory complaints, longitudinal research has suggested that The episodic component of autobiographical memory is the recollection of
episodic memory decline begins in the 60s. Impairments in episodic memory temporal and spatial memories (e.g. the what, when, and where of birthday
involve both encoding and retrieving information. Older adults seem to be parties, holidays and graduations). The semantic component consists of
both slower and less accurate in performing episodic memory tasks, and knowledge and facts of one’s past (e.g. personal characteristics) without
while they may be able to recall the main points of an event, their memory having to remember exactly what or when things occurred. Autobiographical
for details seems to worsen. memory remains relatively intact in the face of healthy ageing, although
Some aspects of episodic memory are considered to be non-content memories do become more general and less detailed with age. Concerning
attributes (i.e. not containing specific facts) of the particular episode or the vividness of recall, some memories are clearer than others, and earlier
event that has occurred. These attributes supplement information in the memories tend to be less vivid than later ones. In addition, people are
episode, but in most instances, there is no conscious effort to remember generally affected by how emotionally charged or important the event was
them. Examples are source memory (remembering when, where, and – the more intense the feelings or the greater the importance, the greater
from whom information was acquired), temporal memory (remembering the vividness.
whether one event occurred more recently than another did) and frequency- A number of different phenomena underlie autobiographical memory,
of-occurrence memory (remembering how frequently a specific event depending on the point in the life span a person is recalling. For example,
occurred). Older adults show small deficits in these attributes. Changes may memories from the very early years (before age 3) are relatively non-existent
be related to changes in working memory and frontal lobe functioning. and are referred to as childhood amnesia. Possible mechanisms responsible
Although semantic and episodic memory are often contrasted with each for this phenomenon are the following: First, the brain may not be developed
other, the two skills seem to be correlated and may even become more enough to encode early experiences fully for long-term retrieval. Second, the
strongly related in later life, although each retains its unique properties. This linguistic sophistication necessary to form verbal memory and language-
is perhaps not surprising, since changes in episodic memory are viewed related retrieval cues is lacking in the early years. Third, infants and very young
as a good guide to general changes in cognitive skills and other memory children lack the self-awareness around which to form autobiographical
processes such as working memory. memory. Another example of the link between autobiographical recall and
• Remote memory involves recalling information from the distant past. life span is the so-called reminiscence peak or reminiscence bump. This
Older people often report that, while their memory is poor for what happened refers to the phenomenon that most autobiographical memories seem to
recently, they have very clear recollections of what happened a long time come from when the individual was between 10 and 30 years old, since this
ago. However, this is a popular myth and not supported by research. In is the time when most key life events (e.g. first sexual experiences, tertiary
general, information stored and not accessed from remote memory becomes studies, employment, marriage, parenthood) took place. This is typically the
increasingly difficult to retrieve with passing years. Furthermore, assessing time when people form their identities and the age at which self-awareness
reports of remote memories is problematic for the following reasons: (1) is emerging and maturing.
Personal memories recalled from the distant past are usually those that are What distinguishes memorable events from those that are not? What
highly salient to the person (that is, they stand out and are not typical of makes a moment we will remember for the rest of our lives? It is often believed
everyday-to-be-remembered memories); (2) Remote events are more likely that highly traumatic or surprising and unexpected events are the ones that
to have been rehearsed and recounted frequently; (3) Remote memories are etched in memory. Memories for personally traumatic or unexpected
may be subject to unconscious distortion and embellishment. This could events are called flashbulb memories. The theory of flashbulb memory
mean that older people are mistaken in their impressions of generally emerged from observations that people could give detailed accounts of
presented remote memories (e.g. people may forget details and add their such events even years after the event. Therefore, it was suggested that our
own (incorrect) facts to enhance or “colour in” their recollections). memories might function more optimally under such conditions. However,
• Autobiographical memory is long-term memory for one’s own personal this assumption has been disproven largely. When researchers are able to
life experiences (Lodi-Smith & Goodsell, 2016). Autobiographical memory test what people claim they remember against independent records of the

128 129
actual event, people are often wrong. Although the essence of an event is or event. Compare the task of describing what happened in last night’s
remembered, memory of the details may decline over time. However, highly episode of your favourite television show to a friend, to remembering to
emotional events may be remembered better than unemotional ones. set the recorder to record next week’s episode. The first incidence calls
Testing the accuracy of autobiographical memory is difficult, largely for retrospective memory, while the second calls for prospective memory.
because for most autobiographical memories, there are no independent Prospective memory depends on monitoring both event and time cues. In
records against which accuracy can be tested. The same reasons that apply event-based prospective memory, the individual attempts to remember to
for the accuracy of remote memory also apply for autobiographical memory. do something, such as getting milk and bread. In time-based prospective
In addition, there are methodological flaws, such as the operationalisation memory, the individual attempts to remember to do something at a particular
of autobiographical memory (that is, how it should be tested), confounding time, such as stopping for bread and milk after work. Daily life is full of
variables (e.g. the effect of recounting events over the years and possible examples of prospective memory, such as remembering to pick up one’s
distortion of the memory), and the participants’ censoring of their own children after school, remembering a friend’s birthday, and remembering a
memories (i.e. reporting only some while deliberately leaving out others). dentist’s appointment.
The errors and influences on autobiographical memory help to explain why As we have already seen, there are some age-related deficits in
eyewitness memory is often unreliable. In addition, people are also prone retrospective memory. Prospective memory is one of the commonest uses
to false memories, the recall of items or events that did not occur. Over of memory and is an important aspect in everyday life. For example, it can
time, people may believe that certain events had occurred to them, which in be a nuisance to oneself and others when one forgets to be at a certain
fact did not, but they gradually incorporate them into their autobiographical place at a certain time. It may even be detrimental, such as forgetting to
memories. Older adults seem to have more difficulty in correctly identifying take medication at a specific time. The term absent-mindedness is often
information as false and tend to be more susceptible to misleading used for prospective memory failures. Older adults often complain that
information. they are becoming absent-minded, for example when forgetting what they
However, apart from instances where the accuracy of autobiographical were intending to get when going from one room to another. However,
memories is of central concern, such as its role in criminal cases, the both younger and older adults experience this type of memory failure.
accuracy of autobiographical memories may not always be a central Despite older adults’ perception in this regard, event-based prospective
problem, particularly at an individual level. In fact, throughout adulthood, memory seems to be largely unaffected by age, and older adults seem to be
autobiographical memories play an important role in identity development capable of accurate and reliable performance of tasks such as remembering
by integrating the various life experiences with the person’s identity, appointments and taking medications. Time-based prospective memory
thereby providing both purpose and unity. Certain narratives (or life stories) (e.g. remembering to take medication at a specific time) or when there is a
may indicate psychological health; for example, when telling a redemption delay between a reminder and the performance of the task (e.g. reminding
story in which the story moves from a low point to a high point, or narrating oneself on Monday evening to put out the refuse bags on Tuesday morning)
stories in a manner showing ownership of an experience. In addition, may be affected by age-related decline.
autobiographical recall is a highly social behaviour. Reminiscing, the recalling By definition, prospective memory places heavy demands on self-initiated
of autobiographical memories of others, is one of the central ways in which retrieval processes. Therefore, age-related decline may be more evident in
we learn about others, and it plays an important role in many interpersonal situations that require demanding prospective memory requirements such
relationships. It seems that older adults use autobiographical memories to as complex tasks that involve much planning. Thus, external cues (such as
connect not only to the self, but also to others and to provide guidance for setting alarms, making lists, posting memos, or setting cell phone reminders)
future generations. may become more necessary.
• Retrospective memory and prospective memory. Retrospective However, declines in prospective memory tasks are more evident in
memory refers to the recall of information from the distant or remote past. laboratory-related experiments than in everyday functioning. In other words,
This includes both factual and autobiographical information. Prospective if older people work at their own pace in their own world and do not try to
memory involves remembering something in the future, such as an action follow unrealistic demands in unrealistic settings over which they have no

130 131
actual event, people are often wrong. Although the essence of an event is or event. Compare the task of describing what happened in last night’s
remembered, memory of the details may decline over time. However, highly episode of your favourite television show to a friend, to remembering to
emotional events may be remembered better than unemotional ones. set the recorder to record next week’s episode. The first incidence calls
Testing the accuracy of autobiographical memory is difficult, largely for retrospective memory, while the second calls for prospective memory.
because for most autobiographical memories, there are no independent Prospective memory depends on monitoring both event and time cues. In
records against which accuracy can be tested. The same reasons that apply event-based prospective memory, the individual attempts to remember to
for the accuracy of remote memory also apply for autobiographical memory. do something, such as getting milk and bread. In time-based prospective
In addition, there are methodological flaws, such as the operationalisation memory, the individual attempts to remember to do something at a particular
of autobiographical memory (that is, how it should be tested), confounding time, such as stopping for bread and milk after work. Daily life is full of
variables (e.g. the effect of recounting events over the years and possible examples of prospective memory, such as remembering to pick up one’s
distortion of the memory), and the participants’ censoring of their own children after school, remembering a friend’s birthday, and remembering a
memories (i.e. reporting only some while deliberately leaving out others). dentist’s appointment.
The errors and influences on autobiographical memory help to explain why As we have already seen, there are some age-related deficits in
eyewitness memory is often unreliable. In addition, people are also prone retrospective memory. Prospective memory is one of the commonest uses
to false memories, the recall of items or events that did not occur. Over of memory and is an important aspect in everyday life. For example, it can
time, people may believe that certain events had occurred to them, which in be a nuisance to oneself and others when one forgets to be at a certain
fact did not, but they gradually incorporate them into their autobiographical place at a certain time. It may even be detrimental, such as forgetting to
memories. Older adults seem to have more difficulty in correctly identifying take medication at a specific time. The term absent-mindedness is often
information as false and tend to be more susceptible to misleading used for prospective memory failures. Older adults often complain that
information. they are becoming absent-minded, for example when forgetting what they
However, apart from instances where the accuracy of autobiographical were intending to get when going from one room to another. However,
memories is of central concern, such as its role in criminal cases, the both younger and older adults experience this type of memory failure.
accuracy of autobiographical memories may not always be a central Despite older adults’ perception in this regard, event-based prospective
problem, particularly at an individual level. In fact, throughout adulthood, memory seems to be largely unaffected by age, and older adults seem to be
autobiographical memories play an important role in identity development capable of accurate and reliable performance of tasks such as remembering
by integrating the various life experiences with the person’s identity, appointments and taking medications. Time-based prospective memory
thereby providing both purpose and unity. Certain narratives (or life stories) (e.g. remembering to take medication at a specific time) or when there is a
may indicate psychological health; for example, when telling a redemption delay between a reminder and the performance of the task (e.g. reminding
story in which the story moves from a low point to a high point, or narrating oneself on Monday evening to put out the refuse bags on Tuesday morning)
stories in a manner showing ownership of an experience. In addition, may be affected by age-related decline.
autobiographical recall is a highly social behaviour. Reminiscing, the recalling By definition, prospective memory places heavy demands on self-initiated
of autobiographical memories of others, is one of the central ways in which retrieval processes. Therefore, age-related decline may be more evident in
we learn about others, and it plays an important role in many interpersonal situations that require demanding prospective memory requirements such
relationships. It seems that older adults use autobiographical memories to as complex tasks that involve much planning. Thus, external cues (such as
connect not only to the self, but also to others and to provide guidance for setting alarms, making lists, posting memos, or setting cell phone reminders)
future generations. may become more necessary.
• Retrospective memory and prospective memory. Retrospective However, declines in prospective memory tasks are more evident in
memory refers to the recall of information from the distant or remote past. laboratory-related experiments than in everyday functioning. In other words,
This includes both factual and autobiographical information. Prospective if older people work at their own pace in their own world and do not try to
memory involves remembering something in the future, such as an action follow unrealistic demands in unrealistic settings over which they have no

130 131
control, their memories perform better. In fact, they may even show better Regarding memory monitoring, there is strong evidence that older adults
prospective memory performance in some real-life settings, such as keeping may monitor their memory performance as strongly as younger adults do. For
appointments, than their younger counterparts do. example, older adults may compensate for age-related declines in episodic
memory by using effective memory strategies. Similarly, memory control
3.2.2.2 Metamemory seems to be well maintained in older adults. However, it may take a different
form than for younger adults; older adults need to use specific strategies to
Metamemory is the knowledge about how the memory system works and
compensate for any memory declines. These strategies are generally more
what we believe to be true about it. For example, we may know that recall
external in the form of written notes and social accountability, rather than
is more difficult than recognition; that memory strategies are often helpful;
internal such as in the form of rote rehearsal and mental imaging used by
and that working memory is not limitless. We also may believe that memory
younger adults (Blake & Castel, 2016).
declines with age; that appointments are easier to remember than names;
Does one’s belief system regarding one’s memory affect how well one
and that anxiety impairs performance (Berggren et al., 2017). Two processes
will actually remember information? Belief in one’s ability to accomplish
associated with metamemory are memory monitoring and memory control
things is an old, pervasive theme in various arenas, including folklore,
(Blake & Castel, 2016). Memory monitoring refers to the person’s active
religion, literature and psychology. Belief in one’s memory ability is called
checking of his or her memory and assessing the strength of his or her
memory self-efficacy. It refers specifically to the belief in the competence
knowledge. We are aware of the process of remembering in many ways.
of one’s memory function, and to the confidence one has in one’s ability to
For example, checking your knowledge of this chapter by trying to answer
use memory effectively in various situations. Memory self-efficacy is a self-
the review questions; searching for a particular fact; or keeping track of
evaluative construct and is distinct from general knowledge about memory
time for an appointment. Memory control involves decisions concerning the
systems. In other words, one may have knowledge about how memory works,
manipulation and regulation of memory; for instance, when allocating one’s
but still believe that one’s ability to perform in a specific situation is poor.
study time for a specific subject, selecting study strategies, deciding when
Memory self-efficacy helps to explain how people predict their performance
to start or stop studying, making a shopping list, or setting the reminder on
in memory tasks and is an important construct in understanding how
one’s cell phone to remember a friend’s birthday.
memory changes with age. Typically, memory self-efficacy is measured by
Metamemory researchers are interested in whether young and older
assessing participants’ everyday memory competence. As we have seen,
adults differ in their beliefs, perceptions and knowledge about how the
older adults tend to report a decline in their memory abilities and a related
memory system works. Some laboratory studies have indicated that older
rise in acts such as absent-mindedness and word-finding deficits (tip-of-
adults are similar to young adults in their knowledge of how memory works,
the-tongue phenomenon). Generally, older adults with lower memory self-
as well as in their beliefs about which memory tasks would be easy and
efficacy perform worse in memory tasks.
which would be difficult. Others have indicated that older adults seem to
However, individual differences among adults in personality and self-
know less than younger adults do about the internal workings of memory
perceptions may account for how individuals experience their memory
and its capacity, view memory as less stable, expect memory will deteriorate
abilities. Individuals who have low self-esteem and suffer from a depressed
with age, and perceive that they have less direct control over memory.
mood, sadness, or other emotional difficulties are more likely to underestimate
More recently, researchers have indicated that while recall is best in young
their memory abilities. A person who holds an implicit theory about ageing,
adulthood, older adults may approach memory tasks by attempting to
namely that memory functioning inevitably declines in later life, may have
focus on the most important information to remember, at the expense of
a negative view about his or her own efficacy. Inevitably, this will have a
less valuable information. This prioritisation shows an awareness of memory
negative effect on the person’s ability to perform in a memory task. Related
declines with age and metacognitive understanding that one needs to
to this is individuals’ belief regarding their ability to control their cognitive
be selective and strategic about selecting and remembering important
performance. Older adults who exhibit internal control (believe that they
information. These findings suggest that metacognitive processes are
can exert control over their cognitive and memory performance) tend to
well preserved in healthy older adults (Blake & Castel, 2016; Cavanaugh &
utilise more cognitive effort to make effective use of their working memory,
Blanchard-Fields, 2018).
132 133
control, their memories perform better. In fact, they may even show better Regarding memory monitoring, there is strong evidence that older adults
prospective memory performance in some real-life settings, such as keeping may monitor their memory performance as strongly as younger adults do. For
appointments, than their younger counterparts do. example, older adults may compensate for age-related declines in episodic
memory by using effective memory strategies. Similarly, memory control
3.2.2.2 Metamemory seems to be well maintained in older adults. However, it may take a different
form than for younger adults; older adults need to use specific strategies to
Metamemory is the knowledge about how the memory system works and
compensate for any memory declines. These strategies are generally more
what we believe to be true about it. For example, we may know that recall
external in the form of written notes and social accountability, rather than
is more difficult than recognition; that memory strategies are often helpful;
internal such as in the form of rote rehearsal and mental imaging used by
and that working memory is not limitless. We also may believe that memory
younger adults (Blake & Castel, 2016).
declines with age; that appointments are easier to remember than names;
Does one’s belief system regarding one’s memory affect how well one
and that anxiety impairs performance (Berggren et al., 2017). Two processes
will actually remember information? Belief in one’s ability to accomplish
associated with metamemory are memory monitoring and memory control
things is an old, pervasive theme in various arenas, including folklore,
(Blake & Castel, 2016). Memory monitoring refers to the person’s active
religion, literature and psychology. Belief in one’s memory ability is called
checking of his or her memory and assessing the strength of his or her
memory self-efficacy. It refers specifically to the belief in the competence
knowledge. We are aware of the process of remembering in many ways.
of one’s memory function, and to the confidence one has in one’s ability to
For example, checking your knowledge of this chapter by trying to answer
use memory effectively in various situations. Memory self-efficacy is a self-
the review questions; searching for a particular fact; or keeping track of
evaluative construct and is distinct from general knowledge about memory
time for an appointment. Memory control involves decisions concerning the
systems. In other words, one may have knowledge about how memory works,
manipulation and regulation of memory; for instance, when allocating one’s
but still believe that one’s ability to perform in a specific situation is poor.
study time for a specific subject, selecting study strategies, deciding when
Memory self-efficacy helps to explain how people predict their performance
to start or stop studying, making a shopping list, or setting the reminder on
in memory tasks and is an important construct in understanding how
one’s cell phone to remember a friend’s birthday.
memory changes with age. Typically, memory self-efficacy is measured by
Metamemory researchers are interested in whether young and older
assessing participants’ everyday memory competence. As we have seen,
adults differ in their beliefs, perceptions and knowledge about how the
older adults tend to report a decline in their memory abilities and a related
memory system works. Some laboratory studies have indicated that older
rise in acts such as absent-mindedness and word-finding deficits (tip-of-
adults are similar to young adults in their knowledge of how memory works,
the-tongue phenomenon). Generally, older adults with lower memory self-
as well as in their beliefs about which memory tasks would be easy and
efficacy perform worse in memory tasks.
which would be difficult. Others have indicated that older adults seem to
However, individual differences among adults in personality and self-
know less than younger adults do about the internal workings of memory
perceptions may account for how individuals experience their memory
and its capacity, view memory as less stable, expect memory will deteriorate
abilities. Individuals who have low self-esteem and suffer from a depressed
with age, and perceive that they have less direct control over memory.
mood, sadness, or other emotional difficulties are more likely to underestimate
More recently, researchers have indicated that while recall is best in young
their memory abilities. A person who holds an implicit theory about ageing,
adulthood, older adults may approach memory tasks by attempting to
namely that memory functioning inevitably declines in later life, may have
focus on the most important information to remember, at the expense of
a negative view about his or her own efficacy. Inevitably, this will have a
less valuable information. This prioritisation shows an awareness of memory
negative effect on the person’s ability to perform in a memory task. Related
declines with age and metacognitive understanding that one needs to
to this is individuals’ belief regarding their ability to control their cognitive
be selective and strategic about selecting and remembering important
performance. Older adults who exhibit internal control (believe that they
information. These findings suggest that metacognitive processes are
can exert control over their cognitive and memory performance) tend to
well preserved in healthy older adults (Blake & Castel, 2016; Cavanaugh &
utilise more cognitive effort to make effective use of their working memory,
Blanchard-Fields, 2018).
132 133
Table 3.1 Effects of age on memory Memory Description Age effects
Memory Description Age effects Remote memory Recall of information from Becomes increasingly
distant past. difficult to retrieve with
Working memory Limited storage capacity. Significant decline,
Workplace of the mind. specifically when passing years. Educational
information must be level may play a role.
processed and reorganised Difficult to assess accuracy.
actively. Autobiographical memory Long-term memory for Remains relatively intact.
one’s own personal life Memories do become more
Short-term and Passive storage aspect of Small age differences.
experiences. general and less detailed.
primary memory working memory.
Some memories are more
Passive retention of
vivid than others are.
information.
Retrospective memory Recall of information from Age-related deficits.
Long-term memory Large storage capacity. Age-related deficits distant or remote past.
Retention of information depend on type of
for longer periods. memory. Prospective memory Remembering to do Event-based prospective
something at a specific memory is largely
Explicit (declarative) Recall of information Significant decline. time or point in the future. unaffected. Time-based
memory stored intentionally.
prospective memory is
Implicit (non-declarative) Retrieval of information None to slight decline. affected. Complexity of
memory without conscious or task may play a role. More
intentional recollection. evident in laboratory-
Procedural memory Remembering skills Largely unaffected by age. related experiments than
needed to perform an in everyday functioning.
activity. Metamemory The knowledge of how the Well preserved in older
Semantic memory Related to explicit memory. Largely unaffected by age. memory system works. adults.
A store of facts, general Change may occur when it
knowledge and vocabulary. becomes more difficult to – Memory monitoring A person’s active checking Well maintained in older
access information that is of his/her memory and adulthood.
not used often. assessing the strength of
his or her knowledge.
Episodic memory Memories of events of Marked decline with age.
personal experiences Retrieval becomes slower
acquired at a specific time – Memory control Decisions concerning Well maintained in older
and less accurate. Small the manipulation and
or place. adults. May take a different
deficits in non-content regulation of memory. form than for younger
attributes.
adults.

than do those who exhibit external control (believe that they have no power
to affect their cognitive or memory performance) (Lachman & Agrigoroaei, 3.2.2.3 Normal versus abnormal memory ageing
2012; Riggs et al., 1997). Adults with internal control seem to use effective
coping strategies to deal with concern and anxiety about memory. These The familiar complaint of older adults that their memories “aren’t what they
include instrumental and/or cognitive coping strategies. Instrumental used to be” seems to be largely justified. Studies that compare the average
coping strategies include using memory mnemonics (strategies) such as performance of young adults as a group to the average performance of
making lists or forming visual imagery, while cognitive coping strategies older adults as a group generally report memory decline in older adults.
involve making social comparisons (e.g. “Everyone experiences memory Therefore, it seems that many normative changes take place in memory as
lapses from time to time”). Ultimately, these coping strategies lead to people grow older, although many aspects of memory functioning do not
feelings of well-being (Verhaeghen et al., 2000). change. In addition, individual differences in memory functioning in this age
A summary of the findings of research on the effect of ageing on memory group indicate that not all older people experience memory decline at the
is presented in Table 3.1. same rate. As we shall see later in this chapter, a number of variables are
134 135
Table 3.1 Effects of age on memory Memory Description Age effects
Memory Description Age effects Remote memory Recall of information from Becomes increasingly
distant past. difficult to retrieve with
Working memory Limited storage capacity. Significant decline,
Workplace of the mind. specifically when passing years. Educational
information must be level may play a role.
processed and reorganised Difficult to assess accuracy.
actively. Autobiographical memory Long-term memory for Remains relatively intact.
one’s own personal life Memories do become more
Short-term and Passive storage aspect of Small age differences.
experiences. general and less detailed.
primary memory working memory.
Some memories are more
Passive retention of
vivid than others are.
information.
Retrospective memory Recall of information from Age-related deficits.
Long-term memory Large storage capacity. Age-related deficits distant or remote past.
Retention of information depend on type of
for longer periods. memory. Prospective memory Remembering to do Event-based prospective
something at a specific memory is largely
Explicit (declarative) Recall of information Significant decline. time or point in the future. unaffected. Time-based
memory stored intentionally.
prospective memory is
Implicit (non-declarative) Retrieval of information None to slight decline. affected. Complexity of
memory without conscious or task may play a role. More
intentional recollection. evident in laboratory-
Procedural memory Remembering skills Largely unaffected by age. related experiments than
needed to perform an in everyday functioning.
activity. Metamemory The knowledge of how the Well preserved in older
Semantic memory Related to explicit memory. Largely unaffected by age. memory system works. adults.
A store of facts, general Change may occur when it
knowledge and vocabulary. becomes more difficult to – Memory monitoring A person’s active checking Well maintained in older
access information that is of his/her memory and adulthood.
not used often. assessing the strength of
his or her knowledge.
Episodic memory Memories of events of Marked decline with age.
personal experiences Retrieval becomes slower
acquired at a specific time – Memory control Decisions concerning Well maintained in older
and less accurate. Small the manipulation and
or place. adults. May take a different
deficits in non-content regulation of memory. form than for younger
attributes.
adults.

than do those who exhibit external control (believe that they have no power
to affect their cognitive or memory performance) (Lachman & Agrigoroaei, 3.2.2.3 Normal versus abnormal memory ageing
2012; Riggs et al., 1997). Adults with internal control seem to use effective
coping strategies to deal with concern and anxiety about memory. These The familiar complaint of older adults that their memories “aren’t what they
include instrumental and/or cognitive coping strategies. Instrumental used to be” seems to be largely justified. Studies that compare the average
coping strategies include using memory mnemonics (strategies) such as performance of young adults as a group to the average performance of
making lists or forming visual imagery, while cognitive coping strategies older adults as a group generally report memory decline in older adults.
involve making social comparisons (e.g. “Everyone experiences memory Therefore, it seems that many normative changes take place in memory as
lapses from time to time”). Ultimately, these coping strategies lead to people grow older, although many aspects of memory functioning do not
feelings of well-being (Verhaeghen et al., 2000). change. In addition, individual differences in memory functioning in this age
A summary of the findings of research on the effect of ageing on memory group indicate that not all older people experience memory decline at the
is presented in Table 3.1. same rate. As we shall see later in this chapter, a number of variables are
134 135
related to older adults’ cognitive and therefore memory performance, such
as lifestyle, health, educational level, status, personality factors, culture and
stereotypes. However, some people experience far greater changes, such as
forgetting where they live or their spouse’s name. Therefore, the question is
what the dividing line between normative memory changes and abnormal
changes is. Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (2018) describe this as follows:
From a functional perspective, one important way to distinguish normal
and abnormal changes is to determine whether the changes disrupt a
person’s ability to perform daily living tasks. The normative changes
discussed in this chapter usually do not interfere with a person’s everyday Everyone has a photographic memory … some people are
just out of data!
functioning. However, they may be annoying, such as forgetting people’s
names or what one wanted to get from the supermarket. Should a person
REVIEW THIS SECTION
repeatedly forget to turn off the stove or how to get home, he or she is
clearly experiencing changes that affect his or her personal safety and 1. What is memory, and why is it so important in our lives?
interferes with daily functioning. Such changes should be brought to the 2. What are the assumptions of the inefficient encoding hypothesis and the inefficient
attention of a psychologist or physician. retrieval hypothesis? How are encoding and retrieval affected by the ageing
process? How may the type of task affect an adult’s encoding and retrieval processes?
Brain mapping the normative age-related changes in memory we have
considered in this chapter is not easy. (Brain mapping attempts to relate 3. What is the working memory? What is the function of the working memory? What
is the short-term memory?
different areas of the brain with specific behaviours.) This is mainly because
4. Discuss the multi-component model of the working memory.
numerous parts of the brain are involved in memory functioning. (Examples
are the prefrontal cortex, parietal region and hippocampus. In addition, 5. A crucial feature of the working memory is its capacity limit. Discuss this
phenomenon.
structural changes in the white and grey matter also take place.) However,
advances in neuroscience and brain imaging have led to an increase in the 6. How is working memory affected by age?

knowledge of specific diseases and brain changes that may affect memory 7. What is the long-term memory? What are the main features of long-term memory?
How is long-term memory affected by age?
performance. For example, these techniques allow physicians to locate
tumours, strokes and other types of damage (such as traumatic brain injury 8. Discuss the following types of long-term memory and the effects of age on them:
– Explicit and implicit memory
resulting from a fall or accident, damage resulting from epilepsy, certain – Semantic and episodic memory
mental disorders or long-term alcoholism), or diseases that could account – Remote memory
for poor memory performance. Some of these disorders, such as Alzheimer’s – Autobiographical memory
disease, are discussed in Chapter 6. – Retrospective and prospective memory

An important aspect to keep in mind is that it is often difficult to tell 9. Discuss the following concepts and how they relate to age-related change in memory:
– Procedural memory – Childhood amnesia
the difference between normal and abnormal memory ageing, and in
– Tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon – Reminiscence peak/bump
turn, between memory and other cognitive problems. There is no magic – Source memory – Flashbulb memory
number of times someone must forget something before one should – Temporal memory – False memories
become concerned. Because serious memory problems can also result – Frequency-of-occurrence-memory – Absent-mindedness
from underlying mental or physical problems, these must be checked out 10. What is metamemory? Which processes are associated with metamemory? Discuss
thoroughly in conjunction with obtaining a thorough memory assessment. the effect of metamemory and its associated processes. How may memory self-
efficacy influence one’s memory performance? What may account for individual
A good general rule, though, is this: forgetting where you parked your car differences in people’s metacognitive performance?
in a large parking garage is a typical memory problem; forgetting that you
11. Which factors should one keep in mind when distinguishing normal from abnormal
drove is another matter. memory ageing?

136 137
related to older adults’ cognitive and therefore memory performance, such
as lifestyle, health, educational level, status, personality factors, culture and
stereotypes. However, some people experience far greater changes, such as
forgetting where they live or their spouse’s name. Therefore, the question is
what the dividing line between normative memory changes and abnormal
changes is. Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (2018) describe this as follows:
From a functional perspective, one important way to distinguish normal
and abnormal changes is to determine whether the changes disrupt a
person’s ability to perform daily living tasks. The normative changes
discussed in this chapter usually do not interfere with a person’s everyday Everyone has a photographic memory … some people are
just out of data!
functioning. However, they may be annoying, such as forgetting people’s
names or what one wanted to get from the supermarket. Should a person
REVIEW THIS SECTION
repeatedly forget to turn off the stove or how to get home, he or she is
clearly experiencing changes that affect his or her personal safety and 1. What is memory, and why is it so important in our lives?
interferes with daily functioning. Such changes should be brought to the 2. What are the assumptions of the inefficient encoding hypothesis and the inefficient
attention of a psychologist or physician. retrieval hypothesis? How are encoding and retrieval affected by the ageing
process? How may the type of task affect an adult’s encoding and retrieval processes?
Brain mapping the normative age-related changes in memory we have
considered in this chapter is not easy. (Brain mapping attempts to relate 3. What is the working memory? What is the function of the working memory? What
is the short-term memory?
different areas of the brain with specific behaviours.) This is mainly because
4. Discuss the multi-component model of the working memory.
numerous parts of the brain are involved in memory functioning. (Examples
are the prefrontal cortex, parietal region and hippocampus. In addition, 5. A crucial feature of the working memory is its capacity limit. Discuss this
phenomenon.
structural changes in the white and grey matter also take place.) However,
advances in neuroscience and brain imaging have led to an increase in the 6. How is working memory affected by age?

knowledge of specific diseases and brain changes that may affect memory 7. What is the long-term memory? What are the main features of long-term memory?
How is long-term memory affected by age?
performance. For example, these techniques allow physicians to locate
tumours, strokes and other types of damage (such as traumatic brain injury 8. Discuss the following types of long-term memory and the effects of age on them:
– Explicit and implicit memory
resulting from a fall or accident, damage resulting from epilepsy, certain – Semantic and episodic memory
mental disorders or long-term alcoholism), or diseases that could account – Remote memory
for poor memory performance. Some of these disorders, such as Alzheimer’s – Autobiographical memory
disease, are discussed in Chapter 6. – Retrospective and prospective memory

An important aspect to keep in mind is that it is often difficult to tell 9. Discuss the following concepts and how they relate to age-related change in memory:
– Procedural memory – Childhood amnesia
the difference between normal and abnormal memory ageing, and in
– Tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon – Reminiscence peak/bump
turn, between memory and other cognitive problems. There is no magic – Source memory – Flashbulb memory
number of times someone must forget something before one should – Temporal memory – False memories
become concerned. Because serious memory problems can also result – Frequency-of-occurrence-memory – Absent-mindedness
from underlying mental or physical problems, these must be checked out 10. What is metamemory? Which processes are associated with metamemory? Discuss
thoroughly in conjunction with obtaining a thorough memory assessment. the effect of metamemory and its associated processes. How may memory self-
efficacy influence one’s memory performance? What may account for individual
A good general rule, though, is this: forgetting where you parked your car differences in people’s metacognitive performance?
in a large parking garage is a typical memory problem; forgetting that you
11. Which factors should one keep in mind when distinguishing normal from abnormal
drove is another matter. memory ageing?

136 137
3.3 HIGHER COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: an individual could be ascribed only to that one mystical entity: intelligence.
Just as physical abilities partially define a person’s identity, intelligence
INTELLIGENCE, PROBLEM-SOLVING, serves as an element of a person’s sense of self. Generally, most people have
DECISION-MAKING, AND LANGUAGE an idea whether they are intelligent or not so intelligent, a self-attribution
(description) that they may carry for years. However, it seems that defining
Information processing and memory are critical to the ability to adapt to intelligence is not that easy. Decades of research indicate that many skills
everyday life. However, the ability to analyse, reason and communicate are involved in intelligence. However, which skills and what the number of
guides one’s use of judgement, knowledge the skills must be that eventually conceptualise intelligence depend on one’s
and decision-making. Moreover, without view or theory of intelligence.
these abilities, one’s potential to learn new
information and to integrate it with existing 3.3.1.1 One intelligence, or many?
knowledge would be very limited. These
abilities are generally referred to as higher Scientists originally thought that intelligence is a single trait; broadly
cognitive functions. speaking, the capacity to learn, reason and understand. In fact, many
Researchers in the area of cognitive psychologists still believe that this ability, measured by intelligence tests
changes during adulthood are interested in and formulated as IQ, is one entity or a general intelligence factor.
the higher cognitive functions, particularly However, during the first half of the previous century, many psychologists
since such information will provide an began to realise that intelligence is multifaceted; that is, having different
understanding of how well older adults can features or components. Today, this multifaceted approach is accepted by
be expected to perform, not only in everyday most psychologists worldwide. To illustrate this approach in a practical way:
adjustments and problem solving, but also Anna de Jager, received her PhD in You are asked to choose the person with the best sporting ability. You are
with regard to performance in the workplace Theology at the University of the
Free State a month before her 93rd given the names of the captains of the Springbok rugby team, the Bafana
and lifelong learning. birthday. Her husband received his Bafana soccer team, and the Protea cricket team, as well as the SA 100
PhD in History at the age of 80.
metre sprinting champion and the SA 100 metre swimming champion. You
3.3.1 Intelligence will probably say it is impossible because every one of them is outstanding
in his or her field. In the same way that physical sport is multifaceted (i.e. it
There are few concepts that have played such an integral part in psychology
has different areas in which people could excel), intelligence also has many
than intelligence has. True to tradition, however, such central concepts are
areas in which one could make one’s mark. Similar to sports, intellectual
usually also controversial, and intelligence does not escape this tradition.
abilities can also be developed. There are numerous examples of people
One of the core controversies regarding intelligence is what precisely
who were not academic achievers at school but who later in life excelled in
intelligence is; that is, how it should be defined. This debate has been
other areas, even in the academic world.
ongoing since the ancient Greeks. Some experts view intelligence as the
Probably the most important contribution of the multifaceted or multiple
ability to understand and solve problems, or to have a vast knowledge
intelligence approach is that it argues that people can be intelligent in
base. Others define it as the ability to adjust and to learn from experience.
different ways, and that everyday intelligent behaviour is an important part
Some define it as logical, abstract and creative thinking, while others regard
of intelligence. The approach is also regarded to be of special importance
intelligence as the ability to make the most of what one has and to enjoy
in a multicultural society like South Africa where people are influenced by
life. Therefore, a universally uniform definition of intelligence still eludes us,
the values and viewpoints of their own culture regarding intelligent forms
and many definitions on intelligence exist. The one aspect on which experts
of behaviour.
do agree is that intelligence is a much broader concept than the common
misconception that ‘intelligence is the ability to do well in tests and exams’.
In fact, for a long time, it was (wrongly) believed that the success or failure of
138 139
3.3 HIGHER COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: an individual could be ascribed only to that one mystical entity: intelligence.
Just as physical abilities partially define a person’s identity, intelligence
INTELLIGENCE, PROBLEM-SOLVING, serves as an element of a person’s sense of self. Generally, most people have
DECISION-MAKING, AND LANGUAGE an idea whether they are intelligent or not so intelligent, a self-attribution
(description) that they may carry for years. However, it seems that defining
Information processing and memory are critical to the ability to adapt to intelligence is not that easy. Decades of research indicate that many skills
everyday life. However, the ability to analyse, reason and communicate are involved in intelligence. However, which skills and what the number of
guides one’s use of judgement, knowledge the skills must be that eventually conceptualise intelligence depend on one’s
and decision-making. Moreover, without view or theory of intelligence.
these abilities, one’s potential to learn new
information and to integrate it with existing 3.3.1.1 One intelligence, or many?
knowledge would be very limited. These
abilities are generally referred to as higher Scientists originally thought that intelligence is a single trait; broadly
cognitive functions. speaking, the capacity to learn, reason and understand. In fact, many
Researchers in the area of cognitive psychologists still believe that this ability, measured by intelligence tests
changes during adulthood are interested in and formulated as IQ, is one entity or a general intelligence factor.
the higher cognitive functions, particularly However, during the first half of the previous century, many psychologists
since such information will provide an began to realise that intelligence is multifaceted; that is, having different
understanding of how well older adults can features or components. Today, this multifaceted approach is accepted by
be expected to perform, not only in everyday most psychologists worldwide. To illustrate this approach in a practical way:
adjustments and problem solving, but also Anna de Jager, received her PhD in You are asked to choose the person with the best sporting ability. You are
with regard to performance in the workplace Theology at the University of the
Free State a month before her 93rd given the names of the captains of the Springbok rugby team, the Bafana
and lifelong learning. birthday. Her husband received his Bafana soccer team, and the Protea cricket team, as well as the SA 100
PhD in History at the age of 80.
metre sprinting champion and the SA 100 metre swimming champion. You
3.3.1 Intelligence will probably say it is impossible because every one of them is outstanding
in his or her field. In the same way that physical sport is multifaceted (i.e. it
There are few concepts that have played such an integral part in psychology
has different areas in which people could excel), intelligence also has many
than intelligence has. True to tradition, however, such central concepts are
areas in which one could make one’s mark. Similar to sports, intellectual
usually also controversial, and intelligence does not escape this tradition.
abilities can also be developed. There are numerous examples of people
One of the core controversies regarding intelligence is what precisely
who were not academic achievers at school but who later in life excelled in
intelligence is; that is, how it should be defined. This debate has been
other areas, even in the academic world.
ongoing since the ancient Greeks. Some experts view intelligence as the
Probably the most important contribution of the multifaceted or multiple
ability to understand and solve problems, or to have a vast knowledge
intelligence approach is that it argues that people can be intelligent in
base. Others define it as the ability to adjust and to learn from experience.
different ways, and that everyday intelligent behaviour is an important part
Some define it as logical, abstract and creative thinking, while others regard
of intelligence. The approach is also regarded to be of special importance
intelligence as the ability to make the most of what one has and to enjoy
in a multicultural society like South Africa where people are influenced by
life. Therefore, a universally uniform definition of intelligence still eludes us,
the values and viewpoints of their own culture regarding intelligent forms
and many definitions on intelligence exist. The one aspect on which experts
of behaviour.
do agree is that intelligence is a much broader concept than the common
misconception that ‘intelligence is the ability to do well in tests and exams’.
In fact, for a long time, it was (wrongly) believed that the success or failure of
138 139
 ability to thrive in the real world and refers to the skills used in everyday
problem solving. In lay terms, it is called ‘common sense’ or ‘street smart’.

“You don’t know the different animal tracks, “You can’t drive a car, you have never been in
can’t shoot with a bow and arrow, you don’t an airplane, you can’t work on a computer, you
know how to find water, you don’t know which can’t speak my language properly. Sorry, you are Robert Sternberg Howard Gardner
berries are poisonous, you don’t know what to not very intelligent and will never survive in our
do when you see a lion. Sorry, you are not very world”
intelligent and will never survive in our world” Howard Gardner broadly views intelligence as the bio-psychological
ability to process information in order to solve problems or create products
Psychologists who have made the most important contributions to the that are of value in a culture. However, just like Sternberg, he propagates the
multifaceted or multiple intelligence approach are Robert Sternberg (1985; concept of multiple intelligence and is against the trend to focus mainly on
2015) and Howard Gardener (2000; 2015). ‘academic intelligence’. Gardner identified eight distinct intelligences, which
Robert Sternberg, who as a child did not do well in intelligence tests but are presented in Table 3.2. A specific individual may be stronger in some
later became a world-renowned professor at some of the top universities intelligences than in others.
in the USA, developed his triarchic theory of intelligence because he
believed that intelligence is more than what is measured by intelligence Table 3.2. Gardner’s eight intelligences
tests. He defines intelligence as the skills and knowledge needed for success Type of intelligence Examples
in life, according to one’s own definition of success and within one’s own Linguistic ability Reading comprehension, writing,
sociocultural context. As indicated before, the scientist, mechanic, builder, understanding spoken word, vocabulary
businessperson, and farmer can all be viewed as intelligent if they make the Logical-mathematical intelligence Abstract thinking, reasoning skills, and
most of their potential. Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence: solving mathematical problems
Spatial intelligence Ability to understand relationships between

• Analytical (componential) intelligence refers to how a person processes

objects, to get from one place to another,
to read a map
and analyses information. It includes abstract thinking and logical Musical intelligence Sensitivity to sound patterns, ability
reasoning. This is the traditional notion of intelligence and is associated to compose music, to play a musical
with academic achievement. It involves mental processes such as instrument, to appreciate musical structure
abstract planning, strategy selection, focused attention, information Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence Skills at dancing, athletics, eye-hand
coordination, body control
processing and verbal and logical skills.
• Creative (experiential) intelligence involves a person’s ability to generate Interpersonal intelligence Social skills, sensitivity to other people’s
behaviour, motives or emotions
new ideas; in other words, to apply their existing knowledge to new
Intrapersonal intelligence Self-understanding, understanding one’s
problems. It involves the capacity to be intellectually flexible and creative. own feelings and inner life
• Practical (contextual or tacit) intelligence concerns how a person reacts Naturalistic intelligence Understanding patterns in the natural world
to the environment. It involves people’s ability to adapt to or shape their of plants and animals
environments to make it more acceptable. Practical intelligence is the From Erber, 2013
140 141
 ability to thrive in the real world and refers to the skills used in everyday
problem solving. In lay terms, it is called ‘common sense’ or ‘street smart’.

“You don’t know the different animal tracks, “You can’t drive a car, you have never been in
can’t shoot with a bow and arrow, you don’t an airplane, you can’t work on a computer, you
know how to find water, you don’t know which can’t speak my language properly. Sorry, you are Robert Sternberg Howard Gardner
berries are poisonous, you don’t know what to not very intelligent and will never survive in our
do when you see a lion. Sorry, you are not very world”
intelligent and will never survive in our world” Howard Gardner broadly views intelligence as the bio-psychological
ability to process information in order to solve problems or create products
Psychologists who have made the most important contributions to the that are of value in a culture. However, just like Sternberg, he propagates the
multifaceted or multiple intelligence approach are Robert Sternberg (1985; concept of multiple intelligence and is against the trend to focus mainly on
2015) and Howard Gardener (2000; 2015). ‘academic intelligence’. Gardner identified eight distinct intelligences, which
Robert Sternberg, who as a child did not do well in intelligence tests but are presented in Table 3.2. A specific individual may be stronger in some
later became a world-renowned professor at some of the top universities intelligences than in others.
in the USA, developed his triarchic theory of intelligence because he
believed that intelligence is more than what is measured by intelligence Table 3.2. Gardner’s eight intelligences
tests. He defines intelligence as the skills and knowledge needed for success Type of intelligence Examples
in life, according to one’s own definition of success and within one’s own Linguistic ability Reading comprehension, writing,
sociocultural context. As indicated before, the scientist, mechanic, builder, understanding spoken word, vocabulary
businessperson, and farmer can all be viewed as intelligent if they make the Logical-mathematical intelligence Abstract thinking, reasoning skills, and
most of their potential. Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence: solving mathematical problems
Spatial intelligence Ability to understand relationships between

• Analytical (componential) intelligence refers to how a person processes

objects, to get from one place to another,
to read a map
and analyses information. It includes abstract thinking and logical Musical intelligence Sensitivity to sound patterns, ability
reasoning. This is the traditional notion of intelligence and is associated to compose music, to play a musical
with academic achievement. It involves mental processes such as instrument, to appreciate musical structure
abstract planning, strategy selection, focused attention, information Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence Skills at dancing, athletics, eye-hand
coordination, body control
processing and verbal and logical skills.
• Creative (experiential) intelligence involves a person’s ability to generate Interpersonal intelligence Social skills, sensitivity to other people’s
behaviour, motives or emotions
new ideas; in other words, to apply their existing knowledge to new
Intrapersonal intelligence Self-understanding, understanding one’s
problems. It involves the capacity to be intellectually flexible and creative. own feelings and inner life
• Practical (contextual or tacit) intelligence concerns how a person reacts Naturalistic intelligence Understanding patterns in the natural world
to the environment. It involves people’s ability to adapt to or shape their of plants and animals
environments to make it more acceptable. Practical intelligence is the From Erber, 2013
140 141
 Gardner (2015, p. 135) later wrote: “There may be a ninth intelligence,
which I call existential intelligence – I think of it as the intelligence of Today we want to
determine how intelligent
‘big questions’.” This type of intelligence would show in persons who you are. Therefore, climb
are concerned with fundamental questions about existence and ponder that tree as fast
as you can!
questions about life, death and ultimate realities.
Many articles have been published on the concept of multiple intelligences,
and although its fundamental point of departure has been accepted
worldwide, it has elicited several points of criticism. First, it is alleged that
the theory still lacks sufficient research evidence, especially since it differs
significantly from the original concept of a general underlying intelligence.
It is debated that multiple intelligences are just different manifestations of
a general intelligence. Second, determining the presence and level of the
individual intelligences is subjective and may be assessed differently by
different evaluators. Third, some critics believe that some of the notions, such
as musical intelligence, are an ‘aptitude’ or ‘talent’, rather than ‘intelligence’. Everybody is intelligent. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree,
it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid.
Fourth, it remains an open question how many intelligences there really
are and how long the list of ‘intelligences’ will become. For example, what
about moral intelligence, humour intelligence, political intelligence, spiritual 3.3.1.2 Fluid and crystallised intelligence
intelligence, organisational intelligence, artificial intelligence (e.g. knowledge
of software), and even cooking intelligence? In South Africa, an interesting A theory of intelligence that has gained acceptance
addition could be cultural intelligence: the ability to adjust and function and support during the past decades, is the theory
effectively across cultures. Moreover, the variety of intelligences can differ of fluid and crystallised intelligence (APA, 2018).
from culture to culture. Cocodia (2014, p. 193) states, “A review of relevant Originally, Raymond Cattell (1963; 1971) developed
literature on intelligence and culture indicates that intelligence and culture this theory.
are interwoven. The culture or sub-culture of an individual will determine According to Cattell, all intellectual tasks make
how one conceives intelligence.” In several cultures, the connotations of the use of a general intellectual ability, but they also use
word ‘intelligence’ refer not only to a particular set of ‘intellectual functions’, more specialised skills, depending on the specific Raymond Cattell
but also to some value-based views of appropriateness, such as helpfulness, task. Cattell divided these skills into two general
good relations with others and being a good listener (Bolton, 2008). In other categories called fluid intelligence and crystallised intelligence :
words, in the context of some cultures, a ‘good person’ with the mentioned
value-based characteristics may be regarded as intelligent. • Fluid intelligence (Gf) refers to the ability to solve new problems,
Regardless of the criticism, one truth of the theory of multiple intelligences use logic in new situations, and identify patterns. It refers to the ability to
cannot be denied: It emphasises the uniqueness of each person, and this understand relationships between the components of a problem and to use
reality should always be on the forefront. those relationships to solve the problem. Therefore, Gf is flexible (hence,
fluid) and is not domain specific. It is used whenever the solution to a
problem cannot be retrieved from memory and therefore must be figured
out on the spot. It is ‘raw’ intelligence, meaning that it is largely a function
of the integrity of the central nervous system and is relatively independent
of social influences and culturally based learning experiences. Examples of

142 143
 Gardner (2015, p. 135) later wrote: “There may be a ninth intelligence,
which I call existential intelligence – I think of it as the intelligence of Today we want to
determine how intelligent
‘big questions’.” This type of intelligence would show in persons who you are. Therefore, climb
are concerned with fundamental questions about existence and ponder that tree as fast
as you can!
questions about life, death and ultimate realities.
Many articles have been published on the concept of multiple intelligences,
and although its fundamental point of departure has been accepted
worldwide, it has elicited several points of criticism. First, it is alleged that
the theory still lacks sufficient research evidence, especially since it differs
significantly from the original concept of a general underlying intelligence.
It is debated that multiple intelligences are just different manifestations of
a general intelligence. Second, determining the presence and level of the
individual intelligences is subjective and may be assessed differently by
different evaluators. Third, some critics believe that some of the notions, such
as musical intelligence, are an ‘aptitude’ or ‘talent’, rather than ‘intelligence’. Everybody is intelligent. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree,
it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid.
Fourth, it remains an open question how many intelligences there really
are and how long the list of ‘intelligences’ will become. For example, what
about moral intelligence, humour intelligence, political intelligence, spiritual 3.3.1.2 Fluid and crystallised intelligence
intelligence, organisational intelligence, artificial intelligence (e.g. knowledge
of software), and even cooking intelligence? In South Africa, an interesting A theory of intelligence that has gained acceptance
addition could be cultural intelligence: the ability to adjust and function and support during the past decades, is the theory
effectively across cultures. Moreover, the variety of intelligences can differ of fluid and crystallised intelligence (APA, 2018).
from culture to culture. Cocodia (2014, p. 193) states, “A review of relevant Originally, Raymond Cattell (1963; 1971) developed
literature on intelligence and culture indicates that intelligence and culture this theory.
are interwoven. The culture or sub-culture of an individual will determine According to Cattell, all intellectual tasks make
how one conceives intelligence.” In several cultures, the connotations of the use of a general intellectual ability, but they also use
word ‘intelligence’ refer not only to a particular set of ‘intellectual functions’, more specialised skills, depending on the specific Raymond Cattell
but also to some value-based views of appropriateness, such as helpfulness, task. Cattell divided these skills into two general
good relations with others and being a good listener (Bolton, 2008). In other categories called fluid intelligence and crystallised intelligence :
words, in the context of some cultures, a ‘good person’ with the mentioned
value-based characteristics may be regarded as intelligent. • Fluid intelligence (Gf) refers to the ability to solve new problems,
Regardless of the criticism, one truth of the theory of multiple intelligences use logic in new situations, and identify patterns. It refers to the ability to
cannot be denied: It emphasises the uniqueness of each person, and this understand relationships between the components of a problem and to use
reality should always be on the forefront. those relationships to solve the problem. Therefore, Gf is flexible (hence,
fluid) and is not domain specific. It is used whenever the solution to a
problem cannot be retrieved from memory and therefore must be figured
out on the spot. It is ‘raw’ intelligence, meaning that it is largely a function
of the integrity of the central nervous system and is relatively independent
of social influences and culturally based learning experiences. Examples of

142 143
fluid intelligence are acquiring new skills, solving new problems, using one’s identified: The decline was especially dramatic in the abilities related to fluid
imagination, and creativity. Because it involves recognising connections intelligence (the ability to think abstractly, reason, identify patterns, solve
between stimuli, fluid intelligence depends heavily on brain functioning problems, and identify relationships between pieces of information). The
when the problem is presented. decline typically started in the 20s and steadily declined with increasing age.
• Crystallised intelligence (Gc) refers to the ability to use skills, knowledge, These abilities are considered to be age-sensitive abilities. A decline in the
and experience that one has learned or acquired previously. It involves the abilities related to especially crystallised intelligence (the sum of a person’s
knowledge that a person accumulates during his or her lifetime. Therefore, acquired knowledge) started somewhat later and declined dramatically after
it is a function of education, experience, and exposure to a specific cultural age 65. These abilities are considered to be age-insensitive.
environment. Gc represents a person’s store of information and strategies
that can be applied to problems that have been encountered before. It 3.3.1.4 Measuring age changes in intelligence
involves recalling solutions (or solution strategies) from memory rather
than reasoning through an unfamiliar problem. The term crystallised is Many of the early studies on age-related changes in intelligence relied on
used to indicate that with exposure to knowledge and experience, one’s cross-sectional methods (in which people of different age groups are tested
skills and abilities become solidified or hardened (thus crystallised). and compared at the same point in time). These studies indicated that
Examples of crystallised intelligence are speaking one’s native language, intellectual skills started to decline in early adulthood. Therefore, distinct
knowing processes and rules, and repeating techniques and strategies that differences were found between 20-year-olds and 70-year-olds. However,
have worked in the past. It is believed that Gc is distributed widely in the as discussed in Chapter 1, the differences in the test scores may not have
neural cortex of the brain and is therefore less dependent on current brain been the result of ageing as such, but rather due to
functioning. a cohort effect (e.g. differences in socio-economic
and healthcare background, and access from a
3.3.1.3 Intelligence and the ageing process wider range of cultural inputs through television, the
Internet, and different forms of formal education).
Researchers in the field of intelligence and the ageing process typically Therefore, the question was if longitudinal methods
investigate the following questions: (studies in which the same group of people are
tested at various ages of their lives) also would
– Does intellectual functioning decline, stay the same, or improve over the reveal the classic ageing curve or classic ageing
adult life span? pattern. K. Warner Schaie
– If there is age-related decline, are some abilities more vulnerable than The most comprehensive study of adult
others are? intelligence was initiated by K. Warner Schaie in a study now called the
– Do all adults exhibit the same intellectual decline at the same rate? Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS) (Schaie, 2016a; 2016b). When he began the
– Can age-related decline be reversed? study, Schaie’s intention was to conduct a cross-sectional study. Participants
– Are intellectual abilities measured by intelligence tests and abilities aged between 25 and 95 were tested on the following mental abilities:
needed for functioning in a job or profession and for research purposes verbal comprehension, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, word fluency,
the same as the abilities required for everyday functioning? number, and processing speed. The results replicated the classic ageing curve:
The scores of the older participants were lower than those of the younger
Early studies (± 1900-1950) of the effects of ageing on intelligence participants were. Schaie (1994) expanded on these studies to include
brought discouragement to anyone older than their late twenties. A typical follow-up testing every seven years, with the result that the study eventually
finding was what was called the classic ageing curve: Intellectual functioning spanned a period of about 50 years. This allowed for investigation that was
rose to a peak in early adulthood, followed by an inevitable decline. A classic more thorough, including not only longitudinal analyses, but also sequential
ageing pattern, which referred to certain intellectual abilities, was also analyses (see Chapter 1). Schaie (2011; 2013) and his co-workers (e.g. Schaie

144 145
fluid intelligence are acquiring new skills, solving new problems, using one’s identified: The decline was especially dramatic in the abilities related to fluid
imagination, and creativity. Because it involves recognising connections intelligence (the ability to think abstractly, reason, identify patterns, solve
between stimuli, fluid intelligence depends heavily on brain functioning problems, and identify relationships between pieces of information). The
when the problem is presented. decline typically started in the 20s and steadily declined with increasing age.
• Crystallised intelligence (Gc) refers to the ability to use skills, knowledge, These abilities are considered to be age-sensitive abilities. A decline in the
and experience that one has learned or acquired previously. It involves the abilities related to especially crystallised intelligence (the sum of a person’s
knowledge that a person accumulates during his or her lifetime. Therefore, acquired knowledge) started somewhat later and declined dramatically after
it is a function of education, experience, and exposure to a specific cultural age 65. These abilities are considered to be age-insensitive.
environment. Gc represents a person’s store of information and strategies
that can be applied to problems that have been encountered before. It 3.3.1.4 Measuring age changes in intelligence
involves recalling solutions (or solution strategies) from memory rather
than reasoning through an unfamiliar problem. The term crystallised is Many of the early studies on age-related changes in intelligence relied on
used to indicate that with exposure to knowledge and experience, one’s cross-sectional methods (in which people of different age groups are tested
skills and abilities become solidified or hardened (thus crystallised). and compared at the same point in time). These studies indicated that
Examples of crystallised intelligence are speaking one’s native language, intellectual skills started to decline in early adulthood. Therefore, distinct
knowing processes and rules, and repeating techniques and strategies that differences were found between 20-year-olds and 70-year-olds. However,
have worked in the past. It is believed that Gc is distributed widely in the as discussed in Chapter 1, the differences in the test scores may not have
neural cortex of the brain and is therefore less dependent on current brain been the result of ageing as such, but rather due to
functioning. a cohort effect (e.g. differences in socio-economic
and healthcare background, and access from a
3.3.1.3 Intelligence and the ageing process wider range of cultural inputs through television, the
Internet, and different forms of formal education).
Researchers in the field of intelligence and the ageing process typically Therefore, the question was if longitudinal methods
investigate the following questions: (studies in which the same group of people are
tested at various ages of their lives) also would
– Does intellectual functioning decline, stay the same, or improve over the reveal the classic ageing curve or classic ageing
adult life span? pattern. K. Warner Schaie
– If there is age-related decline, are some abilities more vulnerable than The most comprehensive study of adult
others are? intelligence was initiated by K. Warner Schaie in a study now called the
– Do all adults exhibit the same intellectual decline at the same rate? Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS) (Schaie, 2016a; 2016b). When he began the
– Can age-related decline be reversed? study, Schaie’s intention was to conduct a cross-sectional study. Participants
– Are intellectual abilities measured by intelligence tests and abilities aged between 25 and 95 were tested on the following mental abilities:
needed for functioning in a job or profession and for research purposes verbal comprehension, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, word fluency,
the same as the abilities required for everyday functioning? number, and processing speed. The results replicated the classic ageing curve:
The scores of the older participants were lower than those of the younger
Early studies (± 1900-1950) of the effects of ageing on intelligence participants were. Schaie (1994) expanded on these studies to include
brought discouragement to anyone older than their late twenties. A typical follow-up testing every seven years, with the result that the study eventually
finding was what was called the classic ageing curve: Intellectual functioning spanned a period of about 50 years. This allowed for investigation that was
rose to a peak in early adulthood, followed by an inevitable decline. A classic more thorough, including not only longitudinal analyses, but also sequential
ageing pattern, which referred to certain intellectual abilities, was also analyses (see Chapter 1). Schaie (2011; 2013) and his co-workers (e.g. Schaie

144 145
& Hertzog, 1983; Schaie et al., 1998; Schaie & Willis, 1995; 2002), were able think about intelligence and age. Currently, most experts will agree that
to show that the classic ageing curve and classic ageing pattern did not only intellectual change is multidirectional, that some abilities may increase while
reflect the effect of age changes, but rather the combined effects of age, others may decline, and that there is great variability among individuals. In
cohort, and time of measurement. fact, variability in test scores is greater for older than for younger people.
For example, by comparing cross-sectional and longitudinal data, Schaie This means that amongst themselves, older adults differ more in their
and his co-workers indicated that an average adult shows gains until the early performance than younger people do. Therefore, it is more difficult to define
40s, and stability and even increases until the mid-50s or 60s, depending a ‘typical’ older person than a ‘typical’ younger person. Factors that may
on the test. After age 60, the decline is slight until age 74 or 81. Once the affect intellectual change are health, socio-economic status, personality
80s and 90s are reached, however, declines become more rapid and extend style, mental and physical fitness and activity, educational level, and culture.
across most abilities, possibly because of the increasing failures of sensory
capacities and other physiological structures. In addition, not all people show 3.3.1.5 Everyday cognition
decline in all the mental abilities. For example, Schaie’s research indicated
that at least 75% of the research participants maintained their previous In the late 1980s, Timothy Salthouse (1987, p. 142) wrote the following: “An
ability level to age 60. By age 74, 70% showed no change, and even by age intriguing discrepancy exists between the competencies of older adults,
81, at least 60% of the participants remained at a stable level of performance. assumed on the basis of everyday observations, on the one hand, and their
In addition, in further analyses, Schaie and his colleagues examined competencies inferred from laboratory results, on the other hand. The
generational differences in earlier- and later-born cohorts over a seven-year laboratory results tend to portray older adults as distinctly inferior to young
period from 60 to 67 years. That is, earlier-born cohorts were assessed when adults on a number of presumably basic cognitive abilities, and yet we are
they were 60 to 67 years of age, and when the later-born cohorts reached aware of competent, and even remarkable, accomplishments of people well
these ages, they were also assessed. Higher cognitive functioning occurred into their 60s, 70s, and beyond. One is thus faced with the question of how to
for the second generation in inductive reasoning, verbal memory and spatial account for this apparent discrepancy between the rather pessimistic results
orientation, whereas the first generation scored higher in numeric ability. of the laboratory and the more encouraging observations of daily life.”
Noteworthy was the finding that the first generation showed lower rates of This quotation describes an issue that has concerned researchers in the
decline than was generally expected; however, the second generation showed field of cognitive ageing for decades. Researchers began to question whether
stability or modest increases in cognitive functioning across the same age psychometric tests (i.e. intelligence tests) were appropriate means to assess
range. Schaie concluded that such differences across generations involve the cognitive functioning of older adults. Three observations supported this
cohort effects. For example, the advances in cognitive functioning in middle argument (Allaire, 2016):
age in recent years may be linked to advances in educational attainment,
health care and lifestyles. • Cognition is considered a fundamental tool serving adaptive functions to
Schaie’s results were supported to a large extent by findings from promote the survival of individuals. Despite significant normative age-
another study, the University of Manchester Longitudinal Study of Cognition related declines in many cognitive abilities, most older adults retain their
(Rabbitt et al., 2004). This study also indicated a faster rate of decline in tests abilities to function effectively in their daily lives.
measuring fluid intelligence than in tests measuring crystallised intelligence. • Psychometric tests were mostly designed for and validated in samples
Analyses from this study provide no evidence that rates of decline are of children and young adults in academic settings. Therefore, they may
affected by overall levels of general intellectual ability. It also confirmed the have very little validity for the functioning and competence of individuals
findings of the SLS on large individual differences, particularly during middle who have been removed from academic settings for many decades.
and later adulthood. The findings of this study are of particular importance, • In order to reduce cultural bias, many cognitive psychometric measures
since the researchers considered the practice and drop-out effects (refer to are designed to be context free. This eliminates the possibility that older
Chapter 1 for a discussion of these effects). adults may call upon a lifetime of accumulated knowledge to solve a
Studies such as the above resulted in changes in the way psychologists psychometric-related problem, whereas in the real world, this is what
they commonly do.
146 147
& Hertzog, 1983; Schaie et al., 1998; Schaie & Willis, 1995; 2002), were able think about intelligence and age. Currently, most experts will agree that
to show that the classic ageing curve and classic ageing pattern did not only intellectual change is multidirectional, that some abilities may increase while
reflect the effect of age changes, but rather the combined effects of age, others may decline, and that there is great variability among individuals. In
cohort, and time of measurement. fact, variability in test scores is greater for older than for younger people.
For example, by comparing cross-sectional and longitudinal data, Schaie This means that amongst themselves, older adults differ more in their
and his co-workers indicated that an average adult shows gains until the early performance than younger people do. Therefore, it is more difficult to define
40s, and stability and even increases until the mid-50s or 60s, depending a ‘typical’ older person than a ‘typical’ younger person. Factors that may
on the test. After age 60, the decline is slight until age 74 or 81. Once the affect intellectual change are health, socio-economic status, personality
80s and 90s are reached, however, declines become more rapid and extend style, mental and physical fitness and activity, educational level, and culture.
across most abilities, possibly because of the increasing failures of sensory
capacities and other physiological structures. In addition, not all people show 3.3.1.5 Everyday cognition
decline in all the mental abilities. For example, Schaie’s research indicated
that at least 75% of the research participants maintained their previous In the late 1980s, Timothy Salthouse (1987, p. 142) wrote the following: “An
ability level to age 60. By age 74, 70% showed no change, and even by age intriguing discrepancy exists between the competencies of older adults,
81, at least 60% of the participants remained at a stable level of performance. assumed on the basis of everyday observations, on the one hand, and their
In addition, in further analyses, Schaie and his colleagues examined competencies inferred from laboratory results, on the other hand. The
generational differences in earlier- and later-born cohorts over a seven-year laboratory results tend to portray older adults as distinctly inferior to young
period from 60 to 67 years. That is, earlier-born cohorts were assessed when adults on a number of presumably basic cognitive abilities, and yet we are
they were 60 to 67 years of age, and when the later-born cohorts reached aware of competent, and even remarkable, accomplishments of people well
these ages, they were also assessed. Higher cognitive functioning occurred into their 60s, 70s, and beyond. One is thus faced with the question of how to
for the second generation in inductive reasoning, verbal memory and spatial account for this apparent discrepancy between the rather pessimistic results
orientation, whereas the first generation scored higher in numeric ability. of the laboratory and the more encouraging observations of daily life.”
Noteworthy was the finding that the first generation showed lower rates of This quotation describes an issue that has concerned researchers in the
decline than was generally expected; however, the second generation showed field of cognitive ageing for decades. Researchers began to question whether
stability or modest increases in cognitive functioning across the same age psychometric tests (i.e. intelligence tests) were appropriate means to assess
range. Schaie concluded that such differences across generations involve the cognitive functioning of older adults. Three observations supported this
cohort effects. For example, the advances in cognitive functioning in middle argument (Allaire, 2016):
age in recent years may be linked to advances in educational attainment,
health care and lifestyles. • Cognition is considered a fundamental tool serving adaptive functions to
Schaie’s results were supported to a large extent by findings from promote the survival of individuals. Despite significant normative age-
another study, the University of Manchester Longitudinal Study of Cognition related declines in many cognitive abilities, most older adults retain their
(Rabbitt et al., 2004). This study also indicated a faster rate of decline in tests abilities to function effectively in their daily lives.
measuring fluid intelligence than in tests measuring crystallised intelligence. • Psychometric tests were mostly designed for and validated in samples
Analyses from this study provide no evidence that rates of decline are of children and young adults in academic settings. Therefore, they may
affected by overall levels of general intellectual ability. It also confirmed the have very little validity for the functioning and competence of individuals
findings of the SLS on large individual differences, particularly during middle who have been removed from academic settings for many decades.
and later adulthood. The findings of this study are of particular importance, • In order to reduce cultural bias, many cognitive psychometric measures
since the researchers considered the practice and drop-out effects (refer to are designed to be context free. This eliminates the possibility that older
Chapter 1 for a discussion of these effects). adults may call upon a lifetime of accumulated knowledge to solve a
Studies such as the above resulted in changes in the way psychologists psychometric-related problem, whereas in the real world, this is what
they commonly do.
146 147
 These observations can be summarised as concerns about the ecological their maximum level often; if they did, everyday life would be too stressful.
(i.e. natural or real-word) validity of psychometric measures of cognitive It also seems plausible that correlations with cognitive ability or other
functioning. These concerns led to the proposal that assessing older adults in factors might be detectable only at the highest levels of functioning. This
real-world domains might be a more accurate way to evaluate their cognitive perspective does not deny the possibility of age-related declines that
competency. could affect realistic functioning. Instead, it suggests that they are not
Following these arguments, several measures of everyday cognition were detected because in everyday situations, people seldom need to function
developed. These measures generally have three aspects in common: Firstly, at a level at which deficits might be manifested.
they generally focus on instrumental tasks of daily living (such as shopping, ■ There is a shift from novel processing to reliance on accumulated
arranging transportation, handling finances and comprehending medication knowledge. According to this perspective, novel problem-solving ability
instructions) that older adults must be able to perform effectively to function (or fluid intelligence) may become less important to individuals, as more
independently. Secondly, the problem stated usually is defined clearly, so of their life problems are solved. Consequently, higher proportions of
that the participants know exactly what they are supposed to solve (e.g. their daily functioning can occur by retrieval of prior solutions; thus, their
“You woke up this morning and found that your refrigerator is not working”). accumulated knowledge (or crystallised intelligence). The assumption
Thirdly, the desired goal is also apparent from the problem stated (e.g. you can be made that knowledge may become more important with
want your refrigerator to work). However, these measures differ with respect to increased age and that age-related declines in fluid intelligence may be
how they assess performance: Some measures require close-ended answers compensated for by higher levels of knowledge (see also Box 3.1).
(e.g. the answer is either right or wrong), while others require open-ended ■ Cognition may not be the only determinant of success in life. Researchers
answers that allow people to handle a problem from their own perspective. have noted a positive correlation between job performance and cognition;
In addition, measures also differ with respect to problem presentation. Some however, they also noted that 75% of the variance remains unexplained. It
apply a vignette-like structure where the problem is described (such as in the may be that cognitive psychometric tests do not measure occupationally
refrigerator example mentioned above). Others use real-world stimuli such relevant aspects of application, focus, flexibility and effort. Therefore,
as a phone bill, recipe, or products with nutrition labels, and ask questions other factors may contribute to success. Factors that have been mentioned
based on these stimuli (Allaire, 2016). are aspects of personality, emotional intelligence, practical intelligence,
A limitation of measures such as these, is that they involve the same decision-making competence or rationality, process analytic ability, and
method of assessment as most cognitive tests do: They are paper-and-pencil even chance factors. Research has indicated an age-related increase in
tests in “laboratory” conditions. Therefore, whether these tests truly assess some of these other factors (such as conscientiousness and task-specific
everyday-cognition is debateable. In his review of research on the relationship skills) that may counterbalance age-related cognitive declines. However,
between age and success in everyday life, Salthouse (2012) found that although plausible, empirical evidence documenting the compensatory
increased age seldom is associated with lower everyday functioning, and nature of these other determinants is quite limited currently.
that the reasons for this laboratory-life discrepancy are not well understood. ■ Accommodation. Another possible explanation may be that age-related
However, he offers the following possibilities for why age-related declines do cognitive declines might have real consequences, but they are not
not have greater consequences: apparent because individuals accommodate these declines by adapting
to a situation. For example, to accommodate for declining sensory
■ Performance at maximum level is seldom needed. A possible explanation abilities, many older adults avoid driving at night or in rush-hour traffic,
for the discrepancy between age-related decline and the general absence or they may reduce the range of domains in which they function by
of confirming evidence in everyday functioning is related to a distinction delegating responsibilities to others, such as their children. However, little
between assessments of typical and maximal functioning. The basic idea is known about how people adapt, either consciously or unconsciously, to
is that what people do in daily life reflects their typical level of functioning, apparent diminishing cognitive abilities. Nevertheless, it seems plausible
whereas cognitive measures attempt to measure their maximal level of that many people will try to alter what they do, or how they do it, in order
functioning. According to Salthouse, people do not need to function at to maintain a high level of functioning due to declines in relevant abilities.

148 149
 These observations can be summarised as concerns about the ecological their maximum level often; if they did, everyday life would be too stressful.
(i.e. natural or real-word) validity of psychometric measures of cognitive It also seems plausible that correlations with cognitive ability or other
functioning. These concerns led to the proposal that assessing older adults in factors might be detectable only at the highest levels of functioning. This
real-world domains might be a more accurate way to evaluate their cognitive perspective does not deny the possibility of age-related declines that
competency. could affect realistic functioning. Instead, it suggests that they are not
Following these arguments, several measures of everyday cognition were detected because in everyday situations, people seldom need to function
developed. These measures generally have three aspects in common: Firstly, at a level at which deficits might be manifested.
they generally focus on instrumental tasks of daily living (such as shopping, ■ There is a shift from novel processing to reliance on accumulated
arranging transportation, handling finances and comprehending medication knowledge. According to this perspective, novel problem-solving ability
instructions) that older adults must be able to perform effectively to function (or fluid intelligence) may become less important to individuals, as more
independently. Secondly, the problem stated usually is defined clearly, so of their life problems are solved. Consequently, higher proportions of
that the participants know exactly what they are supposed to solve (e.g. their daily functioning can occur by retrieval of prior solutions; thus, their
“You woke up this morning and found that your refrigerator is not working”). accumulated knowledge (or crystallised intelligence). The assumption
Thirdly, the desired goal is also apparent from the problem stated (e.g. you can be made that knowledge may become more important with
want your refrigerator to work). However, these measures differ with respect to increased age and that age-related declines in fluid intelligence may be
how they assess performance: Some measures require close-ended answers compensated for by higher levels of knowledge (see also Box 3.1).
(e.g. the answer is either right or wrong), while others require open-ended ■ Cognition may not be the only determinant of success in life. Researchers
answers that allow people to handle a problem from their own perspective. have noted a positive correlation between job performance and cognition;
In addition, measures also differ with respect to problem presentation. Some however, they also noted that 75% of the variance remains unexplained. It
apply a vignette-like structure where the problem is described (such as in the may be that cognitive psychometric tests do not measure occupationally
refrigerator example mentioned above). Others use real-world stimuli such relevant aspects of application, focus, flexibility and effort. Therefore,
as a phone bill, recipe, or products with nutrition labels, and ask questions other factors may contribute to success. Factors that have been mentioned
based on these stimuli (Allaire, 2016). are aspects of personality, emotional intelligence, practical intelligence,
A limitation of measures such as these, is that they involve the same decision-making competence or rationality, process analytic ability, and
method of assessment as most cognitive tests do: They are paper-and-pencil even chance factors. Research has indicated an age-related increase in
tests in “laboratory” conditions. Therefore, whether these tests truly assess some of these other factors (such as conscientiousness and task-specific
everyday-cognition is debateable. In his review of research on the relationship skills) that may counterbalance age-related cognitive declines. However,
between age and success in everyday life, Salthouse (2012) found that although plausible, empirical evidence documenting the compensatory
increased age seldom is associated with lower everyday functioning, and nature of these other determinants is quite limited currently.
that the reasons for this laboratory-life discrepancy are not well understood. ■ Accommodation. Another possible explanation may be that age-related
However, he offers the following possibilities for why age-related declines do cognitive declines might have real consequences, but they are not
not have greater consequences: apparent because individuals accommodate these declines by adapting
to a situation. For example, to accommodate for declining sensory
■ Performance at maximum level is seldom needed. A possible explanation abilities, many older adults avoid driving at night or in rush-hour traffic,
for the discrepancy between age-related decline and the general absence or they may reduce the range of domains in which they function by
of confirming evidence in everyday functioning is related to a distinction delegating responsibilities to others, such as their children. However, little
between assessments of typical and maximal functioning. The basic idea is known about how people adapt, either consciously or unconsciously, to
is that what people do in daily life reflects their typical level of functioning, apparent diminishing cognitive abilities. Nevertheless, it seems plausible
whereas cognitive measures attempt to measure their maximal level of that many people will try to alter what they do, or how they do it, in order
functioning. According to Salthouse, people do not need to function at to maintain a high level of functioning due to declines in relevant abilities.

148 149
 This may contribute to the often minimal apparent consequences of
declining cognitive abilities. REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. What is intelligence? Why is it difficult to define this concept?
From the afore-mentioned discussion, it is apparent that older adults 2. Describe the following views of intelligence:
seem to function well in everyday life, despite age-related decline in certain - Intelligence is a single trait
cognitive abilities. However, empirical research in this regard is still in its - Intelligence is multifaceted
infancy. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences that was discussed earlier 3. Discuss Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner’s theories of intelligence.
in this chapter includes several abilities traditionally tested in intelligence 4. Discuss the criticisms against the concept of multiple intelligences.
tests (logical/mathematical, verbal and visual/spatial), as well as other 5. Discuss Raymond Cattell’s approach to intelligence. Discuss the difference between
abilities not usually measured in intelligence tests (naturalistic, interpersonal, fluid and crystallised intelligence.
intrapersonal, musical, bodily kinaesthetic). This model would seem to be 6. What are the major questions regarding the effect of ageing on intelligence that
an ideal way to capture the complexity of intelligence required for adapting researchers in this field generally investigate?
to daily life in adulthood. Unfortunately, this aspect has not received the 7. Consider the following statement: “Early studies (± 1900-1950) of the effects
research focus it deserves. It is hoped that future researchers will explore of ageing on intelligence brought discouragement to anyone older than their late
twenties.” What was the typical finding regarding and intelligence during these
these alternative and important forms of ability that clearly affect many areas
years? What was the focus of researchers during these years? By the 1960s, some
of functioning throughout the adult years (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014). researchers began to change their views. What did they begin to acknowledge?
8. What debate resulted in the identification of a classic ageing pattern?
9. On what type of studies were the early studies on age-related changes in
Box 3.1. Analytical skills versus solving a crossword puzzle intelligence based? Do the results of these studies reflect age-related changes?
Salthouse (2012, p. 216) describes a very simple example of the potential importance Why or why not?
of age-related increases in knowledge. Age trends in measures of analytical reasoning 10. With reference to the Seattle Longitudinal Study, what were the findings regarding
were compared with the age trends in a measure of crossword puzzle performance the cross-sectional, longitudinal and sequential studies?
in the same group of people. These two activities are similar in that in both cases,
11. How do psychologists currently think about intelligence and age?
the solution requires simultaneous application of multiple skills. That is, in analytical
reasoning, the presented problems often specify a number of conditions that must be 12. Why may a discrepancy between the competencies of older adults be inferred
adhered to in order to reach a solution. Similarly, solutions in crossword puzzles must from laboratory results on the one hand and everyday observations on the other
simultaneously fit the clue, the number of letters in the target word, and the positions hand?
of any letters that have already been identified.
13. Why might cognitive psychometric measures not be the best means to assess the
The results indicated a decline in age trends in analytical reasoning, typically
cognitive functioning of older adults?
evident in novel problem-solving tasks (i.e. tasks of fluid intelligence). However, when
knowledge is relevant to the task, as in crossword puzzles, the age trends among 14. How may measures of everyday cognition assess adults’ everyday competency?
people with frequent crossword puzzle-solving experiences are actually reversed, with What are the limitations of these measures?
better performance at older ages. These opposite trends in the same individuals are 15. Since it has been shown that age-related cognitive decline does occur, why may
consistent with the view that little or no consequence of cognitive declines may be there not be greater negative consequences for adults in their daily lives because
evident when one can draw upon relevant knowledge. of this decline?

3.3.2 Problem solving and decision making

From our discussion thus far, it has become clear that there are many age-
related declines in basic cognitive and sensory mechanisms. However, there
are also increases in experience and in the pragmatics of knowledge. In
addition, as discussed before, concerns have been raised that laboratory
150 151
 This may contribute to the often minimal apparent consequences of
declining cognitive abilities. REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. What is intelligence? Why is it difficult to define this concept?
From the afore-mentioned discussion, it is apparent that older adults 2. Describe the following views of intelligence:
seem to function well in everyday life, despite age-related decline in certain - Intelligence is a single trait
cognitive abilities. However, empirical research in this regard is still in its - Intelligence is multifaceted
infancy. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences that was discussed earlier 3. Discuss Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner’s theories of intelligence.
in this chapter includes several abilities traditionally tested in intelligence 4. Discuss the criticisms against the concept of multiple intelligences.
tests (logical/mathematical, verbal and visual/spatial), as well as other 5. Discuss Raymond Cattell’s approach to intelligence. Discuss the difference between
abilities not usually measured in intelligence tests (naturalistic, interpersonal, fluid and crystallised intelligence.
intrapersonal, musical, bodily kinaesthetic). This model would seem to be 6. What are the major questions regarding the effect of ageing on intelligence that
an ideal way to capture the complexity of intelligence required for adapting researchers in this field generally investigate?
to daily life in adulthood. Unfortunately, this aspect has not received the 7. Consider the following statement: “Early studies (± 1900-1950) of the effects
research focus it deserves. It is hoped that future researchers will explore of ageing on intelligence brought discouragement to anyone older than their late
twenties.” What was the typical finding regarding and intelligence during these
these alternative and important forms of ability that clearly affect many areas
years? What was the focus of researchers during these years? By the 1960s, some
of functioning throughout the adult years (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014). researchers began to change their views. What did they begin to acknowledge?
8. What debate resulted in the identification of a classic ageing pattern?
9. On what type of studies were the early studies on age-related changes in
Box 3.1. Analytical skills versus solving a crossword puzzle intelligence based? Do the results of these studies reflect age-related changes?
Salthouse (2012, p. 216) describes a very simple example of the potential importance Why or why not?
of age-related increases in knowledge. Age trends in measures of analytical reasoning 10. With reference to the Seattle Longitudinal Study, what were the findings regarding
were compared with the age trends in a measure of crossword puzzle performance the cross-sectional, longitudinal and sequential studies?
in the same group of people. These two activities are similar in that in both cases,
11. How do psychologists currently think about intelligence and age?
the solution requires simultaneous application of multiple skills. That is, in analytical
reasoning, the presented problems often specify a number of conditions that must be 12. Why may a discrepancy between the competencies of older adults be inferred
adhered to in order to reach a solution. Similarly, solutions in crossword puzzles must from laboratory results on the one hand and everyday observations on the other
simultaneously fit the clue, the number of letters in the target word, and the positions hand?
of any letters that have already been identified.
13. Why might cognitive psychometric measures not be the best means to assess the
The results indicated a decline in age trends in analytical reasoning, typically
cognitive functioning of older adults?
evident in novel problem-solving tasks (i.e. tasks of fluid intelligence). However, when
knowledge is relevant to the task, as in crossword puzzles, the age trends among 14. How may measures of everyday cognition assess adults’ everyday competency?
people with frequent crossword puzzle-solving experiences are actually reversed, with What are the limitations of these measures?
better performance at older ages. These opposite trends in the same individuals are 15. Since it has been shown that age-related cognitive decline does occur, why may
consistent with the view that little or no consequence of cognitive declines may be there not be greater negative consequences for adults in their daily lives because
evident when one can draw upon relevant knowledge. of this decline?

3.3.2 Problem solving and decision making

From our discussion thus far, it has become clear that there are many age-
related declines in basic cognitive and sensory mechanisms. However, there
are also increases in experience and in the pragmatics of knowledge. In
addition, as discussed before, concerns have been raised that laboratory
150 151
assessments usually are conducted out of context and therefore the following:
underestimate older people’s everyday functioning. Therefore, although
there are age-related declines in the structure and processes of cognitive • Use of strategies. Some laboratory-related research on decision-
functioning, one also has to consider the functional aspects of cognitive making suggests that older adults make less effective decisions and use
abilities in addressing the demands of everyday life. For example, although less optimal strategies when deciding what options to select to suit their
older adults may experience a decline in memory, they have appropriate needs best. Furthermore, when decision making involves a high degree of
skills and knowledge to perform their daily tasks. working memory capacity (e.g. a lot of information must be held in memory
simultaneously in order to make quick decisions), older adults do not
perform so well (Besedeš et al., 2012). However, many everyday decision-
We have two making situations involve choosing one best option from a number of
team members who
think they’re from the choices, for instance, buying a motor vehicle, deciding on the best living
Brainy Generation. option, planning retirement and managing finances, or choosing the best
cancer treatment option. More ecologically relevant research has indicated
that in comparison to younger adults, older adults tend to search for less
information to arrive at a decision and require less information to arrive
at a decision. They also tend to avoid risk and rely on easily accessible
information (Shivapour et al., 2012). In addition, it seems that older adults
make decisions more rationally and consistently than do younger adults,
who tend to be affected more by attraction effects; that is, many pieces of
Age-related variables play a role in problem solving information in a content-rich environment. One reason for this phenomenon
and decision making
is the tendency of younger adults to adopt analytical strategies in which
Many of our daily tasks involve decision making and problem solving and each alternative is weighed carefully, setting up possible interference effects
are ways in which we make use of our intellectual abilities. For example, think from new information. Older adults tend to use more global heuristics
of the number of problem-solving situations you encounter in your studies, (methods of finding things out for themselves) and therefore may not be so
in your work, in relationships, driving a car, and so forth. Everyday problem “attracted” to discreet new pieces of information as younger adults are (Keil,
solving and decision making refer to an individual’s ability to resolve obstacles 2014). (See Box 3.2 regarding the question whether the elderly are more
in day-to-day functioning. These obstacles may be instrumental in nature vulnerable to unscrupulous predators.)
(factors that contribute to one’s daily functioning), as well as challenges of • Cognitive abilities. Most researchers agree that adults tend to perform
a personal or social nature, such as interpersonal conflict. As opposed to better in practical (everyday) problems than in abstract ones (such as those
academic problems (or formal knowledge as assessed by intelligence tests), measured in standardised intelligence tests) (see Hoare, 2011). However, it
problems faced in the real world are often unformulated, poorly defined may be that competence in solving everyday problems is a multidimensional
and of great personal interest. They are often lacking in specific information construct, much like intelligence. Some studies indicate that everyday
necessary for solution and are characterised by multiple possible solutions, problems reflecting both instrumental and socio-emotional problem solving
while multiple methods can be used to decide on a solution. Although many are related strongly to fluid and crystallised cognitive abilities. In fact, the
everyday problems allow a greater time span to decide on a solution than great majority of research has found significant associations between basic
psychometric tests do, many problems do require one to analyse complex cognitive abilities and various measures of everyday cognitive performance
situations quickly, to apply knowledge and create solutions, sometimes in a (Allaire, 2012). Therefore, weaknesses in basic cognitive abilities should
matter of moments, thus mimicking some skill sets in psychometric testing. predict weaknesses in everyday cognitive performance. For example, older
Researchers in this field are interested in age-related changes in adults’ adults with losses in memory functioning would be expected to have losses
decision-making and problem-solving abilities. Some of the findings are in everyday cognitive tasks that depend upon memory, if other abilities

152 153
assessments usually are conducted out of context and therefore the following:
underestimate older people’s everyday functioning. Therefore, although
there are age-related declines in the structure and processes of cognitive • Use of strategies. Some laboratory-related research on decision-
functioning, one also has to consider the functional aspects of cognitive making suggests that older adults make less effective decisions and use
abilities in addressing the demands of everyday life. For example, although less optimal strategies when deciding what options to select to suit their
older adults may experience a decline in memory, they have appropriate needs best. Furthermore, when decision making involves a high degree of
skills and knowledge to perform their daily tasks. working memory capacity (e.g. a lot of information must be held in memory
simultaneously in order to make quick decisions), older adults do not
perform so well (Besedeš et al., 2012). However, many everyday decision-
We have two making situations involve choosing one best option from a number of
team members who
think they’re from the choices, for instance, buying a motor vehicle, deciding on the best living
Brainy Generation. option, planning retirement and managing finances, or choosing the best
cancer treatment option. More ecologically relevant research has indicated
that in comparison to younger adults, older adults tend to search for less
information to arrive at a decision and require less information to arrive
at a decision. They also tend to avoid risk and rely on easily accessible
information (Shivapour et al., 2012). In addition, it seems that older adults
make decisions more rationally and consistently than do younger adults,
who tend to be affected more by attraction effects; that is, many pieces of
Age-related variables play a role in problem solving information in a content-rich environment. One reason for this phenomenon
and decision making
is the tendency of younger adults to adopt analytical strategies in which
Many of our daily tasks involve decision making and problem solving and each alternative is weighed carefully, setting up possible interference effects
are ways in which we make use of our intellectual abilities. For example, think from new information. Older adults tend to use more global heuristics
of the number of problem-solving situations you encounter in your studies, (methods of finding things out for themselves) and therefore may not be so
in your work, in relationships, driving a car, and so forth. Everyday problem “attracted” to discreet new pieces of information as younger adults are (Keil,
solving and decision making refer to an individual’s ability to resolve obstacles 2014). (See Box 3.2 regarding the question whether the elderly are more
in day-to-day functioning. These obstacles may be instrumental in nature vulnerable to unscrupulous predators.)
(factors that contribute to one’s daily functioning), as well as challenges of • Cognitive abilities. Most researchers agree that adults tend to perform
a personal or social nature, such as interpersonal conflict. As opposed to better in practical (everyday) problems than in abstract ones (such as those
academic problems (or formal knowledge as assessed by intelligence tests), measured in standardised intelligence tests) (see Hoare, 2011). However, it
problems faced in the real world are often unformulated, poorly defined may be that competence in solving everyday problems is a multidimensional
and of great personal interest. They are often lacking in specific information construct, much like intelligence. Some studies indicate that everyday
necessary for solution and are characterised by multiple possible solutions, problems reflecting both instrumental and socio-emotional problem solving
while multiple methods can be used to decide on a solution. Although many are related strongly to fluid and crystallised cognitive abilities. In fact, the
everyday problems allow a greater time span to decide on a solution than great majority of research has found significant associations between basic
psychometric tests do, many problems do require one to analyse complex cognitive abilities and various measures of everyday cognitive performance
situations quickly, to apply knowledge and create solutions, sometimes in a (Allaire, 2012). Therefore, weaknesses in basic cognitive abilities should
matter of moments, thus mimicking some skill sets in psychometric testing. predict weaknesses in everyday cognitive performance. For example, older
Researchers in this field are interested in age-related changes in adults’ adults with losses in memory functioning would be expected to have losses
decision-making and problem-solving abilities. Some of the findings are in everyday cognitive tasks that depend upon memory, if other abilities

152 153
cannot compensate. occurs can affect an adult’s strategy selection. When faced with an
• Familiarity, experience and knowledge. In everyday solutions involving instrumental problem, adults tend to engage in purposeful planning and
practical decision-making, middle-aged and older adults appear to have an action to overcome the problem. However, the resources a person has available
advantage when confronted with familiar choices. Their greater experience may affect the way in which the problem is solved. Older adults may have
in terms of content and process allow them to appraise the problem, come more resources (e.g. financial, emotional, or past experience) than younger
up with a strategy, and then proceed to enact that strategy. In comparison adults have, and will therefore be able to resolve the problem more quickly.
to younger adults, experience and knowledge tend to make older adults Younger adults may be more likely to use emotion-regulation strategies such
less susceptible to irrational biases in their decision making. This is as emotional venting or seeking emotional support, because they do not
especially true when decisions are personally relevant: Older adults tend have the resources they need to solve the problem. In such contexts, older
to focus on important cues, which results in efficient decisions (Hess et al., adults will be more effective than younger adults are in solving instrumental
2012). However, older adults may be relatively disadvantaged under the problems. However, for some other instrumental everyday problems, such
following circumstances: if a familiar dilemma appears with a new twist or as the ability to learn how to use computer software, younger adults may
appears differently; when a premature decision leads to avoiding important have more resources than older adults have; so, older adults will use more
information, often because they think they know; or if they use a top-down emotion-regulation strategies to cope with the problem (e.g. venting their
approach, which means they do not collect additional information due to feelings and asking for help). In other words, everyday problem-solving
the assumption of their own expertise. Younger problem solvers may suffer performance can depend on the context of the problem and whether that
from their lack of familiarity with and expertise in many situations, but context is relevant to the problem solver (Mienaltowski, 2016).
because they can process larger amounts of information in a shorter time • Emotional benefits. Research on everyday problem solving has also
and perhaps because they tend to follow a bottom-up approach, (collecting attempted to examine the emotional benefits that particular problem-
as much data as possible before making a decision) they may be better solving strategies might have for the individual (Blanchard-Fields, 2007;
decision makers than many of their older counterparts (Whitbourne, 2008). Scott et al., 2013). Problem situations low in emotional significance refer to
• Problem-solving goals. Some research findings suggest that underlying instrumental problems that often occur in daily life (such as taking defective
age-related decline in cognitive abilities, especially fluid abilities, contribute merchandise back to the store where it was bought), while problem
to reduced everyday problem-solving ability in the later half of life. situations high in emotional significance tend to be more interpersonal
However, when problem-solving ability is defined by the match between (such as conflicts with friends, family members, or co-workers). The
the individual’s personal goal for solving the problem and the strategies solutions to these situations may be problem-focused strategies (taking
that he or she implements to solve the problem, older adults are as effective direct action to control or ‘fix’ the problem); cognitive-analytic strategies
as younger adults are at resolving everyday problems. For example, the (efforts to solve the problem by thinking it through); passive-dependent
way in which problems are represented could vary across the life span as strategies (attempts to withdraw from the situation); avoidant strategies
developmental life goals change (Mienaltowski, 2016). Younger adults tend (denial of the problem, often by attempting to reinterpret its meaning);
to focus on competence goals or autonomy goals (e.g. pursuing a career and emotion-regulating strategies (managing emotions). No significant
and living independently). With age, the focus shifts toward generative age differences in problem-solving styles with problems low in emotional
goals. Older adults tend to define their own everyday problems in terms of salience were found. However, younger adults are more likely to use the same
interpersonal goals (e.g. maintaining important relationships and regulating strategy across problem-solving contexts, typically involving self-action.
negative emotions). Furthermore, problem-solving strategies fit the problem For example, younger adults tend to use a cognitive-analytic approach to
definitions. For example, older adults tend to engage in strategies that all problems. Older adults on the other hand, are more likely to vary their
regulate others or include others, while younger adults engage in strategies strategy, given the problem-solving context. In dealing with problems high in
that involve self-action and are more likely than older adults to involve emotional salience, adults of all ages are likely to include emotion regulation
actions that suit their own needs (Hoppmann & Blanchard-Fields, 2011). in their repertoire (selection) of strategies when resolving an interpersonal
• Problem-solving context. The context or domain in which a problem problem. However, older adults tend to show more awareness of when to

154 155
cannot compensate. occurs can affect an adult’s strategy selection. When faced with an
• Familiarity, experience and knowledge. In everyday solutions involving instrumental problem, adults tend to engage in purposeful planning and
practical decision-making, middle-aged and older adults appear to have an action to overcome the problem. However, the resources a person has available
advantage when confronted with familiar choices. Their greater experience may affect the way in which the problem is solved. Older adults may have
in terms of content and process allow them to appraise the problem, come more resources (e.g. financial, emotional, or past experience) than younger
up with a strategy, and then proceed to enact that strategy. In comparison adults have, and will therefore be able to resolve the problem more quickly.
to younger adults, experience and knowledge tend to make older adults Younger adults may be more likely to use emotion-regulation strategies such
less susceptible to irrational biases in their decision making. This is as emotional venting or seeking emotional support, because they do not
especially true when decisions are personally relevant: Older adults tend have the resources they need to solve the problem. In such contexts, older
to focus on important cues, which results in efficient decisions (Hess et al., adults will be more effective than younger adults are in solving instrumental
2012). However, older adults may be relatively disadvantaged under the problems. However, for some other instrumental everyday problems, such
following circumstances: if a familiar dilemma appears with a new twist or as the ability to learn how to use computer software, younger adults may
appears differently; when a premature decision leads to avoiding important have more resources than older adults have; so, older adults will use more
information, often because they think they know; or if they use a top-down emotion-regulation strategies to cope with the problem (e.g. venting their
approach, which means they do not collect additional information due to feelings and asking for help). In other words, everyday problem-solving
the assumption of their own expertise. Younger problem solvers may suffer performance can depend on the context of the problem and whether that
from their lack of familiarity with and expertise in many situations, but context is relevant to the problem solver (Mienaltowski, 2016).
because they can process larger amounts of information in a shorter time • Emotional benefits. Research on everyday problem solving has also
and perhaps because they tend to follow a bottom-up approach, (collecting attempted to examine the emotional benefits that particular problem-
as much data as possible before making a decision) they may be better solving strategies might have for the individual (Blanchard-Fields, 2007;
decision makers than many of their older counterparts (Whitbourne, 2008). Scott et al., 2013). Problem situations low in emotional significance refer to
• Problem-solving goals. Some research findings suggest that underlying instrumental problems that often occur in daily life (such as taking defective
age-related decline in cognitive abilities, especially fluid abilities, contribute merchandise back to the store where it was bought), while problem
to reduced everyday problem-solving ability in the later half of life. situations high in emotional significance tend to be more interpersonal
However, when problem-solving ability is defined by the match between (such as conflicts with friends, family members, or co-workers). The
the individual’s personal goal for solving the problem and the strategies solutions to these situations may be problem-focused strategies (taking
that he or she implements to solve the problem, older adults are as effective direct action to control or ‘fix’ the problem); cognitive-analytic strategies
as younger adults are at resolving everyday problems. For example, the (efforts to solve the problem by thinking it through); passive-dependent
way in which problems are represented could vary across the life span as strategies (attempts to withdraw from the situation); avoidant strategies
developmental life goals change (Mienaltowski, 2016). Younger adults tend (denial of the problem, often by attempting to reinterpret its meaning);
to focus on competence goals or autonomy goals (e.g. pursuing a career and emotion-regulating strategies (managing emotions). No significant
and living independently). With age, the focus shifts toward generative age differences in problem-solving styles with problems low in emotional
goals. Older adults tend to define their own everyday problems in terms of salience were found. However, younger adults are more likely to use the same
interpersonal goals (e.g. maintaining important relationships and regulating strategy across problem-solving contexts, typically involving self-action.
negative emotions). Furthermore, problem-solving strategies fit the problem For example, younger adults tend to use a cognitive-analytic approach to
definitions. For example, older adults tend to engage in strategies that all problems. Older adults on the other hand, are more likely to vary their
regulate others or include others, while younger adults engage in strategies strategy, given the problem-solving context. In dealing with problems high in
that involve self-action and are more likely than older adults to involve emotional salience, adults of all ages are likely to include emotion regulation
actions that suit their own needs (Hoppmann & Blanchard-Fields, 2011). in their repertoire (selection) of strategies when resolving an interpersonal
• Problem-solving context. The context or domain in which a problem problem. However, older adults tend to show more awareness of when to

154 155
avoid or passively accept a situation in interpersonal, emotional domains.
On the one hand, this passivity may be due to older adults’ sensitivity to the REVIEW THIS SECTION
emotions involved, while on the other hand, it may be to protect themselves 1. Define everyday problem solving and decision making. What is the nature of
from being exposed to additional stress. These differences in styles may obstacles found in everyday functioning?
reflect a combination of cognitive level and life experience. For example, 2. What are the differences and similarities between academic problem solving (or
younger adults may adopt formal operational or absolutist thinking, while formal knowledge as assessed by psychometric testing) and problems faced in the
real world?
older adults may adopt postformal thinking (these concepts are discussed
in the next section). In addition, because of their greater life experience, 3. Does a decline in basic cognitive functions and sensory mechanisms necessarily
imply a decline in an adult’s decision-making and problem-solving abilities?
older adults tend to be more accepting of ambiguity and uncertainty
4. Laboratory-related research suggests that older adults make decisions that are
in emotionally laden situations. They also seem to more sophisticated at
less effective, use strategies that are less optimal, and may struggle when decision
regulating their emotions during decision making. A consequence of this making involves a high degree of working memory capacity. Does this research
age-related difference in emotion regulation is that older adults report reflect the real-life capacities of older adults? What attributes of older adults may
greater well-being and do not demonstrate the same reduction in positive be to a greater advantage in decision making than would be the case with younger
adults?
affect as younger individuals do immediately after experiencing everyday
stressors. 5. According to Allaire (2012), in what way is everyday problem solving linked to
cognitive abilities as measured on standardised intelligence tests?
6. Middle-aged and older adults appear to have an advantage over younger adults
Box 3.2. Are elderly people more vulnerable when confronted with familiar problems. What contributes to this ability? Under
to unscrupulous predators? which circumstances may older adults be disadvantaged in this regard? Under
which circumstances may younger adults be better decision makers?
Because of declines in several cognitive abilities such as memory processing, attention,
and reasoning, it is often assumed that the elderly are more vulnerable to fall prey 7. Your grumpy neighbour borrows your lawnmower but fails to return it. You are
to unscrupulous predators attempting to swindle them into making bad decisions. becoming irritated by this, because you urgently need it to mow your own lawn.
Although this may be true in some cases, it would be misleading to characterise most According to Hoppmann and Blanchard-Fields (2011), problem-solving strategies
elderly people as easy targets. Despite the mentioned declines, elderly people often do fit problem definitions. In this regard, how may younger and older adults differ in
well in decision tasks that are more complex. In some cases, they do so by engaging in approaching this problem?
the decision-making process in a manner that minimises the effects of any deficits, such 8. How may the availability of resources affect the ability of both older and younger
as slowing down the decision task and perhaps writing down key points on a notepad. adults to solve problems?
In other situations, the cognitive abilities of the elderly may confer advantages in
certain decision tasks without the need for any real efforts to compensate for deficits. 9. Name the different problem-solving strategies that people generally apply
As we have seen, elderly adults seem to be especially adept at making emotion-laden in problem situations low in emotional significance and those high in emotional
interpersonal decisions, apparently because they are more sophisticated at regulating significance. How may younger and older adults differ in applying these strategies?
their emotions during decision making. Greater abilities in some of these areas may be What is the reason for the differences in strategies of younger and older adults?
why some governments require elected leaders to be above a certain age. For example, What consequences may older adults derive from emotion-regulation strategies to
in an emotion-laden crisis, a higher level of emotion regulation may be important. problem solving?
(See Keil, 2014.)
10. Do older people generally become victims of unscrupulous predators who try to
deceive them into bad decision-making?

3.3.3 Language

Language (or linguistic) skills include comprehending and producing the

spoken and the written word. Language is a crucial and complex lifelong
ability, underpinned by the dynamic interactions within and between
specialised brain networks. The use of language involves a wide range

156 157
avoid or passively accept a situation in interpersonal, emotional domains.
On the one hand, this passivity may be due to older adults’ sensitivity to the REVIEW THIS SECTION
emotions involved, while on the other hand, it may be to protect themselves 1. Define everyday problem solving and decision making. What is the nature of
from being exposed to additional stress. These differences in styles may obstacles found in everyday functioning?
reflect a combination of cognitive level and life experience. For example, 2. What are the differences and similarities between academic problem solving (or
younger adults may adopt formal operational or absolutist thinking, while formal knowledge as assessed by psychometric testing) and problems faced in the
real world?
older adults may adopt postformal thinking (these concepts are discussed
in the next section). In addition, because of their greater life experience, 3. Does a decline in basic cognitive functions and sensory mechanisms necessarily
imply a decline in an adult’s decision-making and problem-solving abilities?
older adults tend to be more accepting of ambiguity and uncertainty
4. Laboratory-related research suggests that older adults make decisions that are
in emotionally laden situations. They also seem to more sophisticated at
less effective, use strategies that are less optimal, and may struggle when decision
regulating their emotions during decision making. A consequence of this making involves a high degree of working memory capacity. Does this research
age-related difference in emotion regulation is that older adults report reflect the real-life capacities of older adults? What attributes of older adults may
greater well-being and do not demonstrate the same reduction in positive be to a greater advantage in decision making than would be the case with younger
adults?
affect as younger individuals do immediately after experiencing everyday
stressors. 5. According to Allaire (2012), in what way is everyday problem solving linked to
cognitive abilities as measured on standardised intelligence tests?
6. Middle-aged and older adults appear to have an advantage over younger adults
Box 3.2. Are elderly people more vulnerable when confronted with familiar problems. What contributes to this ability? Under
to unscrupulous predators? which circumstances may older adults be disadvantaged in this regard? Under
which circumstances may younger adults be better decision makers?
Because of declines in several cognitive abilities such as memory processing, attention,
and reasoning, it is often assumed that the elderly are more vulnerable to fall prey 7. Your grumpy neighbour borrows your lawnmower but fails to return it. You are
to unscrupulous predators attempting to swindle them into making bad decisions. becoming irritated by this, because you urgently need it to mow your own lawn.
Although this may be true in some cases, it would be misleading to characterise most According to Hoppmann and Blanchard-Fields (2011), problem-solving strategies
elderly people as easy targets. Despite the mentioned declines, elderly people often do fit problem definitions. In this regard, how may younger and older adults differ in
well in decision tasks that are more complex. In some cases, they do so by engaging in approaching this problem?
the decision-making process in a manner that minimises the effects of any deficits, such 8. How may the availability of resources affect the ability of both older and younger
as slowing down the decision task and perhaps writing down key points on a notepad. adults to solve problems?
In other situations, the cognitive abilities of the elderly may confer advantages in
certain decision tasks without the need for any real efforts to compensate for deficits. 9. Name the different problem-solving strategies that people generally apply
As we have seen, elderly adults seem to be especially adept at making emotion-laden in problem situations low in emotional significance and those high in emotional
interpersonal decisions, apparently because they are more sophisticated at regulating significance. How may younger and older adults differ in applying these strategies?
their emotions during decision making. Greater abilities in some of these areas may be What is the reason for the differences in strategies of younger and older adults?
why some governments require elected leaders to be above a certain age. For example, What consequences may older adults derive from emotion-regulation strategies to
in an emotion-laden crisis, a higher level of emotion regulation may be important. problem solving?
(See Keil, 2014.)
10. Do older people generally become victims of unscrupulous predators who try to
deceive them into bad decision-making?

3.3.3 Language

Language (or linguistic) skills include comprehending and producing the

spoken and the written word. Language is a crucial and complex lifelong
ability, underpinned by the dynamic interactions within and between
specialised brain networks. The use of language involves a wide range

156 157
of cognitive functions such as perceptual skills, comprehension, memory, the text (e.g. analysing words and sentences), but also forming simulations
and decision-making. For example, the individual must have the capacity (mental images) that require the integration of temporal, spatial, causal,
to identify individual letters, words, or sounds to identify whether they are and intentional information based on both the text and the individual’s
pronounced or spelled correctly; identify the meaning and whether phrases knowledge. The components are affected by ageing, as follows:
are syntactically (grammatically) acceptable; be able to extract the essence
of the spoken or written material; and be able to decide whether and how to • Word recognition involves the activation of the meaning of printed
respond to these materials. or spoken language. A large body of research indicates that word (or
Some caution should prevail when interpreting the results of the studies vocabulary) knowledge remains relatively intact across the adult life
presented in this section. Most of the studies are cross-sectional in design, span or even increases with age and only declines later in life. Similarly,
which implies that cohort effects may contribute to the results. For example, word recognition and the understanding of the meaning of words in the
older adults aged 70 and above from diverse demographic backgrounds context of a sentence generally are as strong in older adults as in younger
are usually compared with young adults, typically university students, adults. Although behavioural data suggest that older adults tend to need
while middle-aged adults are often neglected. Comparing the language more time to resolve ambiguities of word meaning, some studies indicate
comprehension and production activities of university students with those that age differences are reduced or even eliminated among older adults
of the elderly will most certainly not provide a reliable indication of age- with high verbal fluency.
related changes. Most studies are also laboratory studies (e.g. reading • Sentence processing involves the analysis of sentence structure into
short prose, nonsensical lists of words, or sentences) and therefore lack coherent units. One such process is called segmentation, which is the
ecological validity (i.e. they do not reflect real-life situations). Additionally, process of breaking down a sentence into units such as phrases or
the interaction between the various cognitive capacities involved in these clauses. During this process, readers or listeners assign particular lexical
skills is complex and far from understood. elements (i.e. words or concepts) to these units, such as verb, subject
What do we currently know about adults’ language skills as they age? and object. This is called thematic role assignment. Studies show that
Although the basic abilities to carry out a conversation, read and write are older adults may segment more often in order to manage the cognitive
maintained throughout life, some changes and declines have been noted. demands of integrating concepts to understand sentences. In cases where
Most of the changes are linked directly to age-related physical changes working memory capacity is challenged by complex syntax (grammar)
such as loss of visual and auditory acuity and physical health. These losses or the need to integrate large language segments, such as embedded
generally may lessen access to the ‘outside world’ with its conversational clauses, sentence processing may be particularly vulnerable to the
opportunities. In addition, cognitive changes such as the general slowing effects of ageing. However, there is evidence that reading experience can
of cognitive processing and declines in working memory capacity play a compensate for working memory deficits. This is especially true for older
role, while motivational factors, stereotyping, and patronising behaviour by adults who have cultivated strong literacy habits.
younger adults may also affect older adults’ language skills. More specifically, • The construction-of-situation models refer to the mental representation
the following changes are noted (Kemper, 2016; Liu et al., 2016; Whitbourne of the implied situation and making certain inferences from the text. (For
& Whitbourne, 2014; Wingfield & Lash, 2016): example, the sentence, “The mover bent his knees, put his arms around
the box, and took a deep breath”, implies that the mover is about to
3.3.3.1 Language comprehension lift a heavy box.) This aspect of language comprehension appears to be
resilient across the adult life span. Building a mental representation of
Contemporary models of language comprehension suggest that distinct the situation that the text describes allows the reader or listener to use
components interact to construct mental representations from language. acquired knowledge, which may even put older people at an advantage
These components include word recognition processes, sentence because of their accumulated language experience.
processing, and the construction of situation models. Therefore, language
comprehension involves not only encoding information directly given by Apart from declines in cognitive processes such as working memory

158 159
of cognitive functions such as perceptual skills, comprehension, memory, the text (e.g. analysing words and sentences), but also forming simulations
and decision-making. For example, the individual must have the capacity (mental images) that require the integration of temporal, spatial, causal,
to identify individual letters, words, or sounds to identify whether they are and intentional information based on both the text and the individual’s
pronounced or spelled correctly; identify the meaning and whether phrases knowledge. The components are affected by ageing, as follows:
are syntactically (grammatically) acceptable; be able to extract the essence
of the spoken or written material; and be able to decide whether and how to • Word recognition involves the activation of the meaning of printed
respond to these materials. or spoken language. A large body of research indicates that word (or
Some caution should prevail when interpreting the results of the studies vocabulary) knowledge remains relatively intact across the adult life
presented in this section. Most of the studies are cross-sectional in design, span or even increases with age and only declines later in life. Similarly,
which implies that cohort effects may contribute to the results. For example, word recognition and the understanding of the meaning of words in the
older adults aged 70 and above from diverse demographic backgrounds context of a sentence generally are as strong in older adults as in younger
are usually compared with young adults, typically university students, adults. Although behavioural data suggest that older adults tend to need
while middle-aged adults are often neglected. Comparing the language more time to resolve ambiguities of word meaning, some studies indicate
comprehension and production activities of university students with those that age differences are reduced or even eliminated among older adults
of the elderly will most certainly not provide a reliable indication of age- with high verbal fluency.
related changes. Most studies are also laboratory studies (e.g. reading • Sentence processing involves the analysis of sentence structure into
short prose, nonsensical lists of words, or sentences) and therefore lack coherent units. One such process is called segmentation, which is the
ecological validity (i.e. they do not reflect real-life situations). Additionally, process of breaking down a sentence into units such as phrases or
the interaction between the various cognitive capacities involved in these clauses. During this process, readers or listeners assign particular lexical
skills is complex and far from understood. elements (i.e. words or concepts) to these units, such as verb, subject
What do we currently know about adults’ language skills as they age? and object. This is called thematic role assignment. Studies show that
Although the basic abilities to carry out a conversation, read and write are older adults may segment more often in order to manage the cognitive
maintained throughout life, some changes and declines have been noted. demands of integrating concepts to understand sentences. In cases where
Most of the changes are linked directly to age-related physical changes working memory capacity is challenged by complex syntax (grammar)
such as loss of visual and auditory acuity and physical health. These losses or the need to integrate large language segments, such as embedded
generally may lessen access to the ‘outside world’ with its conversational clauses, sentence processing may be particularly vulnerable to the
opportunities. In addition, cognitive changes such as the general slowing effects of ageing. However, there is evidence that reading experience can
of cognitive processing and declines in working memory capacity play a compensate for working memory deficits. This is especially true for older
role, while motivational factors, stereotyping, and patronising behaviour by adults who have cultivated strong literacy habits.
younger adults may also affect older adults’ language skills. More specifically, • The construction-of-situation models refer to the mental representation
the following changes are noted (Kemper, 2016; Liu et al., 2016; Whitbourne of the implied situation and making certain inferences from the text. (For
& Whitbourne, 2014; Wingfield & Lash, 2016): example, the sentence, “The mover bent his knees, put his arms around
the box, and took a deep breath”, implies that the mover is about to
3.3.3.1 Language comprehension lift a heavy box.) This aspect of language comprehension appears to be
resilient across the adult life span. Building a mental representation of
Contemporary models of language comprehension suggest that distinct the situation that the text describes allows the reader or listener to use
components interact to construct mental representations from language. acquired knowledge, which may even put older people at an advantage
These components include word recognition processes, sentence because of their accumulated language experience.
processing, and the construction of situation models. Therefore, language
comprehension involves not only encoding information directly given by Apart from declines in cognitive processes such as working memory

158 159
capacity in certain aspects of language comprehension, normative age-related 3.3.3.2 Story comprehension
declines in sensory processing can also affect comprehension. For example,
age-related declines in visual and hearing acuity may affect the ability to Researchers in this area are interested in the efficacy of the older person’s
recognise words; therefore affecting comprehension. These declines may listening and reading skills by determining how much information can be
make the attentional processes involved in language comprehension more absorbed and comprehended. Most studies in this regard have shown that
demanding. According to the effortfulness hypothesis, sensory declines older people remember less and generalise more. However, this is a general
associated with ageing make word recognition more difficult, so that extra finding and not a universal truth. Variables such as the types of test materials
effort is required for resolving lexical items. As a result, fewer attentional and the age of the research participants used may have a crucial effect. For
resources that can be used for the other levels of language comprehension example, no age differences are found between young adults and adults in
are available. This is especially true in texts or speech of syntactic complexity, their sixties. Age differences are indicated only in adults in their mid-seventies
and is especially true for people with hearing difficulties. and older, although some studies have found few to no age differences in
However, adults often compensate for these declines by using external older people with high verbal ability.
devices such as reading glasses, larger print material, hearing aids, and Regarding types of texts, older people seem to be significantly worse
avoiding noisy environments. In general, older adults have a rich store of at comprehending spoken as opposed to written text, while there is no
experiences when they listen or read. Even if they are unable to hear each word, difference for younger adults. This is especially true when language is spoken
they are often able to derive the meaning of words used in a straightforward rapidly and the quality of the speech is degraded. In general, it seems that
conversation. They can also take advantage of interpreting the paralinguistic the key problem is auditory processing rather than general cognitive slowing.
aspects of speech, including gestures and facial expressions. The advantage Older adults are also disadvantaged when forced to speed read. If left to read
of greater experience also manifests in reading. Older adults are able to at their own pace, few age differences are reported.
gather information more quickly, particularly if the material is of a relatively Older adults seem to recall as many main points of a story as younger
familiar nature. Consequently, they can skim for information rather than stop adults do, but they are significantly worse at remembering the details.
and examine every word and phrase. However, there seems to be no age differences in the ability to interpret the
In summary, the greater experience of older adults with language gives text, while older adults are more inclined than younger adults are to make
them the potential to compensate for other cognitive changes that may affect elaborate inferences.
their language comprehension. Most adults retain the ability to understand Generally, and as with much else in psychogerontology, complexity
individual words and sentences and to use strategies effectively to maximise increases the age difference. For example, in texts involving two or more
their comprehension of the written and spoken word. storylines, or when more than one task has to be performed simultaneously
(such as summarising a text, which involves remembering and processing),
older adults are at a disadvantage. However, factors such as the structure
of the story and the ability of the person (high or low verbal ability) seem
to play a role. Generally speaking, adults with poorer reading skills are less
efficient at searching out and encoding information.
What do older adults prefer to read? Some authors have suggested that
older adults tend to prefer lighter reading matter such as newspaper and
magazine articles. One reason for this change in reading preference may
be reduced mental resources; for example, it is less demanding to read a
newspaper article than to plough through the works of Nadine Gordimer
or J.M. Coetzee (South African authors who received the Nobel Prize for
Literature) or similar authors. Another reason may be of a motivational
Older adults compensate for visual declines to assist nature (e.g. they may have read all the ‘classics’ and ‘heavyweights’ they
them in reading
160 161
capacity in certain aspects of language comprehension, normative age-related 3.3.3.2 Story comprehension
declines in sensory processing can also affect comprehension. For example,
age-related declines in visual and hearing acuity may affect the ability to Researchers in this area are interested in the efficacy of the older person’s
recognise words; therefore affecting comprehension. These declines may listening and reading skills by determining how much information can be
make the attentional processes involved in language comprehension more absorbed and comprehended. Most studies in this regard have shown that
demanding. According to the effortfulness hypothesis, sensory declines older people remember less and generalise more. However, this is a general
associated with ageing make word recognition more difficult, so that extra finding and not a universal truth. Variables such as the types of test materials
effort is required for resolving lexical items. As a result, fewer attentional and the age of the research participants used may have a crucial effect. For
resources that can be used for the other levels of language comprehension example, no age differences are found between young adults and adults in
are available. This is especially true in texts or speech of syntactic complexity, their sixties. Age differences are indicated only in adults in their mid-seventies
and is especially true for people with hearing difficulties. and older, although some studies have found few to no age differences in
However, adults often compensate for these declines by using external older people with high verbal ability.
devices such as reading glasses, larger print material, hearing aids, and Regarding types of texts, older people seem to be significantly worse
avoiding noisy environments. In general, older adults have a rich store of at comprehending spoken as opposed to written text, while there is no
experiences when they listen or read. Even if they are unable to hear each word, difference for younger adults. This is especially true when language is spoken
they are often able to derive the meaning of words used in a straightforward rapidly and the quality of the speech is degraded. In general, it seems that
conversation. They can also take advantage of interpreting the paralinguistic the key problem is auditory processing rather than general cognitive slowing.
aspects of speech, including gestures and facial expressions. The advantage Older adults are also disadvantaged when forced to speed read. If left to read
of greater experience also manifests in reading. Older adults are able to at their own pace, few age differences are reported.
gather information more quickly, particularly if the material is of a relatively Older adults seem to recall as many main points of a story as younger
familiar nature. Consequently, they can skim for information rather than stop adults do, but they are significantly worse at remembering the details.
and examine every word and phrase. However, there seems to be no age differences in the ability to interpret the
In summary, the greater experience of older adults with language gives text, while older adults are more inclined than younger adults are to make
them the potential to compensate for other cognitive changes that may affect elaborate inferences.
their language comprehension. Most adults retain the ability to understand Generally, and as with much else in psychogerontology, complexity
individual words and sentences and to use strategies effectively to maximise increases the age difference. For example, in texts involving two or more
their comprehension of the written and spoken word. storylines, or when more than one task has to be performed simultaneously
(such as summarising a text, which involves remembering and processing),
older adults are at a disadvantage. However, factors such as the structure
of the story and the ability of the person (high or low verbal ability) seem
to play a role. Generally speaking, adults with poorer reading skills are less
efficient at searching out and encoding information.
What do older adults prefer to read? Some authors have suggested that
older adults tend to prefer lighter reading matter such as newspaper and
magazine articles. One reason for this change in reading preference may
be reduced mental resources; for example, it is less demanding to read a
newspaper article than to plough through the works of Nadine Gordimer
or J.M. Coetzee (South African authors who received the Nobel Prize for
Literature) or similar authors. Another reason may be of a motivational
Older adults compensate for visual declines to assist nature (e.g. they may have read all the ‘classics’ and ‘heavyweights’ they
them in reading
160 161
have wanted to read). Whether a change in reading preferences occur or not, simpler sentences. This implies that the length of sentences, as well as
older adults seem to get the same level of enjoyment out of their reading the number of embedded clauses (complex sentences consisting of more
as younger adults do. However, a change in reading habits and preferences than one idea or sentence), decline. Some studies suggest that changes
may not be a universal truth. In the same way that retirement does not mean in working memory may account for these declines. Thus, although older
that a person who has never liked reading will now suddenly become an avid adults retain their knowledge of grammatical rules (a form of semantic
reader, older people do not necessarily change their reading preferences. memory), declines in working memory can cause older adults to lose
track of what they mean to say while they are saying it, especially when
3.3.3.3 Language production the language they are producing requires thought and preparation.
• The pragmatics of language. Language pragmatics encompass a variety
Language production refers to the usage of language in speech and writing. of conversational skills, ranging from opening and closing conversations,
The following aspects of language production are affected by the ageing maintaining and shifting topics and telling stories, to establishing and
process: modifying personal relationships, conveying individual and group
identity, gaining and avoiding compliance, and being polite or offending.
• Vocal output. Some researchers have noted age-related increases in Often, narrative stories told by older adults are evaluated more positively,
speech disfluencies, such as increased hesitations, repetitions and pauses. are preferred by listeners, and are more memorable than those told by
Voice quality also changes: This is noticed not only in a higher pitch of young adults. This is because elderly adults tend to create elaborate
the voice and diminished projection and amplitude, but also in a slowing narrative structures that include hierarchically elaborated episodes,
of articulation, reaction times and pronunciation of words. Vocal jitter, detailing the initiating events and the motivations, goals and actions of
tremor, breathiness, and hoarseness increase. Consequently, listeners can the characters. Endings usually summarise the outcomes of the efforts
judge the age of speakers with some degree of accuracy, especially for of the characters, and evaluative conclusions are often attached, which
speakers aged 70 and above. assess the contemporary significance of these stories. The pragmatic
• Word-finding problems. Although vocabulary increases throughout awareness of older adults is noticeable in storytelling to either a child or
the adult years, declining only in late adulthood, word-finding problems an adult listener. Although both older and younger adults tend to simplify
are among the most frequent complaints of older adults. Pauses, the story and to elaborate more on key points when telling a story to
circumlocutions (indirectness or roundaboutness), ‘empty speech’ such as children, older adults do this to a greater extent.
pronouns lacking clear referents (e.g. referring to ‘he’ without adequately
indicating who is meant) and substitution errors (e.g. calling a ‘boom’ In summary, although changes in language use and comprehension
a ‘doom’) may all reflect age-related impairments in accessing and change throughout adulthood, older adults have well-developed structures
retrieving lexical information, especially the phonological form of words. of information that allow them to anticipate and organise information. They
Consequently, as mentioned earlier, tip-of-the-tongue experiences, in are able to make up for changes in working memory by relying on more
which familiar words are temporarily irretrievable, are more common for effective structures for retrieving related information from written and
older adults than for younger adults. spoken language. (See Box 3.3 regarding diseases and disorders that affect
• Syntactic and morphological processing appear to be unaffected by language production.)
ageing. Older adults are no more prone to grammatical and morphological
(forms in a language) errors than younger adults are. Moreover, healthy 3.3.3.4 Social aspects of language
older adults do not regress to fragmented speech, two- and three-
word utterances, or vague, empty, or illogical conclusions. However, the Corresponding to changes in language comprehension and production are
processing of syntactically complex sentences seems to decline with changes in the way that older adults use language socially.
age. This is reflected in older adults’ speech and in their writing; more Older adults are especially skilled at collaborative storytelling, possibly
specifically, the diversity of syntactic structures declines, resulting in to compensate for individual cognitive declines. This means that they tend

162 163
have wanted to read). Whether a change in reading preferences occur or not, simpler sentences. This implies that the length of sentences, as well as
older adults seem to get the same level of enjoyment out of their reading the number of embedded clauses (complex sentences consisting of more
as younger adults do. However, a change in reading habits and preferences than one idea or sentence), decline. Some studies suggest that changes
may not be a universal truth. In the same way that retirement does not mean in working memory may account for these declines. Thus, although older
that a person who has never liked reading will now suddenly become an avid adults retain their knowledge of grammatical rules (a form of semantic
reader, older people do not necessarily change their reading preferences. memory), declines in working memory can cause older adults to lose
track of what they mean to say while they are saying it, especially when
3.3.3.3 Language production the language they are producing requires thought and preparation.
• The pragmatics of language. Language pragmatics encompass a variety
Language production refers to the usage of language in speech and writing. of conversational skills, ranging from opening and closing conversations,
The following aspects of language production are affected by the ageing maintaining and shifting topics and telling stories, to establishing and
process: modifying personal relationships, conveying individual and group
identity, gaining and avoiding compliance, and being polite or offending.
• Vocal output. Some researchers have noted age-related increases in Often, narrative stories told by older adults are evaluated more positively,
speech disfluencies, such as increased hesitations, repetitions and pauses. are preferred by listeners, and are more memorable than those told by
Voice quality also changes: This is noticed not only in a higher pitch of young adults. This is because elderly adults tend to create elaborate
the voice and diminished projection and amplitude, but also in a slowing narrative structures that include hierarchically elaborated episodes,
of articulation, reaction times and pronunciation of words. Vocal jitter, detailing the initiating events and the motivations, goals and actions of
tremor, breathiness, and hoarseness increase. Consequently, listeners can the characters. Endings usually summarise the outcomes of the efforts
judge the age of speakers with some degree of accuracy, especially for of the characters, and evaluative conclusions are often attached, which
speakers aged 70 and above. assess the contemporary significance of these stories. The pragmatic
• Word-finding problems. Although vocabulary increases throughout awareness of older adults is noticeable in storytelling to either a child or
the adult years, declining only in late adulthood, word-finding problems an adult listener. Although both older and younger adults tend to simplify
are among the most frequent complaints of older adults. Pauses, the story and to elaborate more on key points when telling a story to
circumlocutions (indirectness or roundaboutness), ‘empty speech’ such as children, older adults do this to a greater extent.
pronouns lacking clear referents (e.g. referring to ‘he’ without adequately
indicating who is meant) and substitution errors (e.g. calling a ‘boom’ In summary, although changes in language use and comprehension
a ‘doom’) may all reflect age-related impairments in accessing and change throughout adulthood, older adults have well-developed structures
retrieving lexical information, especially the phonological form of words. of information that allow them to anticipate and organise information. They
Consequently, as mentioned earlier, tip-of-the-tongue experiences, in are able to make up for changes in working memory by relying on more
which familiar words are temporarily irretrievable, are more common for effective structures for retrieving related information from written and
older adults than for younger adults. spoken language. (See Box 3.3 regarding diseases and disorders that affect
• Syntactic and morphological processing appear to be unaffected by language production.)
ageing. Older adults are no more prone to grammatical and morphological
(forms in a language) errors than younger adults are. Moreover, healthy 3.3.3.4 Social aspects of language
older adults do not regress to fragmented speech, two- and three-
word utterances, or vague, empty, or illogical conclusions. However, the Corresponding to changes in language comprehension and production are
processing of syntactically complex sentences seems to decline with changes in the way that older adults use language socially.
age. This is reflected in older adults’ speech and in their writing; more Older adults are especially skilled at collaborative storytelling, possibly
specifically, the diversity of syntactic structures declines, resulting in to compensate for individual cognitive declines. This means that they tend

162 163
to reminisce (remember, talk about) with others about experiences from thought of as cognitively impaired, leading younger people to talk to them
the past. As they do so, they often polish and refine their storytelling so in a simplified manner. This simple speech pattern and failure to encourage
that by the time their reminiscences have been practiced and rehearsed, independence ultimately causes lack of stimulation and may accelerate
the stories have a considerable effect on the listener. Older adults often cognitive declines. Furthermore, the kind of patronising speech (e.g. “Can I
mix talk about the past with talk about the present to achieve a shared help you, my dear?”) may foster over-dependency and cause infantilisation
sense of meaning and personal worth, which is lacking in the discourse (to treat someone as if that person were a child) in that the older person
(conversation) of young adults. Because of these shifts between the past loses the incentive to attempt to regain self-sufficiency in the basic activities
and the present, the language of older adults is often described as off- of daily life.
target and long-winded. Some researchers argue that this is indicative of A question that may arise is whether older people’s language can be
older adults adopting communicative goals that emphasise conveying linked to linguistic usage in childhood. In other words, do older people regress
meaningful life experiences at the expense of conciseness. Others argue that (return) to a childlike linguistic state? On one level, because language usage
the somewhat rambling speech of older adults is due to ‘mental clutter’, an may in some sense be simplified in later life, there may be some similarities
inability to inhibit irrelevant information, and may be indicative of a decline to children’s language. On another level, however, older people’s grammatical
in inhibitory control, a key component of frontal lobe control over behaviour. usage is still far more sophisticated and varied than that of children.
Furthermore, conversations with older people are often marked by painful
self-disclosures of bereavement, ill-health, immobility, and assorted personal
and family problems.
These changes in language usage may lead to intergenerational
communication problems. Younger adults may become annoyed with older
adults they know well and feel that the older person’s speech is too repetitive
or focused on the past. The problem is aggravated if the older person tends
to focus on his or her current problems or ill health. Talking about a topic in
which the listener has no interest or that makes the listener uncomfortable
leads to unsatisfactory intergenerational interactions and emphasises the
differences between older and younger conversational partners. Young
adults may also feel patronised by older adults who adopt a ‘not listening’,
‘disapproving’, or ‘overprotective’ style when interacting with them.
The above-mentioned factors, as well as the older person’s word-finding
problems, dual task limitations and outward physical appearance often lead
to changes in communication patterns between older and younger people.
Younger people often make an incorrect assumption that the older person
is incompetent and dependent. This often results in elderspeak. This speech
pattern involves simplifying one’s speech, much as one would speak to a Elderspeak should be avoided
child, by leaving out complex words or talking in a patronising (demeaning)
tone of voice. Younger adults who engage in this type of speech also tend
to offer unnecessary help, or make personal comments about clothing or
appearance (e.g. “We are looking so nice today”).
Researchers investigating elderspeak have proposed a communication
predicament model of ageing. The predicament is that older adults are

164 165
to reminisce (remember, talk about) with others about experiences from thought of as cognitively impaired, leading younger people to talk to them
the past. As they do so, they often polish and refine their storytelling so in a simplified manner. This simple speech pattern and failure to encourage
that by the time their reminiscences have been practiced and rehearsed, independence ultimately causes lack of stimulation and may accelerate
the stories have a considerable effect on the listener. Older adults often cognitive declines. Furthermore, the kind of patronising speech (e.g. “Can I
mix talk about the past with talk about the present to achieve a shared help you, my dear?”) may foster over-dependency and cause infantilisation
sense of meaning and personal worth, which is lacking in the discourse (to treat someone as if that person were a child) in that the older person
(conversation) of young adults. Because of these shifts between the past loses the incentive to attempt to regain self-sufficiency in the basic activities
and the present, the language of older adults is often described as off- of daily life.
target and long-winded. Some researchers argue that this is indicative of A question that may arise is whether older people’s language can be
older adults adopting communicative goals that emphasise conveying linked to linguistic usage in childhood. In other words, do older people regress
meaningful life experiences at the expense of conciseness. Others argue that (return) to a childlike linguistic state? On one level, because language usage
the somewhat rambling speech of older adults is due to ‘mental clutter’, an may in some sense be simplified in later life, there may be some similarities
inability to inhibit irrelevant information, and may be indicative of a decline to children’s language. On another level, however, older people’s grammatical
in inhibitory control, a key component of frontal lobe control over behaviour. usage is still far more sophisticated and varied than that of children.
Furthermore, conversations with older people are often marked by painful
self-disclosures of bereavement, ill-health, immobility, and assorted personal
and family problems.
These changes in language usage may lead to intergenerational
communication problems. Younger adults may become annoyed with older
adults they know well and feel that the older person’s speech is too repetitive
or focused on the past. The problem is aggravated if the older person tends
to focus on his or her current problems or ill health. Talking about a topic in
which the listener has no interest or that makes the listener uncomfortable
leads to unsatisfactory intergenerational interactions and emphasises the
differences between older and younger conversational partners. Young
adults may also feel patronised by older adults who adopt a ‘not listening’,
‘disapproving’, or ‘overprotective’ style when interacting with them.
The above-mentioned factors, as well as the older person’s word-finding
problems, dual task limitations and outward physical appearance often lead
to changes in communication patterns between older and younger people.
Younger people often make an incorrect assumption that the older person
is incompetent and dependent. This often results in elderspeak. This speech
pattern involves simplifying one’s speech, much as one would speak to a Elderspeak should be avoided
child, by leaving out complex words or talking in a patronising (demeaning)
tone of voice. Younger adults who engage in this type of speech also tend
to offer unnecessary help, or make personal comments about clothing or
appearance (e.g. “We are looking so nice today”).
Researchers investigating elderspeak have proposed a communication
predicament model of ageing. The predicament is that older adults are

164 165
 tend to become selective experts in some areas while remaining amateurs or
Box 3.3 Aspects of language production related to novices in others.
diseases and disorders However, people differ regarding the ease with which they acquire
Language production may be disrupted by a number of age-related disorders and complex skills and in their ultimate level of expert performance. The major
diseases. As we have mentioned, discourse impairments are noted for adults with question for research on expertise is what causes these differences. The
sensory neural hearing loss (presbycusis). Apraxia (a speech disorder in which a person
has trouble saying what he or she wants to say correctly and consistently) and aphasia
following viewpoints have emerged (Ericsson, 2016; Grundmann, 2017;
(the total or partial loss of the ability to use or understand language) often result from Hambrick & Macnamara, 2016; Hambrick et al., 2014; Masunaga & Horn, 2001):
stroke and other neurological trauma. Dysarthria (a group of speech disorders caused
by disturbances of the muscles of the speech mechanism) is associated with Parkinson’s
disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Progressive impairments in semantic
• The classical perspective. Two viewpoints emerged from this
and pragmatic aspects of language are common consequences of Alzheimer’s disease perspective. The innatist view is that experts are “born”; thus expertise
and other forms of dementia. Speech produced by individuals with Alzheimer’s disease is an innate characteristic. Although some form of training is necessary
is marked by the heavy use of deictic terms such as “this” and “that” without any to become an expert, some inborn characteristic influences the rate of
logic connection, the loss of specific references and cohesion, the prevalence of vague
acquiring a particular skill and/or the ultimate level that can be reached.
terms and ‘empty speech’, the loss of detail, an increase in repetition and redundancy,
and confusing shifts in topic and focus. Other discourse or pragmatic skills such as The environmentalist view is that experts are “made”. This is the view
turn taking, topic initiation, topic maintenance, topic shifting, conversational repairs, that either talent does not exist or that its effects are overshadowed by
and speech acts such as requesting, asserting, clarifying and questioning are often training.
disrupted. However, self-deprecatory remarks, humorous remarks, and making fun of
memory lapses are often used by patients when they are unable to respond to the • The cognitive perspective. Researchers investigating expertise from
clinician’s examination questions. a cognitive perspective indicate the following: (1) experts perceive
From Kemper (2016, p.728) meaningful patterns in their domain; (2) a set of specific aptitudes or
abilities comprise talent in a specific domain. However, researchers
increasingly noticed that experience plays a large role in individual
3.3.4 Expertise, wisdom, and creativity differences, leading many researchers on expertise to argue that the
“software” aspects – knowledge, skills and strategies acquired through
Do all people become wise and expert in all aspects of life as they age? Do training – rather than the “hardware” aspects of cognition (such as
people lose their creativity or become more creative as they age? These and working memory) differentiate novices and experts.
related questions are explored in the next section. • The acquired expertise perspective. From this perspective, scientists
began to consider the possibility that expertise was an automatic
3.3.4.1 Expertise consequence of lengthy experience and considered individuals with over
10 years of full-time engagement in a domain to be experts. Expertise
Expertise refers to having special skills, knowledge, or judgement in particular was regarded as an orderly progression from novice to intermediate
areas. Generally, people are captivated by displays of expertise. For example, to expert, through the stages of instruction, training and experience.
think about the popularity of sport stars, musicians and actors. However, Thus, the primary criteria for identifying experts were social reputation,
experts do not just entertain – they play critical roles in society: Medical completed education, and length of experience in a domain. However,
experts find innovative techniques to treat diseases, financial experts design several reviewers have questioned this characterisation of expertise
economic policies, judges make critical judgements, writers contribute to because often when individuals, based on their extensive experience
our literacy, and so forth. In a real-world experiential perspective, each of and reputation, are nominated by their peers as experts, their actual
us becomes an ‘expert’ at something important to us, such as one’s work or performance occasionally is found to be unexceptional. For example,
career, interpersonal relationships, or hobbies and activities that we enjoy the length of training and professional experience of some doctors
and in which we do well. In this sense, an expert is someone who is much or psychologists may not be related to their efficiency and success in
better at a task than people who have not put much effort into it. Thus, we treating patients. Similarly, not all lawyers are necessarily good lawyers,

166 167
 tend to become selective experts in some areas while remaining amateurs or
Box 3.3 Aspects of language production related to novices in others.
diseases and disorders However, people differ regarding the ease with which they acquire
Language production may be disrupted by a number of age-related disorders and complex skills and in their ultimate level of expert performance. The major
diseases. As we have mentioned, discourse impairments are noted for adults with question for research on expertise is what causes these differences. The
sensory neural hearing loss (presbycusis). Apraxia (a speech disorder in which a person
has trouble saying what he or she wants to say correctly and consistently) and aphasia
following viewpoints have emerged (Ericsson, 2016; Grundmann, 2017;
(the total or partial loss of the ability to use or understand language) often result from Hambrick & Macnamara, 2016; Hambrick et al., 2014; Masunaga & Horn, 2001):
stroke and other neurological trauma. Dysarthria (a group of speech disorders caused
by disturbances of the muscles of the speech mechanism) is associated with Parkinson’s
disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Progressive impairments in semantic
• The classical perspective. Two viewpoints emerged from this
and pragmatic aspects of language are common consequences of Alzheimer’s disease perspective. The innatist view is that experts are “born”; thus expertise
and other forms of dementia. Speech produced by individuals with Alzheimer’s disease is an innate characteristic. Although some form of training is necessary
is marked by the heavy use of deictic terms such as “this” and “that” without any to become an expert, some inborn characteristic influences the rate of
logic connection, the loss of specific references and cohesion, the prevalence of vague
acquiring a particular skill and/or the ultimate level that can be reached.
terms and ‘empty speech’, the loss of detail, an increase in repetition and redundancy,
and confusing shifts in topic and focus. Other discourse or pragmatic skills such as The environmentalist view is that experts are “made”. This is the view
turn taking, topic initiation, topic maintenance, topic shifting, conversational repairs, that either talent does not exist or that its effects are overshadowed by
and speech acts such as requesting, asserting, clarifying and questioning are often training.
disrupted. However, self-deprecatory remarks, humorous remarks, and making fun of
memory lapses are often used by patients when they are unable to respond to the • The cognitive perspective. Researchers investigating expertise from
clinician’s examination questions. a cognitive perspective indicate the following: (1) experts perceive
From Kemper (2016, p.728) meaningful patterns in their domain; (2) a set of specific aptitudes or
abilities comprise talent in a specific domain. However, researchers
increasingly noticed that experience plays a large role in individual
3.3.4 Expertise, wisdom, and creativity differences, leading many researchers on expertise to argue that the
“software” aspects – knowledge, skills and strategies acquired through
Do all people become wise and expert in all aspects of life as they age? Do training – rather than the “hardware” aspects of cognition (such as
people lose their creativity or become more creative as they age? These and working memory) differentiate novices and experts.
related questions are explored in the next section. • The acquired expertise perspective. From this perspective, scientists
began to consider the possibility that expertise was an automatic
3.3.4.1 Expertise consequence of lengthy experience and considered individuals with over
10 years of full-time engagement in a domain to be experts. Expertise
Expertise refers to having special skills, knowledge, or judgement in particular was regarded as an orderly progression from novice to intermediate
areas. Generally, people are captivated by displays of expertise. For example, to expert, through the stages of instruction, training and experience.
think about the popularity of sport stars, musicians and actors. However, Thus, the primary criteria for identifying experts were social reputation,
experts do not just entertain – they play critical roles in society: Medical completed education, and length of experience in a domain. However,
experts find innovative techniques to treat diseases, financial experts design several reviewers have questioned this characterisation of expertise
economic policies, judges make critical judgements, writers contribute to because often when individuals, based on their extensive experience
our literacy, and so forth. In a real-world experiential perspective, each of and reputation, are nominated by their peers as experts, their actual
us becomes an ‘expert’ at something important to us, such as one’s work or performance occasionally is found to be unexceptional. For example,
career, interpersonal relationships, or hobbies and activities that we enjoy the length of training and professional experience of some doctors
and in which we do well. In this sense, an expert is someone who is much or psychologists may not be related to their efficiency and success in
better at a task than people who have not put much effort into it. Thus, we treating patients. Similarly, not all lawyers are necessarily good lawyers,

166 167
 in spite of their lengthy training and experience. In addition, many What happens to expertise over the adult life span? Longitudinal studies
individuals seem satisfied in reaching a merely acceptable level of have indicated that expert performance generally increases up to a peak
performance, such as being able to cook a meal, type a report, play a age (usually middle age), then declines. On the other hand, others argue
game of tennis, ride a bike, or treat a patient, within the shortest amount that the declines in expert performance are not the same for every domain.
of time. Once an acceptable level has been reached, they need only to For example, in intellectual domains, the peak age tends to be in the late
maintain a stable performance and often do so with minimal effort for thirties to late forties, and in physical domains, the peak age is earlier. Some
years and even decades. Therefore, someone who cooks meals every day, researchers argue that declines in the performance of older adults can be
will not necessarily be a master chef; a person who rides his bike to work attributed to fluid abilities, while others believe that reductions in domain-
every day will not necessarily be able to compete in the Cape Epic Race; related engagement could contribute to the decline; that is, older adults do
the person being able to play tennis will not necessarily become world not continue regular, deliberate practice. Other researchers also contend
champion; and a general practitioner does not necessarily become an that, since knowledge and experience are important aspects of expertise,
expert in a particular field. lifelong learning is important. This is especially true in today’s society where
• The deliberate practice view. What is the difference between ‘novices’ information and technology change rapidly. Therefore, workers in many
and experts? For novices, the goal for accomplishing an activity is to professions are required to obtain continuing education to stay current in
reach as rapidly as possible a satisfactory performance level that is stable their fields.
and autonomous. In contrast, experts build up a wealth of knowledge
about alternative ways to solve problems or make decisions. They tend 3.3.4.2 Wisdom
to do this by means of motivational factors such as deliberate practice,
concentration, focus, and depth of planning. Therefore, the key challenge The concept of wisdom seems to be difficult to define. Indeed, the debate
is to acquire cognitive skills to support their continued learning and of what constitutes wisdom can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, but
improvement. Experts tend to do this by continuously seeking out has been introduced into psychology only in the past few decades. Although
demanding tasks and complex mental representations to attain higher several different components of wisdom have been identified, there is no
levels of control of their performance. According to this view, individual consensus definition of wisdom yet. Some examples of definitions of wisdom
differences in ultimate performance can be attributed to different amounts are the following:
of past and current levels of practise. Therefore, this view proposes that
hard work separates the great from the merely good. ­– The ability of an individual to make sound decisions, find the correct – or at
• A biological view. Other researchers indicate that although deliberate least good – answers to difficult and important life questions, and to give
practise is important, it explains only a part of the acquisition of expertise. advice about the complex problems of everyday life and interpersonal
For example, components of intelligence such as fluid intelligence, working relationships (American Psychological Association, 2015).
memory capacity and processing speed indicate a positive relationship – The quality of having experience, insight, knowledge, and good judgement
with expertise and predict success in a wide variety of complex activities. (see Oxford Dictionaries, 2018).
In addition, genetics also play a role. Therefore, people with higher – Wisdom can be defined as practical decisions that lead to human
abilities are more likely to become experts in their fields than those with flourishing (Nusbaum, 2014).
average or lower abilities. – Wisdom is a mental capacity of combining intelligence with moral virtue.
Possessing this integrated quality, an individual would be able to act
Judging from the aforementioned discussion, it seems that research has wisely when faced with complex situations (Fengyan & Hong, 2012).
typically framed expertise in terms of either the nature or the nurture debate.
However, both types of factors are important. There is no doubt that training
and experience are necessary to become an expert, but there is also evidence
that basic abilities that are known to be affected by genes also play a role.

168 169
 in spite of their lengthy training and experience. In addition, many What happens to expertise over the adult life span? Longitudinal studies
individuals seem satisfied in reaching a merely acceptable level of have indicated that expert performance generally increases up to a peak
performance, such as being able to cook a meal, type a report, play a age (usually middle age), then declines. On the other hand, others argue
game of tennis, ride a bike, or treat a patient, within the shortest amount that the declines in expert performance are not the same for every domain.
of time. Once an acceptable level has been reached, they need only to For example, in intellectual domains, the peak age tends to be in the late
maintain a stable performance and often do so with minimal effort for thirties to late forties, and in physical domains, the peak age is earlier. Some
years and even decades. Therefore, someone who cooks meals every day, researchers argue that declines in the performance of older adults can be
will not necessarily be a master chef; a person who rides his bike to work attributed to fluid abilities, while others believe that reductions in domain-
every day will not necessarily be able to compete in the Cape Epic Race; related engagement could contribute to the decline; that is, older adults do
the person being able to play tennis will not necessarily become world not continue regular, deliberate practice. Other researchers also contend
champion; and a general practitioner does not necessarily become an that, since knowledge and experience are important aspects of expertise,
expert in a particular field. lifelong learning is important. This is especially true in today’s society where
• The deliberate practice view. What is the difference between ‘novices’ information and technology change rapidly. Therefore, workers in many
and experts? For novices, the goal for accomplishing an activity is to professions are required to obtain continuing education to stay current in
reach as rapidly as possible a satisfactory performance level that is stable their fields.
and autonomous. In contrast, experts build up a wealth of knowledge
about alternative ways to solve problems or make decisions. They tend 3.3.4.2 Wisdom
to do this by means of motivational factors such as deliberate practice,
concentration, focus, and depth of planning. Therefore, the key challenge The concept of wisdom seems to be difficult to define. Indeed, the debate
is to acquire cognitive skills to support their continued learning and of what constitutes wisdom can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, but
improvement. Experts tend to do this by continuously seeking out has been introduced into psychology only in the past few decades. Although
demanding tasks and complex mental representations to attain higher several different components of wisdom have been identified, there is no
levels of control of their performance. According to this view, individual consensus definition of wisdom yet. Some examples of definitions of wisdom
differences in ultimate performance can be attributed to different amounts are the following:
of past and current levels of practise. Therefore, this view proposes that
hard work separates the great from the merely good. ­– The ability of an individual to make sound decisions, find the correct – or at
• A biological view. Other researchers indicate that although deliberate least good – answers to difficult and important life questions, and to give
practise is important, it explains only a part of the acquisition of expertise. advice about the complex problems of everyday life and interpersonal
For example, components of intelligence such as fluid intelligence, working relationships (American Psychological Association, 2015).
memory capacity and processing speed indicate a positive relationship – The quality of having experience, insight, knowledge, and good judgement
with expertise and predict success in a wide variety of complex activities. (see Oxford Dictionaries, 2018).
In addition, genetics also play a role. Therefore, people with higher – Wisdom can be defined as practical decisions that lead to human
abilities are more likely to become experts in their fields than those with flourishing (Nusbaum, 2014).
average or lower abilities. – Wisdom is a mental capacity of combining intelligence with moral virtue.
Possessing this integrated quality, an individual would be able to act
Judging from the aforementioned discussion, it seems that research has wisely when faced with complex situations (Fengyan & Hong, 2012).
typically framed expertise in terms of either the nature or the nurture debate.
However, both types of factors are important. There is no doubt that training
and experience are necessary to become an expert, but there is also evidence
that basic abilities that are known to be affected by genes also play a role.

168 169
 seeing things in a larger context); (b) judgement and communication
skills (e.g. the ability to understand and judge correctly in matters of
daily living); (c) general competencies (e.g. intelligent and educated);
(d) interpersonal skills (e.g. sensitive and sociable); and social
unobtrusiveness (discrete and non-judgemental).
• In their study, Glück and Bluck (2011) identified two groups of people
with conceptually different views of wisdom. The cognitive conception
group primarily endorsed cognitive characteristics (knowledge, life
experience and cognitive complexity) and reflective characteristics
(self-reflection and acceptance of others’ values) as central to wisdom.
The integrative conception group additionally endorsed affective/
compassionate characteristics, such as benevolence, empathy, love for
humanity and concern for others.
However, the central theme shared by the majority of wisdom literature
is that wisdom is multi-dimensional and consists of cognitive, insightful Although the approaches and measurements were different in these
(reflective) and compassionate (caring, benevolent) components that are studies, and the ensuing list of wisdom characteristics not identical, the
mutually interdependent and benefit the wise person, others and society as dominant descriptors of wisdom endorsed by most research participants
a whole. The study of wisdom is often approached from implicit and explicit were cognitive, reflective, and prosocial benevolent characteristics.
theoretical perspectives:
(b) Explicit theories of wisdom
(a) Implicit theories of wisdom
Explicit theories of wisdom are viewpoints of expert theorists and
The rationale of implicit theories of wisdom (i.e. folk wisdom) is that researchers rather than of lay people and are based on the principles of the
individuals know implicitly (inherently) who and what is wise. Theorists in psychology of human development (see Ardelt & Oh, 2016).
this domain typically investigate lay people’s (people who are not scientific
experts in the field) beliefs or understanding of what wisdom entails. Some • A Western approach. Perhaps the most extensive Western research
of the findings are the following: programme in this regard is that of the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm, led
by Paul Baltes and his colleagues. These researchers define wisdom
• In their seminal work, Clayton and Birren (1980) interviewed several as expert-level knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics (i.e. dealing
with matters regarding their practical requirements or consequences)
lay people regarding their views on what constitutes a wise person.
By analysing these views, they identified three wisdom dimensions: of life (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). According to
cognition (knowledgeable, experienced, and intelligent); reflection these researchers, wisdom consists of the following five characteristics:
(introspective and intuitive); and affect/compassion (understanding, (a) factual knowledge about human nature and the life course; (b)
empathetic, peaceful and gentle). procedural knowledge about ways of dealing with life’s problems; (c)
• Holliday and Chandler (1986) found that the theories of wisdom of their life-span contextualism – an awareness of the many contexts of life; (d)
value relativism and tolerance such as acknowledging individual, social
group of research participants (young, middle-aged and old adults)
included not only exceptional cognitive skills but also interpersonal skills and cultural differences in values and life priorities; and (e) knowledge
and social unobtrusiveness (unassuming, keeping a low profile). Lay about handling uncertainty, including the limits of one’s own knowledge
people perceived wisdom as a mixture of (a) exceptional understanding and the knowledge of the world at large. This involves the realisation
of essences, contexts, and the self (e.g. learning from experience and that there is rarely a perfect solution and that the future is not fully

170 171
 seeing things in a larger context); (b) judgement and communication
skills (e.g. the ability to understand and judge correctly in matters of
daily living); (c) general competencies (e.g. intelligent and educated);
(d) interpersonal skills (e.g. sensitive and sociable); and social
unobtrusiveness (discrete and non-judgemental).
• In their study, Glück and Bluck (2011) identified two groups of people
with conceptually different views of wisdom. The cognitive conception
group primarily endorsed cognitive characteristics (knowledge, life
experience and cognitive complexity) and reflective characteristics
(self-reflection and acceptance of others’ values) as central to wisdom.
The integrative conception group additionally endorsed affective/
compassionate characteristics, such as benevolence, empathy, love for
humanity and concern for others.
However, the central theme shared by the majority of wisdom literature
is that wisdom is multi-dimensional and consists of cognitive, insightful Although the approaches and measurements were different in these
(reflective) and compassionate (caring, benevolent) components that are studies, and the ensuing list of wisdom characteristics not identical, the
mutually interdependent and benefit the wise person, others and society as dominant descriptors of wisdom endorsed by most research participants
a whole. The study of wisdom is often approached from implicit and explicit were cognitive, reflective, and prosocial benevolent characteristics.
theoretical perspectives:
(b) Explicit theories of wisdom
(a) Implicit theories of wisdom
Explicit theories of wisdom are viewpoints of expert theorists and
The rationale of implicit theories of wisdom (i.e. folk wisdom) is that researchers rather than of lay people and are based on the principles of the
individuals know implicitly (inherently) who and what is wise. Theorists in psychology of human development (see Ardelt & Oh, 2016).
this domain typically investigate lay people’s (people who are not scientific
experts in the field) beliefs or understanding of what wisdom entails. Some • A Western approach. Perhaps the most extensive Western research
of the findings are the following: programme in this regard is that of the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm, led
by Paul Baltes and his colleagues. These researchers define wisdom
• In their seminal work, Clayton and Birren (1980) interviewed several as expert-level knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics (i.e. dealing
with matters regarding their practical requirements or consequences)
lay people regarding their views on what constitutes a wise person.
By analysing these views, they identified three wisdom dimensions: of life (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). According to
cognition (knowledgeable, experienced, and intelligent); reflection these researchers, wisdom consists of the following five characteristics:
(introspective and intuitive); and affect/compassion (understanding, (a) factual knowledge about human nature and the life course; (b)
empathetic, peaceful and gentle). procedural knowledge about ways of dealing with life’s problems; (c)
• Holliday and Chandler (1986) found that the theories of wisdom of their life-span contextualism – an awareness of the many contexts of life; (d)
value relativism and tolerance such as acknowledging individual, social
group of research participants (young, middle-aged and old adults)
included not only exceptional cognitive skills but also interpersonal skills and cultural differences in values and life priorities; and (e) knowledge
and social unobtrusiveness (unassuming, keeping a low profile). Lay about handling uncertainty, including the limits of one’s own knowledge
people perceived wisdom as a mixture of (a) exceptional understanding and the knowledge of the world at large. This involves the realisation
of essences, contexts, and the self (e.g. learning from experience and that there is rarely a perfect solution and that the future is not fully

170 171
 predictable. (See Box 3.4 Critical thinking: Wisdom in action.) • A culturally inclusive model. In an attempt to create a culturally inclusive
• An African approach. Although the most prominent Western approaches wisdom theory, Ardelt (2003) developed the three-dimensional wisdom
to wisdom tend to emphasise cognition and analytic abilities, the model. The model integrates the cognitive, reflective and affective/
Eastern approaches view wisdom more holistically as comprising the compassionate dimensions of wisdom: (1) The cognitive wisdom
whole person, including behavioural conduct in the form of morality dimension entails a desire to know the truth and encompasses a deep
and compassion towards others. The latter is also an aspect of the and thorough understanding of life, particularly regarding issues that
African worldview as reflected in the concept of ubuntu, which includes relate to one’s own person and one’s relationship with others. It includes
relatedness where foundational values inform members of society on knowledge and acceptance of the positive and negative aspects of human
how to lead a wise life through serving others, including the environment. nature, of the inherent limits of knowledge, and of life’s unpredictability
It promotes a pervasive spirit of caring and community, harmony, and uncertainty. (2) The reflective wisdom dimension refers to the ability
hospitality, humility, respect and responsiveness among people. Oruka to perceive phenomena and events from multiple perspectives. It includes
(1990; 1991), a Kenyan philosopher, demarcated African philosophy into self-awareness, self-insight and self-examination to overcome subjectivity
four components. One of the components, called philosophic sagacity, and projection. Rather than blaming other people and circumstances
is practised by indigenous thinkers or sages. Sages are usually opinion for their own faults and failures, wise people are able to accept reality
leaders who are frequently consulted by people because they are versed as it is, which tends to reduce self-centeredness, and contribute to a
in the wisdom and traditions of their people and are wise within the greater understanding of life and others. (3) The compassionate wisdom
conventional and historical confines of their culture. Thus, sages are dimension includes a more thorough understanding of life and the
custodians of the traditions of their people. Such sages Oruka called human condition combined with a reduction in self-centeredness, which
“ordinary sages” or “cultural philosophers” because they do not rise tends to generate sympathetic and compassionate love for others and
beyond the sphere of ordinary wisdom. These sages are usually poets, the motivation to foster the well-being of others.
herbalists, medicine men, musicians, fortune-tellers, and so forth. On the
other hand, a philosophical sage is both a sage and a critical thinker.
The philosophical sage is not only wise, but also capable of being Box 3.4 CRITICAL THINKING: Wisdom in action
rational and critical in understanding or solving the inconsistencies of To test people’s wisdom, Baltes and Staudinger (2000) devised a series of dilemmas
his or her culture and coping with foreign or modern encroachments to which their research participants had to respond. Consider one of these dilemmas –
on it. Philosophical sages are considered critical and independent how would you respond to the following?
A 15-year old girl announces that she wants to get married. What should she
thinkers capable of using their own thoughts and judgements based consider and do?
on the power of reason and insight rather than on the authority of the If you respond as follows: “A 15-year-old wants to get married? No, no way!
communal consensus. Philosophic sagacity is individualistic, dialectical, Marrying at 15 would be utterly wrong! One has to tell the girl that marriage is not an
rigorous and philosophical in the strict sense. In his research on African option. She should finish schooling. It would be irresponsible to support such an idea”,
you are exhibiting low wisdom and may be responding from your own value and/or
wisdom, Oruka interviewed various sages and wanted a wider public cultural system.
to know not only their narratives but also about their lives. For him, If you respond as follows: “Well, on the surface, this seems like an easy problem. On
the worth of sages is not only in their ideas but also in the way they average, marriage for 15-year-old girls is not a good thing. However, there are situations
where the average case does not fit. Perhaps in this instance, special life circumstances
live: by embodying their philosophies, developing their character, and
or cultural issues and values are involved. In addition, one has to think about adequate
influencing their communities over the years. Similarly, Kresse (2007) ways of talking to this girl and considering her emotional state”, you are exhibiting good
engaged in the study of African wisdom based on Swahili sages. He wisdom. This means that you have considered the dilemma from various perspectives.
found that people are identified as wise if they are able to make others Therefore, a wise person would consider all of the components of wisdom in his
or her analysis of a dilemma, while an unwise person would come up with a simple
see the world in a different light or from a new perspective. He concluded response probably guided by cultural stereotypes or his/her own value system.
that wisdom required social performance and interaction. (See also Box Generally, wise people can see through situations and get to the important aspect the
3.5 regarding the use of African proverbs.) matter, rather than be caught up in the superficial aspects of the situation.

172 173
 predictable. (See Box 3.4 Critical thinking: Wisdom in action.) • A culturally inclusive model. In an attempt to create a culturally inclusive
• An African approach. Although the most prominent Western approaches wisdom theory, Ardelt (2003) developed the three-dimensional wisdom
to wisdom tend to emphasise cognition and analytic abilities, the model. The model integrates the cognitive, reflective and affective/
Eastern approaches view wisdom more holistically as comprising the compassionate dimensions of wisdom: (1) The cognitive wisdom
whole person, including behavioural conduct in the form of morality dimension entails a desire to know the truth and encompasses a deep
and compassion towards others. The latter is also an aspect of the and thorough understanding of life, particularly regarding issues that
African worldview as reflected in the concept of ubuntu, which includes relate to one’s own person and one’s relationship with others. It includes
relatedness where foundational values inform members of society on knowledge and acceptance of the positive and negative aspects of human
how to lead a wise life through serving others, including the environment. nature, of the inherent limits of knowledge, and of life’s unpredictability
It promotes a pervasive spirit of caring and community, harmony, and uncertainty. (2) The reflective wisdom dimension refers to the ability
hospitality, humility, respect and responsiveness among people. Oruka to perceive phenomena and events from multiple perspectives. It includes
(1990; 1991), a Kenyan philosopher, demarcated African philosophy into self-awareness, self-insight and self-examination to overcome subjectivity
four components. One of the components, called philosophic sagacity, and projection. Rather than blaming other people and circumstances
is practised by indigenous thinkers or sages. Sages are usually opinion for their own faults and failures, wise people are able to accept reality
leaders who are frequently consulted by people because they are versed as it is, which tends to reduce self-centeredness, and contribute to a
in the wisdom and traditions of their people and are wise within the greater understanding of life and others. (3) The compassionate wisdom
conventional and historical confines of their culture. Thus, sages are dimension includes a more thorough understanding of life and the
custodians of the traditions of their people. Such sages Oruka called human condition combined with a reduction in self-centeredness, which
“ordinary sages” or “cultural philosophers” because they do not rise tends to generate sympathetic and compassionate love for others and
beyond the sphere of ordinary wisdom. These sages are usually poets, the motivation to foster the well-being of others.
herbalists, medicine men, musicians, fortune-tellers, and so forth. On the
other hand, a philosophical sage is both a sage and a critical thinker.
The philosophical sage is not only wise, but also capable of being Box 3.4 CRITICAL THINKING: Wisdom in action
rational and critical in understanding or solving the inconsistencies of To test people’s wisdom, Baltes and Staudinger (2000) devised a series of dilemmas
his or her culture and coping with foreign or modern encroachments to which their research participants had to respond. Consider one of these dilemmas –
on it. Philosophical sages are considered critical and independent how would you respond to the following?
A 15-year old girl announces that she wants to get married. What should she
thinkers capable of using their own thoughts and judgements based consider and do?
on the power of reason and insight rather than on the authority of the If you respond as follows: “A 15-year-old wants to get married? No, no way!
communal consensus. Philosophic sagacity is individualistic, dialectical, Marrying at 15 would be utterly wrong! One has to tell the girl that marriage is not an
rigorous and philosophical in the strict sense. In his research on African option. She should finish schooling. It would be irresponsible to support such an idea”,
you are exhibiting low wisdom and may be responding from your own value and/or
wisdom, Oruka interviewed various sages and wanted a wider public cultural system.
to know not only their narratives but also about their lives. For him, If you respond as follows: “Well, on the surface, this seems like an easy problem. On
the worth of sages is not only in their ideas but also in the way they average, marriage for 15-year-old girls is not a good thing. However, there are situations
where the average case does not fit. Perhaps in this instance, special life circumstances
live: by embodying their philosophies, developing their character, and
or cultural issues and values are involved. In addition, one has to think about adequate
influencing their communities over the years. Similarly, Kresse (2007) ways of talking to this girl and considering her emotional state”, you are exhibiting good
engaged in the study of African wisdom based on Swahili sages. He wisdom. This means that you have considered the dilemma from various perspectives.
found that people are identified as wise if they are able to make others Therefore, a wise person would consider all of the components of wisdom in his
or her analysis of a dilemma, while an unwise person would come up with a simple
see the world in a different light or from a new perspective. He concluded response probably guided by cultural stereotypes or his/her own value system.
that wisdom required social performance and interaction. (See also Box Generally, wise people can see through situations and get to the important aspect the
3.5 regarding the use of African proverbs.) matter, rather than be caught up in the superficial aspects of the situation.

172 173
 Which factors contribute to the development of wisdom? Various trajectories: It is possible that wisdom (a) continues to increase across the life
researchers have proposed the following: span; (b) remains stable from early adulthood into old age; or (c) decreases
after an initial increase in youth and young adulthood. However, wisdom
• Cognitive abilities, expertise-specific conditions, and life experience seems to be a rare personal quality that indicates advanced cognitive and
contribute towards the development of wisdom (Baltes & Staudinger, emotional development and experience. In this sense, evidence of wisdom
2000). may be observed in adults of all ages. For example, results from the
• Wisdom may be linked to postformal-operational thinking (Walsh, mentioned Berlin Wisdom Study indicated that only 5% of the responses of
2015), which is intellectual functioning beyond the Piagetian stages of the study participants received high wisdom scores. However, the responses
cognitive development (as will be discussed in the next section). Wise that were rated as wise were evenly distributed over young, middle-aged
people tend to think reflectively or dialectically (logical reasoning), and older adults. In short, older participants’ responses were no wiser than
which means that they acknowledge that truth is not always absolute younger adults’ were, and there was no age-related decline in wisdom. In
(Labouvie-Vief, 1990). general, participants showed special insight when dilemmas were faced by
• People with personality traits such as openness to experience are more a similar aged target group: For dilemmas faced by a younger target, the
likely to learn from extensive experience, and are more likely to be open advice of young and middle-aged participants received higher ratings than
to relativism and the uncertainties of life. Individuals who are very rigid the advice given by older participants. In contrast, for dilemmas faced by
or set in their ways are unlikely to learn from such life experiences. an older target, advice of the older participants was rated somewhat higher
Furthermore, empathy or compassion is an important characteristic of than the advice given by young and middle-aged participants. Therefore,
wise people, due to their ability to overcome automatic responses in age by itself does not generate wisdom. The key variable seems to be
order to show concern for core human experiences and values (Adams, specific life experience (Ardelt & Oh, 2016; Erber & Szechuan, 2015).
2013; Pascual-Leone, 2000). This trend is also noted in African society where elders traditionally have
• A wise person is someone who can integrate thinking, feeling, and acting been considered as the wise transmitters of wisdom and knowledge and
into a coherent and holistic approach to a problem. This approach views where age and seniority are equated with more experience and accumulated
wisdom as a combination of a cognitive analytic mode, consisting of wisdom. According to Margaret Mead (1970), a well-known anthropologist,
knowledge and abstract reasoning skills, and a non-cognitive synthetic the world has moved from the pre-figurative phase, where the elders
mode, which includes reflective understanding, emotional empathy and knew and understood the world and therefore could give authoritative
emotion regulation (Ardelt & Oh, 2016). advice; through a co-figurative phase, where old and young had to learn
• According to Sternberg (1998), wisdom is the application of tacit to understand the new world side by side and where authority was divided
(practical) knowledge facilitated by values toward achieving a common equally; to a post-figurative, where the young understand the world better
good. This happens through a balance among multiple intrapersonal, than the old and, in many cases, the authority has shifted from the elder to
interpersonal, and extrapersonal interests in order to achieve a balance the younger. Therefore, the authority of the elders may no longer be taken
among (a) an adaptation to existing environments, (b) the shaping of for granted (see Muller, 1997).
existing environments, and (c) the selection of new environments. What are the benefits of wisdom? It could be argued that wise people
have discovered the true art of living, and if this were true, they should
How is wisdom affected by age? Traditionally, wisdom has been considered also know how to age and die well. Yet, some researchers have argued that
a trait of older adults, while theoretically, wisdom is considered a lifelong knowledge and insight into the human condition and the ageing process
developmental process. However, it is not clear at what age wisdom might that wisdom provides, such as the negative aspects thereof, may not be
peak, whether it declines with age and when the best products of wisdom conducive to the experience of subjective well-being (Staudinger & Glück,
come forth. The relationship between age and wisdom is complex. Although 2011). However, other studies that used combined measures of wisdom
age contributes to life experience, researchers have found little association (cognitive, reflective and compassionate personality qualities) and included
between age and wisdom. Instead, there may be various developmental racially, educationally and economically diverse samples of older adults,

174 175
 Which factors contribute to the development of wisdom? Various trajectories: It is possible that wisdom (a) continues to increase across the life
researchers have proposed the following: span; (b) remains stable from early adulthood into old age; or (c) decreases
after an initial increase in youth and young adulthood. However, wisdom
• Cognitive abilities, expertise-specific conditions, and life experience seems to be a rare personal quality that indicates advanced cognitive and
contribute towards the development of wisdom (Baltes & Staudinger, emotional development and experience. In this sense, evidence of wisdom
2000). may be observed in adults of all ages. For example, results from the
• Wisdom may be linked to postformal-operational thinking (Walsh, mentioned Berlin Wisdom Study indicated that only 5% of the responses of
2015), which is intellectual functioning beyond the Piagetian stages of the study participants received high wisdom scores. However, the responses
cognitive development (as will be discussed in the next section). Wise that were rated as wise were evenly distributed over young, middle-aged
people tend to think reflectively or dialectically (logical reasoning), and older adults. In short, older participants’ responses were no wiser than
which means that they acknowledge that truth is not always absolute younger adults’ were, and there was no age-related decline in wisdom. In
(Labouvie-Vief, 1990). general, participants showed special insight when dilemmas were faced by
• People with personality traits such as openness to experience are more a similar aged target group: For dilemmas faced by a younger target, the
likely to learn from extensive experience, and are more likely to be open advice of young and middle-aged participants received higher ratings than
to relativism and the uncertainties of life. Individuals who are very rigid the advice given by older participants. In contrast, for dilemmas faced by
or set in their ways are unlikely to learn from such life experiences. an older target, advice of the older participants was rated somewhat higher
Furthermore, empathy or compassion is an important characteristic of than the advice given by young and middle-aged participants. Therefore,
wise people, due to their ability to overcome automatic responses in age by itself does not generate wisdom. The key variable seems to be
order to show concern for core human experiences and values (Adams, specific life experience (Ardelt & Oh, 2016; Erber & Szechuan, 2015).
2013; Pascual-Leone, 2000). This trend is also noted in African society where elders traditionally have
• A wise person is someone who can integrate thinking, feeling, and acting been considered as the wise transmitters of wisdom and knowledge and
into a coherent and holistic approach to a problem. This approach views where age and seniority are equated with more experience and accumulated
wisdom as a combination of a cognitive analytic mode, consisting of wisdom. According to Margaret Mead (1970), a well-known anthropologist,
knowledge and abstract reasoning skills, and a non-cognitive synthetic the world has moved from the pre-figurative phase, where the elders
mode, which includes reflective understanding, emotional empathy and knew and understood the world and therefore could give authoritative
emotion regulation (Ardelt & Oh, 2016). advice; through a co-figurative phase, where old and young had to learn
• According to Sternberg (1998), wisdom is the application of tacit to understand the new world side by side and where authority was divided
(practical) knowledge facilitated by values toward achieving a common equally; to a post-figurative, where the young understand the world better
good. This happens through a balance among multiple intrapersonal, than the old and, in many cases, the authority has shifted from the elder to
interpersonal, and extrapersonal interests in order to achieve a balance the younger. Therefore, the authority of the elders may no longer be taken
among (a) an adaptation to existing environments, (b) the shaping of for granted (see Muller, 1997).
existing environments, and (c) the selection of new environments. What are the benefits of wisdom? It could be argued that wise people
have discovered the true art of living, and if this were true, they should
How is wisdom affected by age? Traditionally, wisdom has been considered also know how to age and die well. Yet, some researchers have argued that
a trait of older adults, while theoretically, wisdom is considered a lifelong knowledge and insight into the human condition and the ageing process
developmental process. However, it is not clear at what age wisdom might that wisdom provides, such as the negative aspects thereof, may not be
peak, whether it declines with age and when the best products of wisdom conducive to the experience of subjective well-being (Staudinger & Glück,
come forth. The relationship between age and wisdom is complex. Although 2011). However, other studies that used combined measures of wisdom
age contributes to life experience, researchers have found little association (cognitive, reflective and compassionate personality qualities) and included
between age and wisdom. Instead, there may be various developmental racially, educationally and economically diverse samples of older adults,

174 175
found that wise people tend to exhibit feelings of mastery and control 3.3.4.3 Creativity
(Ardelt & Oh, 2016). It appears that wise people not only are able to perceive
reality as it is, but also learn from experience and have the resources and Creativity refers to an ability or skill that is original, unique, and appropriate
confidence to master the vicissitudes (ups and downs) of life. to the situation (such as producing a commercial product, an artwork,
a scientific theory, or even a joke). Creative individuals typically display
originality, imagination and expressiveness; they are exceptional due to their
Box 3.5 Proverbs and African Wisdom
ability to create something new, depict reality in a new light, and transcend
Proverbs are an integral part of African culture. Simple statements with deep meaning, conceptual boundaries (Kozbelt, 2016).
they are guidelines for individuals, family and village behaviour, built upon repeated
real-life experiences and observations over time. Proverbs are mirrors through which As in the case of wisdom, creativity is both a desirable quality and a
people look at themselves – a stage for expressing themselves to others. The way concept that is difficult to define and measure. Although the contemporary
people think and look at the world, their culture, values, behaviours, aspirations and study of creativity started around 1950, creativity researchers have not
preoccupations can be understood immediately by looking at their proverbs. While
reached consensus on the appropriate way to study creativity.
Africa has many languages, proverbs offer them common ground. The same proverbs
recur in similar forms in almost all African languages and societies. Some state facts Some researchers take an eminent (renowned) creator’s or Big-C creativity
from people’s history, customs and practices; others express philosophical beliefs approach, studying individuals from the past or present who are generally
and values. Yet, proverbs make communication instantly possible, irrespective of thought to be highly creative. Other researchers study everyday creativity or
differences in geographic origin and cultural backgrounds. Proverbs are the common
property of Africans because they are ascribed to the wisdom of all the ancestors. A
Little-c creativity, which consists of creative solutions to everyday problems
statement, such as “so said the ancestors”, preceding a saying accords the proverb its and less prominent creative achievements (Ardelt & Adams-Price, 2016).
unquestionable authority. Proverbs are used to illustrate ideas, reinforce arguments, and Some researchers take a cognitive approach to studying creativity
deliver messages of inspiration, consolation, celebration and advice. More specifically: (Denham & Punt, 2017; Smith et al., 2009). Although creativity could be
■ Proverbs identify and dignify a culture. They express the collective wisdom of the linked to general intelligence, it is very different from general intelligence and
people, reflecting their thinking, values and behaviours.
wisdom. In fact, it seems to be a distinct cognitive ability, such as to come up
■ In traditional Africa, proverbs are used to unlock “stuckness”, clarify vision, and
unify different perspectives. Proverbs add humour and diffuse tension on otherwise with unique and valuable ideas, products, or problem solutions. Much of this
sensitive issues. For centuries, African societies have used proverbs to ease research has been on divergent thinking, defined as the ability to generate
uncomfortable situations, confront issues, and build institutions and relationships. many ideas, including ideas that are unique and those that are useful. This
They can be understood where literacy is low and yet appreciated by the even
means that multiple solutions to a problem may be given. Furthermore, the
most educated.
solutions usually differ from mainstream thinking.
■ Proverbs are metaphors and can explain complex issues in simple statements.
For example, two villages in conflict may not fight after reflecting on the proverb Other researchers believe that in addition to cognitive abilities, creativity
“When elephants fight, it is the grass that suffers”. The meaning behind this also requires certain personality qualities and intrinsic motivation to pursue
proverb is a powerful message about the negative effects that a disagreement creative activities (LeBoutillier & Barry, 2018; Puryear et al, 2017). For example,
between two chiefs can have on innocent villagers. Similarly, a factional conflict
in an organisation can be most harmful to those the organisation intends to serve
creators tend to be characterised by openness to new experiences, curiosity,
– the people in the community. The proverb, “When spider webs unite, they can imaginativeness, sensitivity and originality. In addition, the creative personality
tie up a lion”, communicates the importance of unity and collaboration in tackling is characterised by independence, nonconformity, unconventionality,
problems and inspires people with the faith that they can address problems, no behavioural and cognitive flexibility, and risk-taking boldness (Simonton,
matter how big.
2000). Creative people also tend to be driven and ambitious.
■ Proverbs are like seeds that only become “alive” when they are “sown”. They are
simple statements until applied to actual situations, bringing them to life and Furthermore, creativity occurs across various domains, including creative
expanding their meaning. As metaphors, proverbs create strong mental pictures. thinking in the natural, earth and social sciences, and creative products
This is a great way to motivate people to action. in the written and technical domains, in the visual arts (e.g. paintings and
(Adapted from Malunga & Banda, 2004)
sculptures) and in the performing arts (e.g. drama and music). It should also
be remembered that creative acts occur in a cultural context. Therefore,
creative acts can be considered a function of the person, the creative materials

176 177
found that wise people tend to exhibit feelings of mastery and control 3.3.4.3 Creativity
(Ardelt & Oh, 2016). It appears that wise people not only are able to perceive
reality as it is, but also learn from experience and have the resources and Creativity refers to an ability or skill that is original, unique, and appropriate
confidence to master the vicissitudes (ups and downs) of life. to the situation (such as producing a commercial product, an artwork,
a scientific theory, or even a joke). Creative individuals typically display
originality, imagination and expressiveness; they are exceptional due to their
Box 3.5 Proverbs and African Wisdom
ability to create something new, depict reality in a new light, and transcend
Proverbs are an integral part of African culture. Simple statements with deep meaning, conceptual boundaries (Kozbelt, 2016).
they are guidelines for individuals, family and village behaviour, built upon repeated
real-life experiences and observations over time. Proverbs are mirrors through which As in the case of wisdom, creativity is both a desirable quality and a
people look at themselves – a stage for expressing themselves to others. The way concept that is difficult to define and measure. Although the contemporary
people think and look at the world, their culture, values, behaviours, aspirations and study of creativity started around 1950, creativity researchers have not
preoccupations can be understood immediately by looking at their proverbs. While
reached consensus on the appropriate way to study creativity.
Africa has many languages, proverbs offer them common ground. The same proverbs
recur in similar forms in almost all African languages and societies. Some state facts Some researchers take an eminent (renowned) creator’s or Big-C creativity
from people’s history, customs and practices; others express philosophical beliefs approach, studying individuals from the past or present who are generally
and values. Yet, proverbs make communication instantly possible, irrespective of thought to be highly creative. Other researchers study everyday creativity or
differences in geographic origin and cultural backgrounds. Proverbs are the common
property of Africans because they are ascribed to the wisdom of all the ancestors. A
Little-c creativity, which consists of creative solutions to everyday problems
statement, such as “so said the ancestors”, preceding a saying accords the proverb its and less prominent creative achievements (Ardelt & Adams-Price, 2016).
unquestionable authority. Proverbs are used to illustrate ideas, reinforce arguments, and Some researchers take a cognitive approach to studying creativity
deliver messages of inspiration, consolation, celebration and advice. More specifically: (Denham & Punt, 2017; Smith et al., 2009). Although creativity could be
■ Proverbs identify and dignify a culture. They express the collective wisdom of the linked to general intelligence, it is very different from general intelligence and
people, reflecting their thinking, values and behaviours.
wisdom. In fact, it seems to be a distinct cognitive ability, such as to come up
■ In traditional Africa, proverbs are used to unlock “stuckness”, clarify vision, and
unify different perspectives. Proverbs add humour and diffuse tension on otherwise with unique and valuable ideas, products, or problem solutions. Much of this
sensitive issues. For centuries, African societies have used proverbs to ease research has been on divergent thinking, defined as the ability to generate
uncomfortable situations, confront issues, and build institutions and relationships. many ideas, including ideas that are unique and those that are useful. This
They can be understood where literacy is low and yet appreciated by the even
means that multiple solutions to a problem may be given. Furthermore, the
most educated.
solutions usually differ from mainstream thinking.
■ Proverbs are metaphors and can explain complex issues in simple statements.
For example, two villages in conflict may not fight after reflecting on the proverb Other researchers believe that in addition to cognitive abilities, creativity
“When elephants fight, it is the grass that suffers”. The meaning behind this also requires certain personality qualities and intrinsic motivation to pursue
proverb is a powerful message about the negative effects that a disagreement creative activities (LeBoutillier & Barry, 2018; Puryear et al, 2017). For example,
between two chiefs can have on innocent villagers. Similarly, a factional conflict
in an organisation can be most harmful to those the organisation intends to serve
creators tend to be characterised by openness to new experiences, curiosity,
– the people in the community. The proverb, “When spider webs unite, they can imaginativeness, sensitivity and originality. In addition, the creative personality
tie up a lion”, communicates the importance of unity and collaboration in tackling is characterised by independence, nonconformity, unconventionality,
problems and inspires people with the faith that they can address problems, no behavioural and cognitive flexibility, and risk-taking boldness (Simonton,
matter how big.
2000). Creative people also tend to be driven and ambitious.
■ Proverbs are like seeds that only become “alive” when they are “sown”. They are
simple statements until applied to actual situations, bringing them to life and Furthermore, creativity occurs across various domains, including creative
expanding their meaning. As metaphors, proverbs create strong mental pictures. thinking in the natural, earth and social sciences, and creative products
This is a great way to motivate people to action. in the written and technical domains, in the visual arts (e.g. paintings and
(Adapted from Malunga & Banda, 2004)
sculptures) and in the performing arts (e.g. drama and music). It should also
be remembered that creative acts occur in a cultural context. Therefore,
creative acts can be considered a function of the person, the creative materials

176 177
available, and the sociocultural context. Thus, different cultures might value continuity of their culture and contribute to their family’s income by selling
different products or value products for different reasons or features (Ardelt their crafts, which in turn increases their sense of self-efficacy (Glăveanu,
& Adams-Price, 2016). 2013).
Researchers interested in the relationship between ageing and creativity
use a variety of approaches. For example, some researchers use psychometric
tests, such as personality or cognitive measures, while others use the creative
products of creative individuals such as assembled through biographies,
histories, bibliographies, or other reference works. Research findings revealed
the following (Ardelt & Adams-Price, 2016; Simonton, 2016; Stroebe, 2016;
Weinberg, 2016):

• A typical age curve is noted in most studies. Maximum creative output is

reached in the late 30s or early 40s and gradually declines from age 60.
From ages 70 or 80, the decline is more significant.
• Creative output varies across domains. For example, in abstract domains
such as mathematics, physics, and the production of short literary works
such as poetry, creative productivity tends to peak at younger ages
than for novelists, or creators in the earth sciences. In some disciplines,
Creativity occurs across various domains the peak occurs so late and the decline is so minimal, that it is hardly
appropriate to speak of a decrease in creative productivity with age. For
In South Africa, artists and creative thinkers are acknowledged in various example, historians, psychologists, and philosophers may reach their
forums such as the SAMA (South African Music Awards); SAFTA (South peak much later (often in their sixties), while their productivity in their
African Film and Television Awards); the Loerie Awards, which recognise, seventies may even surpass the output of their earlier careers. Therefore,
reward, inspire, and foster creative excellence in advertising, architecture, the best predictor of someone’s creative productivity is the person’s past
music videos, service design, and many other areas in which our creators creative productivity rather than his or her age.
and innovative thinkers are acknowledged. • Huge individual differences occur in the age-creativity paradigm.
One area of creative activity that There are many examples of great achievements by exceptionally young
has not been examined much in the thinkers and great achievements by exceptionally old thinkers. Some
literature is the creation of traditional explanations for this phenomenon could be the following:
crafts. Crafts (such as jewellery-making, – Creative productivity may be a function of age at the beginning of
pottery, beadwork, wooden objects, someone’s career. For example, physicists are likely to complete their
quilting and other needlecrafts) are doctoral training at younger ages than psychologists do, giving physicists
sometimes considered less than a head start on their career trajectories. Therefore, physicists may peak
creative because they are often not earlier than psychologists may, but also show earlier decline.
high on novelty. However, they are likely – 6Creative productivity may be a function of output rate, whether on
to be highly authentic and aesthetic, an annual or lifetime basis. Some creators are extremely prolific, while
especially with regard to cultural others are “one-idea” creators. The prolific creators are usually highly
meaning. Moreover, producing crafts productive early in their careers, at the peak of their careers and at the
may be one of the best ways through end of their careers, while the “one-product” creators usually peak early,
which people can participate in the Crafts like this Zulu necklace and armband around age 20.
often has a cultural meaning
– The relationship between age and creativity may be related to
178 179
available, and the sociocultural context. Thus, different cultures might value continuity of their culture and contribute to their family’s income by selling
different products or value products for different reasons or features (Ardelt their crafts, which in turn increases their sense of self-efficacy (Glăveanu,
& Adams-Price, 2016). 2013).
Researchers interested in the relationship between ageing and creativity
use a variety of approaches. For example, some researchers use psychometric
tests, such as personality or cognitive measures, while others use the creative
products of creative individuals such as assembled through biographies,
histories, bibliographies, or other reference works. Research findings revealed
the following (Ardelt & Adams-Price, 2016; Simonton, 2016; Stroebe, 2016;
Weinberg, 2016):

• A typical age curve is noted in most studies. Maximum creative output is

reached in the late 30s or early 40s and gradually declines from age 60.
From ages 70 or 80, the decline is more significant.
• Creative output varies across domains. For example, in abstract domains
such as mathematics, physics, and the production of short literary works
such as poetry, creative productivity tends to peak at younger ages
than for novelists, or creators in the earth sciences. In some disciplines,
Creativity occurs across various domains the peak occurs so late and the decline is so minimal, that it is hardly
appropriate to speak of a decrease in creative productivity with age. For
In South Africa, artists and creative thinkers are acknowledged in various example, historians, psychologists, and philosophers may reach their
forums such as the SAMA (South African Music Awards); SAFTA (South peak much later (often in their sixties), while their productivity in their
African Film and Television Awards); the Loerie Awards, which recognise, seventies may even surpass the output of their earlier careers. Therefore,
reward, inspire, and foster creative excellence in advertising, architecture, the best predictor of someone’s creative productivity is the person’s past
music videos, service design, and many other areas in which our creators creative productivity rather than his or her age.
and innovative thinkers are acknowledged. • Huge individual differences occur in the age-creativity paradigm.
One area of creative activity that There are many examples of great achievements by exceptionally young
has not been examined much in the thinkers and great achievements by exceptionally old thinkers. Some
literature is the creation of traditional explanations for this phenomenon could be the following:
crafts. Crafts (such as jewellery-making, – Creative productivity may be a function of age at the beginning of
pottery, beadwork, wooden objects, someone’s career. For example, physicists are likely to complete their
quilting and other needlecrafts) are doctoral training at younger ages than psychologists do, giving physicists
sometimes considered less than a head start on their career trajectories. Therefore, physicists may peak
creative because they are often not earlier than psychologists may, but also show earlier decline.
high on novelty. However, they are likely – 6Creative productivity may be a function of output rate, whether on
to be highly authentic and aesthetic, an annual or lifetime basis. Some creators are extremely prolific, while
especially with regard to cultural others are “one-idea” creators. The prolific creators are usually highly
meaning. Moreover, producing crafts productive early in their careers, at the peak of their careers and at the
may be one of the best ways through end of their careers, while the “one-product” creators usually peak early,
which people can participate in the Crafts like this Zulu necklace and armband around age 20.
often has a cultural meaning
– The relationship between age and creativity may be related to
178 179
 cognitive factors. For example, experimental innovators work inductively, through a computer system, which he initially operated by using a hand-
drawing general inferences or conclusions from accumulated knowledge. held switch, and eventually by using a single cheek muscle. Despite his
They tend to peak later in life, after they have built up a body of disabilities, he continued to publish his ideas until his death at age 76.
knowledge. These creators are usually best known for their body of work,
rather than for isolated master works. Conversely, conceptual innovators
work deductively. Their innovations tend to be theoretical, based on a
general premise or idea (not submitted to scientific investigation) from
which results are predicted. Conceptual innovation does not require the
extensive knowledge that experimental innovation requires; so, it can
be done effectively at younger ages. The most important innovations
involve radical departures from existing patterns of thought, and people
are best positioned to make such radical breakthroughs early in their
careers, shortly after having been exposed to a paradigm and before they
have assimilated it. Conceptual creators are often “young geniuses” who
tend to peak early and decline rapidly, and are prone to be famous for
one or two breakthrough works.
• Enduring characteristics such as talent, drive and continuity seem to
Ladysmith Black Mambazo Nadine Gordimer

be the best predictors of creative productivity. For example, Joseph

Shabalala founded the world-famous singing group Ladysmith Black • The number of years in a given career rather than the age of the individual
Mambazo in 1960. Since then, he has been the driving force behind the may be most important. The point of maximum creativity often coincides
group who has won numerous local and international awards, including with the point of maximum productivity. Therefore, individuals who
several Grammy Awards up to 2018 (when this book was written). generate the largest number of works (high productivity) have the
Nadine Gordimer, the South African Nobel Prize winner whose books greatest chance of creating a masterpiece or having a ‘creative hit’ (high
have been translated into 40 different languages, wrote her first book creativity). Individuals who enter a career in middle age or later often
when she was 26 and her last book when she was 88 years old. There are have a later peak of productivity and a higher rate of output in the older
numerous other South African and international examples. For example, adult years. For example, Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis,
Tolstoy (author) and Picasso (painter) stayed productive until advanced published his first major work The Interpretation of Dreams at the age of
old age. Furthermore, although physical incapacity may affect creative 44. Until his death at the advanced age of 83, Freud continued to produce
output, many creative geniuses have surmounted enormous obstacles. influential works at an astonishing and steady pace. Interestingly, Colonel
For example, the classical composer Beethoven became deaf in his later Sanders was well over 60 when he became successful with Kentucky Fried
years and this may account for some of the innovations in his later works Chicken, and Ray Kroc was 52 when he bought the fast-food restaurant
when he had to rely on an imagined world of sound. Stephen Hawking, that later became McDonald’s. These and other examples show how
the well-known British theoretical physicist and cosmologist who brought creativity may stand undiminished in the face of age.
the ideas about black holes and quantum gravity to a broad public
audience, suffered from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a form of Which factors foster or contribute to creativity? Apart from characteristics
motor-neuron disease, for most of his adult years. This condition was such as talent and drive, being at the right place at the right time may also
diagnosed when he was in his early twenties and gradually paralysed him play a role – in other words, an optimal genetic-environment fit occurs. For
over the decades. He was confined to a wheelchair for most of his adult example, a prominent female physicist enters the sciences at a time when her
years, and after the loss of his speech, he was still able to communicate field is receptive to women, her speciality is expanding, and people are open
to her ideas. Other factors seem less generalised. Some highly creative people

180 181
 cognitive factors. For example, experimental innovators work inductively, through a computer system, which he initially operated by using a hand-
drawing general inferences or conclusions from accumulated knowledge. held switch, and eventually by using a single cheek muscle. Despite his
They tend to peak later in life, after they have built up a body of disabilities, he continued to publish his ideas until his death at age 76.
knowledge. These creators are usually best known for their body of work,
rather than for isolated master works. Conversely, conceptual innovators
work deductively. Their innovations tend to be theoretical, based on a
general premise or idea (not submitted to scientific investigation) from
which results are predicted. Conceptual innovation does not require the
extensive knowledge that experimental innovation requires; so, it can
be done effectively at younger ages. The most important innovations
involve radical departures from existing patterns of thought, and people
are best positioned to make such radical breakthroughs early in their
careers, shortly after having been exposed to a paradigm and before they
have assimilated it. Conceptual creators are often “young geniuses” who
tend to peak early and decline rapidly, and are prone to be famous for
one or two breakthrough works.
• Enduring characteristics such as talent, drive and continuity seem to
Ladysmith Black Mambazo Nadine Gordimer

be the best predictors of creative productivity. For example, Joseph

Shabalala founded the world-famous singing group Ladysmith Black • The number of years in a given career rather than the age of the individual
Mambazo in 1960. Since then, he has been the driving force behind the may be most important. The point of maximum creativity often coincides
group who has won numerous local and international awards, including with the point of maximum productivity. Therefore, individuals who
several Grammy Awards up to 2018 (when this book was written). generate the largest number of works (high productivity) have the
Nadine Gordimer, the South African Nobel Prize winner whose books greatest chance of creating a masterpiece or having a ‘creative hit’ (high
have been translated into 40 different languages, wrote her first book creativity). Individuals who enter a career in middle age or later often
when she was 26 and her last book when she was 88 years old. There are have a later peak of productivity and a higher rate of output in the older
numerous other South African and international examples. For example, adult years. For example, Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis,
Tolstoy (author) and Picasso (painter) stayed productive until advanced published his first major work The Interpretation of Dreams at the age of
old age. Furthermore, although physical incapacity may affect creative 44. Until his death at the advanced age of 83, Freud continued to produce
output, many creative geniuses have surmounted enormous obstacles. influential works at an astonishing and steady pace. Interestingly, Colonel
For example, the classical composer Beethoven became deaf in his later Sanders was well over 60 when he became successful with Kentucky Fried
years and this may account for some of the innovations in his later works Chicken, and Ray Kroc was 52 when he bought the fast-food restaurant
when he had to rely on an imagined world of sound. Stephen Hawking, that later became McDonald’s. These and other examples show how
the well-known British theoretical physicist and cosmologist who brought creativity may stand undiminished in the face of age.
the ideas about black holes and quantum gravity to a broad public
audience, suffered from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a form of Which factors foster or contribute to creativity? Apart from characteristics
motor-neuron disease, for most of his adult years. This condition was such as talent and drive, being at the right place at the right time may also
diagnosed when he was in his early twenties and gradually paralysed him play a role – in other words, an optimal genetic-environment fit occurs. For
over the decades. He was confined to a wheelchair for most of his adult example, a prominent female physicist enters the sciences at a time when her
years, and after the loss of his speech, he was still able to communicate field is receptive to women, her speciality is expanding, and people are open
to her ideas. Other factors seem less generalised. Some highly creative people

180 181
have unhappy childhoods; others are blessed with a loving family life; some the young and the old to overcome liabilities linked to their age. For example,
grow up in poverty and others in luxury. Some show signs of creative genius the young may bring enthusiasm to the table, while the old bring the
early in life, while others are indifferent students whose abilities emerge only experience. The various collaborative forces may explain why recent research
later in life. However, a few traits set creative people apart from the less finds that the age decline in scientific output has declined – if it does show up
creative ones: They have a passion for learning, for improving, and expanding at all. (See Box 3.6 regarding the insights of an award-winning South African
themselves. These passions also do not vanish after youth; they remain as copywriter.)
powerful in later life. However, in some respects, later creative works may be
different from their earlier works. For example, research involving classical
composers indicates that later compositions were shorter, often simpler and Box 3.6 Advice for creators from Dominique Swiegers, winner
more restrained, and gained recognition among performers. This finding has of the Pendoring Prestige Award for Copywriting:
been made with regard to other disciplines as well and is referred to as the
■ Make the things you want to make.
swan song phenomenon, which is a resurgence of creative output stemming
■ Tell a good story.
from a final burst of creative energy.
■ Fear is not a creative best friend – it’s the enemy.
In addition, for creators who are already past the supposed productive
■ Stop complaining and start creating.
peak (as indicated by the typical age curve), the post-peak may have
■ Be bold as a creator.
personal meaning – nobody wants to be perceived as “past their prime”,
■ Collaborate – it comes with a magnitude of power.
“over the hill”, or “running out of steam”. However, this picture may not be
nearly as dismal as some might infer. Many extrinsic factors may contribute
to an extended creative life. For example, due to modern healthcare, many
creators live healthier and hence more productive lives. Furthermore, there 3.3.5 Factors that may affect cognitive development in
are currently more opportunities for creative people to pursue a wide range adulthood
of interests through various media, allowing them to maintain the openness
to experience that is associated with creativity: Think of the various As we have seen, most studies indicate a generalised gradual decline in
opportunities in South Africa, such as art and music festivals, design indabas, cognitive functioning with age. This becomes more evident in old age.
creative writing opportunities, and cooking and singing competitions hosted Physiological changes in the brain (such as a decline in neural functioning)
by television channels, while many foundations support and encourage may be linked to this age-related decline. Furthermore, losses in visual
creative minds. and auditory acuity affect mental efficiency because they degrade the
We also have to consider the fact that creators operate in a social context. information that the brain needs to interpret the world. Therefore, more
This context includes role models and mentors, collaborators, associates, effort is needed to recognise complex inputs such as spoken and written
rivals, and students or apprentices. The increasingly collaborative nature of language. This puts more strain on the processing capacity and reduces the
creativity is of special interest. Although creative collaboration is especially speed and accuracy with which the individual can interpret, store in memory,
notable in the sciences, it also appears in the arts, such as architecture, and make correct inferences.
theatre, dance, cinema, and video games. In collaborative creativity, new However, as we have noted in our discussion, not all cognitive abilities
ideas emerge from the dynamic interaction of individual minds. Although decline at the same age, at the same rate, or to the same extent in all individuals
not all groups are equally creative, highly creative collaborators seem to have or even within the same individual. As a population ages, the differences
certain characteristics in common. In general, such groups are more creative in a group become much more varied than, for instance, during childhood.
when they are heterogeneous with respect to various professional and The reason for this is that the developmental trajectories or pathways are
demographic factors. One such factor is age. A highly creative collaborative much more varied in adulthood, and the extent of change is affected by
group often consists of people of different age groups; hence, with differences complex interactions of a large variety of factors including health, social and
in experience levels and cohort diversities. This cohort diversity helps both personality factors. Because these variables affect individuals to different

182 183
have unhappy childhoods; others are blessed with a loving family life; some the young and the old to overcome liabilities linked to their age. For example,
grow up in poverty and others in luxury. Some show signs of creative genius the young may bring enthusiasm to the table, while the old bring the
early in life, while others are indifferent students whose abilities emerge only experience. The various collaborative forces may explain why recent research
later in life. However, a few traits set creative people apart from the less finds that the age decline in scientific output has declined – if it does show up
creative ones: They have a passion for learning, for improving, and expanding at all. (See Box 3.6 regarding the insights of an award-winning South African
themselves. These passions also do not vanish after youth; they remain as copywriter.)
powerful in later life. However, in some respects, later creative works may be
different from their earlier works. For example, research involving classical
composers indicates that later compositions were shorter, often simpler and Box 3.6 Advice for creators from Dominique Swiegers, winner
more restrained, and gained recognition among performers. This finding has of the Pendoring Prestige Award for Copywriting:
been made with regard to other disciplines as well and is referred to as the
■ Make the things you want to make.
swan song phenomenon, which is a resurgence of creative output stemming
■ Tell a good story.
from a final burst of creative energy.
■ Fear is not a creative best friend – it’s the enemy.
In addition, for creators who are already past the supposed productive
■ Stop complaining and start creating.
peak (as indicated by the typical age curve), the post-peak may have
■ Be bold as a creator.
personal meaning – nobody wants to be perceived as “past their prime”,
■ Collaborate – it comes with a magnitude of power.
“over the hill”, or “running out of steam”. However, this picture may not be
nearly as dismal as some might infer. Many extrinsic factors may contribute
to an extended creative life. For example, due to modern healthcare, many
creators live healthier and hence more productive lives. Furthermore, there 3.3.5 Factors that may affect cognitive development in
are currently more opportunities for creative people to pursue a wide range adulthood
of interests through various media, allowing them to maintain the openness
to experience that is associated with creativity: Think of the various As we have seen, most studies indicate a generalised gradual decline in
opportunities in South Africa, such as art and music festivals, design indabas, cognitive functioning with age. This becomes more evident in old age.
creative writing opportunities, and cooking and singing competitions hosted Physiological changes in the brain (such as a decline in neural functioning)
by television channels, while many foundations support and encourage may be linked to this age-related decline. Furthermore, losses in visual
creative minds. and auditory acuity affect mental efficiency because they degrade the
We also have to consider the fact that creators operate in a social context. information that the brain needs to interpret the world. Therefore, more
This context includes role models and mentors, collaborators, associates, effort is needed to recognise complex inputs such as spoken and written
rivals, and students or apprentices. The increasingly collaborative nature of language. This puts more strain on the processing capacity and reduces the
creativity is of special interest. Although creative collaboration is especially speed and accuracy with which the individual can interpret, store in memory,
notable in the sciences, it also appears in the arts, such as architecture, and make correct inferences.
theatre, dance, cinema, and video games. In collaborative creativity, new However, as we have noted in our discussion, not all cognitive abilities
ideas emerge from the dynamic interaction of individual minds. Although decline at the same age, at the same rate, or to the same extent in all individuals
not all groups are equally creative, highly creative collaborators seem to have or even within the same individual. As a population ages, the differences
certain characteristics in common. In general, such groups are more creative in a group become much more varied than, for instance, during childhood.
when they are heterogeneous with respect to various professional and The reason for this is that the developmental trajectories or pathways are
demographic factors. One such factor is age. A highly creative collaborative much more varied in adulthood, and the extent of change is affected by
group often consists of people of different age groups; hence, with differences complex interactions of a large variety of factors including health, social and
in experience levels and cohort diversities. This cohort diversity helps both personality factors. Because these variables affect individuals to different

182 183
extents, their chronological age may not be a good indication of the cognitive
changes they may experience. For example, although biological changes as
• Personality factors. Characteristics such as a positive self-image, an
internal sense of control, positive feelings of self-efficacy, and effective
mentioned above may result in age-related decline, other factors should
use of coping strategies may also combat the decline in cognitive
also be considered, such as the following (Alwin et al, 2016; Bjorklund, 2014;
functioning, since people who believe they can perform effectively
Brewster et al., 2014; Peltzer & Phaswana-Mafuya, 2012):
usually do perform effectively. This may also be linked to cultural
• Health. An important distinction is between normal ageing and stereotypes. Whether the older person’s specific culture associates
pathological ageing. There is ample evidence that pathologies (diseases) ageing with inevitable cognitive decline or as a period of increasing
accelerate the rate of cognitive decline in later life. Many studies have wisdom and expertise may affect the cognitive performance, especially
shown that older people who suffer from particular pathologies, such as if the stereotype is relevant to the individual’s self-image. In fact, positive
diabetes or cardiovascular problems, perform more poorly on cognitive beliefs and attitudes also have indirect effects on cognitive enrichment.
measures than age-matched healthy controls do. Furthermore, the This indirect effect is reflected in the influence of these beliefs
number of different pathologies, including minor diseases, may affect and attitudes on desirable behaviours such as exercise and mental
cognitive performance. In fact, a very rapid cognitive decline in the stimulation known to be associated with enrichment effects on a variety
months before death is referred to as the terminal drop. However, since of cognitive measures. In addition, research indicates that people with
it is a well-established fact that intellectual skills tend to decline in later flexible attitudes at midlife tend to experience less decline in intellectual
life, a simple measure of cognitive decline is not an especially good competence than people with more rigid attitudes do.
predictor of death, since cognitive decline applies to both those about • Multilingualism. Researchers have discovered that senior citizens who
to die and those who will survive. Therefore, the concept of critical loss speak more than one language test for better cognitive functioning
may be a better term. According to the critical loss argument, whereas (e.g. Bak et al., 2014). These researchers found that the more languages
some intellectual abilities may decline without predicting anything a person spoke, the better his or her cognitive state was. Although a
in particular, changes in specific indices (signs) are far more likely to person’s level of education was strongly associated with cognitive state,
indicate that death is imminent. However, what precisely these indices the number of languages a person spoke also contributed to a prediction
of critical loss are is still uncertain. Some researchers indicate declining of the person’s cognitive fitness. In fact, they found that speaking more
learning and memory skills, a decline in psychomotor skills, a decline in languages was correlated significantly with cognitive state in people
vocabulary size, declining verbal and spatial skills, and a general decline who had no education at all. The researchers concluded that being able
in cognitive and intellectual skills, while others maintain that the level to speak other languages or learning new languages is beneficial at any
of life satisfaction is a reliable predictor. A problem with the notions of age. It allows for flexibility of thought and is a channel for understanding
the terminal drop and critical loss is that researchers find it difficult to another culture better. However, other researchers did not find that
determine exactly what must drop for it to be the harbinger (indication) bilingualism as such protects a person from cognitive decline (e.g.
of death. The reason for this is that the various studies in this regard Mukadam et al., 2018). Therefore, more research is necessary on this
are methodologically very different. For example, radically different aspect.
measures were employed, different forms of statistical analyses were • Lifestyle factors. Maintaining an active life, such as being involved in
used, and there were vast differences in the research participant groups. community and family, and stimulating mental activities also contribute
• Sociodemographic factors. Indications are that sociodemographic to maintaining cognitive abilities. A large amount of learning can take
factors such as prolonged education, higher socio-economic status, place in everyday life without the person being consciously aware of
lengthy marriage to an intelligent spouse, exposure to stimulating being stimulated intellectually. For example, researchers found a positive
environments, the complexity of workplace environment, and the correlation between the intellectual complexity of leisure activities and
utilisation of cultural and educational resources throughout adulthood the cognitive capabilities of adults between the ages of 40 and 80.
affect the maintenance of cognitive functioning in old age. Less cognitive decline has been noted in older adults who maintain
these activities from middle adulthood to late adulthood and do more
184 185
extents, their chronological age may not be a good indication of the cognitive
changes they may experience. For example, although biological changes as
• Personality factors. Characteristics such as a positive self-image, an
internal sense of control, positive feelings of self-efficacy, and effective
mentioned above may result in age-related decline, other factors should
use of coping strategies may also combat the decline in cognitive
also be considered, such as the following (Alwin et al, 2016; Bjorklund, 2014;
functioning, since people who believe they can perform effectively
Brewster et al., 2014; Peltzer & Phaswana-Mafuya, 2012):
usually do perform effectively. This may also be linked to cultural
• Health. An important distinction is between normal ageing and stereotypes. Whether the older person’s specific culture associates
pathological ageing. There is ample evidence that pathologies (diseases) ageing with inevitable cognitive decline or as a period of increasing
accelerate the rate of cognitive decline in later life. Many studies have wisdom and expertise may affect the cognitive performance, especially
shown that older people who suffer from particular pathologies, such as if the stereotype is relevant to the individual’s self-image. In fact, positive
diabetes or cardiovascular problems, perform more poorly on cognitive beliefs and attitudes also have indirect effects on cognitive enrichment.
measures than age-matched healthy controls do. Furthermore, the This indirect effect is reflected in the influence of these beliefs
number of different pathologies, including minor diseases, may affect and attitudes on desirable behaviours such as exercise and mental
cognitive performance. In fact, a very rapid cognitive decline in the stimulation known to be associated with enrichment effects on a variety
months before death is referred to as the terminal drop. However, since of cognitive measures. In addition, research indicates that people with
it is a well-established fact that intellectual skills tend to decline in later flexible attitudes at midlife tend to experience less decline in intellectual
life, a simple measure of cognitive decline is not an especially good competence than people with more rigid attitudes do.
predictor of death, since cognitive decline applies to both those about • Multilingualism. Researchers have discovered that senior citizens who
to die and those who will survive. Therefore, the concept of critical loss speak more than one language test for better cognitive functioning
may be a better term. According to the critical loss argument, whereas (e.g. Bak et al., 2014). These researchers found that the more languages
some intellectual abilities may decline without predicting anything a person spoke, the better his or her cognitive state was. Although a
in particular, changes in specific indices (signs) are far more likely to person’s level of education was strongly associated with cognitive state,
indicate that death is imminent. However, what precisely these indices the number of languages a person spoke also contributed to a prediction
of critical loss are is still uncertain. Some researchers indicate declining of the person’s cognitive fitness. In fact, they found that speaking more
learning and memory skills, a decline in psychomotor skills, a decline in languages was correlated significantly with cognitive state in people
vocabulary size, declining verbal and spatial skills, and a general decline who had no education at all. The researchers concluded that being able
in cognitive and intellectual skills, while others maintain that the level to speak other languages or learning new languages is beneficial at any
of life satisfaction is a reliable predictor. A problem with the notions of age. It allows for flexibility of thought and is a channel for understanding
the terminal drop and critical loss is that researchers find it difficult to another culture better. However, other researchers did not find that
determine exactly what must drop for it to be the harbinger (indication) bilingualism as such protects a person from cognitive decline (e.g.
of death. The reason for this is that the various studies in this regard Mukadam et al., 2018). Therefore, more research is necessary on this
are methodologically very different. For example, radically different aspect.
measures were employed, different forms of statistical analyses were • Lifestyle factors. Maintaining an active life, such as being involved in
used, and there were vast differences in the research participant groups. community and family, and stimulating mental activities also contribute
• Sociodemographic factors. Indications are that sociodemographic to maintaining cognitive abilities. A large amount of learning can take
factors such as prolonged education, higher socio-economic status, place in everyday life without the person being consciously aware of
lengthy marriage to an intelligent spouse, exposure to stimulating being stimulated intellectually. For example, researchers found a positive
environments, the complexity of workplace environment, and the correlation between the intellectual complexity of leisure activities and
utilisation of cultural and educational resources throughout adulthood the cognitive capabilities of adults between the ages of 40 and 80.
affect the maintenance of cognitive functioning in old age. Less cognitive decline has been noted in older adults who maintain
these activities from middle adulthood to late adulthood and do more
184 185
 of these activities in later life. In addition, healthy eating, drinking and REVIEW THIS SECTION
sleeping patterns and regular exercise are also conducive to cognitive
1. What is expertise? Why is expert knowledge necessary in society? Can every
maintenance. In addition, the beneficial effects of physical exercise person be an expert at something?
on cognitive ageing are increasingly receiving research attention (e.g. 2. Discuss the various viewpoints regarding the acquisition of expertise in a specific
Brasure et al, 2018; Ferencz et al., 2014). For example, it has been area, with specific reference to the classical perspective, the cognitive perspective,
shown that aerobic fitness has a positive effect on a variety of cognitive the experience perspective, the deliberate practice view, and the biological view.
measures, such as brain plasticity and memory functioning. 3. How is expertise affected by the ageing process? How may adults maintain their
expertise in their respective fields?
4. Why is it difficult to define the concept of wisdom? What is the central theme shared
by the majority of wisdom researchers regarding the conceptualisation of wisdom?
5. What is the rationale of implicit theories of wisdom? Discuss the research findings
in this regard. What are the dominant descriptors of wisdom of most of the research
participants in these studies?
6. What is the rationale of explicit theories of wisdom?
7. What is the most extensive Western research programme regarding the explicit
theory of wisdom called? How do Paul Baltes and his colleagues, the leaders of this
programme, define wisdom? Discuss the five characteristics of wisdom as identified
by these researchers.
8. What is the major difference between Western and Eastern approaches to wisdom?
9. What is the basic premise of an African approach to wisdom? Discuss the research
of the Kenyan philosopher Odera Oruka, regarding sages or wise people. Distinguish
between an ordinary sage and a philosophical sage.
10. In an attempt to create a culturally inclusive theory of wisdom, Monica Ardelt
developed a three-dimensional wisdom model. Describe this model.
11. Discuss the factors that may contribute to the development of wisdom.
Stimulating mental activities can contribute to maintaining
cognitive abilities
12. How is wisdom affected by age? Why is the relationship between age and wisdom
so complex? Is wisdom necessarily a characteristic of older people – why or why
not? What does the Berlin Wisdom Study indicate regarding the relationship

• Experiences at every stage of life. Multiple factors, such as people’s

between age and wisdom?
13. Do you agree with Muller that the notion that the elders are also those with the
circumstances, life experiences, behaviour patterns, socio-economic greatest wisdom, has changed in African society?
status, lifestyle, and educational and recreational activities throughout 14. What are the benefits of wisdom to the wise person?
life may affect their cognitive ability in advanced age. 15. Identify a truly wise person (past or present) in South Africa. Justify your reasons
why you characterise this person as wise.
16. What is creativity? Why have researchers not been able to reach consensus on the
appropriate way to study creativity?
17. Discuss the various ways in which the study of creativity is conceptualised. Do you
agree that crafts should also be included as creative products? Give reasons for your
answer.
18. What approaches do researchers interested in the relationship between ageing and
creativity generally use? What are the general findings of the age-creativity
relationship?
19. Which factors contribute to creativity in adulthood? Include intrinsic, extrinsic, and
social factors in your answer.
20. Discuss the factors that may affect cognitive development in adulthood.

186 187
 of these activities in later life. In addition, healthy eating, drinking and REVIEW THIS SECTION
sleeping patterns and regular exercise are also conducive to cognitive
1. What is expertise? Why is expert knowledge necessary in society? Can every
maintenance. In addition, the beneficial effects of physical exercise person be an expert at something?
on cognitive ageing are increasingly receiving research attention (e.g. 2. Discuss the various viewpoints regarding the acquisition of expertise in a specific
Brasure et al, 2018; Ferencz et al., 2014). For example, it has been area, with specific reference to the classical perspective, the cognitive perspective,
shown that aerobic fitness has a positive effect on a variety of cognitive the experience perspective, the deliberate practice view, and the biological view.
measures, such as brain plasticity and memory functioning. 3. How is expertise affected by the ageing process? How may adults maintain their
expertise in their respective fields?
4. Why is it difficult to define the concept of wisdom? What is the central theme shared
by the majority of wisdom researchers regarding the conceptualisation of wisdom?
5. What is the rationale of implicit theories of wisdom? Discuss the research findings
in this regard. What are the dominant descriptors of wisdom of most of the research
participants in these studies?
6. What is the rationale of explicit theories of wisdom?
7. What is the most extensive Western research programme regarding the explicit
theory of wisdom called? How do Paul Baltes and his colleagues, the leaders of this
programme, define wisdom? Discuss the five characteristics of wisdom as identified
by these researchers.
8. What is the major difference between Western and Eastern approaches to wisdom?
9. What is the basic premise of an African approach to wisdom? Discuss the research
of the Kenyan philosopher Odera Oruka, regarding sages or wise people. Distinguish
between an ordinary sage and a philosophical sage.
10. In an attempt to create a culturally inclusive theory of wisdom, Monica Ardelt
developed a three-dimensional wisdom model. Describe this model.
11. Discuss the factors that may contribute to the development of wisdom.
Stimulating mental activities can contribute to maintaining
cognitive abilities
12. How is wisdom affected by age? Why is the relationship between age and wisdom
so complex? Is wisdom necessarily a characteristic of older people – why or why
not? What does the Berlin Wisdom Study indicate regarding the relationship

• Experiences at every stage of life. Multiple factors, such as people’s

between age and wisdom?
13. Do you agree with Muller that the notion that the elders are also those with the
circumstances, life experiences, behaviour patterns, socio-economic greatest wisdom, has changed in African society?
status, lifestyle, and educational and recreational activities throughout 14. What are the benefits of wisdom to the wise person?
life may affect their cognitive ability in advanced age. 15. Identify a truly wise person (past or present) in South Africa. Justify your reasons
why you characterise this person as wise.
16. What is creativity? Why have researchers not been able to reach consensus on the
appropriate way to study creativity?
17. Discuss the various ways in which the study of creativity is conceptualised. Do you
agree that crafts should also be included as creative products? Give reasons for your
answer.
18. What approaches do researchers interested in the relationship between ageing and
creativity generally use? What are the general findings of the age-creativity
relationship?
19. Which factors contribute to creativity in adulthood? Include intrinsic, extrinsic, and
social factors in your answer.
20. Discuss the factors that may affect cognitive development in adulthood.

186 187
3.3.6 Redefining adult cognitive development: Theoretical Because Piaget argues that formal operational thinking characterises
perspectives adult thought, we shall consider this stage in some detail. According to
Piaget, formal operational thought is characterised by four aspects:
In this section, we consider how theorists view cognitive development as
adults progress through the life span. – It takes a hypothesis-testing approach (called hypothetic-deductive
thinking) to problem solving.
3.3.6.1 Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in – Thinking occurs in one framework at a time.
adulthood: formal operational thought – The goal is to arrive at one correct solution.
– It is unconstrained by reality.
Jean Piaget (1963), a Swiss physician and psychologist, developed a theory
of cognitive development that has been highly influential in developmental Individuals use scientific deductive reasoning to generate and test
psychology and has been applied in the South African context (e.g. Muthivhi, hypotheses and systematically eliminate all but the correct solution to a
2010). Piaget believed that the development of intelligence stems from the problem. Hypothetic-deductive reasoning is similar to using the scientific
emergence of increasingly complex structures, which occurs through the method: It involves forming a hypothesis and testing it until the hypothesis
principles of adaptation and organisation: is either confirmed or rejected. Therefore, Piaget describes the essence of
formal thought as a way of generating abstract concepts and thinking about
• Adaptation is the process of adjusting one’s thought processes. them in a very systematic, step-by-step way. Formal operational thought is
Two processes underlie intellectual adaptation: assimilation and governed by a logical structure that may even provide solutions to problems
accommodation. Assimilation refers to the use of currently available that people have never seen and may never encounter. When hypothetic-
knowledge to make sense of incoming information. Accommodation deductive reasoning is used, people do so to arrive at one unambiguous
involves changing one’s thoughts to adjust to new experiences. (definite) solution to the problem. Therefore, formal operational thought is
• Organisation refers to the fact that each specialised part is coordinated aimed at resolving ambiguity; one and only one answer is the goal. When
with the whole. In Piaget’s theory, the organisation of thought is reflected more than one solution occurs, there is a feeling of uneasiness, and people
in cognitive structures that change over the life span. Intelligence begin a search for clarification. Moreover, when people arrive at an answer,
is not simply the accumulation of more knowledge. Instead, it is a they are quite certain about it because it was arrived at by the use of logic.
reorganisation of greater knowledge to produce a different way of This may result in the situation that when answers are checked, people
thinking. Therefore, thinking changes qualitatively. These changes typically use the same logic and assumptions, and the same mistakes may
progress through a set of four cognitive stages that occur in a fixed, or be made. Formal operational thinking knows no constraints. Therefore, it can
invariant, sequence. Piaget’s stages be applied just as easily to real or imaginary situations; it is not bound by
of cognitive development are (see the limitations of reality. In this sense, people may come up with a solution
Table 3.3) the sensorimotor stage to a problem, whether it can be implemented or not. What matters is that
(birth to 2 years), the preoperational one can think about it. Although this lack of reality may not always lead
stage (2 to 6 years), the concrete to plausible problem solving, the lack of reality constraints is not all bad.
operational stage (7 to 11 years) and Reasoning from a “Why not” perspective may lead to the discovery or the
the formal operational stage (12 invention of new solutions (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015).
years extending into adulthood). Although Piaget’s theory has had a major influence on our understanding
For Piaget, the acquisition of formal of cognitive development, it also has been criticised. For example, not
operational thought marks the end all adolescents, or even all adults for that matter, use a logical scientific
of cognitive development. approach to solve all problems. Furthermore, individuals who use a logical
scientific approach to solve one kind of problem do not necessarily use that
Jean Piaget
188 189
3.3.6 Redefining adult cognitive development: Theoretical Because Piaget argues that formal operational thinking characterises
perspectives adult thought, we shall consider this stage in some detail. According to
Piaget, formal operational thought is characterised by four aspects:
In this section, we consider how theorists view cognitive development as
adults progress through the life span. – It takes a hypothesis-testing approach (called hypothetic-deductive
thinking) to problem solving.
3.3.6.1 Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in – Thinking occurs in one framework at a time.
adulthood: formal operational thought – The goal is to arrive at one correct solution.
– It is unconstrained by reality.
Jean Piaget (1963), a Swiss physician and psychologist, developed a theory
of cognitive development that has been highly influential in developmental Individuals use scientific deductive reasoning to generate and test
psychology and has been applied in the South African context (e.g. Muthivhi, hypotheses and systematically eliminate all but the correct solution to a
2010). Piaget believed that the development of intelligence stems from the problem. Hypothetic-deductive reasoning is similar to using the scientific
emergence of increasingly complex structures, which occurs through the method: It involves forming a hypothesis and testing it until the hypothesis
principles of adaptation and organisation: is either confirmed or rejected. Therefore, Piaget describes the essence of
formal thought as a way of generating abstract concepts and thinking about
• Adaptation is the process of adjusting one’s thought processes. them in a very systematic, step-by-step way. Formal operational thought is
Two processes underlie intellectual adaptation: assimilation and governed by a logical structure that may even provide solutions to problems
accommodation. Assimilation refers to the use of currently available that people have never seen and may never encounter. When hypothetic-
knowledge to make sense of incoming information. Accommodation deductive reasoning is used, people do so to arrive at one unambiguous
involves changing one’s thoughts to adjust to new experiences. (definite) solution to the problem. Therefore, formal operational thought is
• Organisation refers to the fact that each specialised part is coordinated aimed at resolving ambiguity; one and only one answer is the goal. When
with the whole. In Piaget’s theory, the organisation of thought is reflected more than one solution occurs, there is a feeling of uneasiness, and people
in cognitive structures that change over the life span. Intelligence begin a search for clarification. Moreover, when people arrive at an answer,
is not simply the accumulation of more knowledge. Instead, it is a they are quite certain about it because it was arrived at by the use of logic.
reorganisation of greater knowledge to produce a different way of This may result in the situation that when answers are checked, people
thinking. Therefore, thinking changes qualitatively. These changes typically use the same logic and assumptions, and the same mistakes may
progress through a set of four cognitive stages that occur in a fixed, or be made. Formal operational thinking knows no constraints. Therefore, it can
invariant, sequence. Piaget’s stages be applied just as easily to real or imaginary situations; it is not bound by
of cognitive development are (see the limitations of reality. In this sense, people may come up with a solution
Table 3.3) the sensorimotor stage to a problem, whether it can be implemented or not. What matters is that
(birth to 2 years), the preoperational one can think about it. Although this lack of reality may not always lead
stage (2 to 6 years), the concrete to plausible problem solving, the lack of reality constraints is not all bad.
operational stage (7 to 11 years) and Reasoning from a “Why not” perspective may lead to the discovery or the
the formal operational stage (12 invention of new solutions (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015).
years extending into adulthood). Although Piaget’s theory has had a major influence on our understanding
For Piaget, the acquisition of formal of cognitive development, it also has been criticised. For example, not
operational thought marks the end all adolescents, or even all adults for that matter, use a logical scientific
of cognitive development. approach to solve all problems. Furthermore, individuals who use a logical
scientific approach to solve one kind of problem do not necessarily use that
Jean Piaget
188 189
approach to solve other kinds of problems. In fact, whether individuals use a 3.3.6.2 Neo-Piagetian approach: Postformal thought
logical approach may depend on how familiar they are with a particular type
of problem and what their experience has been in similar situations. By the 1970s, it was clear that Piaget’s contention that formal operational
thinking was the end point of cognitive development, had serious problems.
Table 3.3 Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development
Many authors agreed that the concept of formal operations was quite
Stage Approximate Age Characteristics limited in its applicability. It was pointed out that Piaget was concerned with
Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years Infants’ understanding of the world describing logical hypothetic-deductive thinking, but that this is not the only
is acquired through the senses and kind of thinking in which adults engage. Moreover, formal operational thinking
movement (e.g. looking and grasping).
Object permanence develops; i.e. the explains how people arrive at one correct solution. This is also limiting, since
child begins to realise that a physical adults often generate and discover new problems and tend to accept several
object can exist, even if it is not in view. possible solutions. In addition, adults often limit their thinking in response to
Preoperational 2 to 6 years Children begin to use language and social or other realistic constraints. Therefore, it seemed clear that cognitive
thought symbols (e.g. pictures and words) to
represent ideas and objects. Animism (the growth takes place beyond formal operations. This type of thinking was
notion that all lifeless objects also have termed post formal thinking. Postformal thought is “characterised by a
feelings and thoughts) and egocentric
thinking (inability to see the world from
recognition that truth (i.e. the correct answer) may vary from situation to
other people’s point of view) develop. situation, that solutions must be realistic to be reasonable, that ambiguity
Concrete operational 7 to 11 years Logical thinking develops, but only as it and contradiction are the rule rather than the exception, and that emotion
thought applies to real, concrete objects. Abstract and subjective factors usually play a role in thinking” (Kail & Cavanaugh,
thinking is still largely absent.
2018, p. 341).
Formal operational 12 and older Adolescent or adult thinks abstractly,
thought speculates on hypothetical situations, and
Several research-based descriptions of the development of postformal
reasons deductively about what may be thinking in adulthood have been offered:
possible.

• Reflective judgement. Researchers identified a systematic progression

Piaget (1972) admitted that formal operations are probably not universal, of reflective judgement in young adulthood (King & Kitchener, 2004).
but rather tend to appear only in those areas in which individuals are highly In the first three stages of the model, young adults typically do not
trained or specialised. Formal reasoning is often tested by psychometric acknowledge and may not even perceive that knowledge is uncertain.
tests, especially those that measure fluid intellectual abilities. Many items in Consequently, they do not understand that some problems may exist even
tests of fluid ability involve abstract problem solving, and the correct answer when there is not a clear and correct answer. During this stage, people
is determined by logical deduction. As we have seen earlier, older adults believe that what they know is correct and that they know with complete
perform less well than younger adults do in tests of fluid abilities. However, certainty. Typical statements will be “I know it because I see it” or “If
not all problems occurring in everyday life lend themselves to formal logical it is on the news/Internet, it must be true”. This is called pre-reflective
solutions, while some real-life problems may have more than one possible reasoning. During stages 4 and 5, quasi-reflective reasoning emerges.
solution. Furthermore, it may also be that the Piagetian conception of formal People now begin to realise that nothing can be known for certain and
operational thinking is inappropriate when applied to older adults. Older are more likely to change their conclusions based on the situation and
people have different concerns from younger people; consequently, they on the evidence. Young adults argue that knowledge is quite subjective.
may use their intellectual skills differently. This has inspired a number of A typical statement will be “I would believe in climate change if I could
researchers to look beyond formal operations in determining pathways of see the proof: How can you be sure the scientists are not just making up
adult cognitive development. the data?” During stages 6 and 7, reflective thinking develops, showing
an increasing understanding that people construct knowledge using
evidence and argument after careful analysis of the problem or situation.

190 191
approach to solve other kinds of problems. In fact, whether individuals use a 3.3.6.2 Neo-Piagetian approach: Postformal thought
logical approach may depend on how familiar they are with a particular type
of problem and what their experience has been in similar situations. By the 1970s, it was clear that Piaget’s contention that formal operational
thinking was the end point of cognitive development, had serious problems.
Table 3.3 Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development
Many authors agreed that the concept of formal operations was quite
Stage Approximate Age Characteristics limited in its applicability. It was pointed out that Piaget was concerned with
Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years Infants’ understanding of the world describing logical hypothetic-deductive thinking, but that this is not the only
is acquired through the senses and kind of thinking in which adults engage. Moreover, formal operational thinking
movement (e.g. looking and grasping).
Object permanence develops; i.e. the explains how people arrive at one correct solution. This is also limiting, since
child begins to realise that a physical adults often generate and discover new problems and tend to accept several
object can exist, even if it is not in view. possible solutions. In addition, adults often limit their thinking in response to
Preoperational 2 to 6 years Children begin to use language and social or other realistic constraints. Therefore, it seemed clear that cognitive
thought symbols (e.g. pictures and words) to
represent ideas and objects. Animism (the growth takes place beyond formal operations. This type of thinking was
notion that all lifeless objects also have termed post formal thinking. Postformal thought is “characterised by a
feelings and thoughts) and egocentric
thinking (inability to see the world from
recognition that truth (i.e. the correct answer) may vary from situation to
other people’s point of view) develop. situation, that solutions must be realistic to be reasonable, that ambiguity
Concrete operational 7 to 11 years Logical thinking develops, but only as it and contradiction are the rule rather than the exception, and that emotion
thought applies to real, concrete objects. Abstract and subjective factors usually play a role in thinking” (Kail & Cavanaugh,
thinking is still largely absent.
2018, p. 341).
Formal operational 12 and older Adolescent or adult thinks abstractly,
thought speculates on hypothetical situations, and
Several research-based descriptions of the development of postformal
reasons deductively about what may be thinking in adulthood have been offered:
possible.

• Reflective judgement. Researchers identified a systematic progression

Piaget (1972) admitted that formal operations are probably not universal, of reflective judgement in young adulthood (King & Kitchener, 2004).
but rather tend to appear only in those areas in which individuals are highly In the first three stages of the model, young adults typically do not
trained or specialised. Formal reasoning is often tested by psychometric acknowledge and may not even perceive that knowledge is uncertain.
tests, especially those that measure fluid intellectual abilities. Many items in Consequently, they do not understand that some problems may exist even
tests of fluid ability involve abstract problem solving, and the correct answer when there is not a clear and correct answer. During this stage, people
is determined by logical deduction. As we have seen earlier, older adults believe that what they know is correct and that they know with complete
perform less well than younger adults do in tests of fluid abilities. However, certainty. Typical statements will be “I know it because I see it” or “If
not all problems occurring in everyday life lend themselves to formal logical it is on the news/Internet, it must be true”. This is called pre-reflective
solutions, while some real-life problems may have more than one possible reasoning. During stages 4 and 5, quasi-reflective reasoning emerges.
solution. Furthermore, it may also be that the Piagetian conception of formal People now begin to realise that nothing can be known for certain and
operational thinking is inappropriate when applied to older adults. Older are more likely to change their conclusions based on the situation and
people have different concerns from younger people; consequently, they on the evidence. Young adults argue that knowledge is quite subjective.
may use their intellectual skills differently. This has inspired a number of A typical statement will be “I would believe in climate change if I could
researchers to look beyond formal operations in determining pathways of see the proof: How can you be sure the scientists are not just making up
adult cognitive development. the data?” During stages 6 and 7, reflective thinking develops, showing
an increasing understanding that people construct knowledge using
evidence and argument after careful analysis of the problem or situation.

190 191
 They once again hold firm convictions, but reach them only after the making compromises and tolerating ambiguity and contradiction.
careful consideration of several different points of view. They also realise The developmental integration of thought and emotion during young
that they have to re-evaluate their beliefs continuously in view of new adulthood and middle age is affected by life-cycle forces and cohort
evidence. A typical statement could be the following: “It is difficult to be effects. For example, the pressures of providing for children may affect
certain about things in life, but you can draw your own conclusions about how one responds in midlife, more so than in early or later adulthood. In
them based on how well an argument is put together based on the data addition, evidence from neuro-imaging research indicates that emotion
used to support it.” and logic processing are integrated in certain areas of the brain (Gu et al.,
• Absolutist, relativistic and dialectical thinking. Adolescents and 2013). Evidence that emotion and logic share common brain pathways
young adults often make use of absolutist thinking. This involves firmly also stems from the disruption in these pathways caused by certain
believing that there is only one correct solution to a problem and that mental disorders. The integration of emotion with logic that happens in
personal experience provides truth. They typically think that by logic adulthood provides the basis for decision making in the personal and
one can determine absolute right and wrong. In contrast, relativistic sometimes difficult arenas of love and work.
thinking involves realising that there are many sides to an issue and
that the right answer depends on the circumstances. Relativistic thinkers Postformal thought serves an important purpose in many life situations.
accept conflicting opinions and explore the multiple perspectives from It is considered as a form of adaptive intelligence, because in life, there
which an issue can be argued. Making intelligent life decisions means is often more than one ‘truth’ about an event or a relationship. In social
understanding the relativity of all decision making. Relativistic thinking is situations, for example, it may be necessary to shift perspectives, at least
often encountered in young and early middle-aged adults. One potential for the specific moment, to see things from another person’s point of
danger of relativistic thinking is that relativistic thinkers may avoid view. However, studying postformal thinking is a difficult task. Measures
making decisions or having strong beliefs. They may adopt a cynical of postformal thought vary considerably from study to study, while the
approach such as “I’ll do my thing and you do yours.” However, the final possible contributory role of education and experience is not understood
step, dialectical thinking clears this problem. Dialectical thinkers see fully, with the result that no firm conclusions can be drawn. However,
the merits of the different viewpoints but can synthesise or integrate despite the difficulties in measuring it, postformal thought is recognised as
them into a workable solution. This synthesis often produces strong a legitimate type of cognition that has very different qualities compared to
commitment and a definite plan of action (Kramer et al., 1992). Other the cognition used to solve logical problems, such as in formal operational
researchers have extended the notion of dialectical reasoning to wisdom, thinking. In addition, it has focused the attention on the different styles of
coping flexibility, and the ability to deal with a wide array of everyday thinking across adulthood and has certainly presented a different view to
problems effectively (see Cheng, 2009; Kallio, 2015). the stereotype of inevitable decline. On the other hand, whether postformal
• Integration of emotion and logic. In addition to an increased thinking constitutes a stage that emerges more fully in older adulthood
understanding that there is more than one “right” answer, adult thinking and whether most older adults engage in this type of thinking under the
is characterised by the integration of emotion with logic (Labouvie-Vief appropriate conditions remain to be determined. Some researchers are of
et al., 2010). For example, thinking in postformal thought proceeds from the contention that although people are able to think at complex levels,
“I’m right, because I’ve experienced it” to “I’m not so sure because your they generally do not (King & Kitchener, 2004). A reason for this is that the
experience is different from mine.” An ability to understand and synthesise environment often does not provide the support necessary for using one’s
another’s point of view is usually beneficial in resolving life’s problems. highest level of thinking, especially regarding the knowledge and experience
This may be linked to adults’ increased ability to integrate emotion with one already has. For example, people may be strong environmentalists
logic in their thinking. According to Lavouvie-Vief and her colleagues, as philosophically, but on a practical level, they may not always purchase
they mature, adults tend to make decisions and analyse problems not so products with the least effect on the environment, or be conscious of the
much on logical grounds but on pragmatic, emotional and social grounds. immense harm littering causes the environment, often because the leaders
Mature thinkers realise that thinking is a social phenomenon that involves in society do not endorse or enforce laws, or provide the necessary means

192 193
 They once again hold firm convictions, but reach them only after the making compromises and tolerating ambiguity and contradiction.
careful consideration of several different points of view. They also realise The developmental integration of thought and emotion during young
that they have to re-evaluate their beliefs continuously in view of new adulthood and middle age is affected by life-cycle forces and cohort
evidence. A typical statement could be the following: “It is difficult to be effects. For example, the pressures of providing for children may affect
certain about things in life, but you can draw your own conclusions about how one responds in midlife, more so than in early or later adulthood. In
them based on how well an argument is put together based on the data addition, evidence from neuro-imaging research indicates that emotion
used to support it.” and logic processing are integrated in certain areas of the brain (Gu et al.,
• Absolutist, relativistic and dialectical thinking. Adolescents and 2013). Evidence that emotion and logic share common brain pathways
young adults often make use of absolutist thinking. This involves firmly also stems from the disruption in these pathways caused by certain
believing that there is only one correct solution to a problem and that mental disorders. The integration of emotion with logic that happens in
personal experience provides truth. They typically think that by logic adulthood provides the basis for decision making in the personal and
one can determine absolute right and wrong. In contrast, relativistic sometimes difficult arenas of love and work.
thinking involves realising that there are many sides to an issue and
that the right answer depends on the circumstances. Relativistic thinkers Postformal thought serves an important purpose in many life situations.
accept conflicting opinions and explore the multiple perspectives from It is considered as a form of adaptive intelligence, because in life, there
which an issue can be argued. Making intelligent life decisions means is often more than one ‘truth’ about an event or a relationship. In social
understanding the relativity of all decision making. Relativistic thinking is situations, for example, it may be necessary to shift perspectives, at least
often encountered in young and early middle-aged adults. One potential for the specific moment, to see things from another person’s point of
danger of relativistic thinking is that relativistic thinkers may avoid view. However, studying postformal thinking is a difficult task. Measures
making decisions or having strong beliefs. They may adopt a cynical of postformal thought vary considerably from study to study, while the
approach such as “I’ll do my thing and you do yours.” However, the final possible contributory role of education and experience is not understood
step, dialectical thinking clears this problem. Dialectical thinkers see fully, with the result that no firm conclusions can be drawn. However,
the merits of the different viewpoints but can synthesise or integrate despite the difficulties in measuring it, postformal thought is recognised as
them into a workable solution. This synthesis often produces strong a legitimate type of cognition that has very different qualities compared to
commitment and a definite plan of action (Kramer et al., 1992). Other the cognition used to solve logical problems, such as in formal operational
researchers have extended the notion of dialectical reasoning to wisdom, thinking. In addition, it has focused the attention on the different styles of
coping flexibility, and the ability to deal with a wide array of everyday thinking across adulthood and has certainly presented a different view to
problems effectively (see Cheng, 2009; Kallio, 2015). the stereotype of inevitable decline. On the other hand, whether postformal
• Integration of emotion and logic. In addition to an increased thinking constitutes a stage that emerges more fully in older adulthood
understanding that there is more than one “right” answer, adult thinking and whether most older adults engage in this type of thinking under the
is characterised by the integration of emotion with logic (Labouvie-Vief appropriate conditions remain to be determined. Some researchers are of
et al., 2010). For example, thinking in postformal thought proceeds from the contention that although people are able to think at complex levels,
“I’m right, because I’ve experienced it” to “I’m not so sure because your they generally do not (King & Kitchener, 2004). A reason for this is that the
experience is different from mine.” An ability to understand and synthesise environment often does not provide the support necessary for using one’s
another’s point of view is usually beneficial in resolving life’s problems. highest level of thinking, especially regarding the knowledge and experience
This may be linked to adults’ increased ability to integrate emotion with one already has. For example, people may be strong environmentalists
logic in their thinking. According to Lavouvie-Vief and her colleagues, as philosophically, but on a practical level, they may not always purchase
they mature, adults tend to make decisions and analyse problems not so products with the least effect on the environment, or be conscious of the
much on logical grounds but on pragmatic, emotional and social grounds. immense harm littering causes the environment, often because the leaders
Mature thinkers realise that thinking is a social phenomenon that involves in society do not endorse or enforce laws, or provide the necessary means

192 193
to dispose of waste products. the development and practice of the relevant skills. A large part of these
responsibilities occurs during middle age.
3.3.6.3 Schaie and Willis’ stages of adult cognitive development • The reintegrative stage. As individuals approach the stages beyond
middle age, they are often no longer engaged in the world of work. In
If it is reasonable to assume that cognitive development during adulthood the reintegrative stage the need to acquire knowledge declines even
is qualitatively different from that during childhood and adolescence, it may more, and executive monitoring becomes less important. Frequently, the
also be reasonable to think that cognitive development may be different at person has retired from the position that required such an application
different stages of adulthood. Schaie and Willis begin with the observation of intelligence. The information that elderly people acquire and the
that Piaget’s childhood stages describe efficiency in the acquisition of new knowledge that they apply become a function of their interests, attitudes
information. According to Schaie, the individual masters the best ways of and values. In fact, it requires reintegration of all of these factors.
acquiring knowledge during childhood and adolescence. During adulthood, Cognitive efforts are directed towards replacing the earlier engagement
the intellect is used differently. Schaie and Willis (Schaie, 2016; Schaie & of family-raising and workplace responsibilities with meaningful pursuits
Willis, 2002) formulated six stages of adult cognitive development: for the last part of life. Although some of these activities involve the same
cognitive characteristics of the responsible stage, the objectives involved
• The achieving stage. In this first stage of adult cognitive development, concern a reintegration of current and future needs. The elderly are less
young adults typically switch their focus from the acquisition to the likely to ‘waste time’ on tasks that are meaningless to them. As Schaie
application of knowledge, specifically related to achieving long-term and Willis (2002, p. 348) put it, there is a transition from the childhood
goals. In this stage, adults often have to make important decisions, and question “What should I know?” to the adult question “How should I put
solutions must be integrated with a life plan that extends far into the to use what I know?” Cognitive efforts during this stage may involve a
future. The kind of intelligence exhibited in such situations is similar to selective reduction in information-seeking activities while increasing the
that manifested in educational tasks, except that it requires more careful importance of emotion regulation involved in problem solving.
attention to the possible consequences of the problem-solving process. • The reorganisational stage. During the last part of life, activities are
• The responsible stage. Adults who have mastered the cognitive skills for engaged in to maximise quality of life, often with the additional objective
monitoring their own behaviour and, as a consequence, have attained a of not becoming a burden for the next generation. These efforts require
certain degree of personal independence will move into the second stage, a reorganisation of objectives. The skills required for the reorganisational
the responsible stage, which requires the application of cognitive skills stage involve the maintenance of reasonably high levels of cognitive
required in situations involving social responsibility. This stage occurs competence. In addition, maintaining flexible cognitive styles is needed
when a family is established and the needs of a spouse and children must to be able to restructure the context and content of life after retirement,
be met. These skills may also be required for increasing responsibility in relinquish control of resources to others, and accept the partial surrender
the workplace and in the community. of one’s independence.
• The executive stage. Some individuals’ responsibilities become • The legacy-creating stage. Once the reintegrative and reorganisational
exceedingly complex and require them to move to a variation of the processes have been completed, and perhaps overlapping with it, a
responsibility stage, namely the executive stage. Individuals entering last stage, the legacy-creating stage, may be observed in late old age.
organisations as presidents, officials, heads of departments, and so forth, Cognitive activities characteristic of this stage occur in anticipation of the
will require specific skills such as assuming responsibility for others, end of a person’s life. This stage often begins with an effort to conduct
monitoring the organisational activities, and understanding the structure a life review. This includes a renewed effort at providing an oral history
and underlying dynamics. They need to know not only the future plans of or explaining family pictures and heirlooms to the next generation.
the organisation, but also whether policy decisions are being translated Some wish to put their remaining effects in order or distribute prized
into action adequately at lower levels of responsibility. Attainment of possessions to friends and relatives or create instructions for distributing
the executive stage depends on exposure to opportunities that allow them. A final revision of one’s will and directions for funeral arrangements

194 195
to dispose of waste products. the development and practice of the relevant skills. A large part of these
responsibilities occurs during middle age.
3.3.6.3 Schaie and Willis’ stages of adult cognitive development • The reintegrative stage. As individuals approach the stages beyond
middle age, they are often no longer engaged in the world of work. In
If it is reasonable to assume that cognitive development during adulthood the reintegrative stage the need to acquire knowledge declines even
is qualitatively different from that during childhood and adolescence, it may more, and executive monitoring becomes less important. Frequently, the
also be reasonable to think that cognitive development may be different at person has retired from the position that required such an application
different stages of adulthood. Schaie and Willis begin with the observation of intelligence. The information that elderly people acquire and the
that Piaget’s childhood stages describe efficiency in the acquisition of new knowledge that they apply become a function of their interests, attitudes
information. According to Schaie, the individual masters the best ways of and values. In fact, it requires reintegration of all of these factors.
acquiring knowledge during childhood and adolescence. During adulthood, Cognitive efforts are directed towards replacing the earlier engagement
the intellect is used differently. Schaie and Willis (Schaie, 2016; Schaie & of family-raising and workplace responsibilities with meaningful pursuits
Willis, 2002) formulated six stages of adult cognitive development: for the last part of life. Although some of these activities involve the same
cognitive characteristics of the responsible stage, the objectives involved
• The achieving stage. In this first stage of adult cognitive development, concern a reintegration of current and future needs. The elderly are less
young adults typically switch their focus from the acquisition to the likely to ‘waste time’ on tasks that are meaningless to them. As Schaie
application of knowledge, specifically related to achieving long-term and Willis (2002, p. 348) put it, there is a transition from the childhood
goals. In this stage, adults often have to make important decisions, and question “What should I know?” to the adult question “How should I put
solutions must be integrated with a life plan that extends far into the to use what I know?” Cognitive efforts during this stage may involve a
future. The kind of intelligence exhibited in such situations is similar to selective reduction in information-seeking activities while increasing the
that manifested in educational tasks, except that it requires more careful importance of emotion regulation involved in problem solving.
attention to the possible consequences of the problem-solving process. • The reorganisational stage. During the last part of life, activities are
• The responsible stage. Adults who have mastered the cognitive skills for engaged in to maximise quality of life, often with the additional objective
monitoring their own behaviour and, as a consequence, have attained a of not becoming a burden for the next generation. These efforts require
certain degree of personal independence will move into the second stage, a reorganisation of objectives. The skills required for the reorganisational
the responsible stage, which requires the application of cognitive skills stage involve the maintenance of reasonably high levels of cognitive
required in situations involving social responsibility. This stage occurs competence. In addition, maintaining flexible cognitive styles is needed
when a family is established and the needs of a spouse and children must to be able to restructure the context and content of life after retirement,
be met. These skills may also be required for increasing responsibility in relinquish control of resources to others, and accept the partial surrender
the workplace and in the community. of one’s independence.
• The executive stage. Some individuals’ responsibilities become • The legacy-creating stage. Once the reintegrative and reorganisational
exceedingly complex and require them to move to a variation of the processes have been completed, and perhaps overlapping with it, a
responsibility stage, namely the executive stage. Individuals entering last stage, the legacy-creating stage, may be observed in late old age.
organisations as presidents, officials, heads of departments, and so forth, Cognitive activities characteristic of this stage occur in anticipation of the
will require specific skills such as assuming responsibility for others, end of a person’s life. This stage often begins with an effort to conduct
monitoring the organisational activities, and understanding the structure a life review. This includes a renewed effort at providing an oral history
and underlying dynamics. They need to know not only the future plans of or explaining family pictures and heirlooms to the next generation.
the organisation, but also whether policy decisions are being translated Some wish to put their remaining effects in order or distribute prized
into action adequately at lower levels of responsibility. Attainment of possessions to friends and relatives or create instructions for distributing
the executive stage depends on exposure to opportunities that allow them. A final revision of one’s will and directions for funeral arrangements

194 195
 may be given. For the highly literate and those successful in public or
professional life, legacy leaving will often include writing or revising an
• Compensation, like optimisation, refers to means. It is defined as
counteracting (or compensating for) losses in those means previously
autobiography.
employed in attaining goals, by using alternative means to maintain
functioning, such as using external cues to compensate for memory loss.
Although an approximate timeline is provided for these stages to occur,
it should be noted that the precise chronological ages at which these stages
According to the theory of SOC, successful development involves the
occur might be quite variable in different societies, as well as for individuals
process of the simultaneous maximisation of gains and minimisation of
at different levels of intellectual competence and personal engagement.
losses over the life course. Therefore, selective optimisation is an effective
However, according to Schaie and Willis, the sequential process of these
way to reallocate resources between the three functions of life: growth,
stages is important.
maintenance and loss. The behavioural expression of selection, optimisation,
and compensation may vary greatly, depending upon the domain and the
3.3.6.4 Selective optimisation and compensation
stage of life under consideration. For example, the highest level of SOC
occurs during adulthood, with a peak in middle adulthood. In old age, the use
The selective optimisation and compensation (SOC) theory of development
of SOC becomes less prevalent, with only elective selection that continues to
is based on the operation and coordination of three components: selection of
increase. Less use of optimisation and compensation may be linked to the
goals or behaviour outcomes, optimisation of the means to reach these goals
fact that this requires greater effort, and therefore increasingly may exceed
and compensation, the use of substitute means when previously available
the available resources (Freund & Baltes, 2002). This is especially true when
means are lost or blocked (Baltes et al., 2005).
people suffer from severe illnesses or enter the oldest ages. Furthermore,
in old age, prioritisation of tasks may favour physical or bodily functioning
• Selection refers to the process of specifying a particular pathway or set
above cognitive functioning, probably because the body is the primary
of pathways of development. This selective specification includes the
domain where ageing losses occur and serious risks exist (e.g. maintaining
narrowing down of possible alternatives and, in a sense, is a mechanism
one’s balance may be more important than a memory task).
to generate new resources and higher developmental states. At the same
Although selective optimisation and compensation-related behaviours
time, because of limited resources such as time and energy, this advance
are universal, there also could be individual variability. This means that some
in some domains may imply a reduction of advances in others. Certain
people may be more effective in applying SOC than others are. For example,
skills and abilities can evolve only by concentrating time and energy on
researchers have indicated that people who use SOC function at a higher
identified or chosen domains of functioning. Baltes and his colleagues
level and report higher well-being and satisfaction with life (Freund & Baltes,
distinguish between two forms of selection: elective selection, where
2002).
selection is primarily driven by goals, and loss-based selection, where
From the perspective of the selective optimisation and compensation
a reorganisation of goals is indicated due to a loss in the potential to
model, age-related cognitive decline can be managed. The pragmatics of
reach desirable goals. Both elective and loss-based selections imply the
intelligence, which is similar to crystallised abilities, can be used to compensate
restructuring of goals. For example, retired persons may select to engage
for any decline in the mechanics of intelligence, which correspond with fluid
in other, often more pleasurable activities to give structure to their days.
abilities. For example, older adults may compensate for loss in fluid abilities,
• Optimisation refers to the acquisition, application, coordination, and
especially those involved in the speed of processing, by making use of their
refinement of internal and external means involved in attaining higher
expertise in specific domains of functioning. They may also become more
levels of functioning. These means involve health behaviour, cognitive
selective and concentrate on the domains of functioning that are most
skills, educational learning, social support, and certain personality
important to them, and maintain high levels of functioning by participation
dimensions such as maintaining a sense of control. For example, deliberate
in challenging activities. Older adults who are successful at investing their
practising of skills, such as in physical activities or cognitive activities, is
efforts and energies in this way have been referred to as “resource rich”
the key to any kind of expertise or optimisation of skills.
(Baltes & Lang, 1997).
196 197
 may be given. For the highly literate and those successful in public or
professional life, legacy leaving will often include writing or revising an
• Compensation, like optimisation, refers to means. It is defined as
counteracting (or compensating for) losses in those means previously
autobiography.
employed in attaining goals, by using alternative means to maintain
functioning, such as using external cues to compensate for memory loss.
Although an approximate timeline is provided for these stages to occur,
it should be noted that the precise chronological ages at which these stages
According to the theory of SOC, successful development involves the
occur might be quite variable in different societies, as well as for individuals
process of the simultaneous maximisation of gains and minimisation of
at different levels of intellectual competence and personal engagement.
losses over the life course. Therefore, selective optimisation is an effective
However, according to Schaie and Willis, the sequential process of these
way to reallocate resources between the three functions of life: growth,
stages is important.
maintenance and loss. The behavioural expression of selection, optimisation,
and compensation may vary greatly, depending upon the domain and the
3.3.6.4 Selective optimisation and compensation
stage of life under consideration. For example, the highest level of SOC
occurs during adulthood, with a peak in middle adulthood. In old age, the use
The selective optimisation and compensation (SOC) theory of development
of SOC becomes less prevalent, with only elective selection that continues to
is based on the operation and coordination of three components: selection of
increase. Less use of optimisation and compensation may be linked to the
goals or behaviour outcomes, optimisation of the means to reach these goals
fact that this requires greater effort, and therefore increasingly may exceed
and compensation, the use of substitute means when previously available
the available resources (Freund & Baltes, 2002). This is especially true when
means are lost or blocked (Baltes et al., 2005).
people suffer from severe illnesses or enter the oldest ages. Furthermore,
in old age, prioritisation of tasks may favour physical or bodily functioning
• Selection refers to the process of specifying a particular pathway or set
above cognitive functioning, probably because the body is the primary
of pathways of development. This selective specification includes the
domain where ageing losses occur and serious risks exist (e.g. maintaining
narrowing down of possible alternatives and, in a sense, is a mechanism
one’s balance may be more important than a memory task).
to generate new resources and higher developmental states. At the same
Although selective optimisation and compensation-related behaviours
time, because of limited resources such as time and energy, this advance
are universal, there also could be individual variability. This means that some
in some domains may imply a reduction of advances in others. Certain
people may be more effective in applying SOC than others are. For example,
skills and abilities can evolve only by concentrating time and energy on
researchers have indicated that people who use SOC function at a higher
identified or chosen domains of functioning. Baltes and his colleagues
level and report higher well-being and satisfaction with life (Freund & Baltes,
distinguish between two forms of selection: elective selection, where
2002).
selection is primarily driven by goals, and loss-based selection, where
From the perspective of the selective optimisation and compensation
a reorganisation of goals is indicated due to a loss in the potential to
model, age-related cognitive decline can be managed. The pragmatics of
reach desirable goals. Both elective and loss-based selections imply the
intelligence, which is similar to crystallised abilities, can be used to compensate
restructuring of goals. For example, retired persons may select to engage
for any decline in the mechanics of intelligence, which correspond with fluid
in other, often more pleasurable activities to give structure to their days.
abilities. For example, older adults may compensate for loss in fluid abilities,
• Optimisation refers to the acquisition, application, coordination, and
especially those involved in the speed of processing, by making use of their
refinement of internal and external means involved in attaining higher
expertise in specific domains of functioning. They may also become more
levels of functioning. These means involve health behaviour, cognitive
selective and concentrate on the domains of functioning that are most
skills, educational learning, social support, and certain personality
important to them, and maintain high levels of functioning by participation
dimensions such as maintaining a sense of control. For example, deliberate
in challenging activities. Older adults who are successful at investing their
practising of skills, such as in physical activities or cognitive activities, is
efforts and energies in this way have been referred to as “resource rich”
the key to any kind of expertise or optimisation of skills.
(Baltes & Lang, 1997).
196 197
 REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. Discuss Piaget’s view of the development of intelligence. Refer to the principles
and processes involved in this development, as well as to the stages of cognitive
development.
2. Piaget considered formal operational thinking as the last stage of cognitive
development. Discuss the characteristics of this stage.
3. Indicate why Piaget’s conception of formal operational thinking may not be
universal and may not be appropriate to describe adult cognitive development.
4. What was the neo-Piagetians’ main concern about Piaget’s conception of formal
operational thinking?
5. What is postformal thought?
6. Discuss the characteristics of postformal thought by referring to (a) reflective
judgement; (b) absolutist, relativistic and dialectical thinking; and (c) the
integration of emotion and logic.
7. What is the current position regarding postformal thinking? How has it contributed
to our body of knowledge? Explain why you think postformal thinking should or
should not be incorporated as an additional stage of adult cognitive development.
8. Discuss Schaie and Willis’s stages of adult cognitive development. What is the
assumption of their model of cognitive development?
9. How may selective optimisation and compensation contribute to cognitive
development in adulthood?

198 199
 REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. Discuss Piaget’s view of the development of intelligence. Refer to the principles
and processes involved in this development, as well as to the stages of cognitive
development.
2. Piaget considered formal operational thinking as the last stage of cognitive
development. Discuss the characteristics of this stage.
3. Indicate why Piaget’s conception of formal operational thinking may not be
universal and may not be appropriate to describe adult cognitive development.
4. What was the neo-Piagetians’ main concern about Piaget’s conception of formal
operational thinking?
5. What is postformal thought?
6. Discuss the characteristics of postformal thought by referring to (a) reflective
judgement; (b) absolutist, relativistic and dialectical thinking; and (c) the
integration of emotion and logic.
7. What is the current position regarding postformal thinking? How has it contributed
to our body of knowledge? Explain why you think postformal thinking should or
should not be incorporated as an additional stage of adult cognitive development.
8. Discuss Schaie and Willis’s stages of adult cognitive development. What is the
assumption of their model of cognitive development?
9. How may selective optimisation and compensation contribute to cognitive
development in adulthood?

198 199
200
If the Creator gave you a strong personality, it is for
serving others – not controlling them.
Jimmy Evans
4
Personality Development
201
200
If the Creator gave you a strong personality, it is for
serving others – not controlling them.
Jimmy Evans
4
Personality Development
201
 All too often, our personality is nothing more than psychological theoretical perspectives propose causes and processes of development,
clothing that we wear to hide our true self from the world. while empirical studies have also examined the patterns and potential
Teal Swan sources of personality development. Although these works have increased
Life is 10% what happens to us and 90% how we respond to it. our understanding of personality development during adulthood, there
Anonymous are still several limitations (Specht et al., 2014). First, the differences in
terminology of the various perspectives complicate comparisons between
Personality is a mask you believe in. Anonymous them. Second, the empirical underpinnings of many perspectives are
Personality is only ripe when a man has made the truth his own. unsatisfactory due to a lack of clear operational definitions. Third, several
Soren Kierkegaard aspects of theoretical perspectives on adult development remain untested.
Fourth, currently, there is a lack of good methods to distinguish among the
The trick is growing up without growing old. Casey Stengel different theoretical perspectives.
None is as old as those who have outlived enthusiasm. Henry David
Thoreau
Six!
Nine!
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Personality is a core factor in defining a person. Generally, personality
is viewed as the essence of an individual. It makes each of us a unique,
recognisable person. Therefore, personality includes the distinctive
behaviours, major traits, thoughts, values, interests, drives, self-concepts,
abilities, and emotional patterns that are characteristic of the way in
which people adapt to life’s situations. From the definition, we can deduct
that people’s personalities could be described by the way they behave. Until the kudu learns to write, the tale
Personality also has an inner aspect, such as people’s thoughts and of the hunt will always be the hunter’s
perspective
emotions and the way in which they view themselves, which may not be
Just because you are right, does not mean I am wrong. You just have not seen life from my position.
reflected in their immediate and visible behaviour. Therefore, personality
is a complex construct.
Discussions of personality development in adulthood invariably Central to the personality development debate is whether personality
incorporate questions regarding issues of stability and change. In addition, remains stable throughout the life span or whether it changes. The
one of the oldest debates in psychology concerns whether personality different theoretical perspectives on personality development almost
development continues throughout the life span. Throughout the ages, always recognise biological, environmental, and self-regulatory factors as
prominent psychologists have argued both sides. For example, Sigmund driving forces for personality change (or stability), but differ in the relative
Freud was of the opinion that personality development was complete strengths they assign to these factors.
by the end of childhood and thereafter remained stable, William James For the purpose of our discussion on adult personality development,
believed that after age 30, personality is ”set in plaster”, while Erik Erikson the various theories of personality development will be considered. We
and Carl Jung believed that personality is continually shaped throughout shall begin with perspectives that focus on the effect of biological factors
a person’s life – therefore, change takes place. in personality development, such as trait theories of personality. We shall
Currently, the position of most researchers and theorists is that then move to theories that focus on environmental or contextual factors
personality develops across the entire life span. However, there is still no as primary sources of personality development, such as theories including
consensus as to which factors are involved in this development. Several life experiences and social roles. Then we shall discuss perspectives that

202 203
 All too often, our personality is nothing more than psychological theoretical perspectives propose causes and processes of development,
clothing that we wear to hide our true self from the world. while empirical studies have also examined the patterns and potential
Teal Swan sources of personality development. Although these works have increased
Life is 10% what happens to us and 90% how we respond to it. our understanding of personality development during adulthood, there
Anonymous are still several limitations (Specht et al., 2014). First, the differences in
terminology of the various perspectives complicate comparisons between
Personality is a mask you believe in. Anonymous them. Second, the empirical underpinnings of many perspectives are
Personality is only ripe when a man has made the truth his own. unsatisfactory due to a lack of clear operational definitions. Third, several
Soren Kierkegaard aspects of theoretical perspectives on adult development remain untested.
Fourth, currently, there is a lack of good methods to distinguish among the
The trick is growing up without growing old. Casey Stengel different theoretical perspectives.
None is as old as those who have outlived enthusiasm. Henry David
Thoreau
Six!
Nine!
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Personality is a core factor in defining a person. Generally, personality
is viewed as the essence of an individual. It makes each of us a unique,
recognisable person. Therefore, personality includes the distinctive
behaviours, major traits, thoughts, values, interests, drives, self-concepts,
abilities, and emotional patterns that are characteristic of the way in
which people adapt to life’s situations. From the definition, we can deduct
that people’s personalities could be described by the way they behave. Until the kudu learns to write, the tale
Personality also has an inner aspect, such as people’s thoughts and of the hunt will always be the hunter’s
perspective
emotions and the way in which they view themselves, which may not be
Just because you are right, does not mean I am wrong. You just have not seen life from my position.
reflected in their immediate and visible behaviour. Therefore, personality
is a complex construct.
Discussions of personality development in adulthood invariably Central to the personality development debate is whether personality
incorporate questions regarding issues of stability and change. In addition, remains stable throughout the life span or whether it changes. The
one of the oldest debates in psychology concerns whether personality different theoretical perspectives on personality development almost
development continues throughout the life span. Throughout the ages, always recognise biological, environmental, and self-regulatory factors as
prominent psychologists have argued both sides. For example, Sigmund driving forces for personality change (or stability), but differ in the relative
Freud was of the opinion that personality development was complete strengths they assign to these factors.
by the end of childhood and thereafter remained stable, William James For the purpose of our discussion on adult personality development,
believed that after age 30, personality is ”set in plaster”, while Erik Erikson the various theories of personality development will be considered. We
and Carl Jung believed that personality is continually shaped throughout shall begin with perspectives that focus on the effect of biological factors
a person’s life – therefore, change takes place. in personality development, such as trait theories of personality. We shall
Currently, the position of most researchers and theorists is that then move to theories that focus on environmental or contextual factors
personality develops across the entire life span. However, there is still no as primary sources of personality development, such as theories including
consensus as to which factors are involved in this development. Several life experiences and social roles. Then we shall discuss perspectives that

202 203
highlight the interaction or transaction of biological and environmental determine an individual’s behaviour across a range of situations. This implies
forces in personality development. Lastly, we shall explore important that personality traits are useful in summarising, predicting, and explaining
personality characteristics such as self-esteem, identity, emotions, and life an individual’s behaviour.
stories. However, before we begin consider the critical thinking questions Initially, a major problem for trait theorists was to decide what the basic
in Box 4.1. personality traits of the human species were. Literally thousands of traits had
been mentioned in the literature over the years. However, there were too many
traits, which made research on personality traits very difficult. The solution
Box 4.1. CRITICAL THINKING: Formulating your own was to reduce the large number of personality traits to a small number of
personality theory personality factors. For example, early personality theorists such as Gordon
1. Do you have a theory regarding personality development? What characteristics
Allport isolated all words in the English dictionary that could possibly describe
in others (and perhaps in yourself) may guide you to formulate your theory? personality and divided these into four categories. Hans Eysenck identified
2. Take a couple of minutes to reflect on your own personality: two basic traits, Raymond Cattell identified 16, and Guilford 10. More recently,
– How would you describe yourself? Costa and McCrae identified five traits. Our discussion on personality traits
– What are your main concerns, feelings, and thoughts about yourself?
– Have you remained the same since primary school, or have you changed? will mainly focus on Costa and McCrae’s five-factor theory.
– If you have changed, what events/circumstances/people contributed to this
change? 4.2.2 The five-factor theory and the five-factor model
– If you have not changed, what may have contributed to this stability?
The theory of personality trait development that has had a substantial
influence on personality trait research, is the five-factor theory (FFT)
proposed by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae (e.g. Costa & McCrae, 1989,
4.2 BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADULT 1992, 1994, 2010, 2012; McCrae & Costa, 1984, 1990, 2008; McCrae, 2016). It
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT is a comprehensive theory in that it covers most of what typically interested
personality researchers, such as traits, behaviour, and social-cognitive
Biological factors as forces in personality development are primarily constructs, and the connections between these. A schematic representation
considered in terms of genes, brain structures, and physiological mechanisms. of the five-factor theory is presented in Figure 4.1.
Some biological factors are stable (e.g. one’s DNA). Other biological influences
(e.g. gene expression and hormonal changes) are more flexible and can
Genetic Environmental Situational
change across the life span due to age-related maturation and degeneration influences influences influences
processes, as well as environmental influences such as nutrition, drugs,
stressors and toxins (Kandler & Zapko-Willmes, 2017; Specht et al., 2014).
Our discussion of biological perspectives on adult personality
development will focus largely on personality traits. Basic tendencies Characteristic Objective
- Neuroticism adaptations biography
4.2.1 Personality traits - Extraversion - Goals - Behaviours
- Openness - Attitudes - Thoughts
- Agreeableness - Self-schemas - Feelings
Personality traits are defined as relatively stable and enduring patterns of - Conscientious- - Personal myths
behaviour, thoughts and feelings that are relatively consistent across a wide ness
variety of situations and contexts (Soto et al., 2016). Traits describe the most Accommodation Assimilation
basic characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Trait theorists
regard personality as an entity that reflects innate dispositions (internal, Figure 4.1. Schematic representation of the five-factor theory
biological characteristics). Therefore, they assume that personality traits Source: Möttus, 2017

204 205
highlight the interaction or transaction of biological and environmental determine an individual’s behaviour across a range of situations. This implies
forces in personality development. Lastly, we shall explore important that personality traits are useful in summarising, predicting, and explaining
personality characteristics such as self-esteem, identity, emotions, and life an individual’s behaviour.
stories. However, before we begin consider the critical thinking questions Initially, a major problem for trait theorists was to decide what the basic
in Box 4.1. personality traits of the human species were. Literally thousands of traits had
been mentioned in the literature over the years. However, there were too many
traits, which made research on personality traits very difficult. The solution
Box 4.1. CRITICAL THINKING: Formulating your own was to reduce the large number of personality traits to a small number of
personality theory personality factors. For example, early personality theorists such as Gordon
1. Do you have a theory regarding personality development? What characteristics
Allport isolated all words in the English dictionary that could possibly describe
in others (and perhaps in yourself) may guide you to formulate your theory? personality and divided these into four categories. Hans Eysenck identified
2. Take a couple of minutes to reflect on your own personality: two basic traits, Raymond Cattell identified 16, and Guilford 10. More recently,
– How would you describe yourself? Costa and McCrae identified five traits. Our discussion on personality traits
– What are your main concerns, feelings, and thoughts about yourself?
– Have you remained the same since primary school, or have you changed? will mainly focus on Costa and McCrae’s five-factor theory.
– If you have changed, what events/circumstances/people contributed to this
change? 4.2.2 The five-factor theory and the five-factor model
– If you have not changed, what may have contributed to this stability?
The theory of personality trait development that has had a substantial
influence on personality trait research, is the five-factor theory (FFT)
proposed by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae (e.g. Costa & McCrae, 1989,
4.2 BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADULT 1992, 1994, 2010, 2012; McCrae & Costa, 1984, 1990, 2008; McCrae, 2016). It
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT is a comprehensive theory in that it covers most of what typically interested
personality researchers, such as traits, behaviour, and social-cognitive
Biological factors as forces in personality development are primarily constructs, and the connections between these. A schematic representation
considered in terms of genes, brain structures, and physiological mechanisms. of the five-factor theory is presented in Figure 4.1.
Some biological factors are stable (e.g. one’s DNA). Other biological influences
(e.g. gene expression and hormonal changes) are more flexible and can
Genetic Environmental Situational
change across the life span due to age-related maturation and degeneration influences influences influences
processes, as well as environmental influences such as nutrition, drugs,
stressors and toxins (Kandler & Zapko-Willmes, 2017; Specht et al., 2014).
Our discussion of biological perspectives on adult personality
development will focus largely on personality traits. Basic tendencies Characteristic Objective
- Neuroticism adaptations biography
4.2.1 Personality traits - Extraversion - Goals - Behaviours
- Openness - Attitudes - Thoughts
- Agreeableness - Self-schemas - Feelings
Personality traits are defined as relatively stable and enduring patterns of - Conscientious- - Personal myths
behaviour, thoughts and feelings that are relatively consistent across a wide ness
variety of situations and contexts (Soto et al., 2016). Traits describe the most Accommodation Assimilation
basic characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Trait theorists
regard personality as an entity that reflects innate dispositions (internal, Figure 4.1. Schematic representation of the five-factor theory
biological characteristics). Therefore, they assume that personality traits Source: Möttus, 2017

204 205
 The main component in the FFT is basic tendencies. Basic tendencies anxiety, hostility, self-consciousness, depression, impulsiveness, and
are considered influenced solely by biological factors, which include genetic vulnerability. People high in neuroticism experience more frequent
factors and brain structures. In the FFT, the basic tendencies are comprised and intense negative emotions such as fear, sadness, and frustration.
of five broad trait dimensions, which came to be known as the five-factor They tend to have more frequent mood swings and therefore exhibit
model (FFM). As the name implies, Costa and McCrae believe that all the emotional instability. Those low in neuroticism are calmer and more
important personality characteristics can be grouped into five broad trait optimistic (even in difficult situations) and find it easier to regulate
dimensions (often referred to as the Big Five): neuroticism, extraversion, their emotions. This indicates emotional stability.
openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, and is the • Extraversion (sometimes called extroversion) refers to the tendency
most widely used structural model in personality assessment and research to be outgoing in social situations. The six facets of extraversion can
(Soto et al., 2016). Qualitatively, these traits are the same for every individual be grouped into three interpersonal traits (warmth, gregariousness,
and differ only in terms of the quantity of their manifestation or output. and assertiveness) and three temperamental traits (activity, excitement
Thus, although personality traits are sets of characteristics that everyone seeking, and positive emotions). People high in extraversion tend to be
possesses, the strength (or dimension) with which they manifest themselves talkative, are sociable and compassionate, tend to take charge in group
may vary from person to person. Therefore, these five dimensions capture situations, and express positive emotions. People low in extraversion
a wide range of individual differences in personality. For example, on the tend to feel uncomfortable or shy in social situations and keep their
extraversion trait, some people may be outgoing, and others may be shy thoughts and feelings to themselves.
and reserved, while most people will be in between. Thus, each of these • Openness to experience refers to the overall depth and breadth of
traits lies on a continuum. Factors such as age and culture also play a role an individual’s intellectual, artistic and experiential life. The six facets
in how a trait is manifested. For example, the manifestation of extraversion represent six different areas: openness to fantasy (e.g. a vivid imagination);
in a 12-year-old will be quite different from the extraverted behaviour of a openness to aesthetics (e.g. appreciation of art and beauty); openness
70-year-old, and may be quite different among the Xhosas in South Africa to action (e.g. a willingness to try something new); openness to ideas
than among the Chinese in China. (e.g. curious and open to new ideas); openness to values (e.g. open-
mindedness); and openness to feelings. Individuals high in openness
tend to have a broad range of interests and enjoy learning and trying
new things. Those low in openness tend to have narrower interests and
prefer familiarity and routine to novelty and variety.
• Agreeableness is an important aspect of social behaviour. It reflects
the extent to which a person behaves pro-socially toward others and
maintains pleasant, harmonious interpersonal relations. The six facets
are sincerity, altruism, trust, modesty, compliance, and kindness. People
high in agreeableness are more willing to help and forgive others and
treat others with respect; those low in agreeableness tend to look down
on others, start arguments, and hold grudges.
Paul Costa Robert McCrae • Conscientiousness reflects the propensity to be self-controlled, task-
and goal-directed and rule following. It describes an individual’s capacity
Each trait is represented by six facets (also called lower-order traits), to organise things, complete tasks, and work toward long-term goals.
reflecting the main characteristics associated with it. (For a summary of The facets include orderliness, self-discipline, reliability, competence,
these traits and their related characteristics, see Table 4.1.) achievement, and striving. Highly conscientious people prefer order
and structure; are productive workers, ambitious and energetic; tend
• Neuroticism concerns the extent to which a person is prone to
to follow rules and norms; and are better to delay gratification. Those
experiencing negative emotions and moods. The six facets are
206 207
 The main component in the FFT is basic tendencies. Basic tendencies anxiety, hostility, self-consciousness, depression, impulsiveness, and
are considered influenced solely by biological factors, which include genetic vulnerability. People high in neuroticism experience more frequent
factors and brain structures. In the FFT, the basic tendencies are comprised and intense negative emotions such as fear, sadness, and frustration.
of five broad trait dimensions, which came to be known as the five-factor They tend to have more frequent mood swings and therefore exhibit
model (FFM). As the name implies, Costa and McCrae believe that all the emotional instability. Those low in neuroticism are calmer and more
important personality characteristics can be grouped into five broad trait optimistic (even in difficult situations) and find it easier to regulate
dimensions (often referred to as the Big Five): neuroticism, extraversion, their emotions. This indicates emotional stability.
openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, and is the • Extraversion (sometimes called extroversion) refers to the tendency
most widely used structural model in personality assessment and research to be outgoing in social situations. The six facets of extraversion can
(Soto et al., 2016). Qualitatively, these traits are the same for every individual be grouped into three interpersonal traits (warmth, gregariousness,
and differ only in terms of the quantity of their manifestation or output. and assertiveness) and three temperamental traits (activity, excitement
Thus, although personality traits are sets of characteristics that everyone seeking, and positive emotions). People high in extraversion tend to be
possesses, the strength (or dimension) with which they manifest themselves talkative, are sociable and compassionate, tend to take charge in group
may vary from person to person. Therefore, these five dimensions capture situations, and express positive emotions. People low in extraversion
a wide range of individual differences in personality. For example, on the tend to feel uncomfortable or shy in social situations and keep their
extraversion trait, some people may be outgoing, and others may be shy thoughts and feelings to themselves.
and reserved, while most people will be in between. Thus, each of these • Openness to experience refers to the overall depth and breadth of
traits lies on a continuum. Factors such as age and culture also play a role an individual’s intellectual, artistic and experiential life. The six facets
in how a trait is manifested. For example, the manifestation of extraversion represent six different areas: openness to fantasy (e.g. a vivid imagination);
in a 12-year-old will be quite different from the extraverted behaviour of a openness to aesthetics (e.g. appreciation of art and beauty); openness
70-year-old, and may be quite different among the Xhosas in South Africa to action (e.g. a willingness to try something new); openness to ideas
than among the Chinese in China. (e.g. curious and open to new ideas); openness to values (e.g. open-
mindedness); and openness to feelings. Individuals high in openness
tend to have a broad range of interests and enjoy learning and trying
new things. Those low in openness tend to have narrower interests and
prefer familiarity and routine to novelty and variety.
• Agreeableness is an important aspect of social behaviour. It reflects
the extent to which a person behaves pro-socially toward others and
maintains pleasant, harmonious interpersonal relations. The six facets
are sincerity, altruism, trust, modesty, compliance, and kindness. People
high in agreeableness are more willing to help and forgive others and
treat others with respect; those low in agreeableness tend to look down
on others, start arguments, and hold grudges.
Paul Costa Robert McCrae • Conscientiousness reflects the propensity to be self-controlled, task-
and goal-directed and rule following. It describes an individual’s capacity
Each trait is represented by six facets (also called lower-order traits), to organise things, complete tasks, and work toward long-term goals.
reflecting the main characteristics associated with it. (For a summary of The facets include orderliness, self-discipline, reliability, competence,
these traits and their related characteristics, see Table 4.1.) achievement, and striving. Highly conscientious people prefer order
and structure; are productive workers, ambitious and energetic; tend
• Neuroticism concerns the extent to which a person is prone to
to follow rules and norms; and are better to delay gratification. Those
experiencing negative emotions and moods. The six facets are
206 207
 low in conscientiousness have difficulty in controlling their impulses, are
easily distracted from tasks, tend to be negligent, late, aimless, and not Box 4.2. The influence of personality traits on the
persistent. prediction of certain life outcomes

Table 4.1 Costa and McCrae’s five-factor model Researchers are increasingly realising that certain developmental areas may be shaped
by personality traits (e.g. Soto et al., 2016). Examples are the following:
Personality trait Basic definition Characteristics
■ Personality and relationships. Personality traits such as neuroticism, agreeableness,
Neuroticism Emotional instability versus Contrasts anxiety, and extraversion are strong predictors of relationship outcome. The higher a person is
emotional stability moodiness, and sensitivity in neuroticism and the lower in agreeableness (e.g. hostility), the greater the chance
with negative stimuli with that he or she may be in conflicted, dissatisfied, and abusive relationships.
positive coping abilities
and even temperedness. ■ Personality and self-esteem, affect, and coping. Compared with introverts,
extraverts tend to experience higher self-esteem, as well as more frequent and intense
Extraversion Outgoingness versus Contrasts warmth, positive affect. They also tend to show greater emotional resilience and better coping
introversion gregariousness,
skills in response to negative events.
assertiveness, activity,
excitement-seeking and ■ Personality and job achievement. Extraverts are more likely than introverts are
positive emotions with to assume leadership positions in their workplaces, while agreeable individuals tend
passivity and reserve. to seek out and succeed in social occupations and collaborative work environments.
Openness to experience Curiosity and interest in Contrasts openness Conscientiousness is a strong predictor of work-related indicators such as occupational
variety versus preference with fantasy, aesthetics, attainment and job performance. In addition, conscientiousness is the strongest
for sameness curiosity, feelings, actions, predictor of overall academic and occupational success.
ideas, and values with ■ Personality, health, and well-being. The relationship between personality traits
shallowness and lack of and health of older adults has been indicated by a number of studies. Older adults
perceptiveness.
with higher levels of openness to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, and
Agreeableness Compliance and Contrasts trust, sincerity, conscientiousness, and lower levels of neuroticism have fewer health problems and
cooperativeness versus altruism, compliance, generally lead healthier lifestyles. Neuroticism seems to be disadvantageous in coping
suspiciousness and modesty, and kindness with chronic pain in later life, while there seems to be a strong correlation between
antagonism with hostility, selfishness, neuroticism and high blood pressure, as well as between neuroticism and mortality.
and distrust.
Extraversion and conscientiousness seem to correlate positively with maintaining
Conscientiousness Discipline and organisation Contrasts competence, a high level of morale and general well-being in older adults. More specifically,
versus aimlessness and order, dutifulness, self- conscientiousness, especially the sub factors such as ambition and discipline, seem
negligence discipline, deliberation, to be particularly important in longevity. These dimensions not only influence healthy
achievement, and striving behaviours, but also influence the kind of people individuals mix with and the situations
with carelessness, in which they find themselves. In addition, well-being has been linked with several of the
negligence, and
personality traits. For example, self-acceptance, environmental mastery, and purpose in
unreliability.
life are linked with emotional stability, extraversion, and conscientiousness.
Costa & McCrae, 1992
■ Personality and lifestyle. While openness to experience is an important predictor
of intellectual outcomes, formal education, and success in artistic, scientific and
Within the trait categories, where one finds oneself within the six facets technical careers, openness to experience may also predispose people to engage in
drug use, describe themselves as spiritual (not necessarily religious) and hold liberal
can make a difference in how one’s personality is reflected in one’s behaviour.
political and social attitudes.
For example, within the extraversion trait, people can be either high or low
on the facet of warmth and high or low on the facet of gregariousness.
Being high on both would mean you genuinely like to be around people
and relate easily to others. Being low on warmth but high on gregariousness
According to the FFT, the basic tendencies (traits) become manifest
would mean that you like being with others but that people find it difficult
as characteristic adaptations in order to suit particular cultural, social,
to get to know you very well, or to relate to you (Whitbourne & Whitbourne,
or developmental contexts. Characteristic adaptations manifest as goals,
2014). (See also Box 4.2 regarding the influence of personality traits on the
attitudes, self-schemas, personal strivings, personal myths, and so forth.
prediction of certain life events.)
208 209
 low in conscientiousness have difficulty in controlling their impulses, are
easily distracted from tasks, tend to be negligent, late, aimless, and not Box 4.2. The influence of personality traits on the
persistent. prediction of certain life outcomes

Table 4.1 Costa and McCrae’s five-factor model Researchers are increasingly realising that certain developmental areas may be shaped
by personality traits (e.g. Soto et al., 2016). Examples are the following:
Personality trait Basic definition Characteristics
■ Personality and relationships. Personality traits such as neuroticism, agreeableness,
Neuroticism Emotional instability versus Contrasts anxiety, and extraversion are strong predictors of relationship outcome. The higher a person is
emotional stability moodiness, and sensitivity in neuroticism and the lower in agreeableness (e.g. hostility), the greater the chance
with negative stimuli with that he or she may be in conflicted, dissatisfied, and abusive relationships.
positive coping abilities
and even temperedness. ■ Personality and self-esteem, affect, and coping. Compared with introverts,
extraverts tend to experience higher self-esteem, as well as more frequent and intense
Extraversion Outgoingness versus Contrasts warmth, positive affect. They also tend to show greater emotional resilience and better coping
introversion gregariousness,
skills in response to negative events.
assertiveness, activity,
excitement-seeking and ■ Personality and job achievement. Extraverts are more likely than introverts are
positive emotions with to assume leadership positions in their workplaces, while agreeable individuals tend
passivity and reserve. to seek out and succeed in social occupations and collaborative work environments.
Openness to experience Curiosity and interest in Contrasts openness Conscientiousness is a strong predictor of work-related indicators such as occupational
variety versus preference with fantasy, aesthetics, attainment and job performance. In addition, conscientiousness is the strongest
for sameness curiosity, feelings, actions, predictor of overall academic and occupational success.
ideas, and values with ■ Personality, health, and well-being. The relationship between personality traits
shallowness and lack of and health of older adults has been indicated by a number of studies. Older adults
perceptiveness.
with higher levels of openness to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, and
Agreeableness Compliance and Contrasts trust, sincerity, conscientiousness, and lower levels of neuroticism have fewer health problems and
cooperativeness versus altruism, compliance, generally lead healthier lifestyles. Neuroticism seems to be disadvantageous in coping
suspiciousness and modesty, and kindness with chronic pain in later life, while there seems to be a strong correlation between
antagonism with hostility, selfishness, neuroticism and high blood pressure, as well as between neuroticism and mortality.
and distrust.
Extraversion and conscientiousness seem to correlate positively with maintaining
Conscientiousness Discipline and organisation Contrasts competence, a high level of morale and general well-being in older adults. More specifically,
versus aimlessness and order, dutifulness, self- conscientiousness, especially the sub factors such as ambition and discipline, seem
negligence discipline, deliberation, to be particularly important in longevity. These dimensions not only influence healthy
achievement, and striving behaviours, but also influence the kind of people individuals mix with and the situations
with carelessness, in which they find themselves. In addition, well-being has been linked with several of the
negligence, and
personality traits. For example, self-acceptance, environmental mastery, and purpose in
unreliability.
life are linked with emotional stability, extraversion, and conscientiousness.
Costa & McCrae, 1992
■ Personality and lifestyle. While openness to experience is an important predictor
of intellectual outcomes, formal education, and success in artistic, scientific and
Within the trait categories, where one finds oneself within the six facets technical careers, openness to experience may also predispose people to engage in
drug use, describe themselves as spiritual (not necessarily religious) and hold liberal
can make a difference in how one’s personality is reflected in one’s behaviour.
political and social attitudes.
For example, within the extraversion trait, people can be either high or low
on the facet of warmth and high or low on the facet of gregariousness.
Being high on both would mean you genuinely like to be around people
and relate easily to others. Being low on warmth but high on gregariousness
According to the FFT, the basic tendencies (traits) become manifest
would mean that you like being with others but that people find it difficult
as characteristic adaptations in order to suit particular cultural, social,
to get to know you very well, or to relate to you (Whitbourne & Whitbourne,
or developmental contexts. Characteristic adaptations manifest as goals,
2014). (See also Box 4.2 regarding the influence of personality traits on the
attitudes, self-schemas, personal strivings, personal myths, and so forth.
prediction of certain life events.)
208 209
Whereas basic tendencies are the abstract psychological potentials of the
individual and biological in nature, characteristic adaptations are mental • Individual differences refer to the fact that traits might increase,
structures that develop as the person interacts with the environment. In decrease, or remain stable across age groups or over time. For example,
turn, characteristic adaptations interact with external influences to produce some people may become emotionally more stable as they age. Others
an objective biography, which is the specific and potentially observable may become less stable, while others may remain the same throughout
manifestations of personality such as behaviours, thoughts, and feelings. their lives.
The main viewpoint of FFT is that the development of personality traits • Stability of variance implies that individual differences remain stable
(i.e. the basic tendencies) occurs according to an intrinsic, genetically over time and/or across different ages, even though the mean levels or
driven programme. However, it also acknowledges that external influences rank orders are unstable. For example, a person low in agreeableness
can contribute to personality development. This happens at the level of may remain low in this trait although indications are that people tend to
characteristic adaptations through a process of accommodation, when become more agreeable as they age.
basic tendencies interact with, or attempt to fit into, particular environmental • Structural stability refers to the stability of patterns of covariation
conditions. Assimilation occurs when specific behaviours, thoughts, (relationship) among traits or items (or facets) on a personality scale.
or emotional reactions fit the characteristic adaptations into particular For example, the assumption is that high agreeableness correlates with
situations. An example of this process could be the following: A middle- kindness and compliance.
aged Afrikaans-speaking person who scores high on openness to experience
(basic tendencies), has many different interests, likes different cultures,
likes to travel, and has an interest in people and languages (characteristic
adaptations). After retirement, she relocates to another province and then
decides to learn Xhosa, the language spoken by the majority of the people
in this particular province (objective biography).

4.2.3 Personality traits: stability and change

As mentioned earlier, a key element in personality research is to determine

whether personality changes or remains stable throughout the life span.
Empirical evidence suggests that both change and stability describe
personality trait development across adulthood, depending partly on the
form of stability and change one considers. Stability and change are defined,
measured, and statistically analysed in various ways:
Do personality traits change or remain stable throughout the life span?

• Mean level refers to the average level of people’s scores across time
and/or across ages. Mean level stability or change implies the general 4.2.3.1 A case for stability
tendencies found in most people. For example, people generally become
emotionally more stable as they mature. Understanding personality traits and their stability is important for several
• Rank order refers to the relative positions of individuals’ traits in reasons (Allemand et al., 2013):
comparison to their age peers; that is, the “highs” stay high and the “lows”
low. For example, if a person had a high extraversion score as a young • As mentioned before, personality traits play a role in predicting a variety
adult, he or she would continue showing high levels of outgoingness in of important life outcomes such as mortality, divorce, and occupational
relation to his or her peers throughout his or her middle years and beyond. attainment. Therefore, understanding stability may be essential in such

210 211
Whereas basic tendencies are the abstract psychological potentials of the
individual and biological in nature, characteristic adaptations are mental • Individual differences refer to the fact that traits might increase,
structures that develop as the person interacts with the environment. In decrease, or remain stable across age groups or over time. For example,
turn, characteristic adaptations interact with external influences to produce some people may become emotionally more stable as they age. Others
an objective biography, which is the specific and potentially observable may become less stable, while others may remain the same throughout
manifestations of personality such as behaviours, thoughts, and feelings. their lives.
The main viewpoint of FFT is that the development of personality traits • Stability of variance implies that individual differences remain stable
(i.e. the basic tendencies) occurs according to an intrinsic, genetically over time and/or across different ages, even though the mean levels or
driven programme. However, it also acknowledges that external influences rank orders are unstable. For example, a person low in agreeableness
can contribute to personality development. This happens at the level of may remain low in this trait although indications are that people tend to
characteristic adaptations through a process of accommodation, when become more agreeable as they age.
basic tendencies interact with, or attempt to fit into, particular environmental • Structural stability refers to the stability of patterns of covariation
conditions. Assimilation occurs when specific behaviours, thoughts, (relationship) among traits or items (or facets) on a personality scale.
or emotional reactions fit the characteristic adaptations into particular For example, the assumption is that high agreeableness correlates with
situations. An example of this process could be the following: A middle- kindness and compliance.
aged Afrikaans-speaking person who scores high on openness to experience
(basic tendencies), has many different interests, likes different cultures,
likes to travel, and has an interest in people and languages (characteristic
adaptations). After retirement, she relocates to another province and then
decides to learn Xhosa, the language spoken by the majority of the people
in this particular province (objective biography).

4.2.3 Personality traits: stability and change

As mentioned earlier, a key element in personality research is to determine

whether personality changes or remains stable throughout the life span.
Empirical evidence suggests that both change and stability describe
personality trait development across adulthood, depending partly on the
form of stability and change one considers. Stability and change are defined,
measured, and statistically analysed in various ways:
Do personality traits change or remain stable throughout the life span?

• Mean level refers to the average level of people’s scores across time
and/or across ages. Mean level stability or change implies the general 4.2.3.1 A case for stability
tendencies found in most people. For example, people generally become
emotionally more stable as they mature. Understanding personality traits and their stability is important for several
• Rank order refers to the relative positions of individuals’ traits in reasons (Allemand et al., 2013):
comparison to their age peers; that is, the “highs” stay high and the “lows”
low. For example, if a person had a high extraversion score as a young • As mentioned before, personality traits play a role in predicting a variety
adult, he or she would continue showing high levels of outgoingness in of important life outcomes such as mortality, divorce, and occupational
relation to his or her peers throughout his or her middle years and beyond. attainment. Therefore, understanding stability may be essential in such

210 211
 areas as maintaining health and success in work and marriage. As such, it increases the predictability and continuity of behaviour so that
• Because stability of behaviour is an important manifestation of individuals can better predict each other’s actions. By contrast, a lack
personality, identifying the mechanisms (or causes) of stability and the of stability increases the unpredictability of behaviour. For this reason,
conditions under which stability is most prominent is an important way personality instability often is an indication of a psychological disorder.
to understand personality.
• Understanding stability is important for the assessment of personality 4.2.3.2 A case for change
traits over time.
• Knowledge of the circumstances under which trait behaviours are more Although personality traits remain remarkably stable, at the same time, they
or less likely makes changing them more likely; therefore, interventions to also demonstrate systematic mean level changes from childhood to old age.
change behaviour can be more effective. This suggests that the average trait scores of groups change during the
course of the life span. More specifically, the following mean level age trends
By analysing longitudinal data from several studies, Costa and McCrae were found (Kandler et al., 2015; Lucas & Donnellan, 2011; Marsh et al., 2013;
(e.g. 1980, 1988, 1994; McCrae et al., 2000) found remarkable consistency Nye et al., 2016):
and stability in all five personality dimensions. This was especially true after
age 30, suggesting that full maturity of the adult personality is reached by • Neuroticism declines until middle adulthood and then remains stable, but
age 30. This led Costa and McCrae to believe that after age 30, personality increases slightly around the age of 80.
seems to be “set in plaster” (McCrae & Costa, 1994), therefore agreeing with • Extraversion shows some decline during emerging adulthood, a relatively
William James’s original position. flat trend from young adulthood through middle age, and a more
Empirical evidence for personality trait stability in adulthood comes noticeable drop in later years.
from findings with respect to stability of rank order, stability of variance, • Openness to experience shows increases in emerging adulthood, stability
and structural stability (e.g. Allemand et al., 2013; Zimprich et al., 2012). A in middle adulthood, and decreases in older adulthood.
large body of research demonstrates high levels of rank order (also called • Agreeableness remains at a stable level until age 50 and then increases
differential) stability across the adult years. Therefore, individuals maintain with age.
their ranking in a reference group over time. This is true even in the latest • Conscientiousness increases in young and middle adulthood, increases to
decades of life, regardless of changes that are often notable in individual a peak between the ages of 50 and 70, and then declines.
differences in people’s health, cognitive functioning, and abilities to cope
independently with life. With respect to stability of variance, empirical These findings suggest that personality traits not only change with age,
evidence suggests that trait variances remain relatively stable over time but that there are also distinct patterns of change. In general, as individuals
and/or across ages. This implies that individual differences in the traits seem grow older, they seem to increase in traits related to social interest and
consistent. Regarding structural stability, cross-sectional and longitudinal communion (fellowship) and to decrease in traits related to agency (activity)
research demonstrate relatively high levels of stability, implying that the and a zestful (lively) approach to life (Donnellan & Lucas, 2008).
positioning of traits relative to each other remain stable and is unaffected by The five-factor model asserts that mean level trait changes are much
age and ageing. more common in young adulthood before the age of 30 than in middle age.
Trait stability may serve different functions (Allemand et al, 2013). On the However, indications are that changes do occur after age 30, although at
one hand, stability benefits the individual. For example, being stable provides a slower rate. In addition, studies about change in personality traits after
a sense of sameness and continuity, which is central to having a sense of age 80 are rare, in contrast to the number of such studies in younger life
identity. This also contributes to the individual’s sense of routine and control, periods. Mixed results are found regarding the mean level changes in very old
which may help individuals to avoid stress and to gain pleasure. On the other adults. While some studies did not find any change at all, other investigations
hand, stability also benefits the individual’s social environment in the sense showed increases in agreeableness and decreases in extraversion (Allemand
that it provides structure and reduces the complexity of social interactions. et al., 2017).

212 213
 areas as maintaining health and success in work and marriage. As such, it increases the predictability and continuity of behaviour so that
• Because stability of behaviour is an important manifestation of individuals can better predict each other’s actions. By contrast, a lack
personality, identifying the mechanisms (or causes) of stability and the of stability increases the unpredictability of behaviour. For this reason,
conditions under which stability is most prominent is an important way personality instability often is an indication of a psychological disorder.
to understand personality.
• Understanding stability is important for the assessment of personality 4.2.3.2 A case for change
traits over time.
• Knowledge of the circumstances under which trait behaviours are more Although personality traits remain remarkably stable, at the same time, they
or less likely makes changing them more likely; therefore, interventions to also demonstrate systematic mean level changes from childhood to old age.
change behaviour can be more effective. This suggests that the average trait scores of groups change during the
course of the life span. More specifically, the following mean level age trends
By analysing longitudinal data from several studies, Costa and McCrae were found (Kandler et al., 2015; Lucas & Donnellan, 2011; Marsh et al., 2013;
(e.g. 1980, 1988, 1994; McCrae et al., 2000) found remarkable consistency Nye et al., 2016):
and stability in all five personality dimensions. This was especially true after
age 30, suggesting that full maturity of the adult personality is reached by • Neuroticism declines until middle adulthood and then remains stable, but
age 30. This led Costa and McCrae to believe that after age 30, personality increases slightly around the age of 80.
seems to be “set in plaster” (McCrae & Costa, 1994), therefore agreeing with • Extraversion shows some decline during emerging adulthood, a relatively
William James’s original position. flat trend from young adulthood through middle age, and a more
Empirical evidence for personality trait stability in adulthood comes noticeable drop in later years.
from findings with respect to stability of rank order, stability of variance, • Openness to experience shows increases in emerging adulthood, stability
and structural stability (e.g. Allemand et al., 2013; Zimprich et al., 2012). A in middle adulthood, and decreases in older adulthood.
large body of research demonstrates high levels of rank order (also called • Agreeableness remains at a stable level until age 50 and then increases
differential) stability across the adult years. Therefore, individuals maintain with age.
their ranking in a reference group over time. This is true even in the latest • Conscientiousness increases in young and middle adulthood, increases to
decades of life, regardless of changes that are often notable in individual a peak between the ages of 50 and 70, and then declines.
differences in people’s health, cognitive functioning, and abilities to cope
independently with life. With respect to stability of variance, empirical These findings suggest that personality traits not only change with age,
evidence suggests that trait variances remain relatively stable over time but that there are also distinct patterns of change. In general, as individuals
and/or across ages. This implies that individual differences in the traits seem grow older, they seem to increase in traits related to social interest and
consistent. Regarding structural stability, cross-sectional and longitudinal communion (fellowship) and to decrease in traits related to agency (activity)
research demonstrate relatively high levels of stability, implying that the and a zestful (lively) approach to life (Donnellan & Lucas, 2008).
positioning of traits relative to each other remain stable and is unaffected by The five-factor model asserts that mean level trait changes are much
age and ageing. more common in young adulthood before the age of 30 than in middle age.
Trait stability may serve different functions (Allemand et al, 2013). On the However, indications are that changes do occur after age 30, although at
one hand, stability benefits the individual. For example, being stable provides a slower rate. In addition, studies about change in personality traits after
a sense of sameness and continuity, which is central to having a sense of age 80 are rare, in contrast to the number of such studies in younger life
identity. This also contributes to the individual’s sense of routine and control, periods. Mixed results are found regarding the mean level changes in very old
which may help individuals to avoid stress and to gain pleasure. On the other adults. While some studies did not find any change at all, other investigations
hand, stability also benefits the individual’s social environment in the sense showed increases in agreeableness and decreases in extraversion (Allemand
that it provides structure and reduces the complexity of social interactions. et al., 2017).

212 213
 Empirical evidence supports the claim that personality continues As we have seen, proponents of the five-factor model assert that
to change in adulthood at the mean levels, but there is also evidence for personality traits arise exclusively from biological causes, and because
individual differences in personality development across the adult years of a maturational process, they reach full maturity in early adulthood. In
(Allemand et al., 2013). This implies that some individuals change, while its original formulation, the plaster hypothesis stated that changes in the
others remain stable throughout the adult years. Individuals may also change five personality traits after age 30 were non-existent or trivial (e.g. Costa
in some traits but not in others or deviate significantly from the average & McCrae, 1994). However, after it had become known that mean level
expected (normative) change. Individual differences in trait development individual changes do occur, these researchers took a soft plaster approach
are a reflection of the different pathways or trajectories that individuals (e.g. McCrae & Costa, 2008). Costa and McCrae and their colleagues (e.g.
may encounter in adulthood. It is also possible that change in personality Terracciano et al., 2010) acknowledge that personality is not a static entity,
traits is more adaptive for adults who seek new experiences, because this but a dynamic functioning system. They acknowledge a limited role for
allows them to adapt better to new opportunities and situations. By contrast, environmental factors, but only if mediated through biological processes.
for other individuals, stability may seem better, since it provides greater For example, they believe that changes in personality traits that do occur
consistency and control. are mostly a function of normative development governed by biology. In the
case of mean level or individual changes, personality change is manifested
4.2.3.3 Forces that contribute to personality trait stability and (revealed) in characteristic adaptations (e.g. goals, personal strivings,
change relationship patterns, and acquired skills) rather than in change in personality
traits as such. In certain rare cases, non-normative environmental influences
Adulthood is characterised by a multitude of life experiences and such as drugs, medication, injuries, and diseases that directly affect the brain
environmental influences that may affect the stability of personality traits. may cause actual changes in personality traits.
Therefore, it is particularly noteworthy that such high levels of trait stability Support for Costa and McCrae’s contention comes from decades-long
characterise this developmental period. Naturally, this leads to the question factor analytic, cross-sectional, longitudinal, sequential, and cross-cultural
of which causes and processes might be responsible for stability and its studies (e.g. Möttus, 2017). For example:
maintenance, and which produce change. The answers to this depend on
one’s theoretical perspective. The mechanisms for trait stability and change ■ The development of personality traits reflects intrinsic maturation,
can be organised into categories such as biological factors, environmental while environmental influences play a much lesser role than researchers
factors and the complex interplay between individuals and their environment. expected.
■ While major life events can change personality, these effects are only
• According to the biological perspective, personality trait stability and modest. In fact, perceiving stressful life events as turning points in trait
change are attributed to intrinsic maturational processes rather than to change may be related to normative age-related changes.
external influences. ■ Gender differences (e.g. men tend to score higher than women do on
• Theories that emphasise environmental factors predict different changes assertiveness and ideas, while women score higher than men do on
in personality during different life periods. anxiety and tender-mindedness) lend credibility to the argument for
• Theories that focus on transactions between person and environment certain innate (inborn) personality traits.
contend that individuals are seen as active agents who play an important
role in selecting and shaping their environments, and in turn, these 4.2.4 South African research on personality traits
environments affect their personalities.
Until very recently, personality measurement in South Africa either made use
Since our discussion is on personality traits from a biological perspective, of imported questionnaires (usually from the USA or Europe), or personality
this is our main focus in this section. The other perspectives are covered inventories were mostly developed from existing Western-orientated
elsewhere in this chapter. personality models. The standardisation (see Chapter 1) of these measures

214 215
 Empirical evidence supports the claim that personality continues As we have seen, proponents of the five-factor model assert that
to change in adulthood at the mean levels, but there is also evidence for personality traits arise exclusively from biological causes, and because
individual differences in personality development across the adult years of a maturational process, they reach full maturity in early adulthood. In
(Allemand et al., 2013). This implies that some individuals change, while its original formulation, the plaster hypothesis stated that changes in the
others remain stable throughout the adult years. Individuals may also change five personality traits after age 30 were non-existent or trivial (e.g. Costa
in some traits but not in others or deviate significantly from the average & McCrae, 1994). However, after it had become known that mean level
expected (normative) change. Individual differences in trait development individual changes do occur, these researchers took a soft plaster approach
are a reflection of the different pathways or trajectories that individuals (e.g. McCrae & Costa, 2008). Costa and McCrae and their colleagues (e.g.
may encounter in adulthood. It is also possible that change in personality Terracciano et al., 2010) acknowledge that personality is not a static entity,
traits is more adaptive for adults who seek new experiences, because this but a dynamic functioning system. They acknowledge a limited role for
allows them to adapt better to new opportunities and situations. By contrast, environmental factors, but only if mediated through biological processes.
for other individuals, stability may seem better, since it provides greater For example, they believe that changes in personality traits that do occur
consistency and control. are mostly a function of normative development governed by biology. In the
case of mean level or individual changes, personality change is manifested
4.2.3.3 Forces that contribute to personality trait stability and (revealed) in characteristic adaptations (e.g. goals, personal strivings,
change relationship patterns, and acquired skills) rather than in change in personality
traits as such. In certain rare cases, non-normative environmental influences
Adulthood is characterised by a multitude of life experiences and such as drugs, medication, injuries, and diseases that directly affect the brain
environmental influences that may affect the stability of personality traits. may cause actual changes in personality traits.
Therefore, it is particularly noteworthy that such high levels of trait stability Support for Costa and McCrae’s contention comes from decades-long
characterise this developmental period. Naturally, this leads to the question factor analytic, cross-sectional, longitudinal, sequential, and cross-cultural
of which causes and processes might be responsible for stability and its studies (e.g. Möttus, 2017). For example:
maintenance, and which produce change. The answers to this depend on
one’s theoretical perspective. The mechanisms for trait stability and change ■ The development of personality traits reflects intrinsic maturation,
can be organised into categories such as biological factors, environmental while environmental influences play a much lesser role than researchers
factors and the complex interplay between individuals and their environment. expected.
■ While major life events can change personality, these effects are only
• According to the biological perspective, personality trait stability and modest. In fact, perceiving stressful life events as turning points in trait
change are attributed to intrinsic maturational processes rather than to change may be related to normative age-related changes.
external influences. ■ Gender differences (e.g. men tend to score higher than women do on
• Theories that emphasise environmental factors predict different changes assertiveness and ideas, while women score higher than men do on
in personality during different life periods. anxiety and tender-mindedness) lend credibility to the argument for
• Theories that focus on transactions between person and environment certain innate (inborn) personality traits.
contend that individuals are seen as active agents who play an important
role in selecting and shaping their environments, and in turn, these 4.2.4 South African research on personality traits
environments affect their personalities.
Until very recently, personality measurement in South Africa either made use
Since our discussion is on personality traits from a biological perspective, of imported questionnaires (usually from the USA or Europe), or personality
this is our main focus in this section. The other perspectives are covered inventories were mostly developed from existing Western-orientated
elsewhere in this chapter. personality models. The standardisation (see Chapter 1) of these measures

214 215
predominantly favoured only one ethnic group, while the unique multicultural
and multilinguistic context of South Africa was not taken into account (Nel Box 4.3. The development of the SAPI
et al., 2016). In exploring personality traits used in a particular language, researchers typically use
As mentioned elsewhere, within the trait perspective, the five-factor a lexical approach; therefore, they use dictionaries to explore all the possible words
model is at the forefront of research, while the Neo-Personality Inventory that reflect personality traits. However, in South Africa, dictionaries are not available
for all of the 11 official languages. The researchers therefore used a modified lexical
Revised (NEO-PI-R) is amongst the most widely used and researched approach by making use of semi-structured interviews with the participants in their
operationalisations (i.e. measuring instrument of personality) of the FFM. It natural language. This is called an emic approach. In an emic or indigenous approach,
has also been suggested that the NEO-PI-R, and by extension the FFM, are the focus is on assessing psychological constructs that are particularly salient to a
cross-culturally applicable (Alliket al., 2013; McCrae et al., 2005). However, by specific, usually non-Western, cultural context. By following an emic approach in the
South African context, the indigenous personality structures of all the ethnic groups
reviewing the relevant literature, Laher (2014) argues that while the NEO-PI-R were explored. An etic approach was also employed by using current personality
and FFM may have some universal applicability, it is not extensive enough. models such as the FFM, the HEXACO (which features a sixth factor, honesty-humility)
More specifically, there is evidence that the structural equivalence of the FFM and the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) to inform the clustering of
the emic terms. By comparing all of the personality structures of the different ethnic
as operationalised by the NEO-PI-R is lacking in an African context. (Structural
groups with one another, a nine-cluster personality structure was initially developed.
equivalence refers to the extent to which an instrument measures the same The final structure of the SAPI (based on extensive research) yielded six clusters. The
construct – concept or idea – across cultures.) For example, South African six dimensions are Positive Social-relational, Negative Social-relational, Neuroticism,
research found support for the five factors for white research participants Extraversion, Conscientiousness and Openness-Intellect. As can be seen, the six
personality clusters are similar to the FFM, although its content may be distinctive to
but not for black participants (e.g. Heuchert et al., 2000; Taylor, 2000). the South African context. The factorial structure of the SAPI is presented in Table 4.2.
More specifically, openness to experience seemed to be weakly replicated
in the black samples. Researchers increasingly argued for including African
dimensions of personality and also more inclusive and comprehensive
personality measures for the South African population as a whole. Personality Table 4.2. Factorial structure of the SAPI
dimensions such as individualism-collectivism, interpersonal relatedness, Dimensions Facets
and religion have been mentioned in this regard (Laher, 2009, 2013). Positive Social-relational Facilitating
Recent contributions towards personality trait assessment in South Africa Interpersonal relatedness
Social intelligence
have resulted in the construction of the Basic Traits Inventory (BTI) (Taylor Warm-heartedness
& De Bruin, 2005) and the South African Personality Inventory (Fetvadjiev
Negative social-relational Conflict seeking
et al., 2015). The BTI is an English-language measure of the FFM. It has a Deceitfulness
structure similar to the NEO-PI-R with five broad traits and 24 facet scales. Hostile egoism
Research has demonstrated that the five factors measured by the BTI can be Neuroticism Negative emotionality
extracted across the diversity of cultures in South Africa; therefore, currently, Extraversion Playfulness
it is well established as an FFM instrument. However, it has not been designed Sociability
to assess personality concepts that may be salient in this context. Conscientiousness Achievement orientation
The South African Personality Inventory (SAPI) project was initiated Emotional maturity
Integrity
in 2005 with the aim to overcome the challenges related to personality Orderliness
measurement in South Africa. More specifically, the SAPI project focused Traditionalism-Religiosity
on developing a unified and valid personality inventory for all the major Neuroticism Negative emotionality
language and cultural groups in South Africa (Nel et al., 2012). The structure
of the SAPI includes six personality clusters, similar to the FFM. (See Box 4.3
for a description of the processes involved in developing the SAPI, and Table
4.2 for the factorial structure of the SAPI.)

216 217
predominantly favoured only one ethnic group, while the unique multicultural
and multilinguistic context of South Africa was not taken into account (Nel Box 4.3. The development of the SAPI
et al., 2016). In exploring personality traits used in a particular language, researchers typically use
As mentioned elsewhere, within the trait perspective, the five-factor a lexical approach; therefore, they use dictionaries to explore all the possible words
model is at the forefront of research, while the Neo-Personality Inventory that reflect personality traits. However, in South Africa, dictionaries are not available
for all of the 11 official languages. The researchers therefore used a modified lexical
Revised (NEO-PI-R) is amongst the most widely used and researched approach by making use of semi-structured interviews with the participants in their
operationalisations (i.e. measuring instrument of personality) of the FFM. It natural language. This is called an emic approach. In an emic or indigenous approach,
has also been suggested that the NEO-PI-R, and by extension the FFM, are the focus is on assessing psychological constructs that are particularly salient to a
cross-culturally applicable (Alliket al., 2013; McCrae et al., 2005). However, by specific, usually non-Western, cultural context. By following an emic approach in the
South African context, the indigenous personality structures of all the ethnic groups
reviewing the relevant literature, Laher (2014) argues that while the NEO-PI-R were explored. An etic approach was also employed by using current personality
and FFM may have some universal applicability, it is not extensive enough. models such as the FFM, the HEXACO (which features a sixth factor, honesty-humility)
More specifically, there is evidence that the structural equivalence of the FFM and the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) to inform the clustering of
the emic terms. By comparing all of the personality structures of the different ethnic
as operationalised by the NEO-PI-R is lacking in an African context. (Structural
groups with one another, a nine-cluster personality structure was initially developed.
equivalence refers to the extent to which an instrument measures the same The final structure of the SAPI (based on extensive research) yielded six clusters. The
construct – concept or idea – across cultures.) For example, South African six dimensions are Positive Social-relational, Negative Social-relational, Neuroticism,
research found support for the five factors for white research participants Extraversion, Conscientiousness and Openness-Intellect. As can be seen, the six
personality clusters are similar to the FFM, although its content may be distinctive to
but not for black participants (e.g. Heuchert et al., 2000; Taylor, 2000). the South African context. The factorial structure of the SAPI is presented in Table 4.2.
More specifically, openness to experience seemed to be weakly replicated
in the black samples. Researchers increasingly argued for including African
dimensions of personality and also more inclusive and comprehensive
personality measures for the South African population as a whole. Personality Table 4.2. Factorial structure of the SAPI
dimensions such as individualism-collectivism, interpersonal relatedness, Dimensions Facets
and religion have been mentioned in this regard (Laher, 2009, 2013). Positive Social-relational Facilitating
Recent contributions towards personality trait assessment in South Africa Interpersonal relatedness
Social intelligence
have resulted in the construction of the Basic Traits Inventory (BTI) (Taylor Warm-heartedness
& De Bruin, 2005) and the South African Personality Inventory (Fetvadjiev
Negative social-relational Conflict seeking
et al., 2015). The BTI is an English-language measure of the FFM. It has a Deceitfulness
structure similar to the NEO-PI-R with five broad traits and 24 facet scales. Hostile egoism
Research has demonstrated that the five factors measured by the BTI can be Neuroticism Negative emotionality
extracted across the diversity of cultures in South Africa; therefore, currently, Extraversion Playfulness
it is well established as an FFM instrument. However, it has not been designed Sociability
to assess personality concepts that may be salient in this context. Conscientiousness Achievement orientation
The South African Personality Inventory (SAPI) project was initiated Emotional maturity
Integrity
in 2005 with the aim to overcome the challenges related to personality Orderliness
measurement in South Africa. More specifically, the SAPI project focused Traditionalism-Religiosity
on developing a unified and valid personality inventory for all the major Neuroticism Negative emotionality
language and cultural groups in South Africa (Nel et al., 2012). The structure
of the SAPI includes six personality clusters, similar to the FFM. (See Box 4.3
for a description of the processes involved in developing the SAPI, and Table
4.2 for the factorial structure of the SAPI.)

216 217
 South African research on personality traits yielded some interesting Although personality research in South Africa has not yet concentrated
results (Fetvadjiev et al., 2017; Laher, 2013; Laher & Croxford, 2013; Vogt & on the developmental aspects such as stability and change, certain tentative
Laher, 2009; Nel et al., 2017; Valchev et al., 2013; Valchev et al., 2014): deductions could be made. First, the fact that black and white students
increasingly show similarities with regard to the individualistic-collectivistic
• According to the SAPI, many similarities exist in the categories that South dimensions could be an indication of adaptation to a changing environment.
Africans (blacks, coloureds, Indians, and whites) most often use to describe For example, in a study incorporating students between the ages of 19 and
personality. These categories include traits, behaviours, and perceptions. 20, Nel et al. (2017) found that black emerging adults were more inclined to
• During the research process of constructing the SAPI, the agreeableness be meticulous and thorough and scored higher on intellect than the white
dimension of the FFM was found to be insufficient to cover the social- emerging adults did. These are typical characteristics relevant for work-
relational functioning of South Africans and cross-cultural research in related elements and are individualistic in nature. White emerging adults
general. A clear set of positive and negative social-relational concepts were more sociable, caring, friendly, emotionally balanced, and tended to
prominent in the South African context were identified. Therefore, maintain good relations. These are more collectivist-related characteristics.
although these two dimensions are related to the agreeable dimension Second, facilitating was one of the strongest markers of the social-relational
of the FFM, they are uniquely distinctive to the South African (or non- concepts of the SAPI. It refers to the importance of conveying knowledge,
Western) context. However, these concepts also appear to be replicable giving guidance, empowering others, and transmitting wisdom. However, in
in a multicultural Western context. Nel et al.’s research, it seems that for emerging adults, facilitating was related
• In a multi-method study, using the SAPI and two behavioural measures negatively to their well-being. This could be an indication of a maturational
to investigate the link between personality and the predictability and process; this means that young emerging adults may not be ready to guide
consistency of behaviour across cultures in South Africa, more similarities others.
than differences were found. The few situational variables that were noted
were not in line with individualism-collectivism. However, subjective 4.2.5 Conclusions on the biological (trait) approach
beliefs and perceptions did reflect the individualism-collectivism
dimension. In summary, there seems to be overwhelming evidence that genetics play a
• Studies utilising the NEO-PI-R and BTI and including mostly student large role in personality trait development, but that the environment cannot
populations have indicated no difference between the individualistic- be excluded. McCrae and Costa (2008, p. 165) have altered their original
collectivistic dimensions for black and white students. A reason for this fundamental biological approach to the following: “Personality traits are
is that the academic environment fosters individualism, since the focus is endogenous (internal) basic tendencies that can be altered by exogenous
on individual striving, competition, and the realisation of one’s potential. (external) interventions, processes, or events that affect the biological
• One study found some differences on certain facets of the NEO-PI-R: processes.” This claim is tied to their view on development, which argues that
White students scored higher on impulsivity, openness to experience, trait development is a result of biological maturational processes that are
fantasy, aesthetics, and values, while black students scored higher on mostly but not exclusively limited to the first third of life (Griffin et al., 2015).
compliance and deliberation. However, except for compliance, the effect South African researchers (e.g. Fetvadjiev et al., 2017) conclude that their
sizes on all the other facets were moderate. This suggests that the findings provide support for the trait perspective. They acknowledge that
findings have only moderate practical value. both genetic and environmental factors affect personality and agree that
• Regarding gender differences, in a study utilising the NEO-PI-R, cultural effects are smaller than initially believed.
significant differences were found between female and male students of A large body of cross-cultural research has indicated universal patterns
all racial groups in South Africa: Women scored higher than men did on of personality development. This may suggest a maturational process.
the scales of anxiety, aesthetics, feelings, straightforwardness, altruism, Although some cultural differences were noted in some studies, variability
modesty, and tender-mindedness. Men scored higher than women did across nations could be due to real cultural differences, sampling methods,
on assertiveness and ideas.

218 219
 South African research on personality traits yielded some interesting Although personality research in South Africa has not yet concentrated
results (Fetvadjiev et al., 2017; Laher, 2013; Laher & Croxford, 2013; Vogt & on the developmental aspects such as stability and change, certain tentative
Laher, 2009; Nel et al., 2017; Valchev et al., 2013; Valchev et al., 2014): deductions could be made. First, the fact that black and white students
increasingly show similarities with regard to the individualistic-collectivistic
• According to the SAPI, many similarities exist in the categories that South dimensions could be an indication of adaptation to a changing environment.
Africans (blacks, coloureds, Indians, and whites) most often use to describe For example, in a study incorporating students between the ages of 19 and
personality. These categories include traits, behaviours, and perceptions. 20, Nel et al. (2017) found that black emerging adults were more inclined to
• During the research process of constructing the SAPI, the agreeableness be meticulous and thorough and scored higher on intellect than the white
dimension of the FFM was found to be insufficient to cover the social- emerging adults did. These are typical characteristics relevant for work-
relational functioning of South Africans and cross-cultural research in related elements and are individualistic in nature. White emerging adults
general. A clear set of positive and negative social-relational concepts were more sociable, caring, friendly, emotionally balanced, and tended to
prominent in the South African context were identified. Therefore, maintain good relations. These are more collectivist-related characteristics.
although these two dimensions are related to the agreeable dimension Second, facilitating was one of the strongest markers of the social-relational
of the FFM, they are uniquely distinctive to the South African (or non- concepts of the SAPI. It refers to the importance of conveying knowledge,
Western) context. However, these concepts also appear to be replicable giving guidance, empowering others, and transmitting wisdom. However, in
in a multicultural Western context. Nel et al.’s research, it seems that for emerging adults, facilitating was related
• In a multi-method study, using the SAPI and two behavioural measures negatively to their well-being. This could be an indication of a maturational
to investigate the link between personality and the predictability and process; this means that young emerging adults may not be ready to guide
consistency of behaviour across cultures in South Africa, more similarities others.
than differences were found. The few situational variables that were noted
were not in line with individualism-collectivism. However, subjective 4.2.5 Conclusions on the biological (trait) approach
beliefs and perceptions did reflect the individualism-collectivism
dimension. In summary, there seems to be overwhelming evidence that genetics play a
• Studies utilising the NEO-PI-R and BTI and including mostly student large role in personality trait development, but that the environment cannot
populations have indicated no difference between the individualistic- be excluded. McCrae and Costa (2008, p. 165) have altered their original
collectivistic dimensions for black and white students. A reason for this fundamental biological approach to the following: “Personality traits are
is that the academic environment fosters individualism, since the focus is endogenous (internal) basic tendencies that can be altered by exogenous
on individual striving, competition, and the realisation of one’s potential. (external) interventions, processes, or events that affect the biological
• One study found some differences on certain facets of the NEO-PI-R: processes.” This claim is tied to their view on development, which argues that
White students scored higher on impulsivity, openness to experience, trait development is a result of biological maturational processes that are
fantasy, aesthetics, and values, while black students scored higher on mostly but not exclusively limited to the first third of life (Griffin et al., 2015).
compliance and deliberation. However, except for compliance, the effect South African researchers (e.g. Fetvadjiev et al., 2017) conclude that their
sizes on all the other facets were moderate. This suggests that the findings provide support for the trait perspective. They acknowledge that
findings have only moderate practical value. both genetic and environmental factors affect personality and agree that
• Regarding gender differences, in a study utilising the NEO-PI-R, cultural effects are smaller than initially believed.
significant differences were found between female and male students of A large body of cross-cultural research has indicated universal patterns
all racial groups in South Africa: Women scored higher than men did on of personality development. This may suggest a maturational process.
the scales of anxiety, aesthetics, feelings, straightforwardness, altruism, Although some cultural differences were noted in some studies, variability
modesty, and tender-mindedness. Men scored higher than women did across nations could be due to real cultural differences, sampling methods,
on assertiveness and ideas.

218 219
 REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. Define personality. What can we deduce from the definition?
2. One of the oldest debates in psychology regarding personality incorporates
issues of stability and change. How has this been debated by prominent
psychologists throughout the ages? What is the current position of most theorists
and researchers?
3. What are some of the limitations in our understanding of personality development
during adulthood?
4. What is understood by biological forces in personality development?
5. Define personality traits. What are the assumptions of trait theorists regarding
personality?
6. What is the difference between the five-factor theory (FFT) and the five-factor
model (FFM)?
7. Name and discuss the three components of the FFT.
8. Discuss the five traits of the FFM and their related characteristics or facets.
9. Discuss the influence of personality traits on predicting the following life outcomes:
relationships, self-esteem, affect and coping, job achievement, health, well-being,
and lifestyle.
10. What is the main viewpoint of the FFT?
11. Describe the various ways in which personality stability and change are defined,
measured, and analysed statistically.
Are there universal patterns of personality development?
12. Why is it important to understand the stability of personality traits? Discuss the
empirical evidence for personality stability in adulthood. What functions may trait
methodological issues, or simply chance factors. Terracciano (2016, p. stability serve?

276) states, “Before concluding that the pattern of development in a 13. Discuss mean level (average) changes in personality traits during adulthood.
particular culture differs from the norm, replication in multiple samples 14. What may be the reason for individual differences in personality development
across the adult years?
in that culture, using multiple methods, is of paramount importance.”
Terracciano states that the field would benefit greatly from more long-term 15. Which causes and processes might be responsible for stability and its maintenance,
and what causes change?
longitudinal studies, especially in samples of African, Arabic, and Asian
16. Which forces contribute to personality stability and change according to the five-
societies. Cross-cultural research provides a powerful tool to understand factor theorists? Mention the empirical support for this contention.
the emergence and maintenance of individual differences in personality. It
17. Discuss personality trait research in South Africa.
provides an understanding of both the normative and differential patterns
18. Discuss lexical, emic, and etic approaches to personality inventory construction.
of developmental pathways; that is, whether change occurs due to internal Which approaches were used in constructing the South African Personality
(biological) factors or external factors such as environmental variables. Inventory (SAPI)?
19. Name the dimensions and facets of the SAPI.
20. Discuss the findings of South African research on personality traits. What
personality developmental pathways were noted?
21. Discuss the overwhelming evidence regarding the development of personality.
According to Terracciano, what type of research should still be done to benefit the
field?

220 221
 REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. Define personality. What can we deduce from the definition?
2. One of the oldest debates in psychology regarding personality incorporates
issues of stability and change. How has this been debated by prominent
psychologists throughout the ages? What is the current position of most theorists
and researchers?
3. What are some of the limitations in our understanding of personality development
during adulthood?
4. What is understood by biological forces in personality development?
5. Define personality traits. What are the assumptions of trait theorists regarding
personality?
6. What is the difference between the five-factor theory (FFT) and the five-factor
model (FFM)?
7. Name and discuss the three components of the FFT.
8. Discuss the five traits of the FFM and their related characteristics or facets.
9. Discuss the influence of personality traits on predicting the following life outcomes:
relationships, self-esteem, affect and coping, job achievement, health, well-being,
and lifestyle.
10. What is the main viewpoint of the FFT?
11. Describe the various ways in which personality stability and change are defined,
measured, and analysed statistically.
Are there universal patterns of personality development?
12. Why is it important to understand the stability of personality traits? Discuss the
empirical evidence for personality stability in adulthood. What functions may trait
methodological issues, or simply chance factors. Terracciano (2016, p. stability serve?

276) states, “Before concluding that the pattern of development in a 13. Discuss mean level (average) changes in personality traits during adulthood.
particular culture differs from the norm, replication in multiple samples 14. What may be the reason for individual differences in personality development
across the adult years?
in that culture, using multiple methods, is of paramount importance.”
Terracciano states that the field would benefit greatly from more long-term 15. Which causes and processes might be responsible for stability and its maintenance,
and what causes change?
longitudinal studies, especially in samples of African, Arabic, and Asian
16. Which forces contribute to personality stability and change according to the five-
societies. Cross-cultural research provides a powerful tool to understand factor theorists? Mention the empirical support for this contention.
the emergence and maintenance of individual differences in personality. It
17. Discuss personality trait research in South Africa.
provides an understanding of both the normative and differential patterns
18. Discuss lexical, emic, and etic approaches to personality inventory construction.
of developmental pathways; that is, whether change occurs due to internal Which approaches were used in constructing the South African Personality
(biological) factors or external factors such as environmental variables. Inventory (SAPI)?
19. Name the dimensions and facets of the SAPI.
20. Discuss the findings of South African research on personality traits. What
personality developmental pathways were noted?
21. Discuss the overwhelming evidence regarding the development of personality.
According to Terracciano, what type of research should still be done to benefit the
field?

220 221
4.3 CONTEXTUAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL a person who has achieved identity development in adolescence may be
more able to form intimate relationships in young adulthood. The assumption
APPROACHES TO ADULT PERSONALITY is that when the crisis at one stage has been resolved successfully, this will
DEVELOPMENT lead to the resolution of the next crisis.
Contextual or environmental approaches to personality development Table 4.3 Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development
refer to external influences on personality such as life events, social roles, Psychosocial Age Challenge Synthesis
cultural norms, and transitional periods. The general view is that social stage
roles, life events, and social environments change during the life course and 1. Basic trust Birth to 1 year To develop a sense that the Hope
that such factors have important effects on basic personality traits. These versus mistrust world is a safe and a good
theories usually maintain that development occurs throughout the life span. place
Perhaps the best-known theorist in this regard is Erik Erikson. The African 2. Autonomy versus 1 to 3 years To realise that one is an Willpower
shame and doubt independent person who can
perspective on personality development, as well as a more recent theory, the
make decisions
neo-socioanalytic model of personality will also be explored. (Transitional
3. Initiative versus 3 to 6 years To develop a willingness to Purpose
periods are referred to briefly in Box 4.4.) guilt try new things and to handle
failure
4.3.1 Erik Erikson: Psychosocial development 4. Industry versus 6 years to To learn basic skills and to Competence
inferiority adolescence work with others
According to Erikson (1963, 1968, 1982), personality development occurs 5. Identity Adolescence To develop a lasting, Reliability
versus identity integrated sense of self
throughout the life span and in eight sequential stages. Each stage is confusion
characterised by a crisis or challenge that refers to the central concern for 6. Intimacy versus Young adulthood To commit to another in a Love
that particular developmental stage and the adjustments the individual isolation loving relationship
has to make regarding relevant tasks during each psychosocial stage. This 7. Generativity Middle adulthood To contribute to the younger Care
adjustment may be either positive or negative; therefore, each crisis in versus stagnation generation through child
each developmental stage is presented in two opposing poles (e.g. trust or rearing, child care, or other
productive work
mistrust). However, the solution of each crisis does not lie in choosing the
8. Integrity versus Later life To view one’s life as Wisdom
positive pole; instead, it lies in a synthesis (combination of two opposites despair satisfactory and worth living
at a higher level) of the two poles. (See Table 4.3 for Erikson’s psychosocial
Adapted from Louw, Louw & Kail, 2014
stages.)
Erikson viewed development from one
Erikson’s psychosocial stages directly relevant to adult development are
stage to another as a complex interaction of
the following:
biological, psychological, cultural, and social
forces, although he emphasised the latter. • Identity achievement versus identity confusion. This stage first
For example, the physical and cognitive emerges in adolescence, but remains important throughout adulthood
maturation of individuals bring about new and forms a cornerstone of subsequent adult psychosocial crises. The
needs and possibilities, while on the other struggle during this stage involves trying to balance the need to choose
hand, society sets certain expectations. Both a possible self and the desire to try out many possible selves. Individuals
of these forces contribute to the crisis that who achieve a clear sense of self (therefore, a clear identity) have a clear
has to be resolved. Erikson argued that the sense of purpose in life. Identity confusion, on the other hand, involves
earlier stages of development provide the a lack of direction, vagueness about the purpose of one’s life, and an
foundation for the later stages. For example, Erik Erikson unclear sense of self. Resolution of the conflicting aspects of these
222 223
4.3 CONTEXTUAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL a person who has achieved identity development in adolescence may be
more able to form intimate relationships in young adulthood. The assumption
APPROACHES TO ADULT PERSONALITY is that when the crisis at one stage has been resolved successfully, this will
DEVELOPMENT lead to the resolution of the next crisis.
Contextual or environmental approaches to personality development Table 4.3 Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development
refer to external influences on personality such as life events, social roles, Psychosocial Age Challenge Synthesis
cultural norms, and transitional periods. The general view is that social stage
roles, life events, and social environments change during the life course and 1. Basic trust Birth to 1 year To develop a sense that the Hope
that such factors have important effects on basic personality traits. These versus mistrust world is a safe and a good
theories usually maintain that development occurs throughout the life span. place
Perhaps the best-known theorist in this regard is Erik Erikson. The African 2. Autonomy versus 1 to 3 years To realise that one is an Willpower
shame and doubt independent person who can
perspective on personality development, as well as a more recent theory, the
make decisions
neo-socioanalytic model of personality will also be explored. (Transitional
3. Initiative versus 3 to 6 years To develop a willingness to Purpose
periods are referred to briefly in Box 4.4.) guilt try new things and to handle
failure
4.3.1 Erik Erikson: Psychosocial development 4. Industry versus 6 years to To learn basic skills and to Competence
inferiority adolescence work with others
According to Erikson (1963, 1968, 1982), personality development occurs 5. Identity Adolescence To develop a lasting, Reliability
versus identity integrated sense of self
throughout the life span and in eight sequential stages. Each stage is confusion
characterised by a crisis or challenge that refers to the central concern for 6. Intimacy versus Young adulthood To commit to another in a Love
that particular developmental stage and the adjustments the individual isolation loving relationship
has to make regarding relevant tasks during each psychosocial stage. This 7. Generativity Middle adulthood To contribute to the younger Care
adjustment may be either positive or negative; therefore, each crisis in versus stagnation generation through child
each developmental stage is presented in two opposing poles (e.g. trust or rearing, child care, or other
productive work
mistrust). However, the solution of each crisis does not lie in choosing the
8. Integrity versus Later life To view one’s life as Wisdom
positive pole; instead, it lies in a synthesis (combination of two opposites despair satisfactory and worth living
at a higher level) of the two poles. (See Table 4.3 for Erikson’s psychosocial
Adapted from Louw, Louw & Kail, 2014
stages.)
Erikson viewed development from one
Erikson’s psychosocial stages directly relevant to adult development are
stage to another as a complex interaction of
the following:
biological, psychological, cultural, and social
forces, although he emphasised the latter. • Identity achievement versus identity confusion. This stage first
For example, the physical and cognitive emerges in adolescence, but remains important throughout adulthood
maturation of individuals bring about new and forms a cornerstone of subsequent adult psychosocial crises. The
needs and possibilities, while on the other struggle during this stage involves trying to balance the need to choose
hand, society sets certain expectations. Both a possible self and the desire to try out many possible selves. Individuals
of these forces contribute to the crisis that who achieve a clear sense of self (therefore, a clear identity) have a clear
has to be resolved. Erikson argued that the sense of purpose in life. Identity confusion, on the other hand, involves
earlier stages of development provide the a lack of direction, vagueness about the purpose of one’s life, and an
foundation for the later stages. For example, Erik Erikson unclear sense of self. Resolution of the conflicting aspects of these
222 223
 two poles results in the synthesis of reliability (i.e. being sure of one’s his theory was not based on empirical data. These problems have led critics
identity). to dismiss the theory as untestable and incomplete. Other theorists have
• Intimacy versus isolation is the major issue of young adulthood. The tried to address these problems by identifying common themes, specifying
attainment of intimacy involves establishing a mutually satisfying underlying mental processes, reinterpreting and integrating the theory with
relationship with another person. To accomplish this task, young adults other ideas, suggesting additional developmental stages, or developing
need to learn to give up some of their own desires, but still have the measures to test his assumptions empirically. These efforts have guided
ability to maintain a sense of separateness. Theoretically, this is possible researchers to assess the usefulness of Erikson’s theory as a model for adult
only once the individual has achieved a strong sense of identity. The development. A review of the empirical literature indicates that findings are
opposite is a state of isolation in which a person becomes self-absorbed often modest and little consistency exists in the focus of the investigations
and never achieves true mutuality with another person. Resolution of or the measures applied.
the conflicting demands of intimacy and isolation results in the virtue of Some researchers argued that Erikson’s language and concepts were
love. often difficult to understand, leaving it open to different interpretations.
• Generativity versus stagnation focuses on the psychosocial issues of However, throughout his decades of work in this field, these became
procreation, productivity, and creativity. The resolution of this crisis lies increasingly refined. For example, having scrutinised Erikson’s work and the
in moving away from one’s own self-interests to contribute to society existing research, Kivnick and Wells (2014, 2016) identified three principles
either through family (e.g. raising children), work (e.g. productivity, that are central to the understanding of his theory. These principles exist as
mentorship, and creativity) or community involvement (e.g. providing a framework throughout Erikson’s entire body of work:
goods and services for the benefit of society). Stagnation occurs when
the individual turns concern and energy inward (to the self) or solely to ■ Dynamic balance of opposites. This principle emphasises the importance
others of his or her own age group. The crucial component of generativity of both the opposing tendencies in each stage (e.g. trust vs. mistrust)
is concern and care for the people who will follow one’s own generation. for healthy psychosocial development. What is considered as healthy
• Ego integrity versus despair is the final stage of development. Towards will change as environments and age-based expectations change. The
the end of adulthood, the individual faces psychosocial issues related to theory also leaves it to culture, history, geography, and biology to assign
ageing and growing closer to death. Individuals who resolve this crisis such labels as successful and unsuccessful resolution of a particular crisis
successfully develop a sense of satisfaction with the life they have led, or theme. For example, changes in cultural attitude and policy influence
the choices they have made, and the goals they have attained. This the appropriateness of specific thematic balances; for instance, the
involves acceptance of both the positive and negative attributes of legalisation of same-sex marriages in South Africa is an indication of a
one’s life. People who succeed in this final task gain a sense of order broadening of societal attitudes, providing greater validation of same-
and meaning in life: it implies a sense of completeness of having come sex love as an appropriate balance between intimacy and isolation.
full circle. According to Erikson, acceptance of the past and the present ■ Vital involvement. This principle is defined as the reciprocal and
helps people attain acceptance of the end of life. The virtue that develops meaningful engagement between a person and his or her environment,
during this stage is wisdom. In this view, ego integrity is the “fruit of such as engaging with people, ideas, materials, institutions, environmental
the seven stages” (Erikson, 1963, p. 168). In contrast, the individual in a forces, creatures, and so forth in the environment outside the self.
state of despair feels discontented with life and the thought of ending This principle emphasises the critical role of the physical and social
life before past mistakes can be corrected is frightening. Therefore, they environment in shaping who a person becomes over time, and vice
may dwell on all the roads not taken. versa. (Note that this concept is not unlike the African worldview, which
indicates an intricate web of objects and organisms that are dependent
Erikson’s theory has had a major effect on the view of life span upon and capable of influencing and being influenced by others.)
development. However, many argued that his theory is complex, unclear, ■ Life in time. This principle highlights the fact that development is a lifelong
poorly defined, too broad or unspecified, and gender biased. In addition, process and that all psychosocial themes are operational throughout

224 225
 two poles results in the synthesis of reliability (i.e. being sure of one’s his theory was not based on empirical data. These problems have led critics
identity). to dismiss the theory as untestable and incomplete. Other theorists have
• Intimacy versus isolation is the major issue of young adulthood. The tried to address these problems by identifying common themes, specifying
attainment of intimacy involves establishing a mutually satisfying underlying mental processes, reinterpreting and integrating the theory with
relationship with another person. To accomplish this task, young adults other ideas, suggesting additional developmental stages, or developing
need to learn to give up some of their own desires, but still have the measures to test his assumptions empirically. These efforts have guided
ability to maintain a sense of separateness. Theoretically, this is possible researchers to assess the usefulness of Erikson’s theory as a model for adult
only once the individual has achieved a strong sense of identity. The development. A review of the empirical literature indicates that findings are
opposite is a state of isolation in which a person becomes self-absorbed often modest and little consistency exists in the focus of the investigations
and never achieves true mutuality with another person. Resolution of or the measures applied.
the conflicting demands of intimacy and isolation results in the virtue of Some researchers argued that Erikson’s language and concepts were
love. often difficult to understand, leaving it open to different interpretations.
• Generativity versus stagnation focuses on the psychosocial issues of However, throughout his decades of work in this field, these became
procreation, productivity, and creativity. The resolution of this crisis lies increasingly refined. For example, having scrutinised Erikson’s work and the
in moving away from one’s own self-interests to contribute to society existing research, Kivnick and Wells (2014, 2016) identified three principles
either through family (e.g. raising children), work (e.g. productivity, that are central to the understanding of his theory. These principles exist as
mentorship, and creativity) or community involvement (e.g. providing a framework throughout Erikson’s entire body of work:
goods and services for the benefit of society). Stagnation occurs when
the individual turns concern and energy inward (to the self) or solely to ■ Dynamic balance of opposites. This principle emphasises the importance
others of his or her own age group. The crucial component of generativity of both the opposing tendencies in each stage (e.g. trust vs. mistrust)
is concern and care for the people who will follow one’s own generation. for healthy psychosocial development. What is considered as healthy
• Ego integrity versus despair is the final stage of development. Towards will change as environments and age-based expectations change. The
the end of adulthood, the individual faces psychosocial issues related to theory also leaves it to culture, history, geography, and biology to assign
ageing and growing closer to death. Individuals who resolve this crisis such labels as successful and unsuccessful resolution of a particular crisis
successfully develop a sense of satisfaction with the life they have led, or theme. For example, changes in cultural attitude and policy influence
the choices they have made, and the goals they have attained. This the appropriateness of specific thematic balances; for instance, the
involves acceptance of both the positive and negative attributes of legalisation of same-sex marriages in South Africa is an indication of a
one’s life. People who succeed in this final task gain a sense of order broadening of societal attitudes, providing greater validation of same-
and meaning in life: it implies a sense of completeness of having come sex love as an appropriate balance between intimacy and isolation.
full circle. According to Erikson, acceptance of the past and the present ■ Vital involvement. This principle is defined as the reciprocal and
helps people attain acceptance of the end of life. The virtue that develops meaningful engagement between a person and his or her environment,
during this stage is wisdom. In this view, ego integrity is the “fruit of such as engaging with people, ideas, materials, institutions, environmental
the seven stages” (Erikson, 1963, p. 168). In contrast, the individual in a forces, creatures, and so forth in the environment outside the self.
state of despair feels discontented with life and the thought of ending This principle emphasises the critical role of the physical and social
life before past mistakes can be corrected is frightening. Therefore, they environment in shaping who a person becomes over time, and vice
may dwell on all the roads not taken. versa. (Note that this concept is not unlike the African worldview, which
indicates an intricate web of objects and organisms that are dependent
Erikson’s theory has had a major effect on the view of life span upon and capable of influencing and being influenced by others.)
development. However, many argued that his theory is complex, unclear, ■ Life in time. This principle highlights the fact that development is a lifelong
poorly defined, too broad or unspecified, and gender biased. In addition, process and that all psychosocial themes are operational throughout

224 225
 the life span. The main assumption of this principle is that individuals 4.3.2 Personality development: An African perspective
‘rework’ themes that are not necessarily central during any particular
stage as their own circumstances require. For example, balancing Personality in the African context is regarded as the product of the
integrity and despair in old age requires the reworking and integrating interaction between a sense of self through social bonds and a sense of
of strengths associated with previous stages. For instance, helping out self as a conscious being. The self in African cultures tends to be context-
with grandchildren refers to the previous stage of generativity versus based and is defined in terms of a person’s relationships with others, such
stagnation, with the balance of care; or translating housekeeping skills, as family, community, and status in the community. Therefore, the goal of
such as sewing or baking, into arts and crafts practice may be the re- socialisation (the process of learning the values of one’s group) is not to
experiencing (or reworking) of competence (i.e. the resolution between be autonomous, but to harmonise one’s interests with those of the group.
the tensions of industry versus inferiority), a stage that is prominent Thus, the self can be understood only in relation to others. This is known as
during childhood. complex interdependence. John Mbiti (1969, p. 214) reflected this as follows:
“I am because we are, and since we are, therefore I am.” The concept of the
Box 4.4 The midlife crisis: fact or fallacy? self includes dependency or interdependency, non-competitiveness, and a
sense of belonging to the community. However, this does not mean that the
Transitional theories propose that people go through predictable age-related crises,
person as a relational or collective being is denied individuality. Individuals
while some argue that adulthood consists of a series of alternating periods of stability
and change. For example, Daniel Levinson’s life structure theory (Levinson, 1978, 1986, may transcend the perspective of community in creative ways. In fact, it is
1990) claims that middle-aged adults experience a personal crisis that results in major expected that the achievements of outstanding individuals will transform the
changes in how they view themselves. The assumption is that they deal with difficult community to higher levels. Therefore, the relationship between the individual
issues such as their own mortality and inevitable ageing. Behavioural changes may
occur, such as leaving one’s wife for a younger person, while internal struggles also
and the community is multi-directional: Individuals are part of a collective
occur. (community) that they create and that, in turn, creates them (Mkhize, 2013a).
However, there is little scientific evidence of the existence of a midlife crisis. To become a person, it is not sufficient to be a biological organism with
Researchers point out that the idea of a midlife crisis has become widely accepted as physical and psychological attributes only. Rather, personhood (becoming
fact because of the mass media. People take it for granted that they will go through a
period of intense psychological turmoil once they turn 40. a person or individual) must be earned. Although children are regarded as
In fact, the data suggest that midlife is no more or no less stressful for most people not fully human, the process of personhood begins when children are born
than any other period in life. Those who actually experience a crisis may be suffering into a family community and they undergo rituals (called rites of passage)
from general psychological problems.
of incorporation, such as naming ceremonies. Another rite of passage at
However, it does seem that a reorganisation of the self and values occurs
throughout the life span. The major dynamic that drives such changes may not be the end of childhood marks the procession into adulthood. However, the
age dependent, but follow general cognitive changes. For example, individuals around development of personhood is an ongoing process and is attained through
middle age show the most complex understanding of self, emotions, and motivations. interactions with others and with the community. Through this process, the
From this perspective, a midlife “crisis” may be the result of general gains in cognitive
complexity from early to middle adulthood. Furthermore, midlife is a time of both gains
person is required to affirm the standards and ideals of the community. These
and losses. Gains are represented by peaks in competence, ability to handle stress, include generosity, benevolence, and respect. Because this is a process of
sense of personal control, purpose in life, and social responsibility, while losses are becoming a person, one can fall short at any stage in the life cycle. Therefore,
experienced in declines in physical abilities and changes in appearance. Rather than the process is unpredictable and open-ended during which personhood may
viewing this period as a time of crises, many view it as a period when several aspects
of one’s life acquire new meanings. be achieved, lost, and regained, depending on the person’s circumstances. A
From a cross-cultural perspective, researchers suggest that the midlife crisis is a number of sayings in some African societies refer to people who have not
cultural invention. Anthropological evidence suggests that the concept of midlife itself met these standards, as not being a full person; for example, the Tswana
is limited to adults studied in the USA. In other cultures, transitions and crises are linked
expression ga e se motho or the Nguni expression a ku si muntu, which
to role relationships such as marriage and inclusion into the spouse’s family. Major
transitions are defined by events such as children’s marriages and older adults moving literally means, “he or she is not a person” (Mkhize, 2013a).
into the older adult role of ‘observer’ rather than the ‘doer’.
Source: Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015, pp. 258-259.

226 227
 the life span. The main assumption of this principle is that individuals 4.3.2 Personality development: An African perspective
‘rework’ themes that are not necessarily central during any particular
stage as their own circumstances require. For example, balancing Personality in the African context is regarded as the product of the
integrity and despair in old age requires the reworking and integrating interaction between a sense of self through social bonds and a sense of
of strengths associated with previous stages. For instance, helping out self as a conscious being. The self in African cultures tends to be context-
with grandchildren refers to the previous stage of generativity versus based and is defined in terms of a person’s relationships with others, such
stagnation, with the balance of care; or translating housekeeping skills, as family, community, and status in the community. Therefore, the goal of
such as sewing or baking, into arts and crafts practice may be the re- socialisation (the process of learning the values of one’s group) is not to
experiencing (or reworking) of competence (i.e. the resolution between be autonomous, but to harmonise one’s interests with those of the group.
the tensions of industry versus inferiority), a stage that is prominent Thus, the self can be understood only in relation to others. This is known as
during childhood. complex interdependence. John Mbiti (1969, p. 214) reflected this as follows:
“I am because we are, and since we are, therefore I am.” The concept of the
Box 4.4 The midlife crisis: fact or fallacy? self includes dependency or interdependency, non-competitiveness, and a
sense of belonging to the community. However, this does not mean that the
Transitional theories propose that people go through predictable age-related crises,
person as a relational or collective being is denied individuality. Individuals
while some argue that adulthood consists of a series of alternating periods of stability
and change. For example, Daniel Levinson’s life structure theory (Levinson, 1978, 1986, may transcend the perspective of community in creative ways. In fact, it is
1990) claims that middle-aged adults experience a personal crisis that results in major expected that the achievements of outstanding individuals will transform the
changes in how they view themselves. The assumption is that they deal with difficult community to higher levels. Therefore, the relationship between the individual
issues such as their own mortality and inevitable ageing. Behavioural changes may
occur, such as leaving one’s wife for a younger person, while internal struggles also
and the community is multi-directional: Individuals are part of a collective
occur. (community) that they create and that, in turn, creates them (Mkhize, 2013a).
However, there is little scientific evidence of the existence of a midlife crisis. To become a person, it is not sufficient to be a biological organism with
Researchers point out that the idea of a midlife crisis has become widely accepted as physical and psychological attributes only. Rather, personhood (becoming
fact because of the mass media. People take it for granted that they will go through a
period of intense psychological turmoil once they turn 40. a person or individual) must be earned. Although children are regarded as
In fact, the data suggest that midlife is no more or no less stressful for most people not fully human, the process of personhood begins when children are born
than any other period in life. Those who actually experience a crisis may be suffering into a family community and they undergo rituals (called rites of passage)
from general psychological problems.
of incorporation, such as naming ceremonies. Another rite of passage at
However, it does seem that a reorganisation of the self and values occurs
throughout the life span. The major dynamic that drives such changes may not be the end of childhood marks the procession into adulthood. However, the
age dependent, but follow general cognitive changes. For example, individuals around development of personhood is an ongoing process and is attained through
middle age show the most complex understanding of self, emotions, and motivations. interactions with others and with the community. Through this process, the
From this perspective, a midlife “crisis” may be the result of general gains in cognitive
complexity from early to middle adulthood. Furthermore, midlife is a time of both gains
person is required to affirm the standards and ideals of the community. These
and losses. Gains are represented by peaks in competence, ability to handle stress, include generosity, benevolence, and respect. Because this is a process of
sense of personal control, purpose in life, and social responsibility, while losses are becoming a person, one can fall short at any stage in the life cycle. Therefore,
experienced in declines in physical abilities and changes in appearance. Rather than the process is unpredictable and open-ended during which personhood may
viewing this period as a time of crises, many view it as a period when several aspects
of one’s life acquire new meanings. be achieved, lost, and regained, depending on the person’s circumstances. A
From a cross-cultural perspective, researchers suggest that the midlife crisis is a number of sayings in some African societies refer to people who have not
cultural invention. Anthropological evidence suggests that the concept of midlife itself met these standards, as not being a full person; for example, the Tswana
is limited to adults studied in the USA. In other cultures, transitions and crises are linked
expression ga e se motho or the Nguni expression a ku si muntu, which
to role relationships such as marriage and inclusion into the spouse’s family. Major
transitions are defined by events such as children’s marriages and older adults moving literally means, “he or she is not a person” (Mkhize, 2013a).
into the older adult role of ‘observer’ rather than the ‘doer’.
Source: Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2015, pp. 258-259.

226 227
 (ancestral and spiritual selfhood), the human life cycle ultimately consists
of nine stages.

Table 4.4 Human development in the social phase of selfhood

Stage Developmental tasks and social roles
Newborn The newborn is welcomed as a gift of life, and its safe journey
is celebrated. Celebrations include verbalisations regarding
the type of socialised adult the child is expected to be. The
newborn belongs to the spiritual world until the naming
ceremony when the child is integrated with the community.
Social priming This stage is pre-social and is characterised by biological
markers or reflexes such as crying, sucking, babbling, grasping,
smiling, sitting, and standing. These are markers of normality
and because they are the precursors of social functioning, their
absence is a source of concern.
Social apprenticeship Family and cultural roles are learned gradually and
Developmental theories from an African perspective are rare systematically. The main developmental task is to recognise the
roles for which the child is being prepared and to internalise
and practise these according to his or her developmental status
In addition to the expected ideals and standards of appropriate conduct, and ability. Siblings and peers play an important role in this
process.
the concept of ubuntu forms an integral part of personhood. Possession of
the qualities of personhood is reflected in people’s relationships with others Social entrée This stage is indicated by the biological changes related to
puberty. In some communities, social incorporation occurs
and their milieu. Ubuntu (often translated in English as ‘humanness’) is about through initiation rites and rituals. The child is now regarded as
becoming. It refers to the realisation of the person of his or her duties in the a naive novice.
community of other interdependent human beings. This concept embraces Social internship At the end of the developmental rites, the naive novice enters
the qualities of generosity, benevolence, and respect. Because a person is the status of the socialised neophyte (recruit). This is a period
of internship in which, through the process of social orientation
always a being-with-and-for-others, failure to attain personhood lays blame
and active socialisation, the individual is prepared gradually for
on the individual, his or her family, and his or her community (Mkhize, 2013a, the status and roles of adulthood.
2013b). Adulthood This is the most sought-after stage in the developmental cycle.
Developmental theories that include an African perspective are An adult is defined by marriage and parenthood. The ideals and
rare. However, ground-breaking work in this regard was done by Bame standards of the family and community must be maintained,
and responsibilities have to be met.
Nsamenang from the Cameroon in West Africa (see Louw, Louw & Kail,
Old age and death The elderly are responsible to maintain the unity of the family.
2014). Nsamenang (1997, 2008, 2011) describes the human life span and life
They have the most complete memory of the family tree and
cycle as three phases of selfhood: spiritual selfhood, social selfhood, and are regarded as much closer to the ancestors. An ancestral
ancestral selfhood. Each of these phases moves through different stages of selfhood follows death, and thereafter, the spiritual selfhood
development in the life span. A spiritual selfhood begins with conception, follows.
or perhaps earlier, as a reincarnation of an ancestral spirit. Social selfhood From Louw, Louw, & Kail, 2014
begins at birth and ends with biological death. Social selfhood develops
through seven stages, each with specific developmental tasks or social roles, In his description of personality or social self, Nsamenang (1997) includes
as indicated in Table 4.4. These stages are not based on chronological age, the following concepts that refer to the importance placed on the integration
but on physiological and social markers. The ancestral selfhood follows the of the individual person into the community:
biological death of the person, and incorporation into the spiritual selfhood
follows with ritual initiations. In conjunction with the metaphysical stages • Communitarian ethic: a sense of community.
228 229
 (ancestral and spiritual selfhood), the human life cycle ultimately consists
of nine stages.

Table 4.4 Human development in the social phase of selfhood

Stage Developmental tasks and social roles
Newborn The newborn is welcomed as a gift of life, and its safe journey
is celebrated. Celebrations include verbalisations regarding
the type of socialised adult the child is expected to be. The
newborn belongs to the spiritual world until the naming
ceremony when the child is integrated with the community.
Social priming This stage is pre-social and is characterised by biological
markers or reflexes such as crying, sucking, babbling, grasping,
smiling, sitting, and standing. These are markers of normality
and because they are the precursors of social functioning, their
absence is a source of concern.
Social apprenticeship Family and cultural roles are learned gradually and
Developmental theories from an African perspective are rare systematically. The main developmental task is to recognise the
roles for which the child is being prepared and to internalise
and practise these according to his or her developmental status
In addition to the expected ideals and standards of appropriate conduct, and ability. Siblings and peers play an important role in this
process.
the concept of ubuntu forms an integral part of personhood. Possession of
the qualities of personhood is reflected in people’s relationships with others Social entrée This stage is indicated by the biological changes related to
puberty. In some communities, social incorporation occurs
and their milieu. Ubuntu (often translated in English as ‘humanness’) is about through initiation rites and rituals. The child is now regarded as
becoming. It refers to the realisation of the person of his or her duties in the a naive novice.
community of other interdependent human beings. This concept embraces Social internship At the end of the developmental rites, the naive novice enters
the qualities of generosity, benevolence, and respect. Because a person is the status of the socialised neophyte (recruit). This is a period
of internship in which, through the process of social orientation
always a being-with-and-for-others, failure to attain personhood lays blame
and active socialisation, the individual is prepared gradually for
on the individual, his or her family, and his or her community (Mkhize, 2013a, the status and roles of adulthood.
2013b). Adulthood This is the most sought-after stage in the developmental cycle.
Developmental theories that include an African perspective are An adult is defined by marriage and parenthood. The ideals and
rare. However, ground-breaking work in this regard was done by Bame standards of the family and community must be maintained,
and responsibilities have to be met.
Nsamenang from the Cameroon in West Africa (see Louw, Louw & Kail,
Old age and death The elderly are responsible to maintain the unity of the family.
2014). Nsamenang (1997, 2008, 2011) describes the human life span and life
They have the most complete memory of the family tree and
cycle as three phases of selfhood: spiritual selfhood, social selfhood, and are regarded as much closer to the ancestors. An ancestral
ancestral selfhood. Each of these phases moves through different stages of selfhood follows death, and thereafter, the spiritual selfhood
development in the life span. A spiritual selfhood begins with conception, follows.
or perhaps earlier, as a reincarnation of an ancestral spirit. Social selfhood From Louw, Louw, & Kail, 2014
begins at birth and ends with biological death. Social selfhood develops
through seven stages, each with specific developmental tasks or social roles, In his description of personality or social self, Nsamenang (1997) includes
as indicated in Table 4.4. These stages are not based on chronological age, the following concepts that refer to the importance placed on the integration
but on physiological and social markers. The ancestral selfhood follows the of the individual person into the community:
biological death of the person, and incorporation into the spiritual selfhood
follows with ritual initiations. In conjunction with the metaphysical stages • Communitarian ethic: a sense of community.
228 229
 is viewed as composed of internal attributes, such as personality traits)
• Multiple social enmeshments: the various relationships in a community,
and collectivistic cultures (where the self and behaviour are viewed more
such as the immediate family, extended family, and peer group.
strongly as a result of a network of social roles and relations) (Fetvadjiev et
• Encompassing social relationship: decisions are made based on
al., 2017).
community needs rather than individual benefits.
The developmental stage approaches, such as Erikson’s psychosocial
• Rhythms of collective life: the regular flow of sequences of events such
approach and Nsamenang’s development of selfhood, are valuable in the
as seasons and life stages. These rhythms guide the direction and pace
of life. sense that, since they describe the life span of people, they are relatively
easy to understand. In addition, they also indicate that individuals undergo
• Subordination of individual identity: individuals attain a sense of
certain developments and changes as they become older. However, they
identity from the community rather than from their internal sense of
being. do not address the mechanisms of development. Another problem is that
these approaches are based mostly on abstract theoretical conceptions and
Both a sense of self through social bonds and the self as a conscious observations of behaviours without substantial empirical support.
being (sense of self; knowledge of self) include ideas around social
selfhood, ancestral selfhood, and spiritual selfhood. These three aspects are
4.3.3 The neo-socioanalytic model of personality
integrated with one another and are central to the traditional African way.
The neo-socioanalytic model (Roberts, 2009; Roberts & Wood, 2006;
This means that the social self is influenced by the ancestral and spiritual
Roberts & Nickel, 2017) similarly emphasises the strong effect of social roles
selves, and vice versa. The ancestors (an ancestor is conceptualised as a
on personality. The neo-socioanalytic model assumes that personality is
person who lived a high moral life and not any person from whom one is
influenced primarily by socialisation factors to the extent that experience
descended) are referred to as the ‘living dead’. An ancestral selfhood follows
can and do cause change in personality traits. This perspective is based on a
biological death. For a period after death, ‘ancestral self’ continues to play
topographical (structural) model (see Fig 4.2).
an important role in the community of living people. Thereafter, this being
moves into the spiritual world.
The beliefs, ceremonies, and rituals of African traditional religion are • According to this view, the personality structure consists of four primary
domains of personality: traits, motives and values, abilities, and narratives.
reflected in every aspect of daily living. A balance in interaction between
Traits, the first domain, are defined as the relatively enduring, automatic
spiritual forces and human beings is aimed for in daily activities, and people
patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that people exhibit in
approach the assistance of diviners, healers, or prophets to maintain the
similar situations across time (i.e. the FFM). Motives and values reflect
balance. When the balance is upset, misfortune, illness, and suffering may
what people want to do or would like to have in their lives (i.e. their
result (Bakker et al., 1999).
desires). Abilities refer to what people are capable of doing on cognitive,
The psychological components discussed above reflect the African
emotional, and physical levels. Narratives focus on the written or spoken
worldview. This includes a holistic viewpoint, spiritual unity, belongingness,
stories people use to understand themselves, their environments and the
and affiliation. The lack of literature and research on the African view of
history of their lives.
personality makes it difficult to evaluate. In addition, there are two opposing
views of personality. On the one hand, the universalistic perspective of trait • It is believed that these domains are interrelated and influenced by genes
via physiological mechanisms.
psychology conceptualises personality traits as important predictors of
behaviour across cultures. As we have seen, the five-factor theory views traits • It is further proposed that personality is reflected in identity (how people
view themselves, which is typically assessed through self-reports), and
as endogenous basic dispositions (characteristics) that have a biological
in reputation (how others view them, which is assessed by observer
basis, are universal, and the primary influence on human action. Only the
reports). These modes of assessment influence and are influenced by the
manifestations of personality, such as specific behaviours, beliefs and the
four domains of personality.
self-concept are susceptible to cultural influences. On the other hand, cultural
psychology distinguishes between individualistic cultures (where the self • According to this model, contextual factors such as society, culture,

230 231
 is viewed as composed of internal attributes, such as personality traits)
• Multiple social enmeshments: the various relationships in a community,
and collectivistic cultures (where the self and behaviour are viewed more
such as the immediate family, extended family, and peer group.
strongly as a result of a network of social roles and relations) (Fetvadjiev et
• Encompassing social relationship: decisions are made based on
al., 2017).
community needs rather than individual benefits.
The developmental stage approaches, such as Erikson’s psychosocial
• Rhythms of collective life: the regular flow of sequences of events such
approach and Nsamenang’s development of selfhood, are valuable in the
as seasons and life stages. These rhythms guide the direction and pace
of life. sense that, since they describe the life span of people, they are relatively
easy to understand. In addition, they also indicate that individuals undergo
• Subordination of individual identity: individuals attain a sense of
certain developments and changes as they become older. However, they
identity from the community rather than from their internal sense of
being. do not address the mechanisms of development. Another problem is that
these approaches are based mostly on abstract theoretical conceptions and
Both a sense of self through social bonds and the self as a conscious observations of behaviours without substantial empirical support.
being (sense of self; knowledge of self) include ideas around social
selfhood, ancestral selfhood, and spiritual selfhood. These three aspects are
4.3.3 The neo-socioanalytic model of personality
integrated with one another and are central to the traditional African way.
The neo-socioanalytic model (Roberts, 2009; Roberts & Wood, 2006;
This means that the social self is influenced by the ancestral and spiritual
Roberts & Nickel, 2017) similarly emphasises the strong effect of social roles
selves, and vice versa. The ancestors (an ancestor is conceptualised as a
on personality. The neo-socioanalytic model assumes that personality is
person who lived a high moral life and not any person from whom one is
influenced primarily by socialisation factors to the extent that experience
descended) are referred to as the ‘living dead’. An ancestral selfhood follows
can and do cause change in personality traits. This perspective is based on a
biological death. For a period after death, ‘ancestral self’ continues to play
topographical (structural) model (see Fig 4.2).
an important role in the community of living people. Thereafter, this being
moves into the spiritual world.
The beliefs, ceremonies, and rituals of African traditional religion are • According to this view, the personality structure consists of four primary
domains of personality: traits, motives and values, abilities, and narratives.
reflected in every aspect of daily living. A balance in interaction between
Traits, the first domain, are defined as the relatively enduring, automatic
spiritual forces and human beings is aimed for in daily activities, and people
patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that people exhibit in
approach the assistance of diviners, healers, or prophets to maintain the
similar situations across time (i.e. the FFM). Motives and values reflect
balance. When the balance is upset, misfortune, illness, and suffering may
what people want to do or would like to have in their lives (i.e. their
result (Bakker et al., 1999).
desires). Abilities refer to what people are capable of doing on cognitive,
The psychological components discussed above reflect the African
emotional, and physical levels. Narratives focus on the written or spoken
worldview. This includes a holistic viewpoint, spiritual unity, belongingness,
stories people use to understand themselves, their environments and the
and affiliation. The lack of literature and research on the African view of
history of their lives.
personality makes it difficult to evaluate. In addition, there are two opposing
views of personality. On the one hand, the universalistic perspective of trait • It is believed that these domains are interrelated and influenced by genes
via physiological mechanisms.
psychology conceptualises personality traits as important predictors of
behaviour across cultures. As we have seen, the five-factor theory views traits • It is further proposed that personality is reflected in identity (how people
view themselves, which is typically assessed through self-reports), and
as endogenous basic dispositions (characteristics) that have a biological
in reputation (how others view them, which is assessed by observer
basis, are universal, and the primary influence on human action. Only the
reports). These modes of assessment influence and are influenced by the
manifestations of personality, such as specific behaviours, beliefs and the
four domains of personality.
self-concept are susceptible to cultural influences. On the other hand, cultural
psychology distinguishes between individualistic cultures (where the self • According to this model, contextual factors such as society, culture,

230 231
 and social roles are the most important units of analyses. Contextual conscientious, and emotionally stable.
factors not only influence, but also are influenced by a person’s identity ■ The social investment principle. This principle partially explains why
and reputation. Contextual factors play a major role in personality people become more mature with age. A reason for this may be that
development and have the capacity to influence the genetic mechanisms personality trait changes occur in young adulthood because of new
of development. investments in conventional social roles. This includes being a parent or
an employee, which bring with them new experiences and expectations
to be nurturing, responsible, and emotionally stable. This appears to
be a normative process because across most societies, people commit
Biological Domains of Manifestations/ Contextual
modes of themselves to adult roles in the social structures of family, work, and
causes personality influences
assessment community. However, it may be that a sense of mastery that comes with
successfully fulfilling the obligations of a role, rather than the acquisition or
Traits: Reputation: Society/ even commitment to a social role, may influence personality development.
Genes Five factors Observations culture ■ The corresponsive principle. This principle states that people enter
Positive and Unconscious
negative affect processes specific environments and have specific experiences because of their
Attachment styles personality traits. In turn, those experiences change the personality traits
Identity: Roles: that brought them to the situation in the first place. For example, the
Motives and Self-reports Work
Physiological corresponsive principle predicts that if you choose a career in psychology
values: Conscious Family
causes
Goals Subjective Community because you are caring and soft-hearted, the experience of being a
Interests experience psychologist will make you even more caring and soft-hearted than before.
Life tasks
This indicates a reciprocal (two-way) relationship between person and
Abilities: environment. However, the authors note that not all life course person-
Verbal environment transactions follow this pattern. In fact, many associations
Spatial
Quantitative
between personality traits and life experiences are non-corresponsive. For
example, open-minded people often experience problems in their financial
Narratives: and lifestyle habits because of risk-taking behaviour. Experiencing these
Stories
Memories
problems does not necessarily predict increases in their openness, but
Scripts rather increases in neuroticism (emotional instability).
■ The plasticity principle. According to this principle, personality traits are
Figure 4.2 The neo-socioanalytic structural model of personality open systems that can be influenced by the environment at any age. For
example, many studies have found associations between personality traits
In addition to developing a structure and content of personality, the neo- and life experiences such as relationship factors, stressful life events, and
socioanalytic model also proposes the following seven principles of personality work experiences.
development and mechanisms of continuity (stability) and change (Roberts & ■ The role continuity principle. This principle states that consistent roles
Nickel, 2017): (such as stable relationships and work roles), rather than consistent
environments, are the cause of continuity in personality traits over time.
■ The cumulative continuity principle. This principle proposes that ■ The identity development principle. According to this principle, with age,
personality traits increase in rank order consistency throughout the life the process of developing, committing to, and maintaining an identity
span, peaking between the ages of 50 and 60, after which age a plateau leads to greater personality consistency.
is reached. ■ The niche-picking principle. According to this principle, through their
■ The maturity principle. According to this principle, people become
more mature with age. Maturity is defined as becoming more agreeable,
232 233
 and social roles are the most important units of analyses. Contextual conscientious, and emotionally stable.
factors not only influence, but also are influenced by a person’s identity ■ The social investment principle. This principle partially explains why
and reputation. Contextual factors play a major role in personality people become more mature with age. A reason for this may be that
development and have the capacity to influence the genetic mechanisms personality trait changes occur in young adulthood because of new
of development. investments in conventional social roles. This includes being a parent or
an employee, which bring with them new experiences and expectations
to be nurturing, responsible, and emotionally stable. This appears to
be a normative process because across most societies, people commit
Biological Domains of Manifestations/ Contextual
modes of themselves to adult roles in the social structures of family, work, and
causes personality influences
assessment community. However, it may be that a sense of mastery that comes with
successfully fulfilling the obligations of a role, rather than the acquisition or
Traits: Reputation: Society/ even commitment to a social role, may influence personality development.
Genes Five factors Observations culture ■ The corresponsive principle. This principle states that people enter
Positive and Unconscious
negative affect processes specific environments and have specific experiences because of their
Attachment styles personality traits. In turn, those experiences change the personality traits
Identity: Roles: that brought them to the situation in the first place. For example, the
Motives and Self-reports Work
Physiological corresponsive principle predicts that if you choose a career in psychology
values: Conscious Family
causes
Goals Subjective Community because you are caring and soft-hearted, the experience of being a
Interests experience psychologist will make you even more caring and soft-hearted than before.
Life tasks
This indicates a reciprocal (two-way) relationship between person and
Abilities: environment. However, the authors note that not all life course person-
Verbal environment transactions follow this pattern. In fact, many associations
Spatial
Quantitative
between personality traits and life experiences are non-corresponsive. For
example, open-minded people often experience problems in their financial
Narratives: and lifestyle habits because of risk-taking behaviour. Experiencing these
Stories
Memories
problems does not necessarily predict increases in their openness, but
Scripts rather increases in neuroticism (emotional instability).
■ The plasticity principle. According to this principle, personality traits are
Figure 4.2 The neo-socioanalytic structural model of personality open systems that can be influenced by the environment at any age. For
example, many studies have found associations between personality traits
In addition to developing a structure and content of personality, the neo- and life experiences such as relationship factors, stressful life events, and
socioanalytic model also proposes the following seven principles of personality work experiences.
development and mechanisms of continuity (stability) and change (Roberts & ■ The role continuity principle. This principle states that consistent roles
Nickel, 2017): (such as stable relationships and work roles), rather than consistent
environments, are the cause of continuity in personality traits over time.
■ The cumulative continuity principle. This principle proposes that ■ The identity development principle. According to this principle, with age,
personality traits increase in rank order consistency throughout the life the process of developing, committing to, and maintaining an identity
span, peaking between the ages of 50 and 60, after which age a plateau leads to greater personality consistency.
is reached. ■ The niche-picking principle. According to this principle, through their
■ The maturity principle. According to this principle, people become
more mature with age. Maturity is defined as becoming more agreeable,
232 233
 personality traits, people create suitable social environments and paths (i.e. 4.4 TRANSACTIONAL APPROACHES TO
niches or places) in their lives that help maintain their current trait levels.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
The main objective of the neo-socioanalytic model was mostly to
capture the empirical picture that emerged from the data in a topography Transactional approaches refer to approaches that recognise the effect
of personality development. Although this model has generated many ideas of both biology and environment in the development of personality. Our
regarding personality development, the authors acknowledge that their discussion in this regard will focus mainly on behavioural genetics and social
model is far from perfect and leaves much room for improvement. Firstly, the genomics.
theory to date has focused primarily on personality trait development and
should be expanded to the other domains of development. Secondly, the 4.4.1 Behavioural genetics
proposed hypotheses in the form of principles of personality development
and the mechanisms for continuity and change should be clearer and better The primary goal in behavioural genetic research is to investigate the effects
articulated. of genetics on individual human behaviour. However, researchers in this field
acknowledge that both genes and environment are important to understand
human behaviour. The following questions are typically asked: How do genes
REVIEW THIS SECTION and environments interact to affect behaviour, and which mechanisms are
1. What is the viewpoint of contextual or environmental approaches to personality involved? To answer these questions, the correlation and interaction between
development? genotype and environment will be explored. (Genotype is the unique genetic
2. Discuss Erik Erikson’s view of personality development. constitution of an individual.)
3. Discuss Erikson’s psychosocial stages directly relevant to adult development.
4. What are the major criticisms against Erikson’s theory? How did researchers try
to address and assess the usefulness of Erikson’s theory for adult development?
What were the outcomes of these efforts?
5. Discuss the three principles that Kivnick and Wells (2014, 2016) identified as a
framework throughout Erikson’s entire body of work.
6. Is the so-called midlife crisis a fact or a fallacy? Give reasons for your answer.
7. How is personality regarded in the African context?
8. Discuss personality development from an African perspective. Refer to the
concepts of complex interdependence, personhood, ubuntu, and spiritual unity.
9. Describe Nsamenang’s three phases of selfhood. Describe the stages,
developmental tasks, and social roles in the social phase of selfhood.
10. Describe the concepts that Nsamenang uses to refer to the integration of the
individual person into the community.
11. Describe how the three phases of selfhood are integrated with one another.
12. Which factors make it difficult to evaluate the African view of personality? What
are the benefits and limitations of Erikson’s and Nsamenang’s theories? Behavioural genetics studies the effects of genetics on behaviour
13. What is the assumption of the neo-socioanalytic model of personality development?
14. Discuss the structural model of personality according to the neo-socioanalytic model.
4.4.1.1 Genotype-environment correlation
15. Discuss the seven principles of personality development and mechanisms of
continuity and change as proposed by Roberts and Nickel (2017).
16. What is the main objective of the neo-socioanalytic model? What are the limitations According to the theory of genotype-environment correlation, genes are the
of this model? driving force behind the development of an individual’s personality (Bleidorn
et al., 2014; Kandler & Wilmes, 2017). This means that an individual’s genes
234 235
 personality traits, people create suitable social environments and paths (i.e. 4.4 TRANSACTIONAL APPROACHES TO
niches or places) in their lives that help maintain their current trait levels.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
The main objective of the neo-socioanalytic model was mostly to
capture the empirical picture that emerged from the data in a topography Transactional approaches refer to approaches that recognise the effect
of personality development. Although this model has generated many ideas of both biology and environment in the development of personality. Our
regarding personality development, the authors acknowledge that their discussion in this regard will focus mainly on behavioural genetics and social
model is far from perfect and leaves much room for improvement. Firstly, the genomics.
theory to date has focused primarily on personality trait development and
should be expanded to the other domains of development. Secondly, the 4.4.1 Behavioural genetics
proposed hypotheses in the form of principles of personality development
and the mechanisms for continuity and change should be clearer and better The primary goal in behavioural genetic research is to investigate the effects
articulated. of genetics on individual human behaviour. However, researchers in this field
acknowledge that both genes and environment are important to understand
human behaviour. The following questions are typically asked: How do genes
REVIEW THIS SECTION and environments interact to affect behaviour, and which mechanisms are
1. What is the viewpoint of contextual or environmental approaches to personality involved? To answer these questions, the correlation and interaction between
development? genotype and environment will be explored. (Genotype is the unique genetic
2. Discuss Erik Erikson’s view of personality development. constitution of an individual.)
3. Discuss Erikson’s psychosocial stages directly relevant to adult development.
4. What are the major criticisms against Erikson’s theory? How did researchers try
to address and assess the usefulness of Erikson’s theory for adult development?
What were the outcomes of these efforts?
5. Discuss the three principles that Kivnick and Wells (2014, 2016) identified as a
framework throughout Erikson’s entire body of work.
6. Is the so-called midlife crisis a fact or a fallacy? Give reasons for your answer.
7. How is personality regarded in the African context?
8. Discuss personality development from an African perspective. Refer to the
concepts of complex interdependence, personhood, ubuntu, and spiritual unity.
9. Describe Nsamenang’s three phases of selfhood. Describe the stages,
developmental tasks, and social roles in the social phase of selfhood.
10. Describe the concepts that Nsamenang uses to refer to the integration of the
individual person into the community.
11. Describe how the three phases of selfhood are integrated with one another.
12. Which factors make it difficult to evaluate the African view of personality? What
are the benefits and limitations of Erikson’s and Nsamenang’s theories? Behavioural genetics studies the effects of genetics on behaviour
13. What is the assumption of the neo-socioanalytic model of personality development?
14. Discuss the structural model of personality according to the neo-socioanalytic model.
4.4.1.1 Genotype-environment correlation
15. Discuss the seven principles of personality development and mechanisms of
continuity and change as proposed by Roberts and Nickel (2017).
16. What is the main objective of the neo-socioanalytic model? What are the limitations According to the theory of genotype-environment correlation, genes are the
of this model? driving force behind the development of an individual’s personality (Bleidorn
et al., 2014; Kandler & Wilmes, 2017). This means that an individual’s genes
234 235
affect not only the kinds of environmental conditions to which the person will of mechanisms involved in genotype-environment correlation change
be exposed, but also the way in which he or she reacts towards environmental throughout the life span: The passive kind declines from infancy to
influences. This does not imply that an individual’s development is adolescence, whereas the importance of the active kind increases with self-
predetermined by genes. Rather, it points to the fact that some experiences determination and therefore with age. Therefore, although the theory of
are not accidental but encouraged by the individual’s genotype. This implies genotype-environment correlation focuses on genetic effects on personality,
that, to some degree, the genotype affects which environments individuals it acknowledges that personality development is also encouraged by the
experience, how they experience these environments, and what form of environment, particularly by the demands of the environment that have
influences these experiences have on development. been selected actively. When these environments, in turn, have causal
Three kinds of mechanisms are involved in the genotype-environment effects on psychological development, dynamic processes of gene-
correlation: active, evocative and passive: environment transactions result. When these processes occur systematically
over prolonged periods of development, the effects of gene-environment
• Active genotype-environment correlation refers to people’s tendency transactions cumulate in such a way that genetic effects become reinforced
to seek out, avoid, change, or create environments actively to match and intensified, as we have indicated in the examples given above.
their genetically predisposed characteristics. For example, individuals
who characteristically are extraverted may seek out very different 4.4.1.2 Gene-by-environment interaction
social environments than those who are shy and withdrawn. If the
environmental factors in turn affect the characteristics that have initially Genes do not exist in a vacuum (Bornstein & Lamb, 2015). As we know by now,
led to them, this would result in an increase in these characteristics. This the environment also plays an important role in determining our behaviour.
may affect personality development and could result in an increase of In fact, the environment is often crucial in determining when and how our
heritability over time. For example, an extraverted person may be viewed genes express themselves. For example, individuals from the same family
favourably by his or her environment and receive more invitations from and the same family background may have very different personalities:
social networks; this strengthens the individual’s agreeableness. Some individuals may be emotionally stable, while others may be unstable.
• Evocative genotype-environment correlation happens when an This may be because of gene-by-environment interaction. Gene-by-
individual’s genetically related behaviour evokes (draws out) reaction environment interaction (or GxE interaction) refers to the occurrence that
from the environment. For example, a person who is low in agreeableness environmental experiences affect individuals differently due to genetically
may increase the probability of evoking negative reaction in others and affected differences. This means that GxE interactions can occur through a
may therefore experience more conflict and serious disputes with others. variety of pathways and have several implications for behavioural genetics
Such people may come to view their world as hostile, which consequently (Briley & Tucker-Drob, 2014), for example:
may reinforce their low agreeableness.
• Passive genotype-environment correlation refers to the genes a person • First, individuals may respond similarly to family-level environments
inherits from his or her parents and the environment in which the person (i.e. shared environments such as the same parenting styles) based on
is raised. Parents create a home environment that is affected by their own their genotype. For example, genetic effects in agreeableness may be
heritable characteristics. Biological parents also pass on genetic material especially strong in family-level environments that support altruism and
to their children. For example, parents who are open to experiences may compliance. Therefore, because of a greater genetic similarity, siblings
have children who are open to experiences. At the same time, such parents may respond in a more similar way to a shared family environment and
may also create an environment to encourage openness to experience. thus become more similar than non-siblings do, and identical twins will
This means that children passively receive genetically related traits, while be more similar than non-identical twins will.
the environment strengthens these traits. • Second, siblings growing up in shared (the same) family environments,
may respond differently to the same environment provided by their
From a developmental perspective, the balance of the three kinds parents based on their differing genotypes. For example, not all siblings

236 237
affect not only the kinds of environmental conditions to which the person will of mechanisms involved in genotype-environment correlation change
be exposed, but also the way in which he or she reacts towards environmental throughout the life span: The passive kind declines from infancy to
influences. This does not imply that an individual’s development is adolescence, whereas the importance of the active kind increases with self-
predetermined by genes. Rather, it points to the fact that some experiences determination and therefore with age. Therefore, although the theory of
are not accidental but encouraged by the individual’s genotype. This implies genotype-environment correlation focuses on genetic effects on personality,
that, to some degree, the genotype affects which environments individuals it acknowledges that personality development is also encouraged by the
experience, how they experience these environments, and what form of environment, particularly by the demands of the environment that have
influences these experiences have on development. been selected actively. When these environments, in turn, have causal
Three kinds of mechanisms are involved in the genotype-environment effects on psychological development, dynamic processes of gene-
correlation: active, evocative and passive: environment transactions result. When these processes occur systematically
over prolonged periods of development, the effects of gene-environment
• Active genotype-environment correlation refers to people’s tendency transactions cumulate in such a way that genetic effects become reinforced
to seek out, avoid, change, or create environments actively to match and intensified, as we have indicated in the examples given above.
their genetically predisposed characteristics. For example, individuals
who characteristically are extraverted may seek out very different 4.4.1.2 Gene-by-environment interaction
social environments than those who are shy and withdrawn. If the
environmental factors in turn affect the characteristics that have initially Genes do not exist in a vacuum (Bornstein & Lamb, 2015). As we know by now,
led to them, this would result in an increase in these characteristics. This the environment also plays an important role in determining our behaviour.
may affect personality development and could result in an increase of In fact, the environment is often crucial in determining when and how our
heritability over time. For example, an extraverted person may be viewed genes express themselves. For example, individuals from the same family
favourably by his or her environment and receive more invitations from and the same family background may have very different personalities:
social networks; this strengthens the individual’s agreeableness. Some individuals may be emotionally stable, while others may be unstable.
• Evocative genotype-environment correlation happens when an This may be because of gene-by-environment interaction. Gene-by-
individual’s genetically related behaviour evokes (draws out) reaction environment interaction (or GxE interaction) refers to the occurrence that
from the environment. For example, a person who is low in agreeableness environmental experiences affect individuals differently due to genetically
may increase the probability of evoking negative reaction in others and affected differences. This means that GxE interactions can occur through a
may therefore experience more conflict and serious disputes with others. variety of pathways and have several implications for behavioural genetics
Such people may come to view their world as hostile, which consequently (Briley & Tucker-Drob, 2014), for example:
may reinforce their low agreeableness.
• Passive genotype-environment correlation refers to the genes a person • First, individuals may respond similarly to family-level environments
inherits from his or her parents and the environment in which the person (i.e. shared environments such as the same parenting styles) based on
is raised. Parents create a home environment that is affected by their own their genotype. For example, genetic effects in agreeableness may be
heritable characteristics. Biological parents also pass on genetic material especially strong in family-level environments that support altruism and
to their children. For example, parents who are open to experiences may compliance. Therefore, because of a greater genetic similarity, siblings
have children who are open to experiences. At the same time, such parents may respond in a more similar way to a shared family environment and
may also create an environment to encourage openness to experience. thus become more similar than non-siblings do, and identical twins will
This means that children passively receive genetically related traits, while be more similar than non-identical twins will.
the environment strengthens these traits. • Second, siblings growing up in shared (the same) family environments,
may respond differently to the same environment provided by their
From a developmental perspective, the balance of the three kinds parents based on their differing genotypes. For example, not all siblings

236 237
 in the same family will share the same personality traits, and therefore will does not affect behaviour directly, but its expression does. The reason is
show different behavioural traits. Thus, some individuals from the same that it depends on intermediary biological factors (links) such as molecules,
family may be more anxious than others are when faced with difficult RNA and intercellular proteins, which are responsible for the decoding of
situations. ‘messages’ and which are much more susceptible to environmental factors
• Third, as the individual develops, environments that are more unique (e.g. (Bell & Robinson, 2011). In addition, it seems that certain genes are ‘turned
peer groups, romantic relationships, leaving the parental home, entering on’ and ‘turned off ’ by different social environmental conditions or stimuli.
the workforce or educational settings, stressful life events) emerge, The social-environmental conditions that seem to have a particular effect
as opposed to those shared with their siblings. Interactions between on gene expression include both the physical and social environments that
genetic effects and these unique, non-shared environments will have an people inhabit, such as geographical region, socio-economic status, social
individually unique effect on development. In other words, genotype-by- isolation, social stress, maltreatment, and rejection. Chronic social stressors
non-shared-environment interactions would have the effect of making and social hardship may be associated with changes in the gene expression,
genetically related individuals less similar, regardless of their genetic resulting in mental and physical health problems (Cole, 2013).
relatedness. Apparently more important than the social stressors themselves, is an
• Fourth, the importance of genotype-by-shared environment interactions individual’s perceptions of those conditions, because subjective perception
early in life shifts to the importance of genotype-by-non-shared- of social experiences is affected by neurocognitive processes that regulate
environment interactions with increasing maturation. This explains gene expression. This has several implications (Slavich & Cole, 2013):
the larger estimates of heritability in childhood and the decrease of
heritability across the life span. Thus, genetics may have greater effects • First, it means that situations that have not yet happened, or may never
in childhood than in adulthood. happen, may result in the same behaviours that are triggered by actual
events. For example, a person may act aggressively towards others
4.4.2 The social-genomic model – a normal reaction in threatening situations – only because they feel
threatened and not because they actually are being threatened.
Social genomics, or sociogenomics, refers to the field of research that • Second, it suggests that the same social-environmental conditions, such
examines why and how different social factors and processes (e.g. social as being socially evaluated or rejected, can be assessed in different ways
stress, conflict, isolation, and attachment) affect the activity of the genome and therefore have different gene expressions for different people. For
(an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes). The social- example, some people may be affected negatively by such situations,
genomic model challenges the assumption that we are born with a fixed set while others may not. Factors that can contribute to these effects depend
of genes and that our environment and our experiences in that environment on aspects such as individuals’ sensitivity to social threat; the tendency to
determine the level to which we fulfil the potential of our genetic view stressful circumstances as challenging versus threatening; cognitive-
predisposition. The contention is that such an assumption fails to capture the emotional resources; the availability of support; and biographical and
complex relationship that our genes and environments share. psychiatric histories. This partially explains how differences in perceptual
Social genomics indicate that characteristics of the social environment processes and personality characteristics, such as negative cognitive
appear to be able to affect the activity of some of our most basic processes, biases, sensitivity to rejection, social anxiety, and neuroticism may result
namely the expression of our genes. In fact, research in the field of human in individual differences in gene expression profiles.
social genomics shows that our social-environmental experiences can shape • Third, it indicates that events that are seemingly very different from one
our genetic expression throughout our lives (Slavich & Cole, 2013). The idea of another, such as being socially rejected versus being physically attacked,
social genomics is that the genetic factors and social-environmental factors may have the ability to initiate the same responses (e.g. aggression), since
are not independent – they affect one another. This means that although social rejection and physical pain involve the same neural and endocrine
we inherit a mostly unchangeable genetic code (i.e. DNA), the way in which pathways.
genes interact with the environment is much more dynamic. Therefore, DNA • Fourth, viewing the world as hostile and threatening in the absence of

238 239
 in the same family will share the same personality traits, and therefore will does not affect behaviour directly, but its expression does. The reason is
show different behavioural traits. Thus, some individuals from the same that it depends on intermediary biological factors (links) such as molecules,
family may be more anxious than others are when faced with difficult RNA and intercellular proteins, which are responsible for the decoding of
situations. ‘messages’ and which are much more susceptible to environmental factors
• Third, as the individual develops, environments that are more unique (e.g. (Bell & Robinson, 2011). In addition, it seems that certain genes are ‘turned
peer groups, romantic relationships, leaving the parental home, entering on’ and ‘turned off ’ by different social environmental conditions or stimuli.
the workforce or educational settings, stressful life events) emerge, The social-environmental conditions that seem to have a particular effect
as opposed to those shared with their siblings. Interactions between on gene expression include both the physical and social environments that
genetic effects and these unique, non-shared environments will have an people inhabit, such as geographical region, socio-economic status, social
individually unique effect on development. In other words, genotype-by- isolation, social stress, maltreatment, and rejection. Chronic social stressors
non-shared-environment interactions would have the effect of making and social hardship may be associated with changes in the gene expression,
genetically related individuals less similar, regardless of their genetic resulting in mental and physical health problems (Cole, 2013).
relatedness. Apparently more important than the social stressors themselves, is an
• Fourth, the importance of genotype-by-shared environment interactions individual’s perceptions of those conditions, because subjective perception
early in life shifts to the importance of genotype-by-non-shared- of social experiences is affected by neurocognitive processes that regulate
environment interactions with increasing maturation. This explains gene expression. This has several implications (Slavich & Cole, 2013):
the larger estimates of heritability in childhood and the decrease of
heritability across the life span. Thus, genetics may have greater effects • First, it means that situations that have not yet happened, or may never
in childhood than in adulthood. happen, may result in the same behaviours that are triggered by actual
events. For example, a person may act aggressively towards others
4.4.2 The social-genomic model – a normal reaction in threatening situations – only because they feel
threatened and not because they actually are being threatened.
Social genomics, or sociogenomics, refers to the field of research that • Second, it suggests that the same social-environmental conditions, such
examines why and how different social factors and processes (e.g. social as being socially evaluated or rejected, can be assessed in different ways
stress, conflict, isolation, and attachment) affect the activity of the genome and therefore have different gene expressions for different people. For
(an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes). The social- example, some people may be affected negatively by such situations,
genomic model challenges the assumption that we are born with a fixed set while others may not. Factors that can contribute to these effects depend
of genes and that our environment and our experiences in that environment on aspects such as individuals’ sensitivity to social threat; the tendency to
determine the level to which we fulfil the potential of our genetic view stressful circumstances as challenging versus threatening; cognitive-
predisposition. The contention is that such an assumption fails to capture the emotional resources; the availability of support; and biographical and
complex relationship that our genes and environments share. psychiatric histories. This partially explains how differences in perceptual
Social genomics indicate that characteristics of the social environment processes and personality characteristics, such as negative cognitive
appear to be able to affect the activity of some of our most basic processes, biases, sensitivity to rejection, social anxiety, and neuroticism may result
namely the expression of our genes. In fact, research in the field of human in individual differences in gene expression profiles.
social genomics shows that our social-environmental experiences can shape • Third, it indicates that events that are seemingly very different from one
our genetic expression throughout our lives (Slavich & Cole, 2013). The idea of another, such as being socially rejected versus being physically attacked,
social genomics is that the genetic factors and social-environmental factors may have the ability to initiate the same responses (e.g. aggression), since
are not independent – they affect one another. This means that although social rejection and physical pain involve the same neural and endocrine
we inherit a mostly unchangeable genetic code (i.e. DNA), the way in which pathways.
genes interact with the environment is much more dynamic. Therefore, DNA • Fourth, viewing the world as hostile and threatening in the absence of

238 239
 actual physical danger results in the skewing of gene expression that personality traits. However, researchers who take a transactional perspective
could result in mental and physical illnesses. will have to continue to identify the particular experiences most associated
with change in particular traits and the molecular mechanisms by which
The social-genomic model gives substantial attention to how the they take place (Griffin et al., 2015). The core task of future studies will be
accumulative effects of ongoing environmental conditions or situations can to identify measurably non-shared environmental factors that matter to
affect biology and lead to changes in personality traits (Griffin et al., 2015). personality and to capture the interplay between genetic and environmental
For example, individuals high in neuroticism are more likely to ruminate (think effects on personality development throughout adulthood (Bleidorn et al.,
things over repeatedly) and show greater levels of anxiety, especially when 2014).
under pressure, than those low in neuroticism are. These higher states of stress
and anxiety affect a number of biological mechanisms in these individuals,
REVIEW THIS SECTION
such as the functioning of the amygdala (a brain structure that processes
many of our emotions) and the production of cortisol (a steroid hormone 1. What is the overarching viewpoint of the transactional approaches to personality
development?
that regulates a wide range of processes throughout the body, including
the reaction of the body to stress). Over time, a transactional effect occurs: 2. What is the goal of behavioural genetic research? What is the general view of
researchers in this field? What questions do these researchers typically try to
Individual differences in neuroticism interact with environmental cues (e.g. answer?
stressful situations) that trigger differences in individual states (e.g. anxiety
3. What is the viewpoint of the proponents of the theory of genotype-environment
and negative feelings). This results in changes in biological mechanisms (e.g. correlation? Does this mean that environmental influences on a person’s
neurotransmitter production in the brain) that have the potential to affect development are caused by genes? Why, or why not?
changes in the trait of neuroticism itself (e.g. increases in neuroticism). 4. Discuss the three kinds of mechanisms involved in genotype-environment
From a clinical perspective, the implication of the social-genomic correlation.
viewpoint is quite profound: It suggests that significant trait change is 5. How do these mechanisms affect personality development throughout the life
possible, including in late adulthood. This leaves open the possibility that span; that is, do the importance of these mechanisms change as people grow
older? According to this theory, how may genetic effects become reinforced over
by altering certain environmental conditions or having individuals engage in
time?
certain practices, these new experiences might trigger changes in personality
6. What is the basic viewpoint of the theory of gene-by-environment (GxE)
(Magidson et al., 2014). For example, a person who is high in neuroticism due interaction?
to negative childhood experiences resulting in distrust and negative affect
7. Discuss the different pathways of GxE interactions and the implications that GxE
could become less neurotic in a supportive and loving environment as an interactions may have for behavioural genetics.
adult.
8. To which field of research does the social-genomic model refer? Which assumption
does this model challenge, and what reason is behind this?
4.4.3 Summary of the transactional approach 9. Discuss the general viewpoint of the social-genomics model.
10. Which social-environmental conditions may have a particular effect on gene
In summary, the transactional approach to personality development in expression?
adulthood suggests the following: First, there is a strong and stable genetic
11. People’s subjective perceptions of social-environmental conditions or stressors
foundation of individual differences in personality throughout the adult life may play a more important role in gene expression than objective experiences
span. Second, non-shared environmental influences on individual differences may. Discuss the implications of this.
in personality traits become more important and increasingly stable from
early to middle adulthood. Third, both genetic and non-shared environmental
effects contribute to stability and change in personality traits. Fourth, certain
characteristics of the social environment and people’s perceptions of those
conditions may be linked to changes in gene expression, and therefore in

240 241
 actual physical danger results in the skewing of gene expression that personality traits. However, researchers who take a transactional perspective
could result in mental and physical illnesses. will have to continue to identify the particular experiences most associated
with change in particular traits and the molecular mechanisms by which
The social-genomic model gives substantial attention to how the they take place (Griffin et al., 2015). The core task of future studies will be
accumulative effects of ongoing environmental conditions or situations can to identify measurably non-shared environmental factors that matter to
affect biology and lead to changes in personality traits (Griffin et al., 2015). personality and to capture the interplay between genetic and environmental
For example, individuals high in neuroticism are more likely to ruminate (think effects on personality development throughout adulthood (Bleidorn et al.,
things over repeatedly) and show greater levels of anxiety, especially when 2014).
under pressure, than those low in neuroticism are. These higher states of stress
and anxiety affect a number of biological mechanisms in these individuals,
REVIEW THIS SECTION
such as the functioning of the amygdala (a brain structure that processes
many of our emotions) and the production of cortisol (a steroid hormone 1. What is the overarching viewpoint of the transactional approaches to personality
development?
that regulates a wide range of processes throughout the body, including
the reaction of the body to stress). Over time, a transactional effect occurs: 2. What is the goal of behavioural genetic research? What is the general view of
researchers in this field? What questions do these researchers typically try to
Individual differences in neuroticism interact with environmental cues (e.g. answer?
stressful situations) that trigger differences in individual states (e.g. anxiety
3. What is the viewpoint of the proponents of the theory of genotype-environment
and negative feelings). This results in changes in biological mechanisms (e.g. correlation? Does this mean that environmental influences on a person’s
neurotransmitter production in the brain) that have the potential to affect development are caused by genes? Why, or why not?
changes in the trait of neuroticism itself (e.g. increases in neuroticism). 4. Discuss the three kinds of mechanisms involved in genotype-environment
From a clinical perspective, the implication of the social-genomic correlation.
viewpoint is quite profound: It suggests that significant trait change is 5. How do these mechanisms affect personality development throughout the life
possible, including in late adulthood. This leaves open the possibility that span; that is, do the importance of these mechanisms change as people grow
older? According to this theory, how may genetic effects become reinforced over
by altering certain environmental conditions or having individuals engage in
time?
certain practices, these new experiences might trigger changes in personality
6. What is the basic viewpoint of the theory of gene-by-environment (GxE)
(Magidson et al., 2014). For example, a person who is high in neuroticism due interaction?
to negative childhood experiences resulting in distrust and negative affect
7. Discuss the different pathways of GxE interactions and the implications that GxE
could become less neurotic in a supportive and loving environment as an interactions may have for behavioural genetics.
adult.
8. To which field of research does the social-genomic model refer? Which assumption
does this model challenge, and what reason is behind this?
4.4.3 Summary of the transactional approach 9. Discuss the general viewpoint of the social-genomics model.
10. Which social-environmental conditions may have a particular effect on gene
In summary, the transactional approach to personality development in expression?
adulthood suggests the following: First, there is a strong and stable genetic
11. People’s subjective perceptions of social-environmental conditions or stressors
foundation of individual differences in personality throughout the adult life may play a more important role in gene expression than objective experiences
span. Second, non-shared environmental influences on individual differences may. Discuss the implications of this.
in personality traits become more important and increasingly stable from
early to middle adulthood. Third, both genetic and non-shared environmental
effects contribute to stability and change in personality traits. Fourth, certain
characteristics of the social environment and people’s perceptions of those
conditions may be linked to changes in gene expression, and therefore in

240 241
4.5 IMPORTANT PERSONALITY behaviour, but also relate to one’s past behaviour and experiences, as well as
what one would like to be or do in the future. The self-concept is not a single,
CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EFFECT general idea we have about ourselves, but rather a collection of schemas that
ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT are related to different areas or domains of one’s self-concept. Examples of
these areas or domains are:
Most research in personality psychology is based on the well-known Big Five
personality traits, as discussed earlier. However, there are other important • The physical domain, which relates to concerns about body, health, and
individual differences in personality beyond neuroticism, extraversion, physical functioning.
agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. These traits • The academic domain, which refers to concerns about success or failure
mostly include our observable behaviours. However, as we have indicated in academic settings.
in the definition of personality at the beginning of this chapter, personality • The occupational domain, which concerns work or occupational identity,
also includes non-observable aspects, such as our perceptions of ourselves. retirement, and leisure activities.
In this section, some of these other aspects related to personality, such as • The social domain, which involves concerns about people, interpersonal
the self-concept, identity, emotions, and life stories will be considered. relationships, the community and one’s place in the group.
• The competence domain, which reflects concerns about the ability to
4.5.1 The self-concept meet basic needs.
• The affect domain, which implies one’s awareness of emotional states.
The self-concept reflects individuals’ definition and understanding of who
they are and what they are like (Kotter-Grühn, 2016). In this section, the self- Not all the domains are equally important to all individuals. Only those
concept will be discussed in terms of self-schemas, self-construal, possible that are most meaningful to an individual at a specific time in his or her
selves, and self-esteem. life will be the most important. For example, the physical domain may be
important for a person involved in playing sports, or the academic domain
4.5.1.1 Self-schemas
will be most important to a university student, while the competence domain
may become increasingly important to an elderly person.
Self-concept is the image,
The self-concept is an integral part of the personality and an important
idea, or perception we have
aspect to consider in the ageing process. The content, organisation, and
about ourselves. The ideas that
functioning of the self-schemas of the self-concept may guide us to understand
we have about ourselves are
how individuals navigate the events and changes as they proceed from young
called schemas or self-schemas.
to middle to older adulthood. Self-schemas are dynamic: People continually
Schemas play a role in how we
revise them to conform to experience or to fit their view of themselves. As we
define ourselves; they determine
go through life and gain new knowledge and experiences, we are constantly
what information we consider
adding to or even reconfiguring our existing self-schemas and self-concepts
most important and how we
(Cherry, 2017). Therefore, the self-concept is caught in constant dynamic
process this information. Self-
tension between stability and change. Bodily changes, cognitive advances,
schemas play a role in regulating
and changes in one’s social environment lead to a constant reconsideration
a person’s behaviour and guide
of who one is. In adulthood, most people develop a relatively stable sense of
the decisions he or she makes.
who they are. Older adults are likely to experience a variety of changes in their
Therefore, schemas are working
physical appearance (e.g. wrinkles and grey hair), their cognitive functioning
models around which behaviour
(e.g. forgetfulness) and their role in family (e.g. becoming a grandparent)
is organised. However, they not
and society (e.g. retirement). If a certain role is particularly relevant to
only represent one’s present An inflated self-concept
242 243
4.5 IMPORTANT PERSONALITY behaviour, but also relate to one’s past behaviour and experiences, as well as
what one would like to be or do in the future. The self-concept is not a single,
CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EFFECT general idea we have about ourselves, but rather a collection of schemas that
ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT are related to different areas or domains of one’s self-concept. Examples of
these areas or domains are:
Most research in personality psychology is based on the well-known Big Five
personality traits, as discussed earlier. However, there are other important • The physical domain, which relates to concerns about body, health, and
individual differences in personality beyond neuroticism, extraversion, physical functioning.
agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. These traits • The academic domain, which refers to concerns about success or failure
mostly include our observable behaviours. However, as we have indicated in academic settings.
in the definition of personality at the beginning of this chapter, personality • The occupational domain, which concerns work or occupational identity,
also includes non-observable aspects, such as our perceptions of ourselves. retirement, and leisure activities.
In this section, some of these other aspects related to personality, such as • The social domain, which involves concerns about people, interpersonal
the self-concept, identity, emotions, and life stories will be considered. relationships, the community and one’s place in the group.
• The competence domain, which reflects concerns about the ability to
4.5.1 The self-concept meet basic needs.
• The affect domain, which implies one’s awareness of emotional states.
The self-concept reflects individuals’ definition and understanding of who
they are and what they are like (Kotter-Grühn, 2016). In this section, the self- Not all the domains are equally important to all individuals. Only those
concept will be discussed in terms of self-schemas, self-construal, possible that are most meaningful to an individual at a specific time in his or her
selves, and self-esteem. life will be the most important. For example, the physical domain may be
important for a person involved in playing sports, or the academic domain
4.5.1.1 Self-schemas
will be most important to a university student, while the competence domain
may become increasingly important to an elderly person.
Self-concept is the image,
The self-concept is an integral part of the personality and an important
idea, or perception we have
aspect to consider in the ageing process. The content, organisation, and
about ourselves. The ideas that
functioning of the self-schemas of the self-concept may guide us to understand
we have about ourselves are
how individuals navigate the events and changes as they proceed from young
called schemas or self-schemas.
to middle to older adulthood. Self-schemas are dynamic: People continually
Schemas play a role in how we
revise them to conform to experience or to fit their view of themselves. As we
define ourselves; they determine
go through life and gain new knowledge and experiences, we are constantly
what information we consider
adding to or even reconfiguring our existing self-schemas and self-concepts
most important and how we
(Cherry, 2017). Therefore, the self-concept is caught in constant dynamic
process this information. Self-
tension between stability and change. Bodily changes, cognitive advances,
schemas play a role in regulating
and changes in one’s social environment lead to a constant reconsideration
a person’s behaviour and guide
of who one is. In adulthood, most people develop a relatively stable sense of
the decisions he or she makes.
who they are. Older adults are likely to experience a variety of changes in their
Therefore, schemas are working
physical appearance (e.g. wrinkles and grey hair), their cognitive functioning
models around which behaviour
(e.g. forgetfulness) and their role in family (e.g. becoming a grandparent)
is organised. However, they not
and society (e.g. retirement). If a certain role is particularly relevant to
only represent one’s present An inflated self-concept
242 243
the self-concept of the person, changes in this role may require stronger On the other hand, individualist cultures – those with an independent
challenges to redefine his or her identity. In contrast, when people define self-construal – emphasise the inner (i.e. abstract), stable and self-
themselves primarily by their values, ideologies, or psychological traits, all of determining nature of the self. Therefore, they define themselves in terms
which remain relatively stable throughout adulthood, their self-concepts are of internal attributes such as traits, abilities, values, and preferences.
less likely to require age-related adaptations (Kotter-Grühn, 2016).
In this regard, South African studies yielded the following results:
4.5.1.2 Self-construal
■ Black participants produced more interdependent and concrete self-
Self-construal refers to a person’s perception about the self, specifically descriptions than white participants did (Eaton & Louw, 2000).
regarding the relationship between the individual self and the social and ■ Black participants viewed their behaviour as more variable than white
cultural setting (Cross, 2016; Voyer & Franks, 2014). The type of self-construal participants did (Fetvadjiev et al., 2017).
of a person affects his or her emotions, cognitions, motivations, and general ■ Black participants used fewer traits and more contextualisation in
behaviour. It is generally accepted that the development of a self-concept their descriptions of the self. They tended to use concrete behaviours,
is intertwined with the culture in which one grows up. For example, in the preferences, and relational (interpersonal) contextualisation more than
South African context cross-cultural research in this regard often explores the white, coloured and Indian groups. Whites used more traits than
the individualism-collectivism dimensions. As we have discussed earlier, contextualisation, while coloureds and Indians showed an intermediate
individualism is a value system in a culture where the focus is on the pattern (Valchev et al., 2013). According to the researchers, blacks’
individual rather than on the group. Collectivism, on the other hand, is the responses tended to be more communal in nature, while whites’ responses
tendency to emphasise cohesiveness among individuals and thus give a were more individualistic, with coloureds and Indians being in between.
group priority over each individual. These differences between collectivist ■ In a study of personality and well-being in black and white South
and individualistic cultures are largely encouraged by child-rearing practices. African emerging adults, both black and white emerging adults showed
evidence of a combination of collectivistic and individualistic features,
• The first aspect of self-construal is that of independence vs. such as work-related characteristics (individualistic) and social-relational
interdependence. The self-concept of individuals in individualist cultures features (collectivistic) (Nel et al., 2017).
is characterised as independent self-construal. This means that these
individuals view themselves as individualistic, self-contained, and However, the researchers of these studies concluded that the research
autonomous – a self who strives for uniqueness. Therefore, it retains the participants in these studies were university students who had to function in
same abilities, qualities, and goals, regardless of the social context. The an environment where individualism was fostered. One the other hand, these
self-concept in collectivist cultures is characterised as interdependent students were also emerging adults and might still have been in a process
self-construal, which implies that the self views itself as depending on of forging a self-concept to accommodate the situation in which they were.
others and striving for harmony. People with an interdependent self- Therefore, the results are not necessarily generalisable to the population
construal define themselves in terms of their relationships with others. groups as a whole.
It reflects a view of the self as flexible and variable, changing between
contexts and relationships 4.5.1.3 Possible selves
• The second aspect of self-construal is that of abstraction vs. concreteness.
Members of collectivist cultures – those with an interdependent self- One model of self-concept development is based on the concept of possible
construal – tend to describe themselves in very specific and contextualised selves, introduced by Markus and Nurius (1986). Possible selves represent
ways, and tend to experience relatedness with others as a fundamental what we would like to become (hoped-for selves or ideal selves), as well
part of themselves. This happens to the extent that the self is defined as what we do not want to become or may be afraid of becoming (feared
very specifically (i.e. concretely) and uniquely in each social relationship. selves). Examples of hoped-for possible selves may be the healthy self and
the successful self, while feared possible selves may be the unhealthy self
244 245
the self-concept of the person, changes in this role may require stronger On the other hand, individualist cultures – those with an independent
challenges to redefine his or her identity. In contrast, when people define self-construal – emphasise the inner (i.e. abstract), stable and self-
themselves primarily by their values, ideologies, or psychological traits, all of determining nature of the self. Therefore, they define themselves in terms
which remain relatively stable throughout adulthood, their self-concepts are of internal attributes such as traits, abilities, values, and preferences.
less likely to require age-related adaptations (Kotter-Grühn, 2016).
In this regard, South African studies yielded the following results:
4.5.1.2 Self-construal
■ Black participants produced more interdependent and concrete self-
Self-construal refers to a person’s perception about the self, specifically descriptions than white participants did (Eaton & Louw, 2000).
regarding the relationship between the individual self and the social and ■ Black participants viewed their behaviour as more variable than white
cultural setting (Cross, 2016; Voyer & Franks, 2014). The type of self-construal participants did (Fetvadjiev et al., 2017).
of a person affects his or her emotions, cognitions, motivations, and general ■ Black participants used fewer traits and more contextualisation in
behaviour. It is generally accepted that the development of a self-concept their descriptions of the self. They tended to use concrete behaviours,
is intertwined with the culture in which one grows up. For example, in the preferences, and relational (interpersonal) contextualisation more than
South African context cross-cultural research in this regard often explores the white, coloured and Indian groups. Whites used more traits than
the individualism-collectivism dimensions. As we have discussed earlier, contextualisation, while coloureds and Indians showed an intermediate
individualism is a value system in a culture where the focus is on the pattern (Valchev et al., 2013). According to the researchers, blacks’
individual rather than on the group. Collectivism, on the other hand, is the responses tended to be more communal in nature, while whites’ responses
tendency to emphasise cohesiveness among individuals and thus give a were more individualistic, with coloureds and Indians being in between.
group priority over each individual. These differences between collectivist ■ In a study of personality and well-being in black and white South
and individualistic cultures are largely encouraged by child-rearing practices. African emerging adults, both black and white emerging adults showed
evidence of a combination of collectivistic and individualistic features,
• The first aspect of self-construal is that of independence vs. such as work-related characteristics (individualistic) and social-relational
interdependence. The self-concept of individuals in individualist cultures features (collectivistic) (Nel et al., 2017).
is characterised as independent self-construal. This means that these
individuals view themselves as individualistic, self-contained, and However, the researchers of these studies concluded that the research
autonomous – a self who strives for uniqueness. Therefore, it retains the participants in these studies were university students who had to function in
same abilities, qualities, and goals, regardless of the social context. The an environment where individualism was fostered. One the other hand, these
self-concept in collectivist cultures is characterised as interdependent students were also emerging adults and might still have been in a process
self-construal, which implies that the self views itself as depending on of forging a self-concept to accommodate the situation in which they were.
others and striving for harmony. People with an interdependent self- Therefore, the results are not necessarily generalisable to the population
construal define themselves in terms of their relationships with others. groups as a whole.
It reflects a view of the self as flexible and variable, changing between
contexts and relationships 4.5.1.3 Possible selves
• The second aspect of self-construal is that of abstraction vs. concreteness.
Members of collectivist cultures – those with an interdependent self- One model of self-concept development is based on the concept of possible
construal – tend to describe themselves in very specific and contextualised selves, introduced by Markus and Nurius (1986). Possible selves represent
ways, and tend to experience relatedness with others as a fundamental what we would like to become (hoped-for selves or ideal selves), as well
part of themselves. This happens to the extent that the self is defined as what we do not want to become or may be afraid of becoming (feared
very specifically (i.e. concretely) and uniquely in each social relationship. selves). Examples of hoped-for possible selves may be the healthy self and
the successful self, while feared possible selves may be the unhealthy self
244 245
and the unsuccessful self. Possible selves are not just idle fantasies, but rather caring and loving. Older adults tend to be concerned about being alone,
motivate us to set and achieve goals to fulfil our hoped-for possible selves the illness of their partner, or becoming dependent on their children. Age-
(e.g. following a healthy lifestyle to promote health) and to avoid the feared related decreases in concerns regarding societal and national issues may
possible selves (e.g. avoid engaging in unhealthy lifestyle practices). Because also be evident. Thus, the content of the social self varies with the stage
possible selves provide both positive images of one’s self attaining future of life and reflects the needs and behaviours of the particular life stage.
goals and negative images of one’s self failing to attain these goals, possible • The occupational self. As can be expected, perceptions will differ
selves are an integral part of a well-functioning self-concept. By focussing on according to a person’s work status (e.g. employee, unemployed, or
the future, possible selves can improve well-being and optimism about the retiree). During working age (young and middle adulthood), those who
future (Lee & Oyserman 2012; Oyserman & James, 2011). have paid work perceive their status as positive; thus, having work is
Possible selves develop from who a person was in the past to who a perceived as valuable. Hoped-for possible selves include improvements in
person is in the present. Generally, possible selves are shaped by the self and work environment. Feared possible selves may be retrenchment
environment, and variables such as culture and gender play important roles and job loss. In South Africa, feared possible selves may be unemployment,
(Brown, 2016). For example, people from collectivistic or interdependent even for young adults who have to enter the workplace. With respect to
cultures may incorporate other-orientations such as community and family retirement, both negative and positive perspectives may transpire. Partly,
into their possible selves. Conversely, those from individualistic cultures may there could be regret that one is no longer (or will no longer be) working,
have possible selves related to their own success. Gender stereotypes may but in general, people tend to look forward to stopping (or down-scaling)
also be reflected in people’s possible selves. For example, women (both work and enjoying greater freedom. However, identification with former
young and old) seem to be more critical of their physical appearance than employment may persist. Conversely, in some studies, references to the
men are. Young women tend to be more positive and hopeful about their domain of leisure are more frequent than those pertaining to work are.
bodies than both older women and men are, while older women are more This may be an indication of continuity of the leisure-time self – thus,
negative (and fearful) about their appearance than older men are. This may radically new designs for life after work are not common.
be a reflection of the attitude of society: In most societies, the body image of • The physical self. The physical or biological aspect of the self-concept
women is evaluated more critically in terms of beauty. is important throughout the life span. As with the social self, age
The topic of possible selves offers a way of understanding how both differences reflect the needs and behaviours of the specific stage of life.
stability and change operate in adults’ personality. On the one hand, possible Young adults’ hoped-for possible selves concern sexual and interpersonal
selves tend to remain stable for at least some period and are measurable attractiveness. Older adults’ hoped-for and feared selves concern issues
with psychological tests. On the other hand, possible selves may change such as health, fitness, illness, and declines in everyday competencies.
in response to efforts at personal growth or to facilitate adaptation to new Physical integrity (concerns about health and illness) is especially more
roles across the life span. Research regarding age differences in constructing prominent among the very old, but is related strongly to other factors
possible selves includes asking people across the life span to describe their such as well-being, age, identity, and attitude to ageing. For example,
hoped-for and feared possible selves (e.g. Brown, 2016). Responses are health-related possible selves are more likely to be attained when older
typically grouped into the areas or domains of the self-concept: adults do not dwell on them.
• The temporal self. This concept refers to individuals’ perception of their
• The social self. The significance of other people and interpersonal existence in time (i.e. their perceptions of past, present and future selves).
relationships remain meaningful and central throughout the life span and Some studies found that spontaneous references to the past self and past
across genders, social classes, and cultures. However, age differences life seem to be rare in young adults, but are made more often by elderly
regarding the content of the social self occur. Younger adults’ hoped- adults. References to the future are made significantly more often by
for selves involve romantic relationships (e.g. concerns of marrying the younger than by older adults. Therefore, the view of the self in terms of the
right person), while middle-aged adults tend to be concerned about their past and future seems to reflect the individual’s chronological age. Older
children’s development and involve personal issues such as being more adults tend to include statements on subjective age, such as wanting to

246 247
and the unsuccessful self. Possible selves are not just idle fantasies, but rather caring and loving. Older adults tend to be concerned about being alone,
motivate us to set and achieve goals to fulfil our hoped-for possible selves the illness of their partner, or becoming dependent on their children. Age-
(e.g. following a healthy lifestyle to promote health) and to avoid the feared related decreases in concerns regarding societal and national issues may
possible selves (e.g. avoid engaging in unhealthy lifestyle practices). Because also be evident. Thus, the content of the social self varies with the stage
possible selves provide both positive images of one’s self attaining future of life and reflects the needs and behaviours of the particular life stage.
goals and negative images of one’s self failing to attain these goals, possible • The occupational self. As can be expected, perceptions will differ
selves are an integral part of a well-functioning self-concept. By focussing on according to a person’s work status (e.g. employee, unemployed, or
the future, possible selves can improve well-being and optimism about the retiree). During working age (young and middle adulthood), those who
future (Lee & Oyserman 2012; Oyserman & James, 2011). have paid work perceive their status as positive; thus, having work is
Possible selves develop from who a person was in the past to who a perceived as valuable. Hoped-for possible selves include improvements in
person is in the present. Generally, possible selves are shaped by the self and work environment. Feared possible selves may be retrenchment
environment, and variables such as culture and gender play important roles and job loss. In South Africa, feared possible selves may be unemployment,
(Brown, 2016). For example, people from collectivistic or interdependent even for young adults who have to enter the workplace. With respect to
cultures may incorporate other-orientations such as community and family retirement, both negative and positive perspectives may transpire. Partly,
into their possible selves. Conversely, those from individualistic cultures may there could be regret that one is no longer (or will no longer be) working,
have possible selves related to their own success. Gender stereotypes may but in general, people tend to look forward to stopping (or down-scaling)
also be reflected in people’s possible selves. For example, women (both work and enjoying greater freedom. However, identification with former
young and old) seem to be more critical of their physical appearance than employment may persist. Conversely, in some studies, references to the
men are. Young women tend to be more positive and hopeful about their domain of leisure are more frequent than those pertaining to work are.
bodies than both older women and men are, while older women are more This may be an indication of continuity of the leisure-time self – thus,
negative (and fearful) about their appearance than older men are. This may radically new designs for life after work are not common.
be a reflection of the attitude of society: In most societies, the body image of • The physical self. The physical or biological aspect of the self-concept
women is evaluated more critically in terms of beauty. is important throughout the life span. As with the social self, age
The topic of possible selves offers a way of understanding how both differences reflect the needs and behaviours of the specific stage of life.
stability and change operate in adults’ personality. On the one hand, possible Young adults’ hoped-for possible selves concern sexual and interpersonal
selves tend to remain stable for at least some period and are measurable attractiveness. Older adults’ hoped-for and feared selves concern issues
with psychological tests. On the other hand, possible selves may change such as health, fitness, illness, and declines in everyday competencies.
in response to efforts at personal growth or to facilitate adaptation to new Physical integrity (concerns about health and illness) is especially more
roles across the life span. Research regarding age differences in constructing prominent among the very old, but is related strongly to other factors
possible selves includes asking people across the life span to describe their such as well-being, age, identity, and attitude to ageing. For example,
hoped-for and feared possible selves (e.g. Brown, 2016). Responses are health-related possible selves are more likely to be attained when older
typically grouped into the areas or domains of the self-concept: adults do not dwell on them.
• The temporal self. This concept refers to individuals’ perception of their
• The social self. The significance of other people and interpersonal existence in time (i.e. their perceptions of past, present and future selves).
relationships remain meaningful and central throughout the life span and Some studies found that spontaneous references to the past self and past
across genders, social classes, and cultures. However, age differences life seem to be rare in young adults, but are made more often by elderly
regarding the content of the social self occur. Younger adults’ hoped- adults. References to the future are made significantly more often by
for selves involve romantic relationships (e.g. concerns of marrying the younger than by older adults. Therefore, the view of the self in terms of the
right person), while middle-aged adults tend to be concerned about their past and future seems to reflect the individual’s chronological age. Older
children’s development and involve personal issues such as being more adults tend to include statements on subjective age, such as wanting to

246 247
 be younger, being already old, being too old, being at the dusk of life, and Self-esteem is shaped by a combination of objective information (self-
so forth. Young adults, on the other hand, seem to be much less time- knowledge) and the opinion of others. It is also a function of how the
conscious in their self-statements, perhaps showing a different type of individual processes and interprets social information and experiences.
life-span construct. In addition, thoughts about personal growth seem to As with the self-concept, self-esteem is not a single concept, but occurs
be more typical for young adults, while references to maintenance and to in different domains; therefore, a person may have high self-esteem in
reduction or decline and the finitude of life (the perception that the time one area (e.g. academic knowledge) and low self-esteem in others (e.g.
left is limited) tend to be more typical of the self-statements of elderly technical knowledge). Whether a person is affected negatively or positively
adults. by this self-evaluation will depend on the importance of the domain (e.g. a
person who has low self-esteem regarding technical knowledge may not be
Possible selves are especially important for older adults, because when affected negatively if it is not important for his or her functioning).
older adults work toward their hoped-for possible selves, they tend to feel In this section, the following will be explored: the self-esteem
more positive about life. For example, health and socially related possible developmental trajectory across adulthood; individual differences in self-
selves are more likely to be reached when older adults feel that they can esteem development; the stability of self-esteem; and the effects of self-
control their behaviour and have balanced possible selves (Ko et al., 2014). esteem on important life outcomes.

4.5.1.4 Self-esteem (a) The self-esteem developmental trajectory across adulthood

A related aspect to the self-concept is self-esteem. Where self-concept refers Does self-esteem change with age? Longitudinal studies using large
to the image one has of oneself, self-esteem refers to the evaluative aspect databases from diverse samples to explore the development of self-esteem
of the self-concept. More specifically, self-esteem reflects a person’s overall from young adulthood to old age (e.g. Orth et al., 2015; Orth et al., 2010)
subjective evaluation of his or her own worth as a person. For example, a person suggest the following: Increases in self-esteem are indicated from young
with high self-esteem perceives him- or herself as having worth, whereas a to middle adulthood, a peak is reached during middle adulthood (50-60
person with low self-esteem does not. High self-esteem does not imply that years), and a decrease is noted in old age.
the person considers him- or herself as superior to others, but typically involves This developmental trajectory (or pathway) has been found in most
the feeling that one is ‘good enough’. Thus, self-esteem involves feelings of self- cultures, including South Africa (Bleidorn et al., 2016). These normative age
acceptance, self-confidence and self-respect (Orth et al., 2015). differences in self-esteem across cultures may suggest that self-esteem at
least partially is influenced by universal mechanisms. Such a mechanism
might be genetically based biological processes that are present in all
people. For example, global (overall) self-esteem shares many attributes
with other broad personality characteristics that are genetically based, such
as emotional stability, extraversion, and conscientiousness. An alternative
explanation for the cross-cultural similarity could be that age differences
are affected largely by universal sociocultural factors. For example, the
majority of individuals in most cultures master relatively similar life tasks at
roughly the same ages (e.g. completing schooling, one’s first job, romantic
relationships, parenthood, and retirement). These developmental turning
points may change and redirect developmental pathways by influencing or
changing people’s behaviour, emotions, cognition, or contexts.
Therefore, these developmental trajectories suggest patterns of
normative change as individuals orientate their behaviour to meet

248 249
 be younger, being already old, being too old, being at the dusk of life, and Self-esteem is shaped by a combination of objective information (self-
so forth. Young adults, on the other hand, seem to be much less time- knowledge) and the opinion of others. It is also a function of how the
conscious in their self-statements, perhaps showing a different type of individual processes and interprets social information and experiences.
life-span construct. In addition, thoughts about personal growth seem to As with the self-concept, self-esteem is not a single concept, but occurs
be more typical for young adults, while references to maintenance and to in different domains; therefore, a person may have high self-esteem in
reduction or decline and the finitude of life (the perception that the time one area (e.g. academic knowledge) and low self-esteem in others (e.g.
left is limited) tend to be more typical of the self-statements of elderly technical knowledge). Whether a person is affected negatively or positively
adults. by this self-evaluation will depend on the importance of the domain (e.g. a
person who has low self-esteem regarding technical knowledge may not be
Possible selves are especially important for older adults, because when affected negatively if it is not important for his or her functioning).
older adults work toward their hoped-for possible selves, they tend to feel In this section, the following will be explored: the self-esteem
more positive about life. For example, health and socially related possible developmental trajectory across adulthood; individual differences in self-
selves are more likely to be reached when older adults feel that they can esteem development; the stability of self-esteem; and the effects of self-
control their behaviour and have balanced possible selves (Ko et al., 2014). esteem on important life outcomes.

4.5.1.4 Self-esteem (a) The self-esteem developmental trajectory across adulthood

A related aspect to the self-concept is self-esteem. Where self-concept refers Does self-esteem change with age? Longitudinal studies using large
to the image one has of oneself, self-esteem refers to the evaluative aspect databases from diverse samples to explore the development of self-esteem
of the self-concept. More specifically, self-esteem reflects a person’s overall from young adulthood to old age (e.g. Orth et al., 2015; Orth et al., 2010)
subjective evaluation of his or her own worth as a person. For example, a person suggest the following: Increases in self-esteem are indicated from young
with high self-esteem perceives him- or herself as having worth, whereas a to middle adulthood, a peak is reached during middle adulthood (50-60
person with low self-esteem does not. High self-esteem does not imply that years), and a decrease is noted in old age.
the person considers him- or herself as superior to others, but typically involves This developmental trajectory (or pathway) has been found in most
the feeling that one is ‘good enough’. Thus, self-esteem involves feelings of self- cultures, including South Africa (Bleidorn et al., 2016). These normative age
acceptance, self-confidence and self-respect (Orth et al., 2015). differences in self-esteem across cultures may suggest that self-esteem at
least partially is influenced by universal mechanisms. Such a mechanism
might be genetically based biological processes that are present in all
people. For example, global (overall) self-esteem shares many attributes
with other broad personality characteristics that are genetically based, such
as emotional stability, extraversion, and conscientiousness. An alternative
explanation for the cross-cultural similarity could be that age differences
are affected largely by universal sociocultural factors. For example, the
majority of individuals in most cultures master relatively similar life tasks at
roughly the same ages (e.g. completing schooling, one’s first job, romantic
relationships, parenthood, and retirement). These developmental turning
points may change and redirect developmental pathways by influencing or
changing people’s behaviour, emotions, cognition, or contexts.
Therefore, these developmental trajectories suggest patterns of
normative change as individuals orientate their behaviour to meet

248 249
environmental demands and developmental challenges (Trzesniewski et al., Studies investigating this issue have yielded the following results (e.g.
2013). For example, the continued increase in self-esteem may be related Bleidorn et al., 2015; Orth, 2017):
to maturational, cognitive, relationship and socio-contextual changes and
challenges. During early adulthood, individuals in many cultures engage in • Gender. Although men and women show similar developmental
instrumental and social roles, for instance as professional, spouse, parent, or trajectories in self-esteem (e.g. increasing in young and middle
community member. Successful mastery of these challenges may boost the adulthood, peaking in middle adulthood, and declining in late adulthood),
person’s self-esteem and may be related to the increase in self-esteem during women tend to show lower overall self-esteem than men do. Universal
this life-stage. During middle adulthood, individuals tend to be increasingly mechanisms such as biological factors (e.g. hormonal influences) or
productive at work, occupy positions of power and status, and provide sociocultural factors (e.g. socially learned gender roles and stereotypes)
guidance for the next generation. These characteristics and statuses may might be the reason for this difference.
contribute to peoples’ sense of self-worth and may be related to the peak in • Education. High educational attainment tends to predict a higher self-
self-esteem generally reached during middle adulthood. During this stage, esteem trajectory than low education does.
healthy adult development involves learning to look inward for sources of • Socio-economic status. Socio-economic status (as indicated by income
positive self-esteem, rather than requiring constant external reinforcement. and employment status) seems to have a significant influence on the
Therefore, higher levels of maturity and adjustment are reflected, as self-esteem trajectory. For example, unfavourable changes in income
indicated in emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. In and employment status may result in a decline in self-esteem. Low socio-
late adulthood, self-esteem levels seem to decline somewhat. The decline economic status may have a negative effect on individuals’ self-esteem,
may be associated with the number of changes (physical, cognitive, financial, since they may feel that their opportunities to progress in life are limited.
and social) that the elderly have to deal with. This is especially true when • Work status. It has been shown that factors such as work status have a
people are faced with too many challenges and losses of resources (Reitz major effect on adults’ self-concept, self-esteem, and overall personality
& Staudinger, 2017). However, an alternative view may be that older people development. For example, individuals change their self-evaluations as
tend to be wiser and more comfortable with themselves. Thus, the declines they learn the norms associated with their work-related activities (e.g.
in self-esteem in old age are not deep-seated feelings of low self-worth, but from inexperienced worker to expert in the field). In addition, job status,
rather that older individuals increasingly accept their faults and limitations work satisfaction, and mastery experiences at work contribute to feelings
and therefore have less need for self-promotion and self-aggrandisement of self-worth and an increase in personality traits such as dependability
(wanting to appear better than they are). According to this view, the older and responsibility, while decreases in neuroticism take place. It is to be
adult experiences a shift in self-conceptions that contributes to a more expected that failure experiences at work will affect the self-concept
modest, humble and balanced view of the self (Orth et al., 2010; Trzesniewski and self-esteem of an individual negatively.
et al., 2004). • Health. Health experiences (as indicated by functional health and chronic
health conditions) affect the developmental trajectory. For example,
(b) Individual differences in self-esteem development unfavourable changes in physical health partially account for the self-
esteem decline in old age.
Do all people follow the same trajectory in self-esteem development in • Personality characteristics. Personality traits such as extraversion,
adulthood? Not much is known about the specific conditions that promote emotional stability, and conscientiousness may explain why some
self-esteem in adulthood and old age. However, it is plausible that factors individuals experience self-esteem trajectories that are more successful
in addition to chronological age, such as key social roles and events, shape than others do.
one’s position in the life course and thereby determine the way personality • Stressful life experiences. Non-normative experiences such as serious
and the self develop. When these factors are not age dependent (e.g. accidents and illnesses, criminal victimisation, and job loss may account
relationship satisfaction) or are non-normative (e.g. stressful life events), for negative change in self-esteem.
they will most probably have a different effect on self-esteem development. • Relationships. Transitions in romantic relationships, such as the

250 251
environmental demands and developmental challenges (Trzesniewski et al., Studies investigating this issue have yielded the following results (e.g.
2013). For example, the continued increase in self-esteem may be related Bleidorn et al., 2015; Orth, 2017):
to maturational, cognitive, relationship and socio-contextual changes and
challenges. During early adulthood, individuals in many cultures engage in • Gender. Although men and women show similar developmental
instrumental and social roles, for instance as professional, spouse, parent, or trajectories in self-esteem (e.g. increasing in young and middle
community member. Successful mastery of these challenges may boost the adulthood, peaking in middle adulthood, and declining in late adulthood),
person’s self-esteem and may be related to the increase in self-esteem during women tend to show lower overall self-esteem than men do. Universal
this life-stage. During middle adulthood, individuals tend to be increasingly mechanisms such as biological factors (e.g. hormonal influences) or
productive at work, occupy positions of power and status, and provide sociocultural factors (e.g. socially learned gender roles and stereotypes)
guidance for the next generation. These characteristics and statuses may might be the reason for this difference.
contribute to peoples’ sense of self-worth and may be related to the peak in • Education. High educational attainment tends to predict a higher self-
self-esteem generally reached during middle adulthood. During this stage, esteem trajectory than low education does.
healthy adult development involves learning to look inward for sources of • Socio-economic status. Socio-economic status (as indicated by income
positive self-esteem, rather than requiring constant external reinforcement. and employment status) seems to have a significant influence on the
Therefore, higher levels of maturity and adjustment are reflected, as self-esteem trajectory. For example, unfavourable changes in income
indicated in emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. In and employment status may result in a decline in self-esteem. Low socio-
late adulthood, self-esteem levels seem to decline somewhat. The decline economic status may have a negative effect on individuals’ self-esteem,
may be associated with the number of changes (physical, cognitive, financial, since they may feel that their opportunities to progress in life are limited.
and social) that the elderly have to deal with. This is especially true when • Work status. It has been shown that factors such as work status have a
people are faced with too many challenges and losses of resources (Reitz major effect on adults’ self-concept, self-esteem, and overall personality
& Staudinger, 2017). However, an alternative view may be that older people development. For example, individuals change their self-evaluations as
tend to be wiser and more comfortable with themselves. Thus, the declines they learn the norms associated with their work-related activities (e.g.
in self-esteem in old age are not deep-seated feelings of low self-worth, but from inexperienced worker to expert in the field). In addition, job status,
rather that older individuals increasingly accept their faults and limitations work satisfaction, and mastery experiences at work contribute to feelings
and therefore have less need for self-promotion and self-aggrandisement of self-worth and an increase in personality traits such as dependability
(wanting to appear better than they are). According to this view, the older and responsibility, while decreases in neuroticism take place. It is to be
adult experiences a shift in self-conceptions that contributes to a more expected that failure experiences at work will affect the self-concept
modest, humble and balanced view of the self (Orth et al., 2010; Trzesniewski and self-esteem of an individual negatively.
et al., 2004). • Health. Health experiences (as indicated by functional health and chronic
health conditions) affect the developmental trajectory. For example,
(b) Individual differences in self-esteem development unfavourable changes in physical health partially account for the self-
esteem decline in old age.
Do all people follow the same trajectory in self-esteem development in • Personality characteristics. Personality traits such as extraversion,
adulthood? Not much is known about the specific conditions that promote emotional stability, and conscientiousness may explain why some
self-esteem in adulthood and old age. However, it is plausible that factors individuals experience self-esteem trajectories that are more successful
in addition to chronological age, such as key social roles and events, shape than others do.
one’s position in the life course and thereby determine the way personality • Stressful life experiences. Non-normative experiences such as serious
and the self develop. When these factors are not age dependent (e.g. accidents and illnesses, criminal victimisation, and job loss may account
relationship satisfaction) or are non-normative (e.g. stressful life events), for negative change in self-esteem.
they will most probably have a different effect on self-esteem development. • Relationships. Transitions in romantic relationships, such as the

250 251
 beginning of a relationship or separating, as well as the quality of as mood (Orth, 2017).
romantic relationships, affect the development of self-esteem. For
example, feedback from interpersonal relationships may contribute (d) The effects of self-esteem on important life outcomes
to how one views and feels about oneself. Thus, stable, satisfying, and
supportive relationships promote emotional stability and self-esteem, How important is it for people to develop high or low self-esteem as they
while negative relationship experiences (including abusive relationships grow up and go through life? Earlier in our discussion on self-esteem, we
and dissolution) may have the opposite result. indicated that certain factors in certain life domains, such as relationships,
health, and work-related aspects, could account for individual differences
It seems that more evidence is needed regarding the extent of self- in self-esteem. However, since the past decade, a growing number of
esteem decline in old age. Whereas some studies indicate a strong decline, longitudinal studies have suggested that self-esteem has consequences for
others indicate relatively small decreases (Orth, 2017). It is possible that people’s lives; in other words, the direction could also be reversed (Erol &
sociocultural and economic factors, such as attitudes towards the elderly, Orth, 2014). For example, the hypothesis that relationship satisfaction has
pension schemes, and health care may contribute to these differences. For an important influence on the development of self-esteem makes intuitive
example, the decline in old age may be much smaller when older adults sense; however, the opposite may also be true: Self-esteem could be a
have a stable income and are in good health. Other factors that contribute predictor of relationship satisfaction rather than vice versa. This means
to differences in the extent of self-esteem decline in old age may be related that people with higher self-esteem have a better chance of relationship
to cognitive abilities, perceived control, and feelings of loneliness. satisfaction than those with a lower self-esteem have.
Earlier in our discussion, we established that self-esteem seems to
(c) The stability of self-esteem correlate with certain personality characteristics such as emotional stability,
conscientiousness, and agreeableness. This means that healthy self-esteem
How stable is self-esteem throughout adulthood? In other words, does self- correlates with rationality, realism, intuitiveness, creativity, flexibility, the
esteem remain stable (trait-like) or does it change or fluctuate according to ability to manage change, a willingness to admit (and correct) mistakes,
a person’s moods or experiences (state-like)? benevolence, and cooperativeness. Therefore, people with high self-esteem
As we have seen, the average level of self-esteem changes in systematic (Branden, 2018)
ways across the life span. Evidence suggests that throughout young and
middle adulthood, self-esteem not only increases but also becomes more • are more likely than those with low self-esteem to persist in the face of
stable and less subjected to the effects of daily life, which means that self- difficulties;
esteem becomes better adjusted. However, research suggests that, as in • are more equipped to cope with troubles that arise in their personal lives
the case of certain personality traits, individual differences in self-esteem and are quicker to recover from setbacks;
remain stable over the life span. For example, findings from empirical • are more likely to seek challenge and stimulation of worthwhile and
studies that tested for rank order stability (maintenance of an individual’s demanding goals;
position in a group) of self-esteem indicate that the stability of self-esteem • tend to be more ambitious, not necessarily in a career or financial sense,
is high (Trzesniewski et al., 2013). In addition, it was found that individual but in terms of what they hope to experience in life – emotionally,
differences in self-esteem are relatively stable across very long periods and intellectually, creatively, and spiritually;
that constant factors that account for the long-term stability of self-esteem • are more likely to form nourishing rather than toxic relationships;
must be present (Kuster & Orth, 2013). • tend to have honest, open, and appropriate communications with others,
Overall, studies suggest that self-esteem exhibits trait-like stability. because they believe their thoughts have value and are not afraid of
Thus, individuals who have relatively high (or low) self-esteem at one clarity.
developmental stage are likely to have high (or low) self-esteem 10, 20,
or even 30 years later. Therefore, it seems that self-esteem is a relatively On the other hand, poor self-esteem correlates with irrationality,
enduring personality characteristic, rather than a state-like construct such distorted interpretation of reality, rigidity, fear of the new and unfamiliar,
252 253
 beginning of a relationship or separating, as well as the quality of as mood (Orth, 2017).
romantic relationships, affect the development of self-esteem. For
example, feedback from interpersonal relationships may contribute (d) The effects of self-esteem on important life outcomes
to how one views and feels about oneself. Thus, stable, satisfying, and
supportive relationships promote emotional stability and self-esteem, How important is it for people to develop high or low self-esteem as they
while negative relationship experiences (including abusive relationships grow up and go through life? Earlier in our discussion on self-esteem, we
and dissolution) may have the opposite result. indicated that certain factors in certain life domains, such as relationships,
health, and work-related aspects, could account for individual differences
It seems that more evidence is needed regarding the extent of self- in self-esteem. However, since the past decade, a growing number of
esteem decline in old age. Whereas some studies indicate a strong decline, longitudinal studies have suggested that self-esteem has consequences for
others indicate relatively small decreases (Orth, 2017). It is possible that people’s lives; in other words, the direction could also be reversed (Erol &
sociocultural and economic factors, such as attitudes towards the elderly, Orth, 2014). For example, the hypothesis that relationship satisfaction has
pension schemes, and health care may contribute to these differences. For an important influence on the development of self-esteem makes intuitive
example, the decline in old age may be much smaller when older adults sense; however, the opposite may also be true: Self-esteem could be a
have a stable income and are in good health. Other factors that contribute predictor of relationship satisfaction rather than vice versa. This means
to differences in the extent of self-esteem decline in old age may be related that people with higher self-esteem have a better chance of relationship
to cognitive abilities, perceived control, and feelings of loneliness. satisfaction than those with a lower self-esteem have.
Earlier in our discussion, we established that self-esteem seems to
(c) The stability of self-esteem correlate with certain personality characteristics such as emotional stability,
conscientiousness, and agreeableness. This means that healthy self-esteem
How stable is self-esteem throughout adulthood? In other words, does self- correlates with rationality, realism, intuitiveness, creativity, flexibility, the
esteem remain stable (trait-like) or does it change or fluctuate according to ability to manage change, a willingness to admit (and correct) mistakes,
a person’s moods or experiences (state-like)? benevolence, and cooperativeness. Therefore, people with high self-esteem
As we have seen, the average level of self-esteem changes in systematic (Branden, 2018)
ways across the life span. Evidence suggests that throughout young and
middle adulthood, self-esteem not only increases but also becomes more • are more likely than those with low self-esteem to persist in the face of
stable and less subjected to the effects of daily life, which means that self- difficulties;
esteem becomes better adjusted. However, research suggests that, as in • are more equipped to cope with troubles that arise in their personal lives
the case of certain personality traits, individual differences in self-esteem and are quicker to recover from setbacks;
remain stable over the life span. For example, findings from empirical • are more likely to seek challenge and stimulation of worthwhile and
studies that tested for rank order stability (maintenance of an individual’s demanding goals;
position in a group) of self-esteem indicate that the stability of self-esteem • tend to be more ambitious, not necessarily in a career or financial sense,
is high (Trzesniewski et al., 2013). In addition, it was found that individual but in terms of what they hope to experience in life – emotionally,
differences in self-esteem are relatively stable across very long periods and intellectually, creatively, and spiritually;
that constant factors that account for the long-term stability of self-esteem • are more likely to form nourishing rather than toxic relationships;
must be present (Kuster & Orth, 2013). • tend to have honest, open, and appropriate communications with others,
Overall, studies suggest that self-esteem exhibits trait-like stability. because they believe their thoughts have value and are not afraid of
Thus, individuals who have relatively high (or low) self-esteem at one clarity.
developmental stage are likely to have high (or low) self-esteem 10, 20,
or even 30 years later. Therefore, it seems that self-esteem is a relatively On the other hand, poor self-esteem correlates with irrationality,
enduring personality characteristic, rather than a state-like construct such distorted interpretation of reality, rigidity, fear of the new and unfamiliar,
252 253
inappropriate conformity or inappropriate rebelliousness, defensiveness, 4.5.2 Identity
overly compliant or controlling behaviour, and fear of or hostility toward
others. Therefore, people with low self-esteem live more to avoid pain, Identity is another important aspect related to personality. Identity refers to
failure, or humiliation rather than to experience joy. They tend to become a person’s sense of self. Typical questions often asked are “Who am I?” “What
prisoners of their negative self-image and allow their fears and inadequacies am I doing with my life?” For most people, this includes their views about their
to dictate how they live. physical self, their cognitive abilities, their personality characteristics, and
Therefore, considering the qualities and characteristics discussed their social roles. For many individuals, transitions in life involve working to
above, it is not surprising that empirical studies have found that healthy establish a sense of identity or self. In some cultural groups and societies, this
self-esteem predicts relationship satisfaction and relationship quality, social transition is fixed and relatively predictable, whereas in others the transition
support, better education, job satisfaction and job success, physical health, can be ambiguous (unclear) and lengthy. Identity development can be guided
less stressful life events, and less criminal behaviour (Orth, 2017). However, by an individualist perspective (e.g. “I am”) or by a collectivist perspective
it is also important to consider that many factors affect a person’s life and (e.g. “We are”). In fact, identity is often viewed as a social construction
that self-esteem is only one of those factors. involving personality traits, social roles, and group membership. In addition, a
person usually has many different domains of identity. Such domains refer to
one’s goals, values, and beliefs and include political preference, occupational
REVIEW THIS SECTION
choice, religious affiliation, sexual and gender preference, social group and
1. Define the term self-concept.
family relationships, and cultural or ethnic identity. However, as with the
2. What is a schema or self-schema? What is the function of a self-schema? self, not all domains of identity are equally important for all individuals. This
3. Describe examples of the areas or domains of the self-concept to which the means that individuals can be more invested in some domains than in others.
schemas are related. Are all domains equally important to a person? (See Box 4.5 on identity indicators in self-descriptions of the four major
4. What role may self-schemas play in the ageing process? ethnic groups in South Africa.)
5. Define the concept of self-construal. Discuss the two basic aspects of self-construal. As we have noted elsewhere in
6. Discuss the research findings of South African research regarding self-construal. this chapter, Erik Erikson identified
What may the limitations of these studies be? adolescence as the main life stage in
7. What roles do the possible selves play in the well-functioning self-concept? Which which individuals have to establish
factors contribute to the developing of possible selves? an identity; otherwise, role confusion
8. Discuss the age-related changes in possible selves in the following domains of the occurs. However, because of
self-concept: the social self, the occupational self, the physical self, and the multiple changes in modern society,
temporal self.
developing a sense of identity
9. Define the term self-esteem. What is the difference between self-concept and self- has become not only increasingly
esteem? How is one’s self-esteem shaped?
important but also more challenging;
10. Discuss the self-esteem developmental trajectory (pathway) across adulthood.
therefore, the task of constructing an
11. Do all people follow the same trajectory in self-esteem development during identity extends beyond adolescence
adulthood? Discuss the factors that may affect individual differences in developing Who am I?
self-esteem during adulthood.
(Schwartz et al., 2011). For example,
young people are exposed increasingly to a vast amount of consideration that
12. Discuss the stability of self-esteem throughout adulthood.
they must give to their future plans regarding work, love, and parenthood, as
13. Discuss the effects of self-esteem on important life outcomes. Include the
well as in terms of who they are and what they want to do with their lives. The
correlations found between healthy and unhealthy self-esteem and certain
personality characteristics in your answer constant availability of electronic information has provided many young adults
with a wide array of life options, many of which their parents and grandparents
could never have imagined. Furthermore, changing life circumstances, together

254 255
inappropriate conformity or inappropriate rebelliousness, defensiveness, 4.5.2 Identity
overly compliant or controlling behaviour, and fear of or hostility toward
others. Therefore, people with low self-esteem live more to avoid pain, Identity is another important aspect related to personality. Identity refers to
failure, or humiliation rather than to experience joy. They tend to become a person’s sense of self. Typical questions often asked are “Who am I?” “What
prisoners of their negative self-image and allow their fears and inadequacies am I doing with my life?” For most people, this includes their views about their
to dictate how they live. physical self, their cognitive abilities, their personality characteristics, and
Therefore, considering the qualities and characteristics discussed their social roles. For many individuals, transitions in life involve working to
above, it is not surprising that empirical studies have found that healthy establish a sense of identity or self. In some cultural groups and societies, this
self-esteem predicts relationship satisfaction and relationship quality, social transition is fixed and relatively predictable, whereas in others the transition
support, better education, job satisfaction and job success, physical health, can be ambiguous (unclear) and lengthy. Identity development can be guided
less stressful life events, and less criminal behaviour (Orth, 2017). However, by an individualist perspective (e.g. “I am”) or by a collectivist perspective
it is also important to consider that many factors affect a person’s life and (e.g. “We are”). In fact, identity is often viewed as a social construction
that self-esteem is only one of those factors. involving personality traits, social roles, and group membership. In addition, a
person usually has many different domains of identity. Such domains refer to
one’s goals, values, and beliefs and include political preference, occupational
REVIEW THIS SECTION
choice, religious affiliation, sexual and gender preference, social group and
1. Define the term self-concept.
family relationships, and cultural or ethnic identity. However, as with the
2. What is a schema or self-schema? What is the function of a self-schema? self, not all domains of identity are equally important for all individuals. This
3. Describe examples of the areas or domains of the self-concept to which the means that individuals can be more invested in some domains than in others.
schemas are related. Are all domains equally important to a person? (See Box 4.5 on identity indicators in self-descriptions of the four major
4. What role may self-schemas play in the ageing process? ethnic groups in South Africa.)
5. Define the concept of self-construal. Discuss the two basic aspects of self-construal. As we have noted elsewhere in
6. Discuss the research findings of South African research regarding self-construal. this chapter, Erik Erikson identified
What may the limitations of these studies be? adolescence as the main life stage in
7. What roles do the possible selves play in the well-functioning self-concept? Which which individuals have to establish
factors contribute to the developing of possible selves? an identity; otherwise, role confusion
8. Discuss the age-related changes in possible selves in the following domains of the occurs. However, because of
self-concept: the social self, the occupational self, the physical self, and the multiple changes in modern society,
temporal self.
developing a sense of identity
9. Define the term self-esteem. What is the difference between self-concept and self- has become not only increasingly
esteem? How is one’s self-esteem shaped?
important but also more challenging;
10. Discuss the self-esteem developmental trajectory (pathway) across adulthood.
therefore, the task of constructing an
11. Do all people follow the same trajectory in self-esteem development during identity extends beyond adolescence
adulthood? Discuss the factors that may affect individual differences in developing Who am I?
self-esteem during adulthood.
(Schwartz et al., 2011). For example,
young people are exposed increasingly to a vast amount of consideration that
12. Discuss the stability of self-esteem throughout adulthood.
they must give to their future plans regarding work, love, and parenthood, as
13. Discuss the effects of self-esteem on important life outcomes. Include the
well as in terms of who they are and what they want to do with their lives. The
correlations found between healthy and unhealthy self-esteem and certain
personality characteristics in your answer constant availability of electronic information has provided many young adults
with a wide array of life options, many of which their parents and grandparents
could never have imagined. Furthermore, changing life circumstances, together

254 255
with changing biological and psychological needs during middle adulthood In the next section, some theoretical views and empirical findings on
and old age, trigger further identity (re-)construction during the second half identity development in adulthood will be explored.
of life. Therefore, identity development is viewed as a lifelong developmental
task, as a person adapts to the growing number of events and experiences in 4.5.2.1 Identity status theory
the course of life (Fadjukoff et al., 2016). Thus, identity is not a static entity
that remains fixed once initial resolutions have been made. In addition, an James Marcia (1966, 1980, 2014) expanded on Erikson’s theory by formulating
individual’s identity formation is not uniform, but often proceeds at a different identity statuses based on the dimensions of commitment and exploration.
pace in different domains, depending on the individual’s interests, environment Commitment reflects whether individuals have made choices in certain life
and circumstances. Therefore, identity formation is a complex process instead domains and engage in activities to implement these choices. Exploration
of a straightforward one, and questions of identity can arise at many points refers to comparing different possible commitments before making a choice.
during the life span. Marcia identified four identity statuses resulting from these dimensions:

• Identity diffusion. No commitments are made to any goals, values

Box 4.5 Identity in South Africa: Self-descriptions across ethnic groups and beliefs, and no concerns regarding the explorations of options are
Using self-descriptions as a means of defining the self and identity, researchers Adams indicated.
et al., (2012) examined the presentation of identity in South Africa using personality
trait theory, interdependence-dependence, and individualism-collectivism as the
• Identity foreclosure. Commitments are made without exploration.
Individuals who are foreclosed are able to make commitments without
basis of theoretical inquiry. The study incorporated the four major ethnic groups in
South Africa (black, white, coloured, and Indian). Four variables were considered: needing to explore options.
(a) relational orientation (independence/interdependence); (b) content descriptions • Identity moratorium. An actively ongoing identity exploration is indicated.
(traits, preferences, interests, and attitudes); (c) situational specification (contextual During this period, individuals examine the fit between themselves and
behaviour); and (d) ideological, religious, spiritual, and ethnic references. The results
were as follows:
various roles, ideas, attitudes, and values.

• Relational orientation: The descriptions of the white and Indian groups were
• Identity achievement. Identity commitments are made after a period of
exploration.
the most independent, while the black and coloured groups showed more
interdependence.
• Content descriptions: Dispositional traits were used more frequently in the Indian Achievement is clearly the most developmentally sophisticated
and white groups than in the coloured and black groups. identity, and diffusion the least sophisticated identity. The foreclosure and
• Situation specification: The white group was the only group that presented fewer
moratorium statuses lie in the middle of this continuum, between diffusion
situational specifications, with the other three groups presenting ambiguous results
in this category. and achievement.
• Ideological, religious, spiritual and ethnic reference: The black group presented While the typical developmental sequence proceeds from diffusion
more descriptions in this category than the other groups did. to foreclosure, to moratorium, to achievement (D-F-M-A), regression may
Overall, the study found a large number of cross-cultural similarities with occur, resulting in regressive identities. This implies that instead of following
independent, individualistic, context-free, and dispositional descriptions prevalent in the typical developmental trajectory, a person may move backwards to
all groups. Therefore, the concepts of independence and interdependence are not as developmentally less sophisticated identities (Kroger et al., 2010). These
clear-cut as they were expected to be. The most salient group difference was that the
black group was more likely than the white group to specify target persons in relational may be disequilibrium (e.g. movement from achievement to moratorium);
self-descriptions (i.e. a specific person or group of people is specified). This suggests a rigidification (movement from either moratorium or achievement to a rigid
stronger in-group-out-group distinction in the black group. This means that the black closure, i.e. foreclosure); and disorganisation (movement from any status
group expect relatively more from the in-group (their own group) than from the out-
to diffusion). Various factors may cause regressive identity. For example,
group (the larger social domain).
changing (i.e. regressing) from achievement to foreclosure may be explained
by the following: It may occur because of (1) reconsidering one’s earlier
exploration and commitments; (2) normative age-graded influences, such as

256 257
with changing biological and psychological needs during middle adulthood In the next section, some theoretical views and empirical findings on
and old age, trigger further identity (re-)construction during the second half identity development in adulthood will be explored.
of life. Therefore, identity development is viewed as a lifelong developmental
task, as a person adapts to the growing number of events and experiences in 4.5.2.1 Identity status theory
the course of life (Fadjukoff et al., 2016). Thus, identity is not a static entity
that remains fixed once initial resolutions have been made. In addition, an James Marcia (1966, 1980, 2014) expanded on Erikson’s theory by formulating
individual’s identity formation is not uniform, but often proceeds at a different identity statuses based on the dimensions of commitment and exploration.
pace in different domains, depending on the individual’s interests, environment Commitment reflects whether individuals have made choices in certain life
and circumstances. Therefore, identity formation is a complex process instead domains and engage in activities to implement these choices. Exploration
of a straightforward one, and questions of identity can arise at many points refers to comparing different possible commitments before making a choice.
during the life span. Marcia identified four identity statuses resulting from these dimensions:

• Identity diffusion. No commitments are made to any goals, values

Box 4.5 Identity in South Africa: Self-descriptions across ethnic groups and beliefs, and no concerns regarding the explorations of options are
Using self-descriptions as a means of defining the self and identity, researchers Adams indicated.
et al., (2012) examined the presentation of identity in South Africa using personality
trait theory, interdependence-dependence, and individualism-collectivism as the
• Identity foreclosure. Commitments are made without exploration.
Individuals who are foreclosed are able to make commitments without
basis of theoretical inquiry. The study incorporated the four major ethnic groups in
South Africa (black, white, coloured, and Indian). Four variables were considered: needing to explore options.
(a) relational orientation (independence/interdependence); (b) content descriptions • Identity moratorium. An actively ongoing identity exploration is indicated.
(traits, preferences, interests, and attitudes); (c) situational specification (contextual During this period, individuals examine the fit between themselves and
behaviour); and (d) ideological, religious, spiritual, and ethnic references. The results
were as follows:
various roles, ideas, attitudes, and values.

• Relational orientation: The descriptions of the white and Indian groups were
• Identity achievement. Identity commitments are made after a period of
exploration.
the most independent, while the black and coloured groups showed more
interdependence.
• Content descriptions: Dispositional traits were used more frequently in the Indian Achievement is clearly the most developmentally sophisticated
and white groups than in the coloured and black groups. identity, and diffusion the least sophisticated identity. The foreclosure and
• Situation specification: The white group was the only group that presented fewer
moratorium statuses lie in the middle of this continuum, between diffusion
situational specifications, with the other three groups presenting ambiguous results
in this category. and achievement.
• Ideological, religious, spiritual and ethnic reference: The black group presented While the typical developmental sequence proceeds from diffusion
more descriptions in this category than the other groups did. to foreclosure, to moratorium, to achievement (D-F-M-A), regression may
Overall, the study found a large number of cross-cultural similarities with occur, resulting in regressive identities. This implies that instead of following
independent, individualistic, context-free, and dispositional descriptions prevalent in the typical developmental trajectory, a person may move backwards to
all groups. Therefore, the concepts of independence and interdependence are not as developmentally less sophisticated identities (Kroger et al., 2010). These
clear-cut as they were expected to be. The most salient group difference was that the
black group was more likely than the white group to specify target persons in relational may be disequilibrium (e.g. movement from achievement to moratorium);
self-descriptions (i.e. a specific person or group of people is specified). This suggests a rigidification (movement from either moratorium or achievement to a rigid
stronger in-group-out-group distinction in the black group. This means that the black closure, i.e. foreclosure); and disorganisation (movement from any status
group expect relatively more from the in-group (their own group) than from the out-
to diffusion). Various factors may cause regressive identity. For example,
group (the larger social domain).
changing (i.e. regressing) from achievement to foreclosure may be explained
by the following: It may occur because of (1) reconsidering one’s earlier
exploration and commitments; (2) normative age-graded influences, such as

256 257
regressing to foreclosure at a time when people establish families and careers
and become parents, which may cause one to regress to earlier statuses; or Box 4.6. Cross-Cultural comparison of identity development
(3) history-graded influences such as turning toward foreclosure in unstable In a cross-cultural comparison of identity development between South African students
times such as political turmoil or economic recession (Fadjukoff et al., 2010). of all population groups and students from the USA, based on Marcia’s identity status
Initially, the focus of Marcia’s research was to document the range of theory and including eight identity domains (occupation, religion, politics, lifestyle, sex
role, recreation, friendship, and dating), the following was found (Low et al., 2005):
different kinds of identity resolutions among adolescents and young adults,
but was revised later to include a more dynamic process of identity issues • For the South African sample, 50% were categorised as achieved, 26% as
throughout adulthood. Empirical research has highlighted the following moratorium, 13% as foreclosed, and 11% as diffused. For the USA sample, only 8%
(Fadjukoff et al., 2016; Kroger, 2015; Kroger et al., 2010; Marcia, 2002): were classified as achieved.
• Differences were found in the different domains:

• Through late adolescence to young adulthood, some young people make (1) SA students were much more likely to agree with achieved statements on
some form of progressive identity status change. However, the likelihood political issues than the USA students were.
(2) Regarding friendship and dating, the SA students indicated more foreclosed/
of remaining stable in any identity status during this time is relatively
moratorium identities than the USA students did.
high. (3) SA students, more than USA students, indicated achieved status on lifestyle
• Many people do not reach overall identity achievement before the middle domains and diffused status on occupational domains.
(4) USA students, more than SA students, indicated diffused status for sex role,
thirties, while a steady increase is shown during midlife.
• For many people, identity continues to develop during the adult years.
moratorium for recreation, and diffused status for dating.

• Adult identity rarely remains unchanged in any domain. Persistent and According to the researchers, the differences in the findings can be explained as
increasing levels of identity diffusion continuing to middle adulthood follows: In cultures undergoing massive change, as in South Africa, emerging adults
have been found, particularly in the political and religious domains. who have made it successfully to tertiary education will undoubtedly have had high
levels of ego strength, a sense of purpose, and the ability to focus on long-term plans.
• Individuals may move in and out of identity statuses in different patterns Furthermore, in contrast to the USA students, SA students are more likely to rely on
of variability. For example, the flexibility of a mature identity may fluctuate family and culture when it comes to making decisions, although they are also more
between moratorium-achievement (e.g. M-A-M-A) cycles in adolescence, likely to explore issues about dating. Also, more likely than the USA students, South
African students were to have explored and committed themselves on issues regarding
or foreclosure-achievement (e.g. F-A-F-A) cycles in later early adulthood,
lifestyles and politics and are less interested in occupational issues.
and may continue through adulthood.
• Similarities are observed between adolescence and late adulthood as
transitional times in the life span. 4.5.2.2 Identity process theory
• In early late adulthood (65-75 years), identity reintegration and re-
evaluation seem to be the most common exploration processes, while By integrating Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory and Piaget’s
reintegration and readjustment seem to be most predominant in late cognitive theory of development, Susan Whitbourne (2008; Whitbourne &
adulthood (75+). Whitbourne, 2014) proposed an identity process theory to explain the way in
• Marcia’s identity status theory seems to be applicable cross-culturally. which people adapt to the ageing process.
(For a cross-cultural comparison between South African and American According to the identity process theory, people perceive their
students, see Box 4.6.) experiences in terms of their personal identities, namely their idea or concept
of the self. Most people try to view themselves in a favourable light, for
instance by thinking of themselves as mentally and physically competent,
liked by others, and as behaving according to ethical principles such as being
honest and concerned about the welfare of others.
Using Piaget’s terminology (see Chapter 3), Whitbourne holds the
view that identity development occurs through two processes of identity
assimilation and identity accommodation:
258 259
regressing to foreclosure at a time when people establish families and careers
and become parents, which may cause one to regress to earlier statuses; or Box 4.6. Cross-Cultural comparison of identity development
(3) history-graded influences such as turning toward foreclosure in unstable In a cross-cultural comparison of identity development between South African students
times such as political turmoil or economic recession (Fadjukoff et al., 2010). of all population groups and students from the USA, based on Marcia’s identity status
Initially, the focus of Marcia’s research was to document the range of theory and including eight identity domains (occupation, religion, politics, lifestyle, sex
role, recreation, friendship, and dating), the following was found (Low et al., 2005):
different kinds of identity resolutions among adolescents and young adults,
but was revised later to include a more dynamic process of identity issues • For the South African sample, 50% were categorised as achieved, 26% as
throughout adulthood. Empirical research has highlighted the following moratorium, 13% as foreclosed, and 11% as diffused. For the USA sample, only 8%
(Fadjukoff et al., 2016; Kroger, 2015; Kroger et al., 2010; Marcia, 2002): were classified as achieved.
• Differences were found in the different domains:

• Through late adolescence to young adulthood, some young people make (1) SA students were much more likely to agree with achieved statements on
some form of progressive identity status change. However, the likelihood political issues than the USA students were.
(2) Regarding friendship and dating, the SA students indicated more foreclosed/
of remaining stable in any identity status during this time is relatively
moratorium identities than the USA students did.
high. (3) SA students, more than USA students, indicated achieved status on lifestyle
• Many people do not reach overall identity achievement before the middle domains and diffused status on occupational domains.
(4) USA students, more than SA students, indicated diffused status for sex role,
thirties, while a steady increase is shown during midlife.
• For many people, identity continues to develop during the adult years.
moratorium for recreation, and diffused status for dating.

• Adult identity rarely remains unchanged in any domain. Persistent and According to the researchers, the differences in the findings can be explained as
increasing levels of identity diffusion continuing to middle adulthood follows: In cultures undergoing massive change, as in South Africa, emerging adults
have been found, particularly in the political and religious domains. who have made it successfully to tertiary education will undoubtedly have had high
levels of ego strength, a sense of purpose, and the ability to focus on long-term plans.
• Individuals may move in and out of identity statuses in different patterns Furthermore, in contrast to the USA students, SA students are more likely to rely on
of variability. For example, the flexibility of a mature identity may fluctuate family and culture when it comes to making decisions, although they are also more
between moratorium-achievement (e.g. M-A-M-A) cycles in adolescence, likely to explore issues about dating. Also, more likely than the USA students, South
African students were to have explored and committed themselves on issues regarding
or foreclosure-achievement (e.g. F-A-F-A) cycles in later early adulthood,
lifestyles and politics and are less interested in occupational issues.
and may continue through adulthood.
• Similarities are observed between adolescence and late adulthood as
transitional times in the life span. 4.5.2.2 Identity process theory
• In early late adulthood (65-75 years), identity reintegration and re-
evaluation seem to be the most common exploration processes, while By integrating Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory and Piaget’s
reintegration and readjustment seem to be most predominant in late cognitive theory of development, Susan Whitbourne (2008; Whitbourne &
adulthood (75+). Whitbourne, 2014) proposed an identity process theory to explain the way in
• Marcia’s identity status theory seems to be applicable cross-culturally. which people adapt to the ageing process.
(For a cross-cultural comparison between South African and American According to the identity process theory, people perceive their
students, see Box 4.6.) experiences in terms of their personal identities, namely their idea or concept
of the self. Most people try to view themselves in a favourable light, for
instance by thinking of themselves as mentally and physically competent,
liked by others, and as behaving according to ethical principles such as being
honest and concerned about the welfare of others.
Using Piaget’s terminology (see Chapter 3), Whitbourne holds the
view that identity development occurs through two processes of identity
assimilation and identity accommodation:
258 259
 Identity assimilation refers to the attempt or tendency to interpret new Identity Accommodation
experiences in terms of an existing identity. Identity assimilation may have • ‘Over the hill’ syndrome
positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, it serves the purpose • Compulsive illness behaviour

of a continued positive view of the self – we can continue to feel good “Threshold”
Identity Balance
Identity experience
about ourselves, despite being less than perfect. On the other hand, identity Favourable view of • Gradual integration
Normal changes;
assimilation can also cause a person to deny the reality of an experience. the self • Appropriate adaptation
illness
Ultimately, repeated experiences of failure that we refuse to incorporate into
Identity Assimilation
our self-appraisals can have negative consequences. • Unhealthy denial
Ideally, people eventually use identity accommodation. Identity • Healthy denial
accommodation refers to the process of changing one’s identity in response to
new challenges. Although sometimes difficult at first because one has to come Figure 4.3 Identity process theory
to terms with one’s weaknesses, it may be necessary for effective adaptation Whitbourne, 2014

– the result will ultimately produce a self-image that is more in line with
As Figure 4.3 illustrates, people generally have a favourable view of
reality. However, as with identity assimilation, it is possible to rely too heavily
themselves. A “threshold” experience occurs when an age-related cognitive or
on identity accommodation. For example, individuals who define themselves
physical change is noted or an illness is experienced. In identity accommodation,
entirely based on their experiences (e.g. being viewed negatively by others)
this experience is taken very seriously. For example, shortness of breath after
potentially may be devastated by a negative event and may hold excessive
a walk or some pain in the joints may lead to the view that one is ‘over the
pessimistic views of their identities. In this case, individuals would benefit by
hill’; or being diagnosed with an illness may result in going overboard with
ignoring experiences that cause them to question themselves unrealistically.
worry about the consequences of the illness, resulting in compulsive illness
In identity process theory, the goal of development is optimal adaptation
behaviour. Identity assimilation, on the other hand, may result in unhealthy
to the environment by establishing a balance (or equilibrium) between
denial, where people fail to take preventative measures that could help them
maintaining consistency of the self (identity assimilation) and changing in
maintain optimal functioning. Therefore, they will continue with unhealthy
response to experiences (identity accommodation). Whitbourne proposes a
lifestyle choices (e.g. no exercise, unhealthy food, over-eating, and smoking).
multiple threshold model to illustrate the way people may react in order to
However, healthy denial may also occur when persons avoid thinking about
adjust to the various changes during the ageing process. The term threshold
the deeper implications of the age-related changes they are experiencing, but
refers to the point where the individual realises there is a decline in functioning
they do engage in healthy behaviours in any case. In identity balance, people
and feels a need to adapt his or her identity. The term multiple refers to the
accept the fact that they are ageing but do not become fatalistic (a feeling of
fact that ageing occurs in various systems at various times. Each age-related
being doomed). They take steps to ensure that they will remain healthy, but
change means that another threshold has to be crossed. The ease with which
they are not preoccupied with any conditions or limitations that they may have
age-related changes are integrated into the self-concept may depend on the
developed already. At the same time, they do not live with the illusion that they
importance of a particular area of functioning for an individual’s identity. Some
will be young forever.
thresholds are crossed without much notice, because they are in areas that are
Although assimilation and accommodation may be useful in the identity
not of much importance to the individual.
process, overuse may be unhealthy. People who constantly assimilate are blind
As an individual crosses a threshold, he or she may react to changes by
to reality, while those who constantly accommodate are easily affected by
either identity assimilation (not allowing the change to affect the sense of
events. Identity balance is probably the most positive way to react to age-
self), identity accommodation (changing the view of self), or identity balance
related changes or changes in health. (See Box 4.7 to assess your own identity
(maintaining a stable sense of self but making some adaptations). The multiple
process.)
threshold model in Figure 4.3 illustrates the identity process theory.
Research on this model indicates that adults who use both identity balance
(integrating changes into their identities) and identity assimilation (a certain
amount of denial, or at least minimisation) seem to have higher self-esteem
260 261
 Identity assimilation refers to the attempt or tendency to interpret new Identity Accommodation
experiences in terms of an existing identity. Identity assimilation may have • ‘Over the hill’ syndrome
positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, it serves the purpose • Compulsive illness behaviour

of a continued positive view of the self – we can continue to feel good “Threshold”
Identity Balance
Identity experience
about ourselves, despite being less than perfect. On the other hand, identity Favourable view of • Gradual integration
Normal changes;
assimilation can also cause a person to deny the reality of an experience. the self • Appropriate adaptation
illness
Ultimately, repeated experiences of failure that we refuse to incorporate into
Identity Assimilation
our self-appraisals can have negative consequences. • Unhealthy denial
Ideally, people eventually use identity accommodation. Identity • Healthy denial
accommodation refers to the process of changing one’s identity in response to
new challenges. Although sometimes difficult at first because one has to come Figure 4.3 Identity process theory
to terms with one’s weaknesses, it may be necessary for effective adaptation Whitbourne, 2014

– the result will ultimately produce a self-image that is more in line with
As Figure 4.3 illustrates, people generally have a favourable view of
reality. However, as with identity assimilation, it is possible to rely too heavily
themselves. A “threshold” experience occurs when an age-related cognitive or
on identity accommodation. For example, individuals who define themselves
physical change is noted or an illness is experienced. In identity accommodation,
entirely based on their experiences (e.g. being viewed negatively by others)
this experience is taken very seriously. For example, shortness of breath after
potentially may be devastated by a negative event and may hold excessive
a walk or some pain in the joints may lead to the view that one is ‘over the
pessimistic views of their identities. In this case, individuals would benefit by
hill’; or being diagnosed with an illness may result in going overboard with
ignoring experiences that cause them to question themselves unrealistically.
worry about the consequences of the illness, resulting in compulsive illness
In identity process theory, the goal of development is optimal adaptation
behaviour. Identity assimilation, on the other hand, may result in unhealthy
to the environment by establishing a balance (or equilibrium) between
denial, where people fail to take preventative measures that could help them
maintaining consistency of the self (identity assimilation) and changing in
maintain optimal functioning. Therefore, they will continue with unhealthy
response to experiences (identity accommodation). Whitbourne proposes a
lifestyle choices (e.g. no exercise, unhealthy food, over-eating, and smoking).
multiple threshold model to illustrate the way people may react in order to
However, healthy denial may also occur when persons avoid thinking about
adjust to the various changes during the ageing process. The term threshold
the deeper implications of the age-related changes they are experiencing, but
refers to the point where the individual realises there is a decline in functioning
they do engage in healthy behaviours in any case. In identity balance, people
and feels a need to adapt his or her identity. The term multiple refers to the
accept the fact that they are ageing but do not become fatalistic (a feeling of
fact that ageing occurs in various systems at various times. Each age-related
being doomed). They take steps to ensure that they will remain healthy, but
change means that another threshold has to be crossed. The ease with which
they are not preoccupied with any conditions or limitations that they may have
age-related changes are integrated into the self-concept may depend on the
developed already. At the same time, they do not live with the illusion that they
importance of a particular area of functioning for an individual’s identity. Some
will be young forever.
thresholds are crossed without much notice, because they are in areas that are
Although assimilation and accommodation may be useful in the identity
not of much importance to the individual.
process, overuse may be unhealthy. People who constantly assimilate are blind
As an individual crosses a threshold, he or she may react to changes by
to reality, while those who constantly accommodate are easily affected by
either identity assimilation (not allowing the change to affect the sense of
events. Identity balance is probably the most positive way to react to age-
self), identity accommodation (changing the view of self), or identity balance
related changes or changes in health. (See Box 4.7 to assess your own identity
(maintaining a stable sense of self but making some adaptations). The multiple
process.)
threshold model in Figure 4.3 illustrates the identity process theory.
Research on this model indicates that adults who use both identity balance
(integrating changes into their identities) and identity assimilation (a certain
amount of denial, or at least minimisation) seem to have higher self-esteem
260 261
than people who use identity accommodation have (Kroger, 2016). The ability
to integrate age-related changes into one’s identity and maintain a positive Box 4.7. Assess yourself: What is your identity process?
view of oneself seems to be crucial for successful ageing. The research also
According to identity process theory, we react to new experiences in adulthood
indicates interesting developmental changes: Whereas identity assimilation according to one of three processes: identity assimilation, identity accommodation,
and identity balance seem to be higher in older adulthood, identity and identity balance. Answers are provided elsewhere. Answer each question.
accommodation tends to be higher in younger adulthood. This suggests that
1. When I think about myself and my experiences,
people may make behavioural adjustments to promote healthy adaptations to a) I prefer not to think too much about “who” I am
the ageing process. b) I am constantly trying to figure out “who” I am.
Whitbourne (2010) uses a pathways metaphor (image, comparison) to c) I am constantly learning from my experiences.
capture the variations that people’s lives take as they develop over time. In her 2. Regarding my goals,
research, she extracted descriptive material to capture five pathways, namely a) I have always been very sure of my goals.
b) I do not have a clear sense of my goals.
the authentic road, the triumphant trail, the meandering way, the straight and c) I have a good idea of my goals, but I am open to change if necessary.
narrow pathway, and the downward slope:
3. When I think about my mistakes,
a) I believe that mistakes cannot be undone and it is not worthwhile thinking
• Authentic road. Individuals on the authentic road have achieved solid about them.
identity commitments through exploration and change. This pathway b) I find myself thinking constantly about how I could do things differently.
c) I realise that I have made some mistakes, but I do not become preoccupied
involves identity balance. People who use identity balance are able to
with them.
change flexibly in response to experiences, but still maintain consistency
4. When I think about my life so far, I find that
of their sense of self over time. a) I like to see myself as stable, consistent, and unlikely to change.
• Triumphant trail. Those who follow the triumphant trail have overcome life b) I often wonder about how my life could be different from what it is.
challenges and are resilient. c) I am challenged but not overwhelmed by change.
• Meandering way. People who follow the meandering way have failed 5. With regard to my behaviour on a daily basis,
to settle on a life course and are constantly searching for identity. This a) I spend little time wondering why I act in the way I do.
b) I am constantly trying to understand why I act in the way I do.
pathway involves identity accommodation, since this identity process
c) I think about why I act in the way I do, but am not preoccupied with it.
involves continuously changing in response to experiences when it would
6. With regard to other people,
be preferable to maintain some consistency. a) I am not very interested in advice from others.
• Straight and narrow pathway. Individuals on the straight and narrow b) I behave according to what I think others want from me.
pathway maintain a consistent life pattern that is resistant to change. They c) I like to listen to other viewpoints and then make up my own mind.
often use identity assimilation, tend to fear change, and prefer to think of 7. When I think about my getting older,
themselves as stable even when situations might require that they change. a) I prefer not to focus on how I shall change.

• Downward slope. People on the downward slope show self-defeating b) I am very concerned about what will happen to me.
c) I feel confident that I shall be able to adapt to changes.
behaviour and poor decision-making skills.

In conclusion, adulthood may involve several identity processes. For

example, it may include changes in identity, such as revisions of earlier
(unsatisfying) identity directions to those bringing greater satisfaction. It may Answers to Box 4.7.
involve stability, with regard to satisfying identity commitments, or it could
signify failure in the form of an inability to make identity commitments. If you answered mostly C, you tend to apply mostly identity balance.
If you answered mostly B, you tend to apply mostly identity accomodation.
If you answered mostly A, you tend to apply mostly identity assimilation.

262 263
than people who use identity accommodation have (Kroger, 2016). The ability
to integrate age-related changes into one’s identity and maintain a positive Box 4.7. Assess yourself: What is your identity process?
view of oneself seems to be crucial for successful ageing. The research also
According to identity process theory, we react to new experiences in adulthood
indicates interesting developmental changes: Whereas identity assimilation according to one of three processes: identity assimilation, identity accommodation,
and identity balance seem to be higher in older adulthood, identity and identity balance. Answers are provided elsewhere. Answer each question.
accommodation tends to be higher in younger adulthood. This suggests that
1. When I think about myself and my experiences,
people may make behavioural adjustments to promote healthy adaptations to a) I prefer not to think too much about “who” I am
the ageing process. b) I am constantly trying to figure out “who” I am.
Whitbourne (2010) uses a pathways metaphor (image, comparison) to c) I am constantly learning from my experiences.
capture the variations that people’s lives take as they develop over time. In her 2. Regarding my goals,
research, she extracted descriptive material to capture five pathways, namely a) I have always been very sure of my goals.
b) I do not have a clear sense of my goals.
the authentic road, the triumphant trail, the meandering way, the straight and c) I have a good idea of my goals, but I am open to change if necessary.
narrow pathway, and the downward slope:
3. When I think about my mistakes,
a) I believe that mistakes cannot be undone and it is not worthwhile thinking
• Authentic road. Individuals on the authentic road have achieved solid about them.
identity commitments through exploration and change. This pathway b) I find myself thinking constantly about how I could do things differently.
c) I realise that I have made some mistakes, but I do not become preoccupied
involves identity balance. People who use identity balance are able to
with them.
change flexibly in response to experiences, but still maintain consistency
4. When I think about my life so far, I find that
of their sense of self over time. a) I like to see myself as stable, consistent, and unlikely to change.
• Triumphant trail. Those who follow the triumphant trail have overcome life b) I often wonder about how my life could be different from what it is.
challenges and are resilient. c) I am challenged but not overwhelmed by change.
• Meandering way. People who follow the meandering way have failed 5. With regard to my behaviour on a daily basis,
to settle on a life course and are constantly searching for identity. This a) I spend little time wondering why I act in the way I do.
b) I am constantly trying to understand why I act in the way I do.
pathway involves identity accommodation, since this identity process
c) I think about why I act in the way I do, but am not preoccupied with it.
involves continuously changing in response to experiences when it would
6. With regard to other people,
be preferable to maintain some consistency. a) I am not very interested in advice from others.
• Straight and narrow pathway. Individuals on the straight and narrow b) I behave according to what I think others want from me.
pathway maintain a consistent life pattern that is resistant to change. They c) I like to listen to other viewpoints and then make up my own mind.
often use identity assimilation, tend to fear change, and prefer to think of 7. When I think about my getting older,
themselves as stable even when situations might require that they change. a) I prefer not to focus on how I shall change.

• Downward slope. People on the downward slope show self-defeating b) I am very concerned about what will happen to me.
c) I feel confident that I shall be able to adapt to changes.
behaviour and poor decision-making skills.

In conclusion, adulthood may involve several identity processes. For

example, it may include changes in identity, such as revisions of earlier
(unsatisfying) identity directions to those bringing greater satisfaction. It may Answers to Box 4.7.
involve stability, with regard to satisfying identity commitments, or it could
signify failure in the form of an inability to make identity commitments. If you answered mostly C, you tend to apply mostly identity balance.
If you answered mostly B, you tend to apply mostly identity accomodation.
If you answered mostly A, you tend to apply mostly identity assimilation.

262 263
 REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. Define the term identity. What typical questions do people ask themselves
regarding identity? What features do people usually include when they ask these
questions?
2. Discuss the findings of the research by Adams et al. (2012) on South Africans’
identity descriptions.
3. Erik Erikson identified adolescence as the main life stage in which individuals have Various emotions exist, depending on the situation
to establish an identity. Is this view still relevant today? Give reasons for your
answer. Extraversion and neuroticism are two personality trait dimensions that are
4. Discuss James Marcia’s identity status theory. typically associated with emotions. These traits have been associated with
5. What is the typical identity status developmental sequence? individual differences in the degree to which people experience emotions
and the way in which they react to these emotions (Revelle & Scherer, 2018).
6. What is a regressive identity? Describe the types of regressive identities. What
may cause the development of a regressive identity? For example, trait differences in emotionality increase the likelihood of
7. Discuss the research findings on identity status development throughout
experiencing trait-matching emotions. Therefore, individuals high on trait
adulthood. anxiety run an increased risk of experiencing anxiety in certain situations;
8. Discuss the findings of Low et al.’s (2005) research regarding a cross-cultural individuals high on trait anger become irritated more often; individuals high
comparison of identity status development between South African and American on positive emotions will experience joy and happiness more often; and so
students. What may be the reasons for differences between these two groups? forth. In addition, it seems that some types of trait emotionality might shield
9. Discuss Susan Whitbourne’s identity process theory. Mention the processes of against particular emotions. For example, trait positivity may reduce the risk
identity assimilation, identity accommodation, and the multiple threshold model in of experiencing despair, while trait curiosity and interest may reduce the
your answer.
risk of experiencing anxiety. Furthermore, emotions have a direct effect on
10. Describe the pathways used by Whitbourne (2010) as a metaphor to describe the an individual’s functioning. For example, happier people have relationships
variations that people’s lives may take as they develop over time.
that are more successful and are physically healthier. In contrast, negative
11. Hopefully, you have answered the identity process questionnaire truthfully!
emotions are related to poorer long-term physical and mental health
Explore why you may be in a particular process of identity development.
outcomes (Charles & Robinette, 2015). Emotions also contribute to other
aspects of a person’s functioning, such as behaviour, cognition, and desires
or needs. For example, extraversion is associated with a need for social
4.5.3 Emotions contact, power, and status, while neuroticism is associated with needs for
acceptance, tranquillity, and order.
As we have noted in the introduction of this chapter, emotional experiences What causes some people to laugh and smile easily, while others are
form an integral part of a person’s personality. A helpful analogy (comparison, quickly frustrated and angered? As we have seen with other aspects of
explanation) is to consider that personality is to emotion as climate is to personality, similar factors also play a role in emotional development. Genetic
weather. That is, what one expects is personality (e.g. South Africa generally or biological factors (such as specific brain structures and neurotransmitters)
has a good climate); what one observes at any particular moment is emotion contribute to certain emotional dispositions, while environmental influences
(e.g. a pleasant, rainy, or windy day). Emotion (or affect) is a complex shape emotion-related thoughts, appraisals, and experiences, and are often
reaction pattern involving experiences, behaviour patterns, and physiological responsible for the stability of emotional experiences over time. In fact,
elements by which the individual attempts to deal with a personally significant the environment may begin shaping emotional experiences already before
event. The specific quality of the emotion (e.g. fear, anger, or happiness) is birth and continue to do so throughout the entire life span (Chopik et al.,
determined by the specific significance of the event. 2013). With age, people accumulate unique life experiences. Therefore,
each person’s unique set of experiences may explain why people vary in

264 265
 REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. Define the term identity. What typical questions do people ask themselves
regarding identity? What features do people usually include when they ask these
questions?
2. Discuss the findings of the research by Adams et al. (2012) on South Africans’
identity descriptions.
3. Erik Erikson identified adolescence as the main life stage in which individuals have Various emotions exist, depending on the situation
to establish an identity. Is this view still relevant today? Give reasons for your
answer. Extraversion and neuroticism are two personality trait dimensions that are
4. Discuss James Marcia’s identity status theory. typically associated with emotions. These traits have been associated with
5. What is the typical identity status developmental sequence? individual differences in the degree to which people experience emotions
and the way in which they react to these emotions (Revelle & Scherer, 2018).
6. What is a regressive identity? Describe the types of regressive identities. What
may cause the development of a regressive identity? For example, trait differences in emotionality increase the likelihood of
7. Discuss the research findings on identity status development throughout
experiencing trait-matching emotions. Therefore, individuals high on trait
adulthood. anxiety run an increased risk of experiencing anxiety in certain situations;
8. Discuss the findings of Low et al.’s (2005) research regarding a cross-cultural individuals high on trait anger become irritated more often; individuals high
comparison of identity status development between South African and American on positive emotions will experience joy and happiness more often; and so
students. What may be the reasons for differences between these two groups? forth. In addition, it seems that some types of trait emotionality might shield
9. Discuss Susan Whitbourne’s identity process theory. Mention the processes of against particular emotions. For example, trait positivity may reduce the risk
identity assimilation, identity accommodation, and the multiple threshold model in of experiencing despair, while trait curiosity and interest may reduce the
your answer.
risk of experiencing anxiety. Furthermore, emotions have a direct effect on
10. Describe the pathways used by Whitbourne (2010) as a metaphor to describe the an individual’s functioning. For example, happier people have relationships
variations that people’s lives may take as they develop over time.
that are more successful and are physically healthier. In contrast, negative
11. Hopefully, you have answered the identity process questionnaire truthfully!
emotions are related to poorer long-term physical and mental health
Explore why you may be in a particular process of identity development.
outcomes (Charles & Robinette, 2015). Emotions also contribute to other
aspects of a person’s functioning, such as behaviour, cognition, and desires
or needs. For example, extraversion is associated with a need for social
4.5.3 Emotions contact, power, and status, while neuroticism is associated with needs for
acceptance, tranquillity, and order.
As we have noted in the introduction of this chapter, emotional experiences What causes some people to laugh and smile easily, while others are
form an integral part of a person’s personality. A helpful analogy (comparison, quickly frustrated and angered? As we have seen with other aspects of
explanation) is to consider that personality is to emotion as climate is to personality, similar factors also play a role in emotional development. Genetic
weather. That is, what one expects is personality (e.g. South Africa generally or biological factors (such as specific brain structures and neurotransmitters)
has a good climate); what one observes at any particular moment is emotion contribute to certain emotional dispositions, while environmental influences
(e.g. a pleasant, rainy, or windy day). Emotion (or affect) is a complex shape emotion-related thoughts, appraisals, and experiences, and are often
reaction pattern involving experiences, behaviour patterns, and physiological responsible for the stability of emotional experiences over time. In fact,
elements by which the individual attempts to deal with a personally significant the environment may begin shaping emotional experiences already before
event. The specific quality of the emotion (e.g. fear, anger, or happiness) is birth and continue to do so throughout the entire life span (Chopik et al.,
determined by the specific significance of the event. 2013). With age, people accumulate unique life experiences. Therefore,
each person’s unique set of experiences may explain why people vary in

264 265
their emotional experiences. Moreover, certain life conditions (such as of mixed emotions, referred to as poignancy (nostalgia or tenderness)
a functionally limiting disability, divorce, spousal bereavement, loss of (Carstensen et al., 2011). This occurs because older adults are aware that
employment, or marital unhappiness) can lead to sustained changes in all things, even the good ones, will eventually end. However, Carstensen
emotional experiences. However, most researchers agree that both genetic and her colleagues maintain that nuanced emotional experiences may
and environmental factors affect emotional experience and that they contribute to improved emotional regulation. Thus, mixed emotions may
interact to affect emotional experiences throughout the life span (Charles contribute to emotional stability and ultimately to greater subjective
& Robinette, 2015). well-being.
How does the ageing process affect people’s emotional development? • Emotion regulation. Emotion regulation refers to a person’s ability to
Research on emotion and ageing reveals a pattern that differs from the manage and respond effectively to an emotional experience. Studies
negative trajectory typically found in studies of cognitive and physical on age differences in emotion regulation investigated strategies that
ageing. This was a surprise to researchers who expected a similar age-related people generally use to regulate their emotions. Situation selection
decline in emotional development. In fact, recent comprehensive research focuses on choosing to enter or avoid a situation in order to enhance
indicates that ageing is associated with more positive overall emotional or minimise emotions. Both younger and older adults appear to use
well-being, greater emotional stability, and more emotional complexity. The situation selection similarly; however, older adults tend to engage with
domains typically explored in emotion and ageing research are emotional fewer negative stimuli. Attentional deployment is another strategy that
experience, emotion regulation, and emotion perception and appraisal can be used by attending to different aspects (i.e. positive or negative)
(Murry & Isaacowitz, 2016): of the particular situation. Older adults tend to focus more on positive
stimuli than on negative stimuli. These positive seeking patterns tend
• Emotional experience. Emotional experience refers to the positive and to help older adults in regulating their emotional state. Attending to
negative feelings (or affect) that people generally experience on a daily positive rather than to negative stimuli is also prevalent in older adults’
basis. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies indicate that older preference for remembering positive stimuli over negative stimuli. These
adults report less overall negative emotion than younger adults do. preferences are called age-related positivity effects.
More specifically, it seems that adults in their 20s experience the highest • Emotion perception and emotion appraisal. Emotion perception refers
negative emotions, while people in their mid to late 60s and early 70s to the ability to identify the emotions of others. Research has indicated
experience the lowest negative affect. Some studies suggest that while that older adults are more likely than younger adults are to perceive
older adults experience negative affect less frequently, they experience ambiguous (unclear) facial expressions as being positive rather than
emotions with the same intensity as younger adults do. Regarding negative. In addition, older adults are more likely to interpret neutral
the type of negative emotions, it seems that anger increases in young facial expressions as happy and fearful expressions as neutral. In contrast,
adulthood, but decreases until old age, whereas sadness remains stable. younger adults are more likely to express a subtle happy expression as
Research on positive affect is somewhat mixed, with some studies neutral and a neutral expression as one of fear. However, context may
indicating age-related stability, while others suggest an increase of play a role. When observed in real-world situations, older adults were
positive emotions with age and a decline only later in life. Regarding better judges of emotional interactions than younger adults were. This
the type of positive emotions, high-arousal positive emotions (such as finding suggests that older adults may rely on multiple cues to determine
feeling enthusiastic, inspired, and excited) are experienced less in old everyday emotions (e.g. vocal, facial, and bodily expressions).
age than low-arousal positive feelings (such as feeling calm, rested, and Emotion appraisal refers to the way in which one evaluates or judges
at ease). emotional events. It seems that older adults are more inclined than
Complex emotional experiences (i.e. the co-occurrence of positive younger adults are to view negative events in a more positive light. For
and negative emotions, such as gratitude accompanied by a sense of example, when appraising the events that they encounter in daily life,
vulnerability, or happiness coloured with sadness) seem to increase older adults perceive daily stressors less severe than younger adults
with age. This means that older people tend to experience an increase do. This is also true for chronic and potentially threatening events. For

266 267
their emotional experiences. Moreover, certain life conditions (such as of mixed emotions, referred to as poignancy (nostalgia or tenderness)
a functionally limiting disability, divorce, spousal bereavement, loss of (Carstensen et al., 2011). This occurs because older adults are aware that
employment, or marital unhappiness) can lead to sustained changes in all things, even the good ones, will eventually end. However, Carstensen
emotional experiences. However, most researchers agree that both genetic and her colleagues maintain that nuanced emotional experiences may
and environmental factors affect emotional experience and that they contribute to improved emotional regulation. Thus, mixed emotions may
interact to affect emotional experiences throughout the life span (Charles contribute to emotional stability and ultimately to greater subjective
& Robinette, 2015). well-being.
How does the ageing process affect people’s emotional development? • Emotion regulation. Emotion regulation refers to a person’s ability to
Research on emotion and ageing reveals a pattern that differs from the manage and respond effectively to an emotional experience. Studies
negative trajectory typically found in studies of cognitive and physical on age differences in emotion regulation investigated strategies that
ageing. This was a surprise to researchers who expected a similar age-related people generally use to regulate their emotions. Situation selection
decline in emotional development. In fact, recent comprehensive research focuses on choosing to enter or avoid a situation in order to enhance
indicates that ageing is associated with more positive overall emotional or minimise emotions. Both younger and older adults appear to use
well-being, greater emotional stability, and more emotional complexity. The situation selection similarly; however, older adults tend to engage with
domains typically explored in emotion and ageing research are emotional fewer negative stimuli. Attentional deployment is another strategy that
experience, emotion regulation, and emotion perception and appraisal can be used by attending to different aspects (i.e. positive or negative)
(Murry & Isaacowitz, 2016): of the particular situation. Older adults tend to focus more on positive
stimuli than on negative stimuli. These positive seeking patterns tend
• Emotional experience. Emotional experience refers to the positive and to help older adults in regulating their emotional state. Attending to
negative feelings (or affect) that people generally experience on a daily positive rather than to negative stimuli is also prevalent in older adults’
basis. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies indicate that older preference for remembering positive stimuli over negative stimuli. These
adults report less overall negative emotion than younger adults do. preferences are called age-related positivity effects.
More specifically, it seems that adults in their 20s experience the highest • Emotion perception and emotion appraisal. Emotion perception refers
negative emotions, while people in their mid to late 60s and early 70s to the ability to identify the emotions of others. Research has indicated
experience the lowest negative affect. Some studies suggest that while that older adults are more likely than younger adults are to perceive
older adults experience negative affect less frequently, they experience ambiguous (unclear) facial expressions as being positive rather than
emotions with the same intensity as younger adults do. Regarding negative. In addition, older adults are more likely to interpret neutral
the type of negative emotions, it seems that anger increases in young facial expressions as happy and fearful expressions as neutral. In contrast,
adulthood, but decreases until old age, whereas sadness remains stable. younger adults are more likely to express a subtle happy expression as
Research on positive affect is somewhat mixed, with some studies neutral and a neutral expression as one of fear. However, context may
indicating age-related stability, while others suggest an increase of play a role. When observed in real-world situations, older adults were
positive emotions with age and a decline only later in life. Regarding better judges of emotional interactions than younger adults were. This
the type of positive emotions, high-arousal positive emotions (such as finding suggests that older adults may rely on multiple cues to determine
feeling enthusiastic, inspired, and excited) are experienced less in old everyday emotions (e.g. vocal, facial, and bodily expressions).
age than low-arousal positive feelings (such as feeling calm, rested, and Emotion appraisal refers to the way in which one evaluates or judges
at ease). emotional events. It seems that older adults are more inclined than
Complex emotional experiences (i.e. the co-occurrence of positive younger adults are to view negative events in a more positive light. For
and negative emotions, such as gratitude accompanied by a sense of example, when appraising the events that they encounter in daily life,
vulnerability, or happiness coloured with sadness) seem to increase older adults perceive daily stressors less severe than younger adults
with age. This means that older people tend to experience an increase do. This is also true for chronic and potentially threatening events. For

266 267
 example, health problems and health-related hassles increase with age; adults have a greater likelihood of engaging in cognitive-behavioural
yet, older people report experiencing less stress-related appraisal of strategies aimed at avoiding or removing themselves from aversive
these health issues than middle-aged people do. or negative events; attending to more positive and less negative
aspects in the environment; and appraising current and past events
Given the declines in cognitive and especially physical functioning, the as less threatening or more positive. Older adults are more motivated
general increase in emotional well-being observed in a number of studies to engage in these strategies because of their temporal horizons (i.e.
is often referred to as “the paradox of ageing” (Charles & Luong, 2013). limited time left to live). In addition, they have acquired knowledge
Several theories have proposed explanations for this phenomenon: about themselves and expertise from practice over the years to engage
in these strategies effectively. By using these skills, or strengths, to avoid
■ The dynamic integration theory (Labouvie-Vief, 2003) suggests that negative experiences, they maintain high levels of emotional well-being.
declines in cognitive resources make older adults more vulnerable to However, in situations of high arousal, for instance individuals who face
highly arousing situations. In response, older adults compensate by progressive physical or cognitive decline and chronic stressors in the
dampening negative emotions and focusing on positive affect. This environment, age differences in emotion regulation and emotional well-
may also be the reason why older adults tend to experience more being disappear.
low-activating positive emotions (e.g. calmness) than high-activating ■ Environmental demands and social interactions (Luong, 2018).
positive emotions (e.g. excitement). Generally, our social environments show pronounced changes in later
■ The selective optimisation with compensation model (Baltes & Baltes, life. Work demands are eliminated after retirement. Daily activities
1990) maintains that successful ageing requires selective investment in become routine and predictable. There is often more time for leisure
goals and environments, as well as drawing on accumulated knowledge pursuits such as gardening, reading, travelling, and volunteering. Older
and expertise. This enables people to optimise their performance adults also structure their physical and social environments in ways that
in selected domains or areas in order to compensate for inevitable reduce the occurrence of unnecessary stressors, such as getting stuck
limitations or declines in functioning. This means that older adults are in traffic and getting into arguments with others. They reprioritise the
more likely to select goals that are attainable and that make them happy. goals that are most important to them. Older people thus rather work
They are also more realistic in setting goals: They tend to select fewer toward goals that bring them happiness and contentment. For younger
goals and know which goals they can accomplish and which will be more people, time may seem more open-ended, which can lead to a greater
effortful and stressful; therefore, they become more content. In contrast, investment in long-term goals, such as working towards a university
younger adults tend to set many goals that are more difficult to achieve degree and moving up the career ladder. Often, however, achieving
and subsequently are less likely to reach their emotional goals. such long-term goals requires some personal sacrifices (e.g. struggles
■ The socio-emotional selectivity theory (Carstensen, 2006) argues that to balance work and family issues) and therefore exposing themselves
motivational goals shift as people grow older. More specifically, emotional to more stressful experiences and negative emotions. However, although
goals become increasingly more important. As people age and time excessive negative emotions can be distressing and may lead to poorer
horizons grow shorter, people invest in what is most important – typically, physical and mental health in the long term, negative emotions are
meaningful relationships. Subsequently, they gain increasingly greater not always bad for one’s health and well-being. Individuals who have
satisfaction from these investments. Therefore, emotional experience a greater appreciation for negative emotions and recognise that they
improves with age because people come to appreciate and invest more sometimes have value, less likely tend to have health problems when
effort in those matters that are important to them. they do experience negative emotions. In other words, how people
■ The strength and vulnerability integration model (Charles & Luong, make meaning from their emotional experiences can shape what kinds
2013) proposes that the majority of older adults engage in thoughts of consequences those emotions will have. As we have discussed
and behaviours that maintain emotional well-being. These thoughts and elsewhere, mixed emotional experiences may be beneficial for emotional
behaviours are emotion-regulation skills (as discussed earlier). Older well-being.

268 269
 example, health problems and health-related hassles increase with age; adults have a greater likelihood of engaging in cognitive-behavioural
yet, older people report experiencing less stress-related appraisal of strategies aimed at avoiding or removing themselves from aversive
these health issues than middle-aged people do. or negative events; attending to more positive and less negative
aspects in the environment; and appraising current and past events
Given the declines in cognitive and especially physical functioning, the as less threatening or more positive. Older adults are more motivated
general increase in emotional well-being observed in a number of studies to engage in these strategies because of their temporal horizons (i.e.
is often referred to as “the paradox of ageing” (Charles & Luong, 2013). limited time left to live). In addition, they have acquired knowledge
Several theories have proposed explanations for this phenomenon: about themselves and expertise from practice over the years to engage
in these strategies effectively. By using these skills, or strengths, to avoid
■ The dynamic integration theory (Labouvie-Vief, 2003) suggests that negative experiences, they maintain high levels of emotional well-being.
declines in cognitive resources make older adults more vulnerable to However, in situations of high arousal, for instance individuals who face
highly arousing situations. In response, older adults compensate by progressive physical or cognitive decline and chronic stressors in the
dampening negative emotions and focusing on positive affect. This environment, age differences in emotion regulation and emotional well-
may also be the reason why older adults tend to experience more being disappear.
low-activating positive emotions (e.g. calmness) than high-activating ■ Environmental demands and social interactions (Luong, 2018).
positive emotions (e.g. excitement). Generally, our social environments show pronounced changes in later
■ The selective optimisation with compensation model (Baltes & Baltes, life. Work demands are eliminated after retirement. Daily activities
1990) maintains that successful ageing requires selective investment in become routine and predictable. There is often more time for leisure
goals and environments, as well as drawing on accumulated knowledge pursuits such as gardening, reading, travelling, and volunteering. Older
and expertise. This enables people to optimise their performance adults also structure their physical and social environments in ways that
in selected domains or areas in order to compensate for inevitable reduce the occurrence of unnecessary stressors, such as getting stuck
limitations or declines in functioning. This means that older adults are in traffic and getting into arguments with others. They reprioritise the
more likely to select goals that are attainable and that make them happy. goals that are most important to them. Older people thus rather work
They are also more realistic in setting goals: They tend to select fewer toward goals that bring them happiness and contentment. For younger
goals and know which goals they can accomplish and which will be more people, time may seem more open-ended, which can lead to a greater
effortful and stressful; therefore, they become more content. In contrast, investment in long-term goals, such as working towards a university
younger adults tend to set many goals that are more difficult to achieve degree and moving up the career ladder. Often, however, achieving
and subsequently are less likely to reach their emotional goals. such long-term goals requires some personal sacrifices (e.g. struggles
■ The socio-emotional selectivity theory (Carstensen, 2006) argues that to balance work and family issues) and therefore exposing themselves
motivational goals shift as people grow older. More specifically, emotional to more stressful experiences and negative emotions. However, although
goals become increasingly more important. As people age and time excessive negative emotions can be distressing and may lead to poorer
horizons grow shorter, people invest in what is most important – typically, physical and mental health in the long term, negative emotions are
meaningful relationships. Subsequently, they gain increasingly greater not always bad for one’s health and well-being. Individuals who have
satisfaction from these investments. Therefore, emotional experience a greater appreciation for negative emotions and recognise that they
improves with age because people come to appreciate and invest more sometimes have value, less likely tend to have health problems when
effort in those matters that are important to them. they do experience negative emotions. In other words, how people
■ The strength and vulnerability integration model (Charles & Luong, make meaning from their emotional experiences can shape what kinds
2013) proposes that the majority of older adults engage in thoughts of consequences those emotions will have. As we have discussed
and behaviours that maintain emotional well-being. These thoughts and elsewhere, mixed emotional experiences may be beneficial for emotional
behaviours are emotion-regulation skills (as discussed earlier). Older well-being.

268 269
 Furthermore, the social environment tends to be more sympathetic adaptations, and he recommended a more integrative approach. Subsequently,
and kind-hearted towards older adults. For example, their social McAdams (McAdams & Pals, 2006) introduced three levels of personality
environment often provides older adults with preferential treatment, development that include dispositional traits, characteristic adaptations,
which contributes to their greater emotional well-being. Research has and the life story (see Table 4.5). Dispositional traits, drawn from the five-
shown that people are less likely to confront older adults, even when factor model of personality, are broad trait descriptors that are relatively
the older adults may be at fault. Younger adults, on the other hand, do stable across the life span and are useful for drawing comparisons between
not get the same benefit. This could be an explanation why older adults, individuals. Characteristic adaptations refer to a person’s motivations,
compared to younger individuals are more satisfied with their social developmental concerns, and life strategies. The term is used to describe
networks and report more warm and enjoyable interactions with their individuals within their contextualised time, place, and social roles. The third
friends and family members. Generally, older adults have smaller social level, life story, encompasses the internalised, evolving story of the self. It is
networks and are more likely to have close social partners who shape the person’s account as an autobiographical author. The things the person
their social interactions in ways that are less caustic and hostile and chooses to include in the story, and the way they tell it, can both reflect and
more warm and understanding. Thus, the quality, and not necessarily shape who they are. To initiate a life story, the person is asked to play the
the quantity, of partners determines social relationships and therefore role of storyteller about his or her own life – to construct the story of his
emotional experiences. In addition, older adults are more experienced or her own past, present, and what he or she sees as his or her own future
at avoiding conflicts with loved ones. They have usually known their (McAdams, 1995).
partners longer and have knowledge that is more intimate about the Individuals construct a personal life story
strengths and sensitivities of their partners, family, and friends. In essence, to make sense of their lives. This life story is
they know how ‘to keep the peace’, which is critical for maintaining high an internalised (personalised) narrative that
levels of emotional well-being. integrates a person’s reconstructed past,
current situation, and imagined future so as
As we know by now, research such as the above indicates only averages to explain how the person has become the
and in psychology, there are always individual differences. We all know older particular person he or she is. Therefore, the
people who are kind and sweet, but we also know those who are grumpy and life story provides the person with a narrative
difficult. As we indicated at the beginning of this section, great individual identity (McAdams, 2016, 2018). As such,
differences in emotional expression exist due to a variety of environmental it allows people to feel that their lives have
and genetic factors. Furthermore, risk factors that become more prevalent unity and purpose. The story identifies who
with age, such as loneliness, socio-economic difficulties, ongoing caregiving the person is (and who he or she was and will Dan McAdams
responsibilities, progressive cognitive and physical declines, and health- be) both to the person him- or herself and to
related issues, may cause some older adults to be more irritable and sensitive others in the person’s social environment.
than others are. However, the most important finding remains: Emotional Narrative identity uses autobiographical memory to select important
experiences become more positive and less negative with age because of scenes, characters, plots, and themes in one’s life and to assemble them into an
changes in one’s goals and appraisals of the environment, while emotion- understandable narrative format. Narrative identity is not an objective replay
regulation strategies and interactions with others become more effective of the past; it is a highly subjective and selective interpretation of a person’s
and positive with greater life experience. In summary, we may look forward personal experience, strategically designed and reformulated over time in
to some of the best years of our lives as we age. order to achieve a range of psychological functions – from consolidating a
sense of context (e.g. politics, religion, gender, ethnicity and family identities)
4.5.4 Life stories and temporal coherence (across time) to presenting the self in an especially
favourable (or fascinating or dramatic light) (McLean, 2017).
In the early 1990s, Dan McAdams (1995) argued that a person cannot Social contexts and culture shape the construction of life stories. Culture
be understood based on simply a collection of traits and characteristic
270 271
 Furthermore, the social environment tends to be more sympathetic adaptations, and he recommended a more integrative approach. Subsequently,
and kind-hearted towards older adults. For example, their social McAdams (McAdams & Pals, 2006) introduced three levels of personality
environment often provides older adults with preferential treatment, development that include dispositional traits, characteristic adaptations,
which contributes to their greater emotional well-being. Research has and the life story (see Table 4.5). Dispositional traits, drawn from the five-
shown that people are less likely to confront older adults, even when factor model of personality, are broad trait descriptors that are relatively
the older adults may be at fault. Younger adults, on the other hand, do stable across the life span and are useful for drawing comparisons between
not get the same benefit. This could be an explanation why older adults, individuals. Characteristic adaptations refer to a person’s motivations,
compared to younger individuals are more satisfied with their social developmental concerns, and life strategies. The term is used to describe
networks and report more warm and enjoyable interactions with their individuals within their contextualised time, place, and social roles. The third
friends and family members. Generally, older adults have smaller social level, life story, encompasses the internalised, evolving story of the self. It is
networks and are more likely to have close social partners who shape the person’s account as an autobiographical author. The things the person
their social interactions in ways that are less caustic and hostile and chooses to include in the story, and the way they tell it, can both reflect and
more warm and understanding. Thus, the quality, and not necessarily shape who they are. To initiate a life story, the person is asked to play the
the quantity, of partners determines social relationships and therefore role of storyteller about his or her own life – to construct the story of his
emotional experiences. In addition, older adults are more experienced or her own past, present, and what he or she sees as his or her own future
at avoiding conflicts with loved ones. They have usually known their (McAdams, 1995).
partners longer and have knowledge that is more intimate about the Individuals construct a personal life story
strengths and sensitivities of their partners, family, and friends. In essence, to make sense of their lives. This life story is
they know how ‘to keep the peace’, which is critical for maintaining high an internalised (personalised) narrative that
levels of emotional well-being. integrates a person’s reconstructed past,
current situation, and imagined future so as
As we know by now, research such as the above indicates only averages to explain how the person has become the
and in psychology, there are always individual differences. We all know older particular person he or she is. Therefore, the
people who are kind and sweet, but we also know those who are grumpy and life story provides the person with a narrative
difficult. As we indicated at the beginning of this section, great individual identity (McAdams, 2016, 2018). As such,
differences in emotional expression exist due to a variety of environmental it allows people to feel that their lives have
and genetic factors. Furthermore, risk factors that become more prevalent unity and purpose. The story identifies who
with age, such as loneliness, socio-economic difficulties, ongoing caregiving the person is (and who he or she was and will Dan McAdams
responsibilities, progressive cognitive and physical declines, and health- be) both to the person him- or herself and to
related issues, may cause some older adults to be more irritable and sensitive others in the person’s social environment.
than others are. However, the most important finding remains: Emotional Narrative identity uses autobiographical memory to select important
experiences become more positive and less negative with age because of scenes, characters, plots, and themes in one’s life and to assemble them into an
changes in one’s goals and appraisals of the environment, while emotion- understandable narrative format. Narrative identity is not an objective replay
regulation strategies and interactions with others become more effective of the past; it is a highly subjective and selective interpretation of a person’s
and positive with greater life experience. In summary, we may look forward personal experience, strategically designed and reformulated over time in
to some of the best years of our lives as we age. order to achieve a range of psychological functions – from consolidating a
sense of context (e.g. politics, religion, gender, ethnicity and family identities)
4.5.4 Life stories and temporal coherence (across time) to presenting the self in an especially
favourable (or fascinating or dramatic light) (McLean, 2017).
In the early 1990s, Dan McAdams (1995) argued that a person cannot Social contexts and culture shape the construction of life stories. Culture
be understood based on simply a collection of traits and characteristic
270 271
provides master narratives that suggest what a good life story should be People begin forming their life stories in late adolescence and early
while presenting favoured images, metaphors, characters, plots, and themes adulthood, but these stories have their roots in their first attachment
for construction of the self through narrative. People make sense of their relationships and early parent-child conversations (Reese et al., 2010). The
lives and the life stories told by others in terms of expectations that they life story is created and revised throughout adulthood as people mature
develop as members of a particular culture (Hammack, 2008; McAdams, and the changing environment places new demands on them. Changing
2016). Therefore, the life stories that people construct reflect the values of emotions, behaviours, goals, values, and beliefs are reflected as young
the culture in which they live. Table 4.5 indicates the effect of culture on the adults enter the workplace, begin raising a family, establish themselves in
three levels of personality. the community, and commit themselves to social roles. Life stories become
more complex and psychologically nuanced through midlife. Compared
Table 4.5 Three levels of personality and their relations to culture
to younger adults, older adults tend to focus more on positive emotional
Level Definition Function Influence of culture themes and tend to organise their life stories around scenes involving family
and closest friends. During middle and older adulthood, a major challenge
Dispositional Broad individual differences Dispositional Similar trait labels and is to integrate the different aspects of the self, while creating an appropriate
traits in behaviour, thought, and traits sketch systems found across
feeling that account for a behavioural many different cultures
and satisfying ending of the life story, such as leaving a legacy of the self,
general consistencies across outline. and languages. becomes increasingly important. McAdams’s idea of a good ending of the
situations and over time However, culture life story bears some similarity to Erikson’s conception of generativity and
(e.g. the Big Five traits). affects how traits are
integrity. Sadly, one of the many cruel effects of dementia in old age is the
Interindividual differences in expressed.
traits are relatively stable over loss of narrative identity, as people’s life stories gradually slip away from
time. them.
Characteristic More specific motivational, Characteristic Cultures differ How stable is the life story during adulthood? Longitudinal studies
adaptations social-cognitive, and adaptations somewhat on their (see McLean, 2017) indicated some change in narratives, such as increases
developmental variables that fill in the most valued goals,
are contextualised in time, details of beliefs, and strategies
in personal growth, complexity, and positive values over time, suggesting
situations, and social roles human for social life. For growing maturity and comfort in the self. Other aspects of narratives, such as
(e.g. goals, values, coping individuality. example, cultural the ways in which people narrate their stories (e.g. style, temporal ordering,
strategies, relational patterns, individualism and
and coherence) are more likely to remain relatively stable. Furthermore,
domain-specific schemas, collectivism encourage
stage-specific concerns). different patterns some stories retain some markers of stability, while others do not. Reasons
Some characteristic of characteristic for this could be that telling the same story over time may enhance
adaptations may change adaptations, personality continuity by strengthening the narrative and integrating it with
markedly over the life course. respectively.
other aspects of the personality. In addition, just as with trait development,
Integrative Internalised and evolving life Integrative Cultures provide a evocative forces may also work to maintain story stability: Others may ask
life narratives stories that reconstruct the life narratives menu of stories for the
past and imagine the future tell what life course and specify one to tell a favourite tale, or we may be drawn to situations that evoke a
to provide a person’s life a person’s how stories should particular story. However, repeated storytelling may also restrain personality
with identity (unity, purpose, life means be told and lived. In development. The longer the story has been told, the more difficult it is to
and meaning). Individual in time and modern societies,
differences in life stories culture. many different stories
change it. The motive to maintain stability (or homeostasis) can be beneficial
can be seen with respect to compete with one if the story still fits, but can be harmful if the story no longer fits, or limits
characteristic images, tones, another. Persons must meaningful personal growth and development. In fact, some experiences
themes, plots, and endings. Life choose some stories
may demand a revision of our identities. For example, divorce may change
stories change substantially and resist others.
over time, reflecting personality people’s relationship narratives substantially.
development. Storytelling may be linked to personality traits. On the one hand, traits
Adapted from McAdams & Pals, 2006 may shape stories. For example, people high on neuroticism may tell more

272 273
provides master narratives that suggest what a good life story should be People begin forming their life stories in late adolescence and early
while presenting favoured images, metaphors, characters, plots, and themes adulthood, but these stories have their roots in their first attachment
for construction of the self through narrative. People make sense of their relationships and early parent-child conversations (Reese et al., 2010). The
lives and the life stories told by others in terms of expectations that they life story is created and revised throughout adulthood as people mature
develop as members of a particular culture (Hammack, 2008; McAdams, and the changing environment places new demands on them. Changing
2016). Therefore, the life stories that people construct reflect the values of emotions, behaviours, goals, values, and beliefs are reflected as young
the culture in which they live. Table 4.5 indicates the effect of culture on the adults enter the workplace, begin raising a family, establish themselves in
three levels of personality. the community, and commit themselves to social roles. Life stories become
more complex and psychologically nuanced through midlife. Compared
Table 4.5 Three levels of personality and their relations to culture
to younger adults, older adults tend to focus more on positive emotional
Level Definition Function Influence of culture themes and tend to organise their life stories around scenes involving family
and closest friends. During middle and older adulthood, a major challenge
Dispositional Broad individual differences Dispositional Similar trait labels and is to integrate the different aspects of the self, while creating an appropriate
traits in behaviour, thought, and traits sketch systems found across
feeling that account for a behavioural many different cultures
and satisfying ending of the life story, such as leaving a legacy of the self,
general consistencies across outline. and languages. becomes increasingly important. McAdams’s idea of a good ending of the
situations and over time However, culture life story bears some similarity to Erikson’s conception of generativity and
(e.g. the Big Five traits). affects how traits are
integrity. Sadly, one of the many cruel effects of dementia in old age is the
Interindividual differences in expressed.
traits are relatively stable over loss of narrative identity, as people’s life stories gradually slip away from
time. them.
Characteristic More specific motivational, Characteristic Cultures differ How stable is the life story during adulthood? Longitudinal studies
adaptations social-cognitive, and adaptations somewhat on their (see McLean, 2017) indicated some change in narratives, such as increases
developmental variables that fill in the most valued goals,
are contextualised in time, details of beliefs, and strategies
in personal growth, complexity, and positive values over time, suggesting
situations, and social roles human for social life. For growing maturity and comfort in the self. Other aspects of narratives, such as
(e.g. goals, values, coping individuality. example, cultural the ways in which people narrate their stories (e.g. style, temporal ordering,
strategies, relational patterns, individualism and
and coherence) are more likely to remain relatively stable. Furthermore,
domain-specific schemas, collectivism encourage
stage-specific concerns). different patterns some stories retain some markers of stability, while others do not. Reasons
Some characteristic of characteristic for this could be that telling the same story over time may enhance
adaptations may change adaptations, personality continuity by strengthening the narrative and integrating it with
markedly over the life course. respectively.
other aspects of the personality. In addition, just as with trait development,
Integrative Internalised and evolving life Integrative Cultures provide a evocative forces may also work to maintain story stability: Others may ask
life narratives stories that reconstruct the life narratives menu of stories for the
past and imagine the future tell what life course and specify one to tell a favourite tale, or we may be drawn to situations that evoke a
to provide a person’s life a person’s how stories should particular story. However, repeated storytelling may also restrain personality
with identity (unity, purpose, life means be told and lived. In development. The longer the story has been told, the more difficult it is to
and meaning). Individual in time and modern societies,
differences in life stories culture. many different stories
change it. The motive to maintain stability (or homeostasis) can be beneficial
can be seen with respect to compete with one if the story still fits, but can be harmful if the story no longer fits, or limits
characteristic images, tones, another. Persons must meaningful personal growth and development. In fact, some experiences
themes, plots, and endings. Life choose some stories
may demand a revision of our identities. For example, divorce may change
stories change substantially and resist others.
over time, reflecting personality people’s relationship narratives substantially.
development. Storytelling may be linked to personality traits. On the one hand, traits
Adapted from McAdams & Pals, 2006 may shape stories. For example, people high on neuroticism may tell more

272 273
negative stories; those high on openness may tell more complex stories; and
those high on extraversion may engage in more frequent narration. On the
other hand, storytelling is a dynamic process and has the power to change
traits. Thus, stories can also serve as a mechanism for change in the person:
As the story evolves, so too does the person (Cox & McAdams, 2014).
In conclusion, it can be said that identity narratives or life stories do not
arise out of thin air. They are deeply based in earlier social-cultural practices
as well as other developing components of personality. This implies that this
level of personality requires a certain skill set and is likely shaped by other
aspects of ourselves that precede the development of narrative identity.

REVIEW THIS SECTION

1. Describe Dan McAdams’s three levels of personality development.
2. Discuss the life story in terms of the following:
(a) The life story as an internal evolving of the self.
(b) The formation and function of narrative identity.
(c) The forces that contribute to the shaping and constructing of life stories.
(d) The developmental pathway of life stories.
(e) The stability of the life story.
(f) The link of storytelling with other personality traits.
3. Use Table 4.5 to discuss the influence of your particular culture on Dan McAdams’s
three levels of personality.
4. Write your own life story. Remember to include past experiences that have shaped
you, your present experiences and the anticipated ending of your life story.

274 275
negative stories; those high on openness may tell more complex stories; and
those high on extraversion may engage in more frequent narration. On the
other hand, storytelling is a dynamic process and has the power to change
traits. Thus, stories can also serve as a mechanism for change in the person:
As the story evolves, so too does the person (Cox & McAdams, 2014).
In conclusion, it can be said that identity narratives or life stories do not
arise out of thin air. They are deeply based in earlier social-cultural practices
as well as other developing components of personality. This implies that this
level of personality requires a certain skill set and is likely shaped by other
aspects of ourselves that precede the development of narrative identity.

REVIEW THIS SECTION

1. Describe Dan McAdams’s three levels of personality development.
2. Discuss the life story in terms of the following:
(a) The life story as an internal evolving of the self.
(b) The formation and function of narrative identity.
(c) The forces that contribute to the shaping and constructing of life stories.
(d) The developmental pathway of life stories.
(e) The stability of the life story.
(f) The link of storytelling with other personality traits.
3. Use Table 4.5 to discuss the influence of your particular culture on Dan McAdams’s
three levels of personality.
4. Write your own life story. Remember to include past experiences that have shaped
you, your present experiences and the anticipated ending of your life story.

274 275
276
Without a sense of caring, there can be
no sense of community.
A. J. D’Angelo
5
Social Development
277
276
Without a sense of caring, there can be
no sense of community.
A. J. D’Angelo
5
Social Development
277
 We never really grow up; we only learn how to act in public. 5.2 ADULT RELATIONSHIPS
Bryan White
There are some people who always seem angry and continuously Social interactions are an essential part of life. In fact, people’s lives are
look for conflict. Walk away: the battle they are fighting isn’t with shaped by interpersonal relationships. In other words, other people matter.
you, it is with themselves. Anonymous Generally, adult interpersonal relationships are characterised by intimacy,
love, and attachment bonds. In addition, their social networks, an important
The most important thing a father can do for his children is to love
their mother. Theodore Hesburgh aspect of their social interactions, change as they proceed through the life
course. In this section, adult relationships such as intimacy, love, attachment,
It is not a lack of love, but a lack of friendship that makes unhappy and social networks will be discussed.
marriages. Friedrich Nietzsche
Don’t confuse having a career with having a life. Hillary Clinton 5.2.1 Intimacy

What children need most are the essentials that grandparents The word intimacy is derived from the Latin intimus, which means ‘inner’. In
provide in abundance. They give unconditional love, kindness, the broadest sense of the word, intimacy means establishing closeness with
patience, humour, comfort, lessons in life. And, most importantly, another person. This closeness or intimacy develops from self-disclosure, i.e.
cookies. Rudolph Giuliani the process by which one shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences
with another. To establish true intimacy, this process must be reciprocal in
5.1 INTRODUCTION nature, which means that both persons must contribute to the relationship,
implying a process of give and take. Through this process, the individuals
Social development refers to certain skills, attitudes, relationships, and involved not only express openness to each other, but also experience deeper
relevant behaviour that enable the individual to interact effectively with self-knowledge. Emotional unresponsiveness and negative self-esteem are
others and to function positively as a member of society (American personality variables that have a strong correlation with fear of intimacy in
Psychological Association, 2015). Social development takes place primarily both males and females (Vulić-Prtorić & Tkalić, 2016).
in the context of the family and significant others and is influenced by As mentioned in Chapter 4, according to Erikson (1963, 1968), establishing
factors such as culture and the norms of society. During adulthood, intimacy is considered one of the critical developmental tasks marking
these contexts are far more extensive and vary considerably more from a person’s entry into adulthood. It is believed that failure to establish and
individual to individual than during childhood. For example, children’s sustain a committed intimate relationship during young adulthood not only
social development is fairly predictable: Most children are born and raised hinders development but also has significant negative implications for well-
in some form of family structure, enter school after a while, and become being across the total life span (Rauer et al., 2013). However, individuals first
increasingly involved with their peer group. During adulthood, the choices have to establish a personal identity before they can achieve intimacy and
regarding lifestyles and the nature of interpersonal relationships become establish a shared identity with another person, which means that people
much more divergent. This is especially true when considering the rapid should know themselves before they can love another. For example, the young
social and historical changes adults increasingly have to incorporate into adult who has not yet established a clear identity can either feel threatened
their functioning. by the thought of a long-term relationship, or become over-dependent on
In this chapter, the emphasis is on the interpersonal relationships, his or her partner as a source of identity.
lifestyle choices, and work-related issues of adults as they proceed through The development of true intimacy during early adulthood is a difficult
adulthood. task because the individual experiences conflict between the desire for
commitment to someone, and the desire to remain independent, as well as
to retain his or her newly acquired personal identity. The result is that many
young adults form relationships based on sexual intimacy without emotional

278 279
 We never really grow up; we only learn how to act in public. 5.2 ADULT RELATIONSHIPS
Bryan White
There are some people who always seem angry and continuously Social interactions are an essential part of life. In fact, people’s lives are
look for conflict. Walk away: the battle they are fighting isn’t with shaped by interpersonal relationships. In other words, other people matter.
you, it is with themselves. Anonymous Generally, adult interpersonal relationships are characterised by intimacy,
love, and attachment bonds. In addition, their social networks, an important
The most important thing a father can do for his children is to love
their mother. Theodore Hesburgh aspect of their social interactions, change as they proceed through the life
course. In this section, adult relationships such as intimacy, love, attachment,
It is not a lack of love, but a lack of friendship that makes unhappy and social networks will be discussed.
marriages. Friedrich Nietzsche
Don’t confuse having a career with having a life. Hillary Clinton 5.2.1 Intimacy

What children need most are the essentials that grandparents The word intimacy is derived from the Latin intimus, which means ‘inner’. In
provide in abundance. They give unconditional love, kindness, the broadest sense of the word, intimacy means establishing closeness with
patience, humour, comfort, lessons in life. And, most importantly, another person. This closeness or intimacy develops from self-disclosure, i.e.
cookies. Rudolph Giuliani the process by which one shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences
with another. To establish true intimacy, this process must be reciprocal in
5.1 INTRODUCTION nature, which means that both persons must contribute to the relationship,
implying a process of give and take. Through this process, the individuals
Social development refers to certain skills, attitudes, relationships, and involved not only express openness to each other, but also experience deeper
relevant behaviour that enable the individual to interact effectively with self-knowledge. Emotional unresponsiveness and negative self-esteem are
others and to function positively as a member of society (American personality variables that have a strong correlation with fear of intimacy in
Psychological Association, 2015). Social development takes place primarily both males and females (Vulić-Prtorić & Tkalić, 2016).
in the context of the family and significant others and is influenced by As mentioned in Chapter 4, according to Erikson (1963, 1968), establishing
factors such as culture and the norms of society. During adulthood, intimacy is considered one of the critical developmental tasks marking
these contexts are far more extensive and vary considerably more from a person’s entry into adulthood. It is believed that failure to establish and
individual to individual than during childhood. For example, children’s sustain a committed intimate relationship during young adulthood not only
social development is fairly predictable: Most children are born and raised hinders development but also has significant negative implications for well-
in some form of family structure, enter school after a while, and become being across the total life span (Rauer et al., 2013). However, individuals first
increasingly involved with their peer group. During adulthood, the choices have to establish a personal identity before they can achieve intimacy and
regarding lifestyles and the nature of interpersonal relationships become establish a shared identity with another person, which means that people
much more divergent. This is especially true when considering the rapid should know themselves before they can love another. For example, the young
social and historical changes adults increasingly have to incorporate into adult who has not yet established a clear identity can either feel threatened
their functioning. by the thought of a long-term relationship, or become over-dependent on
In this chapter, the emphasis is on the interpersonal relationships, his or her partner as a source of identity.
lifestyle choices, and work-related issues of adults as they proceed through The development of true intimacy during early adulthood is a difficult
adulthood. task because the individual experiences conflict between the desire for
commitment to someone, and the desire to remain independent, as well as
to retain his or her newly acquired personal identity. The result is that many
young adults form relationships based on sexual intimacy without emotional

278 279
intimacy. Erikson and Hall (1983) by the personalities of the persons involved, but also by factors such as
describe this type of relationship developmental stages, gender differences, and cultural-historical contexts.
as a genital relationship. They Psychologists view the capacity to love and be loved as an inherently human
believe that this type of relationship tendency with powerful effects on well-being from infancy through to
can lead to total isolation. For old age.
example, research incorporating
young married students of the
University of the Free State
found a significantly negative
relationship between intimacy and
Many young adults form relationships based on
loneliness (Le Roux & De Beer, sexual intimacy without emotional intimacy
1994). This means that the lower
the level of intimacy in a marriage, the higher the level of loneliness. In a more
recent South African study with postgraduate students at the University of
Stellenbosch, single participants were found to have higher levels of romantic
and general loneliness than participants in committed relationships associated
Love is an exceedingly complex emotion that consists of many facets
with intimacy have (Lesch et al., 2016). Therefore, the findings suggest that
relationship status (and thus the degree of intimacy) has a significant influence
on romantic and general loneliness. Social scientists such as psychologists have made the greatest research
According to Erikson, intimacy occurs in any relationship in which there contribution to the concept of love. However, love also has a strong biological
is an emotional bond, such as between family members and friends. Intimacy component. For example, when we fall in love, our bodies produce various
implies the fusion of two identities, but also means that the other person is physiological responses such as a racing heart, sweaty palms, flushed
given the freedom to remain an individual. Young adults who resolve this cheeks, loss of appetite, and accelerating breathing. In the last few decades,
intimacy versus isolation crisis positively are successful in developing close biological scientists have made some important findings regarding the role
give-and-take relationships with others and are graced with the virtue of love of biological factors in love. Various biochemicals in the body are associated
(Erber, 2013; Erikson, 1963), which is discussed next. with love. For example, dopamine has an effect on the genitals and sweat
glands and can cause feelings of excitement. Testosterone increases sexual
5.2.2 Love desire. The biochemical that has received most research attention is the
hormone oxytocin. It is also called the ‘cuddle hormone’ or ‘love hormone’,
The concept of love has been an eternally elusive subject (Chapman, 2011). because it is released when people snuggle up or bond socially (Pappas,
In fact, psychologists, philosophers, biologists, and other scientists have 2015). It also plays a role in maternal instinct and orgasms, while it seems to
been seeking its definition and meaning since the beginning of time. Love be associated with enduring friendships and monogamy (Peterson, 2006;
seems to be one of those feelings everybody experiences but nobody can Watson, 2013). However, it may increase the likelihood of aggression and
define adequately. violence toward others who are not part of one’s social group (Stix, 2014).
The ancient Greeks called love “the madness of the gods”. Aristotle Clearly, more research is needed to determine the precise contribution
(384-322 BC) thought of love as a union: “Love is composed of a single soul of these biochemicals to love and especially how they interact with
inhabiting two bodies” (Brogaard, 2015). It has also been described as a psychological factors.
special form of emotional interdependence and vulnerability. Psychologists A number of psychologists have approached the phenomenon of love
agree that love is an exceedingly complex and diverse emotion that is scientifically and proposed a number of models of love. The best known
characterised fundamentally by a deep affection for another person. Love of these models is Robert Sternberg’s (1986) triangular theory of love.
takes on many forms throughout the life span and is influenced not only
280 281
intimacy. Erikson and Hall (1983) by the personalities of the persons involved, but also by factors such as
describe this type of relationship developmental stages, gender differences, and cultural-historical contexts.
as a genital relationship. They Psychologists view the capacity to love and be loved as an inherently human
believe that this type of relationship tendency with powerful effects on well-being from infancy through to
can lead to total isolation. For old age.
example, research incorporating
young married students of the
University of the Free State
found a significantly negative
relationship between intimacy and
Many young adults form relationships based on
loneliness (Le Roux & De Beer, sexual intimacy without emotional intimacy
1994). This means that the lower
the level of intimacy in a marriage, the higher the level of loneliness. In a more
recent South African study with postgraduate students at the University of
Stellenbosch, single participants were found to have higher levels of romantic
and general loneliness than participants in committed relationships associated
Love is an exceedingly complex emotion that consists of many facets
with intimacy have (Lesch et al., 2016). Therefore, the findings suggest that
relationship status (and thus the degree of intimacy) has a significant influence
on romantic and general loneliness. Social scientists such as psychologists have made the greatest research
According to Erikson, intimacy occurs in any relationship in which there contribution to the concept of love. However, love also has a strong biological
is an emotional bond, such as between family members and friends. Intimacy component. For example, when we fall in love, our bodies produce various
implies the fusion of two identities, but also means that the other person is physiological responses such as a racing heart, sweaty palms, flushed
given the freedom to remain an individual. Young adults who resolve this cheeks, loss of appetite, and accelerating breathing. In the last few decades,
intimacy versus isolation crisis positively are successful in developing close biological scientists have made some important findings regarding the role
give-and-take relationships with others and are graced with the virtue of love of biological factors in love. Various biochemicals in the body are associated
(Erber, 2013; Erikson, 1963), which is discussed next. with love. For example, dopamine has an effect on the genitals and sweat
glands and can cause feelings of excitement. Testosterone increases sexual
5.2.2 Love desire. The biochemical that has received most research attention is the
hormone oxytocin. It is also called the ‘cuddle hormone’ or ‘love hormone’,
The concept of love has been an eternally elusive subject (Chapman, 2011). because it is released when people snuggle up or bond socially (Pappas,
In fact, psychologists, philosophers, biologists, and other scientists have 2015). It also plays a role in maternal instinct and orgasms, while it seems to
been seeking its definition and meaning since the beginning of time. Love be associated with enduring friendships and monogamy (Peterson, 2006;
seems to be one of those feelings everybody experiences but nobody can Watson, 2013). However, it may increase the likelihood of aggression and
define adequately. violence toward others who are not part of one’s social group (Stix, 2014).
The ancient Greeks called love “the madness of the gods”. Aristotle Clearly, more research is needed to determine the precise contribution
(384-322 BC) thought of love as a union: “Love is composed of a single soul of these biochemicals to love and especially how they interact with
inhabiting two bodies” (Brogaard, 2015). It has also been described as a psychological factors.
special form of emotional interdependence and vulnerability. Psychologists A number of psychologists have approached the phenomenon of love
agree that love is an exceedingly complex and diverse emotion that is scientifically and proposed a number of models of love. The best known
characterised fundamentally by a deep affection for another person. Love of these models is Robert Sternberg’s (1986) triangular theory of love.
takes on many forms throughout the life span and is influenced not only
280 281
Sternberg acknowledged the complexity of love and maintained that conscious decision to maintain the love relationship, and to care for and
love does not occur in a single form, but that it consists of three distinct support each other.
components, i.e. passion, intimacy, and commitment (see Figure 5.1).
According to Sternberg, the relative presence or absence of the above-
PASSION mentioned components will develop into one of the following types of love:
(Strong physical attraction)
– Liking, which includes intimacy, while passion and commitment are
absent.
– Infatuation, which is based on passion, but intimacy and commitment
are lacking.
– Empty love, which is based on commitment to each other, but lacks
passion and intimacy.
– Romantic love, which includes passion and intimacy, but excludes
commitment.
– Fatuous love is based on passion and commitment, but lacks intimacy.
– Companionate love, which is characterised by intimacy and commitment,
but lacks passion.
– Consummate love, which is characterised by passion, intimacy, and
COMMITMENT INTIMACY commitment.
(Decision to spend time together) (Self-disclosure, closeness, confirmation)
Figure 5.1 Sternberg’s triangular model of love From the above, it is clear that the ideal love relationship would be
one in which all three components, i.e. passion, intimacy, and commitment,
are present. This type of love stands the test of time and can survive
• Passion. This is characterised by intense emotions that one feels
development-related changes. However, one should bear in mind that not all
towards another person. Passion usually occurs at the beginning of a
three components will be equally strong during the total life span, and that
relationship and is characterised by infatuation. This refers to the state of
certain shifts will occur. Qualitative shifts apply to all types of relationships
being completely carried away by unreasoning passion, feelings of being
and across all age groups. For example, passion can diminish, while intimacy
‘in love’, and when physical attraction is central. It creates feelings such
stabilises and commitment develops increasingly. This does not necessarily
as excitement, ecstasy, and euphoria. Accompanying these feelings of
mean that the relationship becomes less happy or satisfactory. However,
happiness and excitement is also a strong sense of uncertainty, anxiety,
relationships based on only one or two components from the beginning are
and jealousy, usually because intimacy has not yet been established.
at risk.
Passion or infatuation is often short-lived and intimacy that is more
Most people want to be loved by someone. However, having it happen
emotional will be needed to develop further.
is often fraught with difficulties. Love is often a two-sided issue: On the one
• Intimacy. According to Sternberg’s theory, intimacy refers to the
hand, it can give the greatest ecstasy, but on the other causes the greatest
development of reciprocal trust, openness, and acceptance of each
pain; yet, most people are willing to take the risk.
other. This also implies an honest exchange of feelings, without the fear
A question that comes to mind is: With whom do people fall in love?
of being rejected. Intimacy is essential for a relationship to grow and
Various theories have been proposed:
develop, and forms the basis of close relationships, such as the marital
relationship.
The equity theory. This theory suggests that close relationships or
• Commitment. As intimacy is established in a relationship, the third
■

romances are formed (and also persist) because the persons involved
component of love, namely commitment, develops. Commitment is a
282 283
Sternberg acknowledged the complexity of love and maintained that conscious decision to maintain the love relationship, and to care for and
love does not occur in a single form, but that it consists of three distinct support each other.
components, i.e. passion, intimacy, and commitment (see Figure 5.1).
According to Sternberg, the relative presence or absence of the above-
PASSION mentioned components will develop into one of the following types of love:
(Strong physical attraction)
– Liking, which includes intimacy, while passion and commitment are
absent.
– Infatuation, which is based on passion, but intimacy and commitment
are lacking.
– Empty love, which is based on commitment to each other, but lacks
passion and intimacy.
– Romantic love, which includes passion and intimacy, but excludes
commitment.
– Fatuous love is based on passion and commitment, but lacks intimacy.
– Companionate love, which is characterised by intimacy and commitment,
but lacks passion.
– Consummate love, which is characterised by passion, intimacy, and
COMMITMENT INTIMACY commitment.
(Decision to spend time together) (Self-disclosure, closeness, confirmation)
Figure 5.1 Sternberg’s triangular model of love From the above, it is clear that the ideal love relationship would be
one in which all three components, i.e. passion, intimacy, and commitment,
are present. This type of love stands the test of time and can survive
• Passion. This is characterised by intense emotions that one feels
development-related changes. However, one should bear in mind that not all
towards another person. Passion usually occurs at the beginning of a
three components will be equally strong during the total life span, and that
relationship and is characterised by infatuation. This refers to the state of
certain shifts will occur. Qualitative shifts apply to all types of relationships
being completely carried away by unreasoning passion, feelings of being
and across all age groups. For example, passion can diminish, while intimacy
‘in love’, and when physical attraction is central. It creates feelings such
stabilises and commitment develops increasingly. This does not necessarily
as excitement, ecstasy, and euphoria. Accompanying these feelings of
mean that the relationship becomes less happy or satisfactory. However,
happiness and excitement is also a strong sense of uncertainty, anxiety,
relationships based on only one or two components from the beginning are
and jealousy, usually because intimacy has not yet been established.
at risk.
Passion or infatuation is often short-lived and intimacy that is more
Most people want to be loved by someone. However, having it happen
emotional will be needed to develop further.
is often fraught with difficulties. Love is often a two-sided issue: On the one
• Intimacy. According to Sternberg’s theory, intimacy refers to the
hand, it can give the greatest ecstasy, but on the other causes the greatest
development of reciprocal trust, openness, and acceptance of each
pain; yet, most people are willing to take the risk.
other. This also implies an honest exchange of feelings, without the fear
A question that comes to mind is: With whom do people fall in love?
of being rejected. Intimacy is essential for a relationship to grow and
Various theories have been proposed:
develop, and forms the basis of close relationships, such as the marital
relationship.
The equity theory. This theory suggests that close relationships or
• Commitment. As intimacy is established in a relationship, the third
■

romances are formed (and also persist) because the persons involved
component of love, namely commitment, develops. Commitment is a
282 283
 believe that what they are getting out of the relationship is proportional to variability; in some cultures, it is highly desired, whereas in others, it matters
what they are putting into it (an “I’ll wash and you dry” situation). Equity very little. Gender differences seem to be consistent across cultures: Men
theory assumes that people calculate the costs and benefits involved in endorse physical attractiveness in partners, while women value earning
interacting with others. It is an economic theory and draws our attention potential (Thomae & Houston, 2016). In same-sex couples, physical
to the kinds of things that people give to and receive from another. The attractiveness also seems to be more important for males than for females
assumption is that equitable relationships last and inequitable ones (Fugere, 2017).
break up (e.g. only one person contributes to the relationship, while These ‘laws of attraction’ may be more apparent in societies where
the other does not). However, equity theory is criticised because it is individuals are allowed to have more control over their own dating and
based purely on mutual exchange, and is compared to a business deal. pairing behaviour. What about cultures in which arranged marriages are
This is contradictory to what happens in a genuine relationship, where the norm? Although love between the partners may not be the decisive
individuals often sacrifice their own rewards for the good of their partners. factor, it may still be a ‘love’ marriage – albeit love between parents and
Another criticism is that equity theory ignores the feelings that people their children. The assumption is that the parents know their children well
bring to their relationships: We do not have friends and spouses because enough to choose a suitable partner (Nanda, 2016). However, the concept of
we think they will benefit us; we have friends and spouses because we romantic love has also been documented in marriages that are arranged by
love them (see Peterson, 2006). This is in line with the viewpoint of an the family elders (Epstein et al., 2013).
early, very influential psychologist, Erich Fromm: Immature love says, “I
love you because I need you.” Mature love says, “I need you because I 5.2.3 Attachment
love you.”
■ The assortative mating theory. This theory views choosing a love Another important perspective on relationships is attachment, which is
partner based on similar characteristics. Assortative mating occurs in defined as a strong affectional tie that binds people together. Attachment
many dimensions such as religious beliefs, physical traits, age, socio- theory was formulated by John Bowlby, a British psychiatrist, during the
economic status, intelligence, and political ideology. Researchers have 1950s to investigate the effects on the development of children who were
found that people tend to be attracted to those with similar values, orphaned during World War II. In his initial report, Bowlby (1960) emphasised
attitudes, and beliefs (Bahnes et al., 2017; Luo & Klohnen, 2005). These the fact that children need a warm and continuous relationship with at least
are highly visible and salient characteristics and are fundamental to the one adult caregiver to develop appropriately. He viewed the first three
way people lead their lives. However, once people are in a committed years of life as the period during which the attachment bond is formed.
relationship, personality similarity becomes more important. Personality- Bowlby’s work later developed into three volumes in which he dealt with
related characteristics take much longer to be known and to be issues regarding attachment, separation, and loss. His work was extended
perceived accurately than attitudes, values, and beliefs do, which is why by American developmental psychologist, Mary Ainsworth, who identified
it begins playing a more substantial role only later in the relationship. three types of attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent (resistant or
Personality similarity influences marital happiness, because being in a anxious) attachment, and avoidant attachment (Ainsworth, 1973). A fourth
committed relationship entails regular interaction and requires extensive attachment style, the avoidant-disoriented style was later added by other
coordination in dealing with tasks, issues and the problems of daily researchers in the field of attachment (e.g. Van Ijzendoorn et al., 1999).
living. Whereas personality similarity facilitates this process, personality These attachment styles during infancy seem to have far-reaching
differences may result in more friction and conflict in daily life. implications throughout the life span. The way in which individuals think,
feel, and behave in their adult romantic relationships is not only influenced by
Do all cultures value the same characteristics? In cross-cultural research their immediate environments, but is also a result of their past relationships
investigating such characteristics as mutual attraction, chastity, dependable and personal attachments extending all the way back to childhood (Simpson
character, and good health, some cultural preferences were noted (Buss et al., 2007).
et al., 1990). Chastity (virginity) is the characteristic that showed the most

284 285
 believe that what they are getting out of the relationship is proportional to variability; in some cultures, it is highly desired, whereas in others, it matters
what they are putting into it (an “I’ll wash and you dry” situation). Equity very little. Gender differences seem to be consistent across cultures: Men
theory assumes that people calculate the costs and benefits involved in endorse physical attractiveness in partners, while women value earning
interacting with others. It is an economic theory and draws our attention potential (Thomae & Houston, 2016). In same-sex couples, physical
to the kinds of things that people give to and receive from another. The attractiveness also seems to be more important for males than for females
assumption is that equitable relationships last and inequitable ones (Fugere, 2017).
break up (e.g. only one person contributes to the relationship, while These ‘laws of attraction’ may be more apparent in societies where
the other does not). However, equity theory is criticised because it is individuals are allowed to have more control over their own dating and
based purely on mutual exchange, and is compared to a business deal. pairing behaviour. What about cultures in which arranged marriages are
This is contradictory to what happens in a genuine relationship, where the norm? Although love between the partners may not be the decisive
individuals often sacrifice their own rewards for the good of their partners. factor, it may still be a ‘love’ marriage – albeit love between parents and
Another criticism is that equity theory ignores the feelings that people their children. The assumption is that the parents know their children well
bring to their relationships: We do not have friends and spouses because enough to choose a suitable partner (Nanda, 2016). However, the concept of
we think they will benefit us; we have friends and spouses because we romantic love has also been documented in marriages that are arranged by
love them (see Peterson, 2006). This is in line with the viewpoint of an the family elders (Epstein et al., 2013).
early, very influential psychologist, Erich Fromm: Immature love says, “I
love you because I need you.” Mature love says, “I need you because I 5.2.3 Attachment
love you.”
■ The assortative mating theory. This theory views choosing a love Another important perspective on relationships is attachment, which is
partner based on similar characteristics. Assortative mating occurs in defined as a strong affectional tie that binds people together. Attachment
many dimensions such as religious beliefs, physical traits, age, socio- theory was formulated by John Bowlby, a British psychiatrist, during the
economic status, intelligence, and political ideology. Researchers have 1950s to investigate the effects on the development of children who were
found that people tend to be attracted to those with similar values, orphaned during World War II. In his initial report, Bowlby (1960) emphasised
attitudes, and beliefs (Bahnes et al., 2017; Luo & Klohnen, 2005). These the fact that children need a warm and continuous relationship with at least
are highly visible and salient characteristics and are fundamental to the one adult caregiver to develop appropriately. He viewed the first three
way people lead their lives. However, once people are in a committed years of life as the period during which the attachment bond is formed.
relationship, personality similarity becomes more important. Personality- Bowlby’s work later developed into three volumes in which he dealt with
related characteristics take much longer to be known and to be issues regarding attachment, separation, and loss. His work was extended
perceived accurately than attitudes, values, and beliefs do, which is why by American developmental psychologist, Mary Ainsworth, who identified
it begins playing a more substantial role only later in the relationship. three types of attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent (resistant or
Personality similarity influences marital happiness, because being in a anxious) attachment, and avoidant attachment (Ainsworth, 1973). A fourth
committed relationship entails regular interaction and requires extensive attachment style, the avoidant-disoriented style was later added by other
coordination in dealing with tasks, issues and the problems of daily researchers in the field of attachment (e.g. Van Ijzendoorn et al., 1999).
living. Whereas personality similarity facilitates this process, personality These attachment styles during infancy seem to have far-reaching
differences may result in more friction and conflict in daily life. implications throughout the life span. The way in which individuals think,
feel, and behave in their adult romantic relationships is not only influenced by
Do all cultures value the same characteristics? In cross-cultural research their immediate environments, but is also a result of their past relationships
investigating such characteristics as mutual attraction, chastity, dependable and personal attachments extending all the way back to childhood (Simpson
character, and good health, some cultural preferences were noted (Buss et al., 2007).
et al., 1990). Chastity (virginity) is the characteristic that showed the most

284 285
 MODEL OF SELF
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
SECURE PREOCCUPIED

POSITIVE
Secure attachment history Resistant attachment history

MODEL OF OTHERS
Healthy balance of attachment and Desperate for love to feel worthy as
autonomy; freedom to explore a person; worry about abandonment;
express anxiety and danger openly

Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby DISMISSING FEARFUL

The assumption of attachment theory is that people construct internal Avoidant attachment history Disorganised attachment history

NEGATIVE
working models, which are representations of themselves and other people.
Shut out emotions; defend Need relationships but doubt own
These representations guide their processing of social information and against hurt by avoiding intimacy, worth and fear intimacy; lack a
behaviour in relationships. Researchers have extended Ainsworth’s model dismissing the importance of coherent strategy for meeting
of attachment relationships to adulthood by identifying four different styles relationships, and being overly attachment needs
self-reliant
(Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Crowell et al., 1999). (See also Figure 5.2):
Sigelman & Rider, 2009
• Adults with a secure internal working model feel good about themselves Figure 5.2 Internal models of self and other people based on early
and others. They are not afraid of abandonment once they enter attachment relationships
relationships.
• People with a preoccupied internal working model have a positive view
of other people but feel unlovable. Just as resistant attached infants, Research findings (see Peterson, 2006) regarding attachment style and
they want closeness to others to validate their self-worth, but at the adult relationships indicate that securely attached adults are
same time, they are highly fearful of abandonment and become overly
dependent on their partners. – more supportive of their partners in joint problem-solving tasks;
• Adults with a dismissing internal working model of attachment have a – more likely to practise safe sex;
positive view of self, but do not trust other people. They tend to dismiss – less upset when stress is experienced;
the importance of close relationships and to keep partners at a distance. – more likely to seek support from others when it is needed;
They tend to withdraw and be compulsively self-reliant rather than – more likely to compromise in conflicts;
seek comfort from others. These adults may have experienced avoidant – less likely to be depressed;
attachment during their early years. – more likely to have good self-esteem;
• Adults with a fearful internal working model have a negative view of – less likely to abuse their spouse; and
themselves and of others and display a confusing, unpredictable mix – less likely to divorce.
of neediness and fear of closeness. These adults most likely have a
disorganised-disoriented attachment history. Another aspect of adults’ functioning that may be affected by their
attachment style is their capacity for caregiving, such as being a responsive
and sensitive parent. It also affects their capacity for exploration, such as trying

286 287
 MODEL OF SELF
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
SECURE PREOCCUPIED

POSITIVE
Secure attachment history Resistant attachment history

MODEL OF OTHERS
Healthy balance of attachment and Desperate for love to feel worthy as
autonomy; freedom to explore a person; worry about abandonment;
express anxiety and danger openly

Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby DISMISSING FEARFUL

The assumption of attachment theory is that people construct internal Avoidant attachment history Disorganised attachment history

NEGATIVE
working models, which are representations of themselves and other people.
Shut out emotions; defend Need relationships but doubt own
These representations guide their processing of social information and against hurt by avoiding intimacy, worth and fear intimacy; lack a
behaviour in relationships. Researchers have extended Ainsworth’s model dismissing the importance of coherent strategy for meeting
of attachment relationships to adulthood by identifying four different styles relationships, and being overly attachment needs
self-reliant
(Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Crowell et al., 1999). (See also Figure 5.2):
Sigelman & Rider, 2009
• Adults with a secure internal working model feel good about themselves Figure 5.2 Internal models of self and other people based on early
and others. They are not afraid of abandonment once they enter attachment relationships
relationships.
• People with a preoccupied internal working model have a positive view
of other people but feel unlovable. Just as resistant attached infants, Research findings (see Peterson, 2006) regarding attachment style and
they want closeness to others to validate their self-worth, but at the adult relationships indicate that securely attached adults are
same time, they are highly fearful of abandonment and become overly
dependent on their partners. – more supportive of their partners in joint problem-solving tasks;
• Adults with a dismissing internal working model of attachment have a – more likely to practise safe sex;
positive view of self, but do not trust other people. They tend to dismiss – less upset when stress is experienced;
the importance of close relationships and to keep partners at a distance. – more likely to seek support from others when it is needed;
They tend to withdraw and be compulsively self-reliant rather than – more likely to compromise in conflicts;
seek comfort from others. These adults may have experienced avoidant – less likely to be depressed;
attachment during their early years. – more likely to have good self-esteem;
• Adults with a fearful internal working model have a negative view of – less likely to abuse their spouse; and
themselves and of others and display a confusing, unpredictable mix – less likely to divorce.
of neediness and fear of closeness. These adults most likely have a
disorganised-disoriented attachment history. Another aspect of adults’ functioning that may be affected by their
attachment style is their capacity for caregiving, such as being a responsive
and sensitive parent. It also affects their capacity for exploration, such as trying

286 287
to master their environments, as well as their achievement motivation, their support, assistance, and the exchange of information. More specifically,
enjoyment of work, and socialising with co-workers (Sigelman & Rider, 2009). the concept refers to the structural characteristics of an individual’s social
Although early attachment relationships play a role in adjustment at all relationships. This includes the size, stability, type of relationship, and
ages, an interesting developmental shift seems to occur. While most young frequency of contact with people who are part of it.
and middle-aged adults tend to exhibit secure attachment, elderly people Social networks have been part of humankind since the beginning of
tend to fall into the dismissing-avoidant category. In fact, older adults who time. This is understandable, since a social network holds several general
are either securely attached or have a dismissive style tend to be happier advantages for its members (Erber, 2013; Serino, 2017). For example, social
than those who are preoccupied or fearful. These findings suggest that a networks provide support in various forms: Some provide instrumental
dismissive style may be adaptive in old age, possibly helping adults who support (such as practical or financial help) or emotional and expressive
have lost spouses to manage on their own (Webster, 1998). support (such as offering advice, comfort, and boosting a person’s feelings of
While the attachment theory has become an important concept in control and self-worth). In addition, individuals with effective social networks
psychology, it has also received criticism (e.g. Berghaus, 2011; Meins, 2017). tend to be physically healthier and experience greater psychological well-
The critics do not deny the importance of attachment, but they do question being. For example, on a physical level, they show a lower incidence of
the overemphasis of a single relationship, in the process side-lining various coronary heart disease, lower blood pressure, and better post-stroke
other important interactions such as other relationships and biological recovery. On a psychological level, social networks may be a protective
factors. Relationships with teachers, friends and other significant others, for mechanism against cognitive decline (such as dementia), disorders such as
example, can play an equally significant role. As far as biological variables anxiety and depression, as well as feelings of loneliness and low self-esteem
are concerned, in recent years, researchers have discovered that a number (Sneed & Cohen, 2014; Whitbourne & Sliwinski, 2012).
of physiological factors are associated with attachment (Cassidy et al., However, social networks do not only have a positive side. Probably the
2013; Diamond & Fagundes, 2010). For example, inherited genetic factors outstanding disadvantage of a social network is that it forms the proverbial
can affect a person’s susceptibility to rearing influences, causing people to cradle for conflict. As all of us know, where there are people, there is conflict.
react differently to the presence or absence of close relationships in both When one considers factors such as differences in personality, politics,
childhood and adulthood. In addition, as in the case of many other theories, religion, and general life values, this is understandable. In fact, interpersonal
the uniqueness of the person is overlooked. In fact, individuals may develop conflict is the most widely reported daily stressor (Almeida, 2005). Research
into psychologically healthy adults, regardless of the absence of positive indicates that older adults are more effective than younger adults are in
attachments during childhood. The universal relevance of the attachment solving interpersonal problems (Stanley & Isaacowitz, 2016). As we have
theory has also been called into question: The customs, norms, and values seen in the previous chapter, this is not only because they are more effective
(which influence attachment) of many non-Western and mainly rural eco- in controlling their emotions, but also because they use a combination of
social environments differ from the Western culture in which most of the strategies to solve interpersonal problems effectively. Older adults are also
research on attachment has been done (Keil, 2014; Keller, 2012). For example, better at avoiding interpersonal conflict than younger adults are. These
in the Western culture, the mother-infant bond (attachment) is regarded approaches most likely stem from experience. It also explains why older
as a very important core value. In many non-Western cultures (such as adults experience emotions that are more positive regarding networks
also found in many South African cultural groups), this one-to-one bond is than younger adults do and why their networks become selectively smaller
replaced by a network of a variety of relatives (aunts, uncles, grandparents, (English & Carstensen, 2014).
and siblings). Several theories have attempted to explain the motivational foundation
of social networks but none has succeeded in providing a theoretical
5.2.4 Social networks explanation accepted by all (Westaby et al., 2014). Some approaches to
social network changes in adulthood deal with age-related developmental
Broadly speaking, a social network is an extended group of people who changes; others refer to the balance of reciprocity in a relationship; while
share the same interests and who interact with one another for mutual

288 289
to master their environments, as well as their achievement motivation, their support, assistance, and the exchange of information. More specifically,
enjoyment of work, and socialising with co-workers (Sigelman & Rider, 2009). the concept refers to the structural characteristics of an individual’s social
Although early attachment relationships play a role in adjustment at all relationships. This includes the size, stability, type of relationship, and
ages, an interesting developmental shift seems to occur. While most young frequency of contact with people who are part of it.
and middle-aged adults tend to exhibit secure attachment, elderly people Social networks have been part of humankind since the beginning of
tend to fall into the dismissing-avoidant category. In fact, older adults who time. This is understandable, since a social network holds several general
are either securely attached or have a dismissive style tend to be happier advantages for its members (Erber, 2013; Serino, 2017). For example, social
than those who are preoccupied or fearful. These findings suggest that a networks provide support in various forms: Some provide instrumental
dismissive style may be adaptive in old age, possibly helping adults who support (such as practical or financial help) or emotional and expressive
have lost spouses to manage on their own (Webster, 1998). support (such as offering advice, comfort, and boosting a person’s feelings of
While the attachment theory has become an important concept in control and self-worth). In addition, individuals with effective social networks
psychology, it has also received criticism (e.g. Berghaus, 2011; Meins, 2017). tend to be physically healthier and experience greater psychological well-
The critics do not deny the importance of attachment, but they do question being. For example, on a physical level, they show a lower incidence of
the overemphasis of a single relationship, in the process side-lining various coronary heart disease, lower blood pressure, and better post-stroke
other important interactions such as other relationships and biological recovery. On a psychological level, social networks may be a protective
factors. Relationships with teachers, friends and other significant others, for mechanism against cognitive decline (such as dementia), disorders such as
example, can play an equally significant role. As far as biological variables anxiety and depression, as well as feelings of loneliness and low self-esteem
are concerned, in recent years, researchers have discovered that a number (Sneed & Cohen, 2014; Whitbourne & Sliwinski, 2012).
of physiological factors are associated with attachment (Cassidy et al., However, social networks do not only have a positive side. Probably the
2013; Diamond & Fagundes, 2010). For example, inherited genetic factors outstanding disadvantage of a social network is that it forms the proverbial
can affect a person’s susceptibility to rearing influences, causing people to cradle for conflict. As all of us know, where there are people, there is conflict.
react differently to the presence or absence of close relationships in both When one considers factors such as differences in personality, politics,
childhood and adulthood. In addition, as in the case of many other theories, religion, and general life values, this is understandable. In fact, interpersonal
the uniqueness of the person is overlooked. In fact, individuals may develop conflict is the most widely reported daily stressor (Almeida, 2005). Research
into psychologically healthy adults, regardless of the absence of positive indicates that older adults are more effective than younger adults are in
attachments during childhood. The universal relevance of the attachment solving interpersonal problems (Stanley & Isaacowitz, 2016). As we have
theory has also been called into question: The customs, norms, and values seen in the previous chapter, this is not only because they are more effective
(which influence attachment) of many non-Western and mainly rural eco- in controlling their emotions, but also because they use a combination of
social environments differ from the Western culture in which most of the strategies to solve interpersonal problems effectively. Older adults are also
research on attachment has been done (Keil, 2014; Keller, 2012). For example, better at avoiding interpersonal conflict than younger adults are. These
in the Western culture, the mother-infant bond (attachment) is regarded approaches most likely stem from experience. It also explains why older
as a very important core value. In many non-Western cultures (such as adults experience emotions that are more positive regarding networks
also found in many South African cultural groups), this one-to-one bond is than younger adults do and why their networks become selectively smaller
replaced by a network of a variety of relatives (aunts, uncles, grandparents, (English & Carstensen, 2014).
and siblings). Several theories have attempted to explain the motivational foundation
of social networks but none has succeeded in providing a theoretical
5.2.4 Social networks explanation accepted by all (Westaby et al., 2014). Some approaches to
social network changes in adulthood deal with age-related developmental
Broadly speaking, a social network is an extended group of people who changes; others refer to the balance of reciprocity in a relationship; while
share the same interests and who interact with one another for mutual

288 289
others pertain to individual choices and strategies. Some of these theories The innermost circle represents social relationships that are close, most
are the following: important, and most meaningful. These close relationships are determined
mostly by attachment, while the relationships in the outer circles are
5.2.4.1 The social convoy model determined mostly by role requirements. Role-guided relationships such
as with co-workers can be important and affectionate, but they are tied
This model is a life-span developmental model of social networks and social primarily to the role setting, which limits them in terms of the duration and
support and is based on social role and attachment theories. According nature of the support. The closer relationships (which may also be linked to
to this model, each person moves through life surrounded by a convoy of roles such as marital and parental roles) are usually more stable and include
people who play a central role in his or her network of social relationships, the exchange of many types of support. Role changes associated with
support, and guidance (Antonucci et al., 1996; Sherman et al., 2016). (The ageing (such as retirement) have a stronger effect on role relationships (i.e.
term ‘convoy’ is often used to refer to a group of ships or vehicles that travel the outer circles) than on the closer relationships (i.e. the inner circle). The
together to provide mutual support and protection.) The social convoy is general expectation is that role loss in later life leads to a decrease in role
illustrated in Figure 5.3 by three concentric circles (i.e. circles that have the relationships and a greater emphasis on family relationships in the network.
same centre). These circles represent the different levels of closeness to the Roles and changes earlier in life also affect the social network in later life,
person. specifically regarding the composition and size of the network. For example,
childless people tend to have slightly smaller immediate family networks
than those with children have, although they tend to have more friends and
till meaningful (neig
but s hb
other non-kin relationships throughout old age (see Thomése et al., 2005).
lose ou
r, w
Thus, regardless of what happens to the relatively casual friendships (such
t c b ut less close ( as loss of acquaintances through retirement), older adults still have a stable
s nt b est
rta
lea

or
po fri inner circle of close friends and family members and therefore do not usually
kc
m le (
are

op parent feel a loss of social support and well-being.

t pe
olle
en

s, c
i

tan
are

d,
who

agu
cou
r
ho

hil
po

5.2.4.2 The social exchange theory

People

dre

e, etc.)
sin, e
People w

sest, most im

n, spouse, etc.)

Social exchange theory proposes that social behaviour is the result of an

tc.)

Me exchange process (Cook et al., 2013). Social exchange suggests that people
evaluate the rewards and risks of each relationship, either consciously or
lo

subconsciously. The rewards or benefits of a relationship refer to positive

C

values, such as a sense of acceptance, support, and companionship. The risks

or costs may refer to negative values such as effort, disapproval and various
forms of punishment. When the risks outweigh the rewards, people tend to
terminate or abandon the relationship.
According to this theory, people constantly evaluate their relationships
based on the comparability of their support exchanges; that is, what they put
into a relationship and what they get out of it. Most relationships are made
up of a certain amount of give and take. People tend to prefer balanced
Adapted from Antonucci et al., 1996
exchanges in which they both provide and receive support. This balance is
Figure 5.3 Social networks in the convoy model referred to as reciprocity and can be direct, indirect, or generalised. Direct
reciprocity refers to returning the same type of support within a limited

290 291
others pertain to individual choices and strategies. Some of these theories The innermost circle represents social relationships that are close, most
are the following: important, and most meaningful. These close relationships are determined
mostly by attachment, while the relationships in the outer circles are
5.2.4.1 The social convoy model determined mostly by role requirements. Role-guided relationships such
as with co-workers can be important and affectionate, but they are tied
This model is a life-span developmental model of social networks and social primarily to the role setting, which limits them in terms of the duration and
support and is based on social role and attachment theories. According nature of the support. The closer relationships (which may also be linked to
to this model, each person moves through life surrounded by a convoy of roles such as marital and parental roles) are usually more stable and include
people who play a central role in his or her network of social relationships, the exchange of many types of support. Role changes associated with
support, and guidance (Antonucci et al., 1996; Sherman et al., 2016). (The ageing (such as retirement) have a stronger effect on role relationships (i.e.
term ‘convoy’ is often used to refer to a group of ships or vehicles that travel the outer circles) than on the closer relationships (i.e. the inner circle). The
together to provide mutual support and protection.) The social convoy is general expectation is that role loss in later life leads to a decrease in role
illustrated in Figure 5.3 by three concentric circles (i.e. circles that have the relationships and a greater emphasis on family relationships in the network.
same centre). These circles represent the different levels of closeness to the Roles and changes earlier in life also affect the social network in later life,
person. specifically regarding the composition and size of the network. For example,
childless people tend to have slightly smaller immediate family networks
than those with children have, although they tend to have more friends and
till meaningful (neig
but s hb
other non-kin relationships throughout old age (see Thomése et al., 2005).
lose ou
r, w
Thus, regardless of what happens to the relatively casual friendships (such
t c b ut less close ( as loss of acquaintances through retirement), older adults still have a stable
s nt b est
rta
lea

or
po fri inner circle of close friends and family members and therefore do not usually
kc
m le (
are

op parent feel a loss of social support and well-being.

t pe
olle
en

s, c
i

tan
are

d,
who

agu
cou
r
ho

hil
po

5.2.4.2 The social exchange theory

People

dre

e, etc.)
sin, e
People w

sest, most im

n, spouse, etc.)

Social exchange theory proposes that social behaviour is the result of an

tc.)

Me exchange process (Cook et al., 2013). Social exchange suggests that people
evaluate the rewards and risks of each relationship, either consciously or
lo

subconsciously. The rewards or benefits of a relationship refer to positive

C

values, such as a sense of acceptance, support, and companionship. The risks

or costs may refer to negative values such as effort, disapproval and various
forms of punishment. When the risks outweigh the rewards, people tend to
terminate or abandon the relationship.
According to this theory, people constantly evaluate their relationships
based on the comparability of their support exchanges; that is, what they put
into a relationship and what they get out of it. Most relationships are made
up of a certain amount of give and take. People tend to prefer balanced
Adapted from Antonucci et al., 1996
exchanges in which they both provide and receive support. This balance is
Figure 5.3 Social networks in the convoy model referred to as reciprocity and can be direct, indirect, or generalised. Direct
reciprocity refers to returning the same type of support within a limited

290 291
period (such as when one visits a friend, one would also want to be visited). During young adulthood, seeking information is the most salient social
Indirect reciprocity occurs when support is returned through an intermediate motive. This pertains to exploring the world, gathering information about
party (such as when adult children provide financially toward a caregiver careers and interests, trying to determine where one belongs, what others
for ageing parents). Generalised reciprocity occurs when network members are like, and so forth, which implies that meeting many new people is an
give support without expecting it to be necessarily returned in the same essential part of the process. During midlife, the two goals are in balance,
proportion or from the same people (e.g. paying taxes to the government in which implies that both information seeking and regulation of emotion are
return for good service and infrastructure). Reciprocity is also a factor in the important in adults’ drive towards fulfilment of their life goals. As mentioned
continuation of a relationship. If people feel that they are not receiving the in Chapter 4, for older adults, emotional regulation or emotional fulfilment
kind of support that they deserve and it is clear that this will not change in is the main goal, since there is less need to acquire new information for
the future, the exchange of support, and therefore the relationship, may be future needs. This means that they tend to become highly selective in their
ended. Therefore, satisfaction of mutual relationship ensures stability in the choice of social partners and nearly always prefer people who are familiar
relationship. to them. Consequently, older people disengage from peripheral (less
Age-related differences seem to occur in the type of support exchanges: important) relationships, as the emotional engagement with core network
Younger adults experience a balance in instrumental (practical) support given relationships is more rewarding. In other words, the quantity of social
and received, whereas older adults receive support that is more instrumental networks declines with age, but the overall quality remains the same or
but counterbalance this with emotional support. This trend may be related even improves (Bjorklund, 2015). However, age per se does not necessarily
to decreasing physical capacities and changes in health in old people, which cause withdrawal from the larger group. Time perspective seems to be an
limit their capacity to render instrumental support. However, the provision of important factor: Those who perceive their time as limited are more likely
emotional support does not seem to be affected. to prioritise by reducing emotional closeness to peripheral networks and
increase emotional closeness to core network members such as family and
5.2.4.3 Socio-emotional selectivity theory friends. Conversely, when time is unlimited, knowledge-based goals and
novel social partners take precedence (Lang, 2000).
According to this theory, social contact is motivated by two main goals:
information seeking and emotion regulation (Carstensen, 1992; English & 5.2.4.4 Social capital theory
Carstensen, 2016). Motivational goals shift as people proceed through the life
span (see Figure 5.4). Therefore, each of these goals has differential salience People’s social networks comprise members of their immediate and
or importance at different stages of the life span and results in very different extended families, as well as friends in the community and in the workplace.
social behaviours. These networks are called social capital and refer to the set of intangible
resources in families and communities that help people cope with stress,
High
develop their potential, take advantage of opportunities, and express
Emotion aspirations beyond the immediate context (Amoateng et al., 2004; Moore
regulation
& Kawachi, 2017). According to social capital theory, contained within the
social motives
Salience of

complex web of human relationships is the potential to generate material

resources and opportunities for personal development (Fraenkel, 2016;
Thomése et al., 2005). The decision to invest, or disinvest in a relationship
is based theoretically on present costs and expected (future) benefits, the
Information
seeking availability of high-quality alternative relationships in the network, and the
Low connectedness of the relationship to the network (Thomése et al., 2005).
Childhood Adolescence Middle age Old age People are more likely to discontinue relationships with high costs (e.g. long
Adapted from Carstensen, Gross & Fung, 1997 travelling time) and low benefits (e.g. little perceived support), in particular
Figure 5.4 The socio-emotional selectivity theory
292 293
period (such as when one visits a friend, one would also want to be visited). During young adulthood, seeking information is the most salient social
Indirect reciprocity occurs when support is returned through an intermediate motive. This pertains to exploring the world, gathering information about
party (such as when adult children provide financially toward a caregiver careers and interests, trying to determine where one belongs, what others
for ageing parents). Generalised reciprocity occurs when network members are like, and so forth, which implies that meeting many new people is an
give support without expecting it to be necessarily returned in the same essential part of the process. During midlife, the two goals are in balance,
proportion or from the same people (e.g. paying taxes to the government in which implies that both information seeking and regulation of emotion are
return for good service and infrastructure). Reciprocity is also a factor in the important in adults’ drive towards fulfilment of their life goals. As mentioned
continuation of a relationship. If people feel that they are not receiving the in Chapter 4, for older adults, emotional regulation or emotional fulfilment
kind of support that they deserve and it is clear that this will not change in is the main goal, since there is less need to acquire new information for
the future, the exchange of support, and therefore the relationship, may be future needs. This means that they tend to become highly selective in their
ended. Therefore, satisfaction of mutual relationship ensures stability in the choice of social partners and nearly always prefer people who are familiar
relationship. to them. Consequently, older people disengage from peripheral (less
Age-related differences seem to occur in the type of support exchanges: important) relationships, as the emotional engagement with core network
Younger adults experience a balance in instrumental (practical) support given relationships is more rewarding. In other words, the quantity of social
and received, whereas older adults receive support that is more instrumental networks declines with age, but the overall quality remains the same or
but counterbalance this with emotional support. This trend may be related even improves (Bjorklund, 2015). However, age per se does not necessarily
to decreasing physical capacities and changes in health in old people, which cause withdrawal from the larger group. Time perspective seems to be an
limit their capacity to render instrumental support. However, the provision of important factor: Those who perceive their time as limited are more likely
emotional support does not seem to be affected. to prioritise by reducing emotional closeness to peripheral networks and
increase emotional closeness to core network members such as family and
5.2.4.3 Socio-emotional selectivity theory friends. Conversely, when time is unlimited, knowledge-based goals and
novel social partners take precedence (Lang, 2000).
According to this theory, social contact is motivated by two main goals:
information seeking and emotion regulation (Carstensen, 1992; English & 5.2.4.4 Social capital theory
Carstensen, 2016). Motivational goals shift as people proceed through the life
span (see Figure 5.4). Therefore, each of these goals has differential salience People’s social networks comprise members of their immediate and
or importance at different stages of the life span and results in very different extended families, as well as friends in the community and in the workplace.
social behaviours. These networks are called social capital and refer to the set of intangible
resources in families and communities that help people cope with stress,
High
develop their potential, take advantage of opportunities, and express
Emotion aspirations beyond the immediate context (Amoateng et al., 2004; Moore
regulation
& Kawachi, 2017). According to social capital theory, contained within the
social motives
Salience of

complex web of human relationships is the potential to generate material

resources and opportunities for personal development (Fraenkel, 2016;
Thomése et al., 2005). The decision to invest, or disinvest in a relationship
is based theoretically on present costs and expected (future) benefits, the
Information
seeking availability of high-quality alternative relationships in the network, and the
Low connectedness of the relationship to the network (Thomése et al., 2005).
Childhood Adolescence Middle age Old age People are more likely to discontinue relationships with high costs (e.g. long
Adapted from Carstensen, Gross & Fung, 1997 travelling time) and low benefits (e.g. little perceived support), in particular
Figure 5.4 The socio-emotional selectivity theory
292 293
when they have a large network and the relationship is not connected strongly race, socio-economic, and other boundaries (Lasala et al., 2013). (See Figure
to other relationships. Social capital has been linked to emotional health of 5.5. for the extent of usage of these technologies in South Africa.) Owing
the family, children’s self-esteem, adults’ advancement in the workplace and to the effect of these social networks on human behaviour, a new term was
in the broader community, and sustainable development (Amoateng et al., created: cyber psychology.
2004). Given these favourable outcomes of social networks, what is the state
of social networks in South Africa? Some insights are provided in Box 5.1. 90
87
80
Box 5.1. Social networks in South Africa
70
In an annual evaluation of public opinion conducted in 2001 by the HSRC, the following
was indicated regarding social networks in South Africa: 60 Yes At home
60
■ People living in rural communities are isolated and tend to have contact mostly 50 No Other access
with close family and other people in the same community. Although this allows No access
for strong and supportive bonds, it provides few channels to jobs or other 40
opportunities.
Women have more limited social networks than men do. Women have fewer 30
30
■

friends both within and outside their communities than men do, and working
women have fewer friends at work than their male counterparts do. An important
20
part of women’s social networks are other women who face many of the same 13
10 10
challenges in life, and who have little social capital. Thus, like rural people, women
tend not to have access to networks that could assist them. 0
■ Contrary to popular belief, black South Africans have weaker social networks than
the other population groups and therefore have less access to resources through
social networks. Cell Phones Internet
■ Older people have fewer social contacts and more limited networks than younger
StatsSA, 2017
people do.
■ Regarding socio-economic factors, better-off people have support that is more Figure 5.5. Percentage of South African households that have cell
social and social networks that are more extensive than poorer people do. However, phones and internet access at home or elsewhere
the support and social networks poorer people have are critical to their survival
and development.
As in the case of the printed media, radio and television before it,
technological information and social networks have sparked an ongoing
debate regarding its influence on our daily lives and our psychological
5.2.4.5 Social networks in cyberspace functioning (e.g. Kraut & Burke, 2015; Mathews, 2010; Pantic, 2014).
Some of the main psychological benefits of technological social networks
With technological advancement, social networks have changed dramatically are the following:
over the last few decades. Computer and cell phone technologies have made
great strides in the development of social networks such as the electronic
mail system (email) the short message systems (SMS), WhatsApp, Facebook,
• Technological social networks may improve psychological well-being
by helping people to communicate with friends and family, meet new
Twitter, Instagram and numerous other networks. The effect of these people, create a variety of opportunities (e.g. research, professional
technological social networks on the way in which we act and think is so vast exchange, and business prospects), simplify shopping, access helpful
that people tend to live in two worlds: the real world and the virtual world. In information on a variety of subjects or just to relax and pass the time.
many respects, this virtual human interaction has a much larger scope than
real-world human interaction has, because it cuts across geographic, time,
• By using these technologies, psychological distress such as loneliness and

294 295
when they have a large network and the relationship is not connected strongly race, socio-economic, and other boundaries (Lasala et al., 2013). (See Figure
to other relationships. Social capital has been linked to emotional health of 5.5. for the extent of usage of these technologies in South Africa.) Owing
the family, children’s self-esteem, adults’ advancement in the workplace and to the effect of these social networks on human behaviour, a new term was
in the broader community, and sustainable development (Amoateng et al., created: cyber psychology.
2004). Given these favourable outcomes of social networks, what is the state
of social networks in South Africa? Some insights are provided in Box 5.1. 90
87
80
Box 5.1. Social networks in South Africa
70
In an annual evaluation of public opinion conducted in 2001 by the HSRC, the following
was indicated regarding social networks in South Africa: 60 Yes At home
60
■ People living in rural communities are isolated and tend to have contact mostly 50 No Other access
with close family and other people in the same community. Although this allows No access
for strong and supportive bonds, it provides few channels to jobs or other 40
opportunities.
Women have more limited social networks than men do. Women have fewer 30
30
■

friends both within and outside their communities than men do, and working
women have fewer friends at work than their male counterparts do. An important
20
part of women’s social networks are other women who face many of the same 13
10 10
challenges in life, and who have little social capital. Thus, like rural people, women
tend not to have access to networks that could assist them. 0
■ Contrary to popular belief, black South Africans have weaker social networks than
the other population groups and therefore have less access to resources through
social networks. Cell Phones Internet
■ Older people have fewer social contacts and more limited networks than younger
StatsSA, 2017
people do.
■ Regarding socio-economic factors, better-off people have support that is more Figure 5.5. Percentage of South African households that have cell
social and social networks that are more extensive than poorer people do. However, phones and internet access at home or elsewhere
the support and social networks poorer people have are critical to their survival
and development.
As in the case of the printed media, radio and television before it,
technological information and social networks have sparked an ongoing
debate regarding its influence on our daily lives and our psychological
5.2.4.5 Social networks in cyberspace functioning (e.g. Kraut & Burke, 2015; Mathews, 2010; Pantic, 2014).
Some of the main psychological benefits of technological social networks
With technological advancement, social networks have changed dramatically are the following:
over the last few decades. Computer and cell phone technologies have made
great strides in the development of social networks such as the electronic
mail system (email) the short message systems (SMS), WhatsApp, Facebook,
• Technological social networks may improve psychological well-being
by helping people to communicate with friends and family, meet new
Twitter, Instagram and numerous other networks. The effect of these people, create a variety of opportunities (e.g. research, professional
technological social networks on the way in which we act and think is so vast exchange, and business prospects), simplify shopping, access helpful
that people tend to live in two worlds: the real world and the virtual world. In information on a variety of subjects or just to relax and pass the time.
many respects, this virtual human interaction has a much larger scope than
real-world human interaction has, because it cuts across geographic, time,
• By using these technologies, psychological distress such as loneliness and

294 295
 depression could be alleviated, as it provides measures to communicate
Box 5.2 Computer and cell phone use by elderly
with others and access to the world of information. South Africans
• Technologies such as the Internet are often used as tools of escapism, i.e.
Research shows that the motivation for South African elderly to use technological
the process in which a person uses these technologies to escape from social networks are similar to findings in other parts of the world. For example:
their troublesome circumstances. In Cape Town interviews with elderly who were all older than 73 brought to light
• There is evidence that activities such as Internet search trigger key centres that elderly people use computers, specifically the Internet to maintain contact with
family and friends outside of, and sometimes even within the neighbourhood. Obtaining
in the brain that control decision-making and complex reasoning, which
information about a variety of subjects is also regarded as important (Bosch & Currin,
may enhance brain functioning (Small & Vorgan, 2009). It also seems 2015). In this way they feel connected with society both through communication with
to improve critical thinking skills, creativity, and self-esteem. Research and observation of people, and through keeping themselves informed about news and
with young adults has indicated that technological social networks may topics that come up in conversation. By using the Internet they communicate with more
people than they had before. Therefore they feel less isolated and lonely. Nevertheless,
enhance memory and verbal abilities (Alloway et al., 2013). their use of computers does not weaken their interpersonal contact in the ‘real world’.
Researchers at North-West University included participants between the ages of
An interesting ‘by-product’ of technological social networks is online 65 and 89 years in a study to determine to what extent cell phone use fulfil the needs
dating. It seems that the reasons why people date online do not differ of these age groups (Lamont et al., 2017). The need to stay connected with family
and friends by means of cell phone use is expressed by the majority of participants.
significantly from the reasons for offline dating. For example, two important Another important reason is safety and security reasons and more specifically as an
relationship goals – companionship and physical attraction – are viewed essential means to access help in emergency situations. Health-related issues such as
similarly by people who date online and those who date offline. Research contacting medical services also play an important role. A sense of control in their
own lives is another significant need expressed by the participants in this study. For
that included almost 6 000 participants between the ages 20 to 95 who
example, cell phones enable them to manage their daily routine, shopping, leisure and
made use of online dating, indicated that participants of all ages valued recreation. Having a sense of control over outcomes and having a feeling of being
companionship more than sex appeal, although some differences did occur: effective in one’s actions fulfil a basic psychological need. The researchers concluded
Older participants rated sexual attraction as slightly less important than that cell phones meet important basic needs of older South Africans.
younger participants did, while compared to men, women placed greater
emphasis on companionship than on sexual attraction (Menkin et al., 2015). As can be expected, the influences of technological social networks are
An age group whose distinctive needs have been improved especially not appreciated by all. Some examples are the following:
by technological social networks is the elderly (Boz & Karatas, 2015; Molina
et al., 2016). (See also Box 5.2 regarding computer and cell phone use by ■ Critics of these networks point out that there are too many contradicting
elderly South Africans.) Next to the afore-mentioned advantages, the lives results to be able to come to definite conclusions (Carr, 2011; Dhir et al.,
of the elderly have been improved by benefits such as safety, security, and 2017; Morton, 2015). Thus, in any if not most cases, there is an empirically
independence. Research has also suggested that the use of the Internet is based counter-argument for every argument.
associated with a reduced risk of dementia (d’Orsi et al., 2017). A study has ■ These networks have had a profound effect on the way in which people
shown that older Internet users scored higher than non-users did on personal communicate and interact. In traditional social networks, personal, and
growth and purpose in life. In fact, older Internet users were more like young face-to-face interaction with people (usually those whom one knows
adults in this regard than like older non-users (Chen & Persson, 2010). well) are major components of interaction. During these interactions,
Research also indicates that technological social networks can improve the people continuously process non-verbal signs such as facial expressions,
memory and processing speed of adults. It seems that there is truth in the tone of voice, gestures, body language, eye contact, and even the physical
saying “Technology is becoming a fountain of youth for the elderly.” distance between themselves and the other person(s). These non-verbal
signs also contribute to the way in which people react on an emotional
level to one another. In technological social networks, members very
often do not know each other, while communication via a technological

296 297
 depression could be alleviated, as it provides measures to communicate
Box 5.2 Computer and cell phone use by elderly
with others and access to the world of information. South Africans
• Technologies such as the Internet are often used as tools of escapism, i.e.
Research shows that the motivation for South African elderly to use technological
the process in which a person uses these technologies to escape from social networks are similar to findings in other parts of the world. For example:
their troublesome circumstances. In Cape Town interviews with elderly who were all older than 73 brought to light
• There is evidence that activities such as Internet search trigger key centres that elderly people use computers, specifically the Internet to maintain contact with
family and friends outside of, and sometimes even within the neighbourhood. Obtaining
in the brain that control decision-making and complex reasoning, which
information about a variety of subjects is also regarded as important (Bosch & Currin,
may enhance brain functioning (Small & Vorgan, 2009). It also seems 2015). In this way they feel connected with society both through communication with
to improve critical thinking skills, creativity, and self-esteem. Research and observation of people, and through keeping themselves informed about news and
with young adults has indicated that technological social networks may topics that come up in conversation. By using the Internet they communicate with more
people than they had before. Therefore they feel less isolated and lonely. Nevertheless,
enhance memory and verbal abilities (Alloway et al., 2013). their use of computers does not weaken their interpersonal contact in the ‘real world’.
Researchers at North-West University included participants between the ages of
An interesting ‘by-product’ of technological social networks is online 65 and 89 years in a study to determine to what extent cell phone use fulfil the needs
dating. It seems that the reasons why people date online do not differ of these age groups (Lamont et al., 2017). The need to stay connected with family
and friends by means of cell phone use is expressed by the majority of participants.
significantly from the reasons for offline dating. For example, two important Another important reason is safety and security reasons and more specifically as an
relationship goals – companionship and physical attraction – are viewed essential means to access help in emergency situations. Health-related issues such as
similarly by people who date online and those who date offline. Research contacting medical services also play an important role. A sense of control in their
own lives is another significant need expressed by the participants in this study. For
that included almost 6 000 participants between the ages 20 to 95 who
example, cell phones enable them to manage their daily routine, shopping, leisure and
made use of online dating, indicated that participants of all ages valued recreation. Having a sense of control over outcomes and having a feeling of being
companionship more than sex appeal, although some differences did occur: effective in one’s actions fulfil a basic psychological need. The researchers concluded
Older participants rated sexual attraction as slightly less important than that cell phones meet important basic needs of older South Africans.
younger participants did, while compared to men, women placed greater
emphasis on companionship than on sexual attraction (Menkin et al., 2015). As can be expected, the influences of technological social networks are
An age group whose distinctive needs have been improved especially not appreciated by all. Some examples are the following:
by technological social networks is the elderly (Boz & Karatas, 2015; Molina
et al., 2016). (See also Box 5.2 regarding computer and cell phone use by ■ Critics of these networks point out that there are too many contradicting
elderly South Africans.) Next to the afore-mentioned advantages, the lives results to be able to come to definite conclusions (Carr, 2011; Dhir et al.,
of the elderly have been improved by benefits such as safety, security, and 2017; Morton, 2015). Thus, in any if not most cases, there is an empirically
independence. Research has also suggested that the use of the Internet is based counter-argument for every argument.
associated with a reduced risk of dementia (d’Orsi et al., 2017). A study has ■ These networks have had a profound effect on the way in which people
shown that older Internet users scored higher than non-users did on personal communicate and interact. In traditional social networks, personal, and
growth and purpose in life. In fact, older Internet users were more like young face-to-face interaction with people (usually those whom one knows
adults in this regard than like older non-users (Chen & Persson, 2010). well) are major components of interaction. During these interactions,
Research also indicates that technological social networks can improve the people continuously process non-verbal signs such as facial expressions,
memory and processing speed of adults. It seems that there is truth in the tone of voice, gestures, body language, eye contact, and even the physical
saying “Technology is becoming a fountain of youth for the elderly.” distance between themselves and the other person(s). These non-verbal
signs also contribute to the way in which people react on an emotional
level to one another. In technological social networks, members very
often do not know each other, while communication via a technological

296 297
 device is devoid of the non-verbal signs that are the heart and soul of to alleviate the emotional suffering of persons with a psychological disorder
face-to-face interactions (Margalit, 2014). Therefore, social interactions via (Brunette et al., 2017; Kannisto et al., 2017).
technological social networks are often without responsibility, restraint, or
accountability (Lasala et al., 2013). This is called the online disinhibition Technological social networks are integral parts of our lives and will remain
effect. For example, without the non-verbal cues of face-to-face interactions, so until new networks are invented. Just as numerous other human inventions
people often use offensive and vulgar language or express anger and that have undeniable advantages, it could have negative implications if not used
threats. They may also visit certain sites (such as pornographic sites) from responsibly and cautiously – in other words, the bad usually comes with the
which they would refrain in real good. Future research (hopefully) should give us more answers in this regard.
life where societal norms are
present and conscience plays a REVIEW THIS SECTION
much more significant role.
1. How does adults’ social development differ from the social development of children?
■ Although not recognised as
2. What is intimacy? Discuss the lack of establishing intimacy in early adulthood.
a formal mental disorder, the Why may this be a difficult task?
term internet addiction or 3. What is love? Why is love a difficult concept to study? Why is studying the concept
internet addiction disorder is of love important? Does love only have a romantic colour? Discuss the biochemicals
used when a person’s life is so associated with love.
consumed by the Internet that it 4. Discuss Sternberg’s triangular theory of love.
affects his or her life negatively 5. Discuss the types of love as defined by Sternberg. What components would an ideal
in a significant way (Lau et love relationship consist of? Do these components remain equally strong
throughout the life span?
al., 2017). More specifically,
it causes significant decline 6. Discuss the theories that attempt to define why we fall in love with particular
people.
in the social, professional, or
7. How may gender and cultural factors influence the ‘laws of attraction’?
academic functioning of a
8. What is attachment? How did the attachment theory develop?
person. It is described as similar
to pathological gambling. The 9. Discuss the model of attachment relationships in adulthood. Indicate how these
Technological social networks have a profound may be related to attachment relationships in childhood.
fact that internet addiction is effect on the way we interact
10. What are the relationship characteristics of securely attached adults?
not an acknowledged clinical
11. What are the criticisms against attachment theory?
disorder with exact diagnostic criteria makes it impossible to determine the
prevalence thereof (estimates vary between approximately 1% and 30%). 12. What is a social network? What are the benefits of a social network? What are
the disadvantages of a social network? Why may older adults be more effective
It remains an open question whether ‘internet addiction’ is not only part than younger adults are in solving interpersonal problems?
of normal behaviour where a person is just engulfed in his or her field of 13. Discuss the following theoretical models of social networks:
interest, such as in music or sport. In other words, we should guard against • The convoy model
giving any unusual behaviour a psychopathological label. • The social exchange theory
■ A correlation has been found between technological social networks and • The socio-emotional selectivity theory
• The social capital theory
symptoms such as depression and low self-esteem (Pantic, 2014; Woods &
14. Discuss social networks in cyberspace. What are the main psychosocial benefits of
Scott, 2016). However, as we emphasised in Chapter 1, a correlation does not technological social networks? What are the main criticisms?
mean a causal relationship. Such a correlation does not necessarily mean
15. Discuss the following research findings: (a) Social networks of South Africans;
that use of social networks can cause depression and low self-esteem. It (b) Cell phone and Internet usage of South Africans (what is the general trend that
may also be that people use technological social networks because they are one could derive from the histograms?); (c) Computer and cell phone use by
depressed or have low self-esteem. In fact, these networks have been used elderly South Africans.

298 299
 device is devoid of the non-verbal signs that are the heart and soul of to alleviate the emotional suffering of persons with a psychological disorder
face-to-face interactions (Margalit, 2014). Therefore, social interactions via (Brunette et al., 2017; Kannisto et al., 2017).
technological social networks are often without responsibility, restraint, or
accountability (Lasala et al., 2013). This is called the online disinhibition Technological social networks are integral parts of our lives and will remain
effect. For example, without the non-verbal cues of face-to-face interactions, so until new networks are invented. Just as numerous other human inventions
people often use offensive and vulgar language or express anger and that have undeniable advantages, it could have negative implications if not used
threats. They may also visit certain sites (such as pornographic sites) from responsibly and cautiously – in other words, the bad usually comes with the
which they would refrain in real good. Future research (hopefully) should give us more answers in this regard.
life where societal norms are
present and conscience plays a REVIEW THIS SECTION
much more significant role.
1. How does adults’ social development differ from the social development of children?
■ Although not recognised as
2. What is intimacy? Discuss the lack of establishing intimacy in early adulthood.
a formal mental disorder, the Why may this be a difficult task?
term internet addiction or 3. What is love? Why is love a difficult concept to study? Why is studying the concept
internet addiction disorder is of love important? Does love only have a romantic colour? Discuss the biochemicals
used when a person’s life is so associated with love.
consumed by the Internet that it 4. Discuss Sternberg’s triangular theory of love.
affects his or her life negatively 5. Discuss the types of love as defined by Sternberg. What components would an ideal
in a significant way (Lau et love relationship consist of? Do these components remain equally strong
throughout the life span?
al., 2017). More specifically,
it causes significant decline 6. Discuss the theories that attempt to define why we fall in love with particular
people.
in the social, professional, or
7. How may gender and cultural factors influence the ‘laws of attraction’?
academic functioning of a
8. What is attachment? How did the attachment theory develop?
person. It is described as similar
to pathological gambling. The 9. Discuss the model of attachment relationships in adulthood. Indicate how these
Technological social networks have a profound may be related to attachment relationships in childhood.
fact that internet addiction is effect on the way we interact
10. What are the relationship characteristics of securely attached adults?
not an acknowledged clinical
11. What are the criticisms against attachment theory?
disorder with exact diagnostic criteria makes it impossible to determine the
prevalence thereof (estimates vary between approximately 1% and 30%). 12. What is a social network? What are the benefits of a social network? What are
the disadvantages of a social network? Why may older adults be more effective
It remains an open question whether ‘internet addiction’ is not only part than younger adults are in solving interpersonal problems?
of normal behaviour where a person is just engulfed in his or her field of 13. Discuss the following theoretical models of social networks:
interest, such as in music or sport. In other words, we should guard against • The convoy model
giving any unusual behaviour a psychopathological label. • The social exchange theory
■ A correlation has been found between technological social networks and • The socio-emotional selectivity theory
• The social capital theory
symptoms such as depression and low self-esteem (Pantic, 2014; Woods &
14. Discuss social networks in cyberspace. What are the main psychosocial benefits of
Scott, 2016). However, as we emphasised in Chapter 1, a correlation does not technological social networks? What are the main criticisms?
mean a causal relationship. Such a correlation does not necessarily mean
15. Discuss the following research findings: (a) Social networks of South Africans;
that use of social networks can cause depression and low self-esteem. It (b) Cell phone and Internet usage of South Africans (what is the general trend that
may also be that people use technological social networks because they are one could derive from the histograms?); (c) Computer and cell phone use by
depressed or have low self-esteem. In fact, these networks have been used elderly South Africans.

298 299
5.3 LIFESTYLE CHOICES regarded as the definitive milestone in the passage to adulthood (Treas &
Sanabria, 2016). However, as we shall also point out, the majority of people
still believe in the meaning of matrimony and what it stands for.
Lifestyle is related to the specific way in which an individual or group leads
To understand what marriage entails, it is important to realise that
their lives. During the past decades, several changes that have resulted in
marriage can be defined differently in different societies. This is especially
shifts in certain norms and values have taken place in South African society.
true in a culturally and religiously diverse country such as South Africa.
For example, current norms less expect people to marry, to remain married,
For a long time, marriage in South Africa (as in most Western countries)
to have children, or that there should be distinctly different roles for men and
was defined as a legally recognised union between a man and a woman.
women. These changes in norms have led to changes in lifestyles. Therefore,
This is called a civil marriage. However, because of political and other
current rules for acceptable lifestyles and interpersonal relationships are
developments, South Africa now also allows other types of marriages. For
much more flexible than in previous times.
example, in a customary marriage, the spouses are married in accordance
with the indigenous African traditions and customs (e.g. polygamy is allowed,
but only for men). A religious marriage takes place in terms of religious
requirements such as found in the Islamic and Hindu faiths. A civil union is a
specific form of marriage, often called a legalised partnership. These couples
have the same marital rights, responsibilities, and legal consequences as in a
civil marriage. For various reasons, these people do not want to marry in the
traditional way, but want to formalise their relationship and wish to ensure
that their relationship has legal recognition (Preller, 2017).

“Fortunately our son has made his career choice: He is

going to marry Miss South Africa and then he is going to
buy a pizza shop and liquor store.”

In this section, we shall be discussing the different lifestyles in which

adults engage. Some of these lifestyles involve choices such as marriage,
divorce, parenthood, cohabitation, and the single life, while others involve
changes that result from developmental transitions and events.

5.3.1 Marital and non-marital lifestyles

These lifestyles involve those bound by marital laws such as marriage,

divorce, and remarriage, and those that are not bound by these laws, such
as cohabitation and singlehood.

5.3.1.1 Marriage

As we shall discuss later, worldwide and in South Africa, the traditional and
Top left: Zulu wedding, top right: Muslim wedding,
important role of marriage in society is declining. Marriage is also no longer bottom left: Western wedding, bottom right: gay wedding cake

300 301
5.3 LIFESTYLE CHOICES regarded as the definitive milestone in the passage to adulthood (Treas &
Sanabria, 2016). However, as we shall also point out, the majority of people
still believe in the meaning of matrimony and what it stands for.
Lifestyle is related to the specific way in which an individual or group leads
To understand what marriage entails, it is important to realise that
their lives. During the past decades, several changes that have resulted in
marriage can be defined differently in different societies. This is especially
shifts in certain norms and values have taken place in South African society.
true in a culturally and religiously diverse country such as South Africa.
For example, current norms less expect people to marry, to remain married,
For a long time, marriage in South Africa (as in most Western countries)
to have children, or that there should be distinctly different roles for men and
was defined as a legally recognised union between a man and a woman.
women. These changes in norms have led to changes in lifestyles. Therefore,
This is called a civil marriage. However, because of political and other
current rules for acceptable lifestyles and interpersonal relationships are
developments, South Africa now also allows other types of marriages. For
much more flexible than in previous times.
example, in a customary marriage, the spouses are married in accordance
with the indigenous African traditions and customs (e.g. polygamy is allowed,
but only for men). A religious marriage takes place in terms of religious
requirements such as found in the Islamic and Hindu faiths. A civil union is a
specific form of marriage, often called a legalised partnership. These couples
have the same marital rights, responsibilities, and legal consequences as in a
civil marriage. For various reasons, these people do not want to marry in the
traditional way, but want to formalise their relationship and wish to ensure
that their relationship has legal recognition (Preller, 2017).

“Fortunately our son has made his career choice: He is

going to marry Miss South Africa and then he is going to
buy a pizza shop and liquor store.”

In this section, we shall be discussing the different lifestyles in which

adults engage. Some of these lifestyles involve choices such as marriage,
divorce, parenthood, cohabitation, and the single life, while others involve
changes that result from developmental transitions and events.

5.3.1 Marital and non-marital lifestyles

These lifestyles involve those bound by marital laws such as marriage,

divorce, and remarriage, and those that are not bound by these laws, such
as cohabitation and singlehood.

5.3.1.1 Marriage

As we shall discuss later, worldwide and in South Africa, the traditional and
Top left: Zulu wedding, top right: Muslim wedding,
important role of marriage in society is declining. Marriage is also no longer bottom left: Western wedding, bottom right: gay wedding cake

300 301
The above-mentioned variations also illustrate the complexity of the South years in 2012 to 36 years in 2016, and those for brides increased from 30
African situation and why it is so important to interpret data (e.g. statistics), years to 32 years during the same period (Statistics South Africa, 2019).
especially psychosocial phenomena such as marriage and divorce, with (The median refers to the middle value in a series of values arranged from
great caution. the smallest to largest, i.e. the value or number that separates the higher
half from the lower half. This is different from a mean, which indicates an
(a) The status of marriage in South Africa average value.)

Although marriage is still a popular institution for many, marriage rates in

South Africa, as mentioned earlier, have declined (Statistics South Africa, Box 5.3 The social value of lobola
2017). The following are some of the important reasons for this tendency: The payment of lobola is a tradition in most African countries and is viewed as an
Firstly, a new ‘broad-minded’ way of thinking, marked by a questioning of integral part of the marriage process. Traditionally, lobola can be regarded as a social
symbol with spiritual links (appeasing the ancestors) to unite two families. It is accepted
authority, has developed where marriage is losing its special status and is
as a culturally legal and valid union and marriage.
even referred to as a ‘piece of paper’. In part, this reaction could be ascribed Lobola also serves as ‘compensation’ to the woman’s father and family for the
to ‘unrealistic’ preconditions and sanctions regarding marriages required ‘loss’ of a female family member. The presumed loss is because of the fact that the
by society and especially religious institutions. This perspective has gained father and his family spent money, time, and effort in educating and caring for a female
child. In most African cultures, children are regarded as important. This is especially
ground as the law and religious institutions have accepted a viewpoint that true since they continue the family name of the father; hence, a female’s ability to bear
is more tolerable. Also, marriage gradually has been losing its special status children is important. For instance, if the female does not bear children, the male’s
in law, as legal reforms have led to a greater recognition of equality and family can demand that lobola be returned. They can also ask for a replacement for the
neutrality in issues of common-law marriage, cohabitation, and the care barren wife – a younger sister sometimes takes on this role.
Procedures in the presentation of lobola differ among the various sociocultural
and custody of children. Secondly, getting married has significant financial groups in sub-Saharan Africa. However, in general, payment is made in the form of
implications. For example, lobola (according to African custom the price livestock, and the final payment typically occurs after the birth of the couple’s first
paid for a bride) has become unaffordable for many couples (see Box 5.3 live child. The traditional Zulu culture allows a bridegroom to give what he can afford,
although it is a matter of honour to give as many cattle as possible. Cattle are the main
for a discussion of the social value of lobola). Therefore, they prefer to stay
means for the payment of lobola because they are ritually linked to the ancestral spirits
unmarried and often live together. In addition, the more traditional Western of the traditional African clan. The herding of cattle onto the land of the man would be
wedding has become so expensive that many couples prefer to use the seen as proof by the ancestors that a female will be taken as a marriage partner.
money for other ‘more necessary’ purposes. Thirdly, as more occupational However, factors such as urbanisation and its associated Western world values
have led to differences in the way in which the lobola tradition is practised and viewed.
and educational opportunities have become available for women, they There has also been international and national criticism of the lobola tradition by human
have become more career orientated. The result is that they often regard rights activists and especially feminist movements. For instance, the practice of lobola
the development of their career as more important than marriage. At the is regarded as the commercialisation of women, especially as women have no place
in the process of lobola negotiation and the exchange is made by the male members
same time, they have become financially less dependent on marriage where
of the two families. Lobola is frowned upon by many who equate it to modern-day
traditionally they were largely dependent on the male partner. slavery, because a woman is considered to be bought and sold. Critics also point out
The statistical decline of marriage rates in South Africa is also reflected that because of the financial impact of lobola and resulting differences, instead of
in other ways. For example, about 7 out of 10 children born in South Africa uniting families, it can split families.
To determine the viewpoint of black students towards lobola, Khomari et al.
are by women who were never married (African: 75%; Coloured: 63%; Indian: (2012) conducted a study at a university in the Limpopo Province. About 60% of the
15%; White: 18%) (Chimere-Dan, 2015). Formal weddings (traditionally a big participants believed lobola to be a fair cultural practice. More than 80% believed there
occasion officiated in a church and followed by an impressive festivity) has should be legislation or regulation to protect it as an institution and to protect users
declined to such an extent that most marriages are presently performed by from exploitation. However, more than 50% of the students held the view that lobola
has lost its original meaning and is used as a business transaction, not as a gift of
officials at the Department of Home Affairs. Couples also marry at a much thanks.
older age than a few decades ago when the average age was in the mid-
twenties. For example, the median ages of bridegrooms increased from 34

302 303
The above-mentioned variations also illustrate the complexity of the South years in 2012 to 36 years in 2016, and those for brides increased from 30
African situation and why it is so important to interpret data (e.g. statistics), years to 32 years during the same period (Statistics South Africa, 2019).
especially psychosocial phenomena such as marriage and divorce, with (The median refers to the middle value in a series of values arranged from
great caution. the smallest to largest, i.e. the value or number that separates the higher
half from the lower half. This is different from a mean, which indicates an
(a) The status of marriage in South Africa average value.)

Although marriage is still a popular institution for many, marriage rates in

South Africa, as mentioned earlier, have declined (Statistics South Africa, Box 5.3 The social value of lobola
2017). The following are some of the important reasons for this tendency: The payment of lobola is a tradition in most African countries and is viewed as an
Firstly, a new ‘broad-minded’ way of thinking, marked by a questioning of integral part of the marriage process. Traditionally, lobola can be regarded as a social
symbol with spiritual links (appeasing the ancestors) to unite two families. It is accepted
authority, has developed where marriage is losing its special status and is
as a culturally legal and valid union and marriage.
even referred to as a ‘piece of paper’. In part, this reaction could be ascribed Lobola also serves as ‘compensation’ to the woman’s father and family for the
to ‘unrealistic’ preconditions and sanctions regarding marriages required ‘loss’ of a female family member. The presumed loss is because of the fact that the
by society and especially religious institutions. This perspective has gained father and his family spent money, time, and effort in educating and caring for a female
child. In most African cultures, children are regarded as important. This is especially
ground as the law and religious institutions have accepted a viewpoint that true since they continue the family name of the father; hence, a female’s ability to bear
is more tolerable. Also, marriage gradually has been losing its special status children is important. For instance, if the female does not bear children, the male’s
in law, as legal reforms have led to a greater recognition of equality and family can demand that lobola be returned. They can also ask for a replacement for the
neutrality in issues of common-law marriage, cohabitation, and the care barren wife – a younger sister sometimes takes on this role.
Procedures in the presentation of lobola differ among the various sociocultural
and custody of children. Secondly, getting married has significant financial groups in sub-Saharan Africa. However, in general, payment is made in the form of
implications. For example, lobola (according to African custom the price livestock, and the final payment typically occurs after the birth of the couple’s first
paid for a bride) has become unaffordable for many couples (see Box 5.3 live child. The traditional Zulu culture allows a bridegroom to give what he can afford,
although it is a matter of honour to give as many cattle as possible. Cattle are the main
for a discussion of the social value of lobola). Therefore, they prefer to stay
means for the payment of lobola because they are ritually linked to the ancestral spirits
unmarried and often live together. In addition, the more traditional Western of the traditional African clan. The herding of cattle onto the land of the man would be
wedding has become so expensive that many couples prefer to use the seen as proof by the ancestors that a female will be taken as a marriage partner.
money for other ‘more necessary’ purposes. Thirdly, as more occupational However, factors such as urbanisation and its associated Western world values
have led to differences in the way in which the lobola tradition is practised and viewed.
and educational opportunities have become available for women, they There has also been international and national criticism of the lobola tradition by human
have become more career orientated. The result is that they often regard rights activists and especially feminist movements. For instance, the practice of lobola
the development of their career as more important than marriage. At the is regarded as the commercialisation of women, especially as women have no place
in the process of lobola negotiation and the exchange is made by the male members
same time, they have become financially less dependent on marriage where
of the two families. Lobola is frowned upon by many who equate it to modern-day
traditionally they were largely dependent on the male partner. slavery, because a woman is considered to be bought and sold. Critics also point out
The statistical decline of marriage rates in South Africa is also reflected that because of the financial impact of lobola and resulting differences, instead of
in other ways. For example, about 7 out of 10 children born in South Africa uniting families, it can split families.
To determine the viewpoint of black students towards lobola, Khomari et al.
are by women who were never married (African: 75%; Coloured: 63%; Indian: (2012) conducted a study at a university in the Limpopo Province. About 60% of the
15%; White: 18%) (Chimere-Dan, 2015). Formal weddings (traditionally a big participants believed lobola to be a fair cultural practice. More than 80% believed there
occasion officiated in a church and followed by an impressive festivity) has should be legislation or regulation to protect it as an institution and to protect users
declined to such an extent that most marriages are presently performed by from exploitation. However, more than 50% of the students held the view that lobola
has lost its original meaning and is used as a business transaction, not as a gift of
officials at the Department of Home Affairs. Couples also marry at a much thanks.
older age than a few decades ago when the average age was in the mid-
twenties. For example, the median ages of bridegrooms increased from 34

302 303
(b) Marriage trends in South Africa over the years (Amoateng, 2015). This is especially true among the groups
who are the least likely to marry across the colour line: Asians, Indians, and
With the onset of a more open society in South Africa, new marriage whites. The overall odds of a person marrying someone of the same group
trends also developed. Interracial marriage and same-sex marriage will be dropped from 303:1 in 1996 to 95:1 in 2011. This situation is attributed to the
discussed in this regard. general changes in society and the mutual tolerance of the races through
Interracial, intercultural or intergroup marriage is a form of marriage increased contact in contexts such as education, religion, and residential
outside a specific social group, involving spouses who belong to different neighbourhoods.
socially defined or racial ethnicities (see Box 5.4 for a discussion on the The study suggests that about 5% of coloureds, Asians and Indians
importance of race). Many jurisdictions have had regulations banning or marry outside their groups, while whites remain the least likely to do so.
restricting not only interracial marriage but also interracial sexual relations, The most common interracial marriages are those between Africans and
including the United States of America, Germany during the Nazi period, coloureds. Also, African men – especially those who are socially mobile –
and South Africa under apartheid. However, before the strict segregation are the most likely to marry outside their group, while African women are
and harsh legal constraints of the Mixed Marriages Act of 1949 had been the least likely to do so. However, South African university students who
implemented, a significant mixed race population had developed in South were exposed to people from different racial, ethnic, and class backgrounds
Africa due to unions between mostly Europeans and Africans. Also, some in their high school years have attitudes that are more positive towards
of the Xhosa people claim descent from white people. For example, the interracial relationships (Amaoteng & Kalula, 2014).
royal family of the ImiDushane, is descended from Queen Gquma of the Because marriage is a public and legal formalisation of an intimate
Mpondo, a white British orphan that was adopted by a Xhosa chief after a relationship between both the partners and their families, third-party factors
shipwreck had killed her parents. Today there are a number of high-profile (such as group identification, group sanctions, and religion) continue to
interracial couples in South Africa, such as the unions of Mmusi Maimane (a influence marriage practices. Societal resistance to close, intimate, personal
black politician), Matthew Booth (a white soccer player), Bryan Habana (a relationships between most groups remains (Jacobsen & Heaton, 2008). This
coloured Springbok rugby player) and Siya Kohlisi (a black Springbok rugby implies that couples in intercultural marriages often face barriers to which
player and Springbok captain). most couples of the same culture are not exposed. While disagreements
resulting from cultural differences (e.g. on religion and how to raise
children) may occur, intercultural marriages are often influenced by external
factors that can create dissonance and disagreement in relationships. The
most common external factors influencing intercultural relationships and
marriages are the acceptance of family, friends, and society (McFadden
& Moore, 2001). Sometimes, the families of the partners display rejection,
resistance, hostility and lack of acceptance of the partner or of the couple,
while societal intimidation and discrimination may also occur (Lakaje, 2014).
Therefore, it is common that the overall divorce rates are higher for interracial
marriages than for mono-racial marriages (Dainton, 2015; Pew Research
Centre, 2012). However, just as mono-racial marriages overcome problems
and strains, many interracial couples have long and happy relationships.
Springbok rugby captain Siya Kolisi and his wife Rachel
Interracial couples are often advised by family and friends not to have
children because they will struggle “to fit in” (Lakaje, 2014). However,
What is the current trend of interracial marriages in South Africa? A
interracial parents are likely to give their children more emotional and
study at the North-West University in Mafikeng shows that, while the “in-
material resources to deal with the afore-mentioned negative social effects
group” is still the norm in the country (i.e. marrying within one’s own ethnic
that mono-racial families do not experience (Le, 2017). This could explain
or language group), the trend has been changing slowly and consistently
304 305
(b) Marriage trends in South Africa over the years (Amoateng, 2015). This is especially true among the groups
who are the least likely to marry across the colour line: Asians, Indians, and
With the onset of a more open society in South Africa, new marriage whites. The overall odds of a person marrying someone of the same group
trends also developed. Interracial marriage and same-sex marriage will be dropped from 303:1 in 1996 to 95:1 in 2011. This situation is attributed to the
discussed in this regard. general changes in society and the mutual tolerance of the races through
Interracial, intercultural or intergroup marriage is a form of marriage increased contact in contexts such as education, religion, and residential
outside a specific social group, involving spouses who belong to different neighbourhoods.
socially defined or racial ethnicities (see Box 5.4 for a discussion on the The study suggests that about 5% of coloureds, Asians and Indians
importance of race). Many jurisdictions have had regulations banning or marry outside their groups, while whites remain the least likely to do so.
restricting not only interracial marriage but also interracial sexual relations, The most common interracial marriages are those between Africans and
including the United States of America, Germany during the Nazi period, coloureds. Also, African men – especially those who are socially mobile –
and South Africa under apartheid. However, before the strict segregation are the most likely to marry outside their group, while African women are
and harsh legal constraints of the Mixed Marriages Act of 1949 had been the least likely to do so. However, South African university students who
implemented, a significant mixed race population had developed in South were exposed to people from different racial, ethnic, and class backgrounds
Africa due to unions between mostly Europeans and Africans. Also, some in their high school years have attitudes that are more positive towards
of the Xhosa people claim descent from white people. For example, the interracial relationships (Amaoteng & Kalula, 2014).
royal family of the ImiDushane, is descended from Queen Gquma of the Because marriage is a public and legal formalisation of an intimate
Mpondo, a white British orphan that was adopted by a Xhosa chief after a relationship between both the partners and their families, third-party factors
shipwreck had killed her parents. Today there are a number of high-profile (such as group identification, group sanctions, and religion) continue to
interracial couples in South Africa, such as the unions of Mmusi Maimane (a influence marriage practices. Societal resistance to close, intimate, personal
black politician), Matthew Booth (a white soccer player), Bryan Habana (a relationships between most groups remains (Jacobsen & Heaton, 2008). This
coloured Springbok rugby player) and Siya Kohlisi (a black Springbok rugby implies that couples in intercultural marriages often face barriers to which
player and Springbok captain). most couples of the same culture are not exposed. While disagreements
resulting from cultural differences (e.g. on religion and how to raise
children) may occur, intercultural marriages are often influenced by external
factors that can create dissonance and disagreement in relationships. The
most common external factors influencing intercultural relationships and
marriages are the acceptance of family, friends, and society (McFadden
& Moore, 2001). Sometimes, the families of the partners display rejection,
resistance, hostility and lack of acceptance of the partner or of the couple,
while societal intimidation and discrimination may also occur (Lakaje, 2014).
Therefore, it is common that the overall divorce rates are higher for interracial
marriages than for mono-racial marriages (Dainton, 2015; Pew Research
Centre, 2012). However, just as mono-racial marriages overcome problems
and strains, many interracial couples have long and happy relationships.
Springbok rugby captain Siya Kolisi and his wife Rachel
Interracial couples are often advised by family and friends not to have
children because they will struggle “to fit in” (Lakaje, 2014). However,
What is the current trend of interracial marriages in South Africa? A
interracial parents are likely to give their children more emotional and
study at the North-West University in Mafikeng shows that, while the “in-
material resources to deal with the afore-mentioned negative social effects
group” is still the norm in the country (i.e. marrying within one’s own ethnic
that mono-racial families do not experience (Le, 2017). This could explain
or language group), the trend has been changing slowly and consistently
304 305
why these children are not different concerning global well-being, positive Same-sex marriage refers to the matrimonial union of individuals who
affect, or behaviour problems (Pearce-Morris & King, 2012). A South African are of the same biological sex. The term is typically being used in reference
study also did not find a marked effect on the identity formation of such to monogamous marriages involving only two partners. Often, it is referred
children (Lloyd, 2010). to popularly as ‘gay marriage’ to distinguish it from ‘marriage’, which is
often used strictly in the context of heterosexual matrimony (Ahmed &
Ryan, 2016). Same-sex marriage remains a highly controversial topic in most
Box 5.4 How important is race? countries, concerning both societal acceptance and legalisation. Although
Although race is an important word in the vocabulary of most South Africans, many many countries allow same-sex marriages and parenting, the majority
misconceptions regarding this concept exist. First, it is important to realise that race of countries do not. In fact, there are several countries such as Iran, Iraq,
is widely regarded as a political, socio-cultural and economic concept, not a biological
or genetic one (Barnes, 2017; Jansen, 2017; Kattmann, 2017; Valentine, 2016). In most Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Somalia, and Nigeria where the death penalty can be
scientific circles, the viewpoint that race has a biological-genetic basis and that each implemented for same-sex acts and thus same-sex marriage.
race is therefore unique (and in some cases superior) is at least frowned upon. For The equality clause in the Bill of Rights in the South African Constitution
example, Yudell et al. (2016, p. 264) regard this stance as “problematic at best and
expressly prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation. This
harmful at worst”. As early as 1950, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) issued a statement asserting that all humans belong means that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons enjoy
to the same species and that ‘race’ is not a biological reality but a fabrication. This was a the same legal and thus marital rights as non-LGBT persons. Progressive
summary of the findings of an international panel of experts including anthropologists, decriminalisation through law and reform since the mid-1990s has enabled
geneticists, sociologists, and psychologists (see Sussman, 2014). Since then, numerous
professional and other organisations have followed suit. For example, the American
homosexual persons to claim their citizenship as equal South Africans. Far-
Anthropological Association (2016) stated that, genetically speaking, there are no pure reaching judgements in respect of medical-aid parity, custody of children,
races today or evidence that they ever existed in the past. There are also no major adoption, insurance, immigration and inheritance have benefited lesbians
complex behaviours that could be considered as unique to a specific race. In fact, and gays. In November 2006, the signing of the Civil Union Act resulted
research has shown that all human beings are 99,9% identical in their genetic makeup
(National Human Genome Research Institute, 2016). Furthermore, as we have pointed in the legal recognition of same-sex marriages. South Africa was the first
out before, the differences within one group often exceed the differences between two country to do so in Africa, and the fifth internationally (Roberts & Reddy,
groups. For example, there is more genetic variation in the diverse black populations 2008). At present, more than 20 countries legally allow gay marriages,
from the continent of Africa than exists in all populations from outside of Africa (the
and several others are investigating the possibility. Despite legal reform,
rest of the world) combined (Fuentes, 2012). Therefore, the focus on differences
between races – especially in discriminatory ways – seems futile to many, particularly South African society to a large extent is still prejudiced against same-
since differences will always be found between groups (e.g. between the educated and sex marriages, however indications are that this trend is slowly changing.
non-educated, the rich and the poor, the old and the young, religious and non-religious, For example, a recent South African study shows that between 2012 and
and males and females).
Several factors have contributed to the fact that the ‘unique pure race’ concept
2015, there has been a tenfold increase in the number of South Africans
has lost its effect. For example, miscegenation (interbreeding between races) has who “strongly agree” with allowing same-sex marriage. During the same
led to the reduction and even disappearance of several noticeable external physical period, the number of people who ‘strongly disagree’ with allowing same
features. In addition, inconsistent and questionable racial classifications have led to sex marriage dropped by 50%. This trend is reflected in Table 5.1.
people being classified dubiously. For example, during the 40 years of apartheid in
South Africa, thousands of people were classified, re-classified, and even re-reclassified Homosexual partnerships are far more similar to heterosexual partnerships
again. Similarly, the same person who is defined as black in the USA may be considered than different (Bjorklund, 2015). However, gay couples are likely to be happier
coloured in Jamaica or Martinique, but white in the Dominican Republic (Quist-Adade, and more positive about their relationships than heterosexuals are (Gabb
2016). Another argument against the biological uniqueness of a race is that differences
& Fink, 2018; Lev, 2015). They maintain more equal relationships than their
between races are not caused by biological-racially determined factors, but rather by
environmental variables such as culture and socio-political factors. heterosexual counterparts do, for example by sharing household tasks
Unfortunately, the term ‘race’ is so ingrained in societies such as South Africa that (Richards et al., 2015). Same-sex couples also have a lower divorce rate overall
authors hardly have a choice not to refer to findings in this regard. Even the South than heterosexual couples (Badgett & Mallory, 2014; Centraal Bureau voor
African Government require an indication of race in situations when you vote or apply
for a position, a prerequisite also required by many other organisations.
de Statistiek, 2016). Regarding gender, there is an indication that lesbian
marriages result in divorce easier than male gay marriages do. Nonetheless,

306 307
why these children are not different concerning global well-being, positive Same-sex marriage refers to the matrimonial union of individuals who
affect, or behaviour problems (Pearce-Morris & King, 2012). A South African are of the same biological sex. The term is typically being used in reference
study also did not find a marked effect on the identity formation of such to monogamous marriages involving only two partners. Often, it is referred
children (Lloyd, 2010). to popularly as ‘gay marriage’ to distinguish it from ‘marriage’, which is
often used strictly in the context of heterosexual matrimony (Ahmed &
Ryan, 2016). Same-sex marriage remains a highly controversial topic in most
Box 5.4 How important is race? countries, concerning both societal acceptance and legalisation. Although
Although race is an important word in the vocabulary of most South Africans, many many countries allow same-sex marriages and parenting, the majority
misconceptions regarding this concept exist. First, it is important to realise that race of countries do not. In fact, there are several countries such as Iran, Iraq,
is widely regarded as a political, socio-cultural and economic concept, not a biological
or genetic one (Barnes, 2017; Jansen, 2017; Kattmann, 2017; Valentine, 2016). In most Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Somalia, and Nigeria where the death penalty can be
scientific circles, the viewpoint that race has a biological-genetic basis and that each implemented for same-sex acts and thus same-sex marriage.
race is therefore unique (and in some cases superior) is at least frowned upon. For The equality clause in the Bill of Rights in the South African Constitution
example, Yudell et al. (2016, p. 264) regard this stance as “problematic at best and
expressly prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation. This
harmful at worst”. As early as 1950, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) issued a statement asserting that all humans belong means that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons enjoy
to the same species and that ‘race’ is not a biological reality but a fabrication. This was a the same legal and thus marital rights as non-LGBT persons. Progressive
summary of the findings of an international panel of experts including anthropologists, decriminalisation through law and reform since the mid-1990s has enabled
geneticists, sociologists, and psychologists (see Sussman, 2014). Since then, numerous
professional and other organisations have followed suit. For example, the American
homosexual persons to claim their citizenship as equal South Africans. Far-
Anthropological Association (2016) stated that, genetically speaking, there are no pure reaching judgements in respect of medical-aid parity, custody of children,
races today or evidence that they ever existed in the past. There are also no major adoption, insurance, immigration and inheritance have benefited lesbians
complex behaviours that could be considered as unique to a specific race. In fact, and gays. In November 2006, the signing of the Civil Union Act resulted
research has shown that all human beings are 99,9% identical in their genetic makeup
(National Human Genome Research Institute, 2016). Furthermore, as we have pointed in the legal recognition of same-sex marriages. South Africa was the first
out before, the differences within one group often exceed the differences between two country to do so in Africa, and the fifth internationally (Roberts & Reddy,
groups. For example, there is more genetic variation in the diverse black populations 2008). At present, more than 20 countries legally allow gay marriages,
from the continent of Africa than exists in all populations from outside of Africa (the
and several others are investigating the possibility. Despite legal reform,
rest of the world) combined (Fuentes, 2012). Therefore, the focus on differences
between races – especially in discriminatory ways – seems futile to many, particularly South African society to a large extent is still prejudiced against same-
since differences will always be found between groups (e.g. between the educated and sex marriages, however indications are that this trend is slowly changing.
non-educated, the rich and the poor, the old and the young, religious and non-religious, For example, a recent South African study shows that between 2012 and
and males and females).
Several factors have contributed to the fact that the ‘unique pure race’ concept
2015, there has been a tenfold increase in the number of South Africans
has lost its effect. For example, miscegenation (interbreeding between races) has who “strongly agree” with allowing same-sex marriage. During the same
led to the reduction and even disappearance of several noticeable external physical period, the number of people who ‘strongly disagree’ with allowing same
features. In addition, inconsistent and questionable racial classifications have led to sex marriage dropped by 50%. This trend is reflected in Table 5.1.
people being classified dubiously. For example, during the 40 years of apartheid in
South Africa, thousands of people were classified, re-classified, and even re-reclassified Homosexual partnerships are far more similar to heterosexual partnerships
again. Similarly, the same person who is defined as black in the USA may be considered than different (Bjorklund, 2015). However, gay couples are likely to be happier
coloured in Jamaica or Martinique, but white in the Dominican Republic (Quist-Adade, and more positive about their relationships than heterosexuals are (Gabb
2016). Another argument against the biological uniqueness of a race is that differences
& Fink, 2018; Lev, 2015). They maintain more equal relationships than their
between races are not caused by biological-racially determined factors, but rather by
environmental variables such as culture and socio-political factors. heterosexual counterparts do, for example by sharing household tasks
Unfortunately, the term ‘race’ is so ingrained in societies such as South Africa that (Richards et al., 2015). Same-sex couples also have a lower divorce rate overall
authors hardly have a choice not to refer to findings in this regard. Even the South than heterosexual couples (Badgett & Mallory, 2014; Centraal Bureau voor
African Government require an indication of race in situations when you vote or apply
for a position, a prerequisite also required by many other organisations.
de Statistiek, 2016). Regarding gender, there is an indication that lesbian
marriages result in divorce easier than male gay marriages do. Nonetheless,

306 307
Table 5.1 Attitude towards same-sex marriage (Du Toit, 2007). They express near universal support for the importance
Attitude towards same- 2012 2015 of marriage and marital monogamy, both of which are perceived to be
sex marriage associated with better living standards and emotional security. In his study,
Strongly agree 1,5 9,9 Amoateng (2005) found that on average, almost half of South Africans are
Agree 12,0 26,7 of the opinion that married people are generally happier than unmarried
Neither agree nor disagree 8,3 14,2 people are.
Disagree 28,1 22,6 Marriage has some advantages and benefits, such as the following
Strongly disagree 48,5 23,4
(Bjorklund, 2015; Soulsby & Bennet, 2015):
Don’t know/no answer 1,6 3,2
– Married persons generally seem to be more physically and psychologically
Human Sciences Research Council, 2016
healthy than those who are separated, divorced, never married, or widowed.
– Married people tend to live longer than unmarried people do.
the suicide rate for same-sex married individuals is higher than for other – Marriage provides a source of intimacy, friendship, love, sexual fulfilment,
married individuals. This is even true in Sweden, a country with a comparatively companionship, and emotional support.
tolerant climate regarding homosexuality (Björkenstam et al., 2016). – Marriage offers opportunities to grow emotionally through a bond that
is often stronger and more mutual than the bond with siblings, friends,
or a romantic partner.
Box 5.5 A Zulu same-sex marriage – Marriage brings about economic and financial advantages.
Although same-sex marriage is regarded by many as a Western phenomenon, this is – Marriage is generally regarded as the best institution in which to raise
not the case (Bennett, 2015; De Waal, 2013): children.
In a town where one of Africa’s greatest warriors and military strategists was laid
to rest, two courageous young men were redefining what traditional masculinity is all
about. In KwaDukuza, where a memorial of Shaka kaSenzangakhona stands proud, However, this favourable picture is not related to the marital status per
Tshepo Modisane and Throb Sithole, young men in their 20s, became the first gay men se. Benefits are derived from healthy marriages or partnerships, while poor
in the province to celebrate their nuptials with a traditional, rural marriage, on Saturday marital quality may erase or lower the benefits. For example, poor marital
6th April 2013. They invited the community to come and celebrate with them . . . the
pair say they were overwhelmed by the love and affection shown them by the crowd, quality is associated with depression, hostility, and anger, which in turn is
family and friends – “It was a remarkable experience to be surrounded by so many linked to cardio-vascular morbidity (disease) and mortality (death) (Gallo
people who were loving and warm towards us,” says Sithole. “For us it was important et al., 2003).
to normalise gay marriages in the community – for people to come and witness, to
Clearly, not all marriages are successful. However, what is a successful and
come and see there’s nothing strange or scary about what we are doing. That we are
just two guys in love.” what an unsuccessful marriage? It is difficult to give a clear definition of a
successful or an unsuccessful marriage, partly because people’s perceptions
of what is good and what is bad in a marriage differ, and partly because a
good marriage can have bad moments and vice versa. In their study, Lavee
and Olson (1993) measured certain dimensions of a marital relationship,
(c) The effects of marriage on adult development
such as personality, communication, conflict management, finances, family,
and friends, and subsequently identified the following seven types of marital
Despite the fact that the marriage rate is declining worldwide and in South
relationships:
Africa, many people still believe in the importance and advantages of
marriage. While older people seem to have more positive attitudes than
younger people do, the younger generation to a large extent still have a • The vitalised relationship. Both partners experience a high degree of
satisfaction regarding all aspects of the marriage.
positive regard for marriage. For example, in a study among a group of South
African students, most thought of themselves as being destined to marry • The financially focused relationship. These marital partners are bound

308 309
Table 5.1 Attitude towards same-sex marriage (Du Toit, 2007). They express near universal support for the importance
Attitude towards same- 2012 2015 of marriage and marital monogamy, both of which are perceived to be
sex marriage associated with better living standards and emotional security. In his study,
Strongly agree 1,5 9,9 Amoateng (2005) found that on average, almost half of South Africans are
Agree 12,0 26,7 of the opinion that married people are generally happier than unmarried
Neither agree nor disagree 8,3 14,2 people are.
Disagree 28,1 22,6 Marriage has some advantages and benefits, such as the following
Strongly disagree 48,5 23,4
(Bjorklund, 2015; Soulsby & Bennet, 2015):
Don’t know/no answer 1,6 3,2
– Married persons generally seem to be more physically and psychologically
Human Sciences Research Council, 2016
healthy than those who are separated, divorced, never married, or widowed.
– Married people tend to live longer than unmarried people do.
the suicide rate for same-sex married individuals is higher than for other – Marriage provides a source of intimacy, friendship, love, sexual fulfilment,
married individuals. This is even true in Sweden, a country with a comparatively companionship, and emotional support.
tolerant climate regarding homosexuality (Björkenstam et al., 2016). – Marriage offers opportunities to grow emotionally through a bond that
is often stronger and more mutual than the bond with siblings, friends,
or a romantic partner.
Box 5.5 A Zulu same-sex marriage – Marriage brings about economic and financial advantages.
Although same-sex marriage is regarded by many as a Western phenomenon, this is – Marriage is generally regarded as the best institution in which to raise
not the case (Bennett, 2015; De Waal, 2013): children.
In a town where one of Africa’s greatest warriors and military strategists was laid
to rest, two courageous young men were redefining what traditional masculinity is all
about. In KwaDukuza, where a memorial of Shaka kaSenzangakhona stands proud, However, this favourable picture is not related to the marital status per
Tshepo Modisane and Throb Sithole, young men in their 20s, became the first gay men se. Benefits are derived from healthy marriages or partnerships, while poor
in the province to celebrate their nuptials with a traditional, rural marriage, on Saturday marital quality may erase or lower the benefits. For example, poor marital
6th April 2013. They invited the community to come and celebrate with them . . . the
pair say they were overwhelmed by the love and affection shown them by the crowd, quality is associated with depression, hostility, and anger, which in turn is
family and friends – “It was a remarkable experience to be surrounded by so many linked to cardio-vascular morbidity (disease) and mortality (death) (Gallo
people who were loving and warm towards us,” says Sithole. “For us it was important et al., 2003).
to normalise gay marriages in the community – for people to come and witness, to
Clearly, not all marriages are successful. However, what is a successful and
come and see there’s nothing strange or scary about what we are doing. That we are
just two guys in love.” what an unsuccessful marriage? It is difficult to give a clear definition of a
successful or an unsuccessful marriage, partly because people’s perceptions
of what is good and what is bad in a marriage differ, and partly because a
good marriage can have bad moments and vice versa. In their study, Lavee
and Olson (1993) measured certain dimensions of a marital relationship,
(c) The effects of marriage on adult development
such as personality, communication, conflict management, finances, family,
and friends, and subsequently identified the following seven types of marital
Despite the fact that the marriage rate is declining worldwide and in South
relationships:
Africa, many people still believe in the importance and advantages of
marriage. While older people seem to have more positive attitudes than
younger people do, the younger generation to a large extent still have a • The vitalised relationship. Both partners experience a high degree of
satisfaction regarding all aspects of the marriage.
positive regard for marriage. For example, in a study among a group of South
African students, most thought of themselves as being destined to marry • The financially focused relationship. These marital partners are bound

308 309
 by material and financial goals, but experience dissatisfaction in all other
Let’s go out and Okay, but if you
aspects of the marriage. have some fun come home before
• The conflicted relationship. The marital partners experience dissatis- tonight for once! I do, leave the hall
light on ....
faction with issues relating to the partners themselves (e.g. communication,
personality, and problem-solving abilities), but they are satisfied with
external aspects such as leisure-time activities.
• The harmonious relationship. This relationship is characterised by
satisfaction with personal aspects relating to the partner, but less
satisfaction with external aspects such as leisure-time activities.
• The traditional relationship. Here, partners experience considerable
stress in their relationship, but a great deal of satisfaction regarding
family and religious values.
• The balanced relationship. Partners in this relationship are generally
satisfied with most aspects of their marriage, regardless of certain
problems at certain times.
• The devitalised relationship. In this relationship, both partners experience
(which is necessary for a successful marriage) unless their identities have
a high degree of dissatisfaction regarding all aspects of their marriage.
been established. Initially, many young couples believe that they have the
These seven types of marriage relationships describe the nature of same values and attitudes and that they are compatible, only to find later
possible relationships between partners, but do not define the marriage (as their identities develop) that this is not the case. Furthermore, the
as successful or unsuccessful. According to the researchers, the reason sacrifices, compromises, and interdependence that are part of intimacy
for this is that some persons who experience their marriage as generally development are difficult to attain if individuals themselves do not know
happy do sometimes consider divorce (often because they think they can who they are. Apart from the above, such young couples often have
be even happier), while others who perceive their marriage as primarily additional burdens, such as an unplanned pregnancy, unemployment,
unhappy never consider divorce (often because they think they may be even or difficult in-laws, which contribute to their marriage starting on an
unhappier). Lavee and Olson suggest that each of the above-mentioned unsound basis.
types of marital relationships either have, or do not have a chance of survival. ■ Similarity. A marriage has a greater chance of survival when marital
Although researchers that are more current did not necessarily find all seven partners share similarities, such as the same interests, attitudes and
types in their research, Lavee and Olson’s typology is still used widely (see goals (Kraeger, 2014). In addition, being from similar socio-economic
Howe, 2011). backgrounds and religious, ethnic, race and age groups also enhance
their chances of success. Couples who differ considerably are more likely
Several factors that could promote the chances of a successful marriage to have less successful marriages, presumably because differences tend
have been identified. These factors are the following: to create the potential for stress and conflict (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-
Fields, 2015). However, some research suggests that couples who have
■ Age and maturity of the marital partners. Marriages between people some complementary characteristics may have healthy relationships as
who are very young, such as those in their teens or early twenties, are this leads to a sense of wholeness (see Burpee & Langer, 2005).
regarded as high-risk marriages. A key factor is the relative psychological ■ Marital equity. A further factor that determines marital success is related
maturity necessary for a good marital relationship. In terms of Erikson’s to the extent to which couples experience equality in the relationship.
theory, this means that such young people have not yet completed their This refers to the equity theory and social exchange theory discussed
identity formation process, and it will be difficult to develop intimacy earlier, in which both partners feel that they are making a useful
contribution to the relationship. The marriage is regarded as successful
310 311
 by material and financial goals, but experience dissatisfaction in all other
Let’s go out and Okay, but if you
aspects of the marriage. have some fun come home before
• The conflicted relationship. The marital partners experience dissatis- tonight for once! I do, leave the hall
light on ....
faction with issues relating to the partners themselves (e.g. communication,
personality, and problem-solving abilities), but they are satisfied with
external aspects such as leisure-time activities.
• The harmonious relationship. This relationship is characterised by
satisfaction with personal aspects relating to the partner, but less
satisfaction with external aspects such as leisure-time activities.
• The traditional relationship. Here, partners experience considerable
stress in their relationship, but a great deal of satisfaction regarding
family and religious values.
• The balanced relationship. Partners in this relationship are generally
satisfied with most aspects of their marriage, regardless of certain
problems at certain times.
• The devitalised relationship. In this relationship, both partners experience
(which is necessary for a successful marriage) unless their identities have
a high degree of dissatisfaction regarding all aspects of their marriage.
been established. Initially, many young couples believe that they have the
These seven types of marriage relationships describe the nature of same values and attitudes and that they are compatible, only to find later
possible relationships between partners, but do not define the marriage (as their identities develop) that this is not the case. Furthermore, the
as successful or unsuccessful. According to the researchers, the reason sacrifices, compromises, and interdependence that are part of intimacy
for this is that some persons who experience their marriage as generally development are difficult to attain if individuals themselves do not know
happy do sometimes consider divorce (often because they think they can who they are. Apart from the above, such young couples often have
be even happier), while others who perceive their marriage as primarily additional burdens, such as an unplanned pregnancy, unemployment,
unhappy never consider divorce (often because they think they may be even or difficult in-laws, which contribute to their marriage starting on an
unhappier). Lavee and Olson suggest that each of the above-mentioned unsound basis.
types of marital relationships either have, or do not have a chance of survival. ■ Similarity. A marriage has a greater chance of survival when marital
Although researchers that are more current did not necessarily find all seven partners share similarities, such as the same interests, attitudes and
types in their research, Lavee and Olson’s typology is still used widely (see goals (Kraeger, 2014). In addition, being from similar socio-economic
Howe, 2011). backgrounds and religious, ethnic, race and age groups also enhance
their chances of success. Couples who differ considerably are more likely
Several factors that could promote the chances of a successful marriage to have less successful marriages, presumably because differences tend
have been identified. These factors are the following: to create the potential for stress and conflict (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-
Fields, 2015). However, some research suggests that couples who have
■ Age and maturity of the marital partners. Marriages between people some complementary characteristics may have healthy relationships as
who are very young, such as those in their teens or early twenties, are this leads to a sense of wholeness (see Burpee & Langer, 2005).
regarded as high-risk marriages. A key factor is the relative psychological ■ Marital equity. A further factor that determines marital success is related
maturity necessary for a good marital relationship. In terms of Erikson’s to the extent to which couples experience equality in the relationship.
theory, this means that such young people have not yet completed their This refers to the equity theory and social exchange theory discussed
identity formation process, and it will be difficult to develop intimacy earlier, in which both partners feel that they are making a useful
contribution to the relationship. The marriage is regarded as successful
310 311
 when the exchange of tasks is regarded as divided equitably. Couples
often experience problems achieving equity because of competing Box 5.6 Black adults’ perceptions of marriage and
demands between work and family. healthy family functioning
■ Effective interaction. Successful marriages are those in which the Culture plays a major role in maintaining healthy family functioning. For example, in a
marital partners like each other, enjoy each other’s company and respect traditional black family, values and norms include respect for the elderly, conformity
and trust each other. Good communication, in which thoughts, feelings, to tradition, and strict discipline from the father as indisputable head of the family.
The family is organised hierarchically, from the oldest member to the youngest child.
ideas and wishes are shared with each other, forms the cornerstone Members of the family are bound together by reciprocal understanding of their roles
of a healthy and successful marriage. However, successful marriages and responsibilities. For example, the father is a decision-maker and a provider of food,
are not necessarily without conflict. Of importance are empathetic shelter, clothing, and other resources that enhance human development. Mothers are
skills, communication skills, openness, and the ability to resolve responsible for issues involving children’s needs including those precipitated by health
problems. Black African mothers spend more time with children and provide emotional
conflicts. Gottman and Silver (1994) identified a ratio of five positive support to the family and children.
to one negative interaction as an indication of marital success (also see Marriage is an important culturally supported mechanism that contributes to the
Crooks & Bauer, 2016; Gottman Institute, 2017). For example, in stable healthy functioning of the family. Traditionally, marriage is regarded as part of family
building and procreation. For example, as we have discussed elsewhere, a man has
marriages, there are five times more touching, complimenting, smiling,
to pay a bride price (lobola) to the bride’s family. The bride price emphasises the
and laughter than sarcasm, criticism, and insults. When characterised perception of the community of women as valuable and worthy, and is a gesture of
by stubbornness, defensiveness, and withdrawal, conflicts become appreciation from the groom’s family. If the man gets married, he is not alone; nor
detrimental to the relationship because these elements remove the does the wife belong to him alone, because the kinship group is also extended through
marriage. This means that relatives from both sides, the groom and the bride, become
possibility for cooperation and constructive interaction. part of the family. After the marriage, the couple is expected to have children. From the
■ Personality factors. Happily married couples seem to have personality traditional African perspective, children are the glory of marriage, and the more there
characteristics that are more positive, such as self-confidence, maturity, a are of them, the greater the glory. Children are valued greatly and considered wealth
positive self-concept, and the ability to be nurturing towards each other, to the family.
Against this background, a study was conducted to determine black adults’
than unhappily married couples do. Certain personality characteristics, perceptions of the factors involved in healthy family functioning (Zwane et al., 2012).
such as emotional stability and general life satisfaction, also contribute The participants were between 26 and 56 years old, represented different African
toward marital happiness, while emotional instability, poor impulse languages, and most had university qualifications. The results indicated that the
participants regarded the following as important for a healthy marital and family
control and hypersensitivity to criticism may lead to higher rates of
functioning: effective communication, appropriate affective involvement, well-defined
conflict and lower rates of marital satisfaction (Nemechek & Olson, 1999). family rules, clear family boundaries, and a common religion. The findings are largely
In addition, mindfulness, the ability to be sensitive towards the point of similar to other South African and international findings.
view of one’s partner, may help to foster marital relationships that are
more positive and satisfying by creating an environment that is rich with
open-mindedness and flexibility, rather than criticism and rigidity (McGill, (d) Marital satisfaction
2016). On the other hand, mindlessness is associated with unwillingness
to accept or appreciate differences, or one’s assumption that another How happy and satisfied are people in their marriages? Although marital
person’s unique qualities are less favourable than one’s own (Burpee & satisfaction remains relatively constant through the years (i.e. marriages
Langer, 2005). that are initially happy remain happy, and vice versa), there are certain
■ Sexual intimacy. Sexual behaviour and satisfaction remain an important tendencies in partners’ experiences of marital satisfaction. The level of
factor during the adult life span and continue to play a significant role marital satisfaction is usually high in the years after marriage and before
in marital happiness. It has been found that higher sexual satisfaction is the first child is born. A decline takes place when children are born and
related to greater marital happiness, also in the later years (Bookwala, only increases again after the children have left home. This is referred to as
2016). the upswing hypothesis of marital satisfaction (Erber, 2013). These shifts in
marital satisfaction seem to be related to the role demands that increasingly

312 313
 when the exchange of tasks is regarded as divided equitably. Couples
often experience problems achieving equity because of competing Box 5.6 Black adults’ perceptions of marriage and
demands between work and family. healthy family functioning
■ Effective interaction. Successful marriages are those in which the Culture plays a major role in maintaining healthy family functioning. For example, in a
marital partners like each other, enjoy each other’s company and respect traditional black family, values and norms include respect for the elderly, conformity
and trust each other. Good communication, in which thoughts, feelings, to tradition, and strict discipline from the father as indisputable head of the family.
The family is organised hierarchically, from the oldest member to the youngest child.
ideas and wishes are shared with each other, forms the cornerstone Members of the family are bound together by reciprocal understanding of their roles
of a healthy and successful marriage. However, successful marriages and responsibilities. For example, the father is a decision-maker and a provider of food,
are not necessarily without conflict. Of importance are empathetic shelter, clothing, and other resources that enhance human development. Mothers are
skills, communication skills, openness, and the ability to resolve responsible for issues involving children’s needs including those precipitated by health
problems. Black African mothers spend more time with children and provide emotional
conflicts. Gottman and Silver (1994) identified a ratio of five positive support to the family and children.
to one negative interaction as an indication of marital success (also see Marriage is an important culturally supported mechanism that contributes to the
Crooks & Bauer, 2016; Gottman Institute, 2017). For example, in stable healthy functioning of the family. Traditionally, marriage is regarded as part of family
building and procreation. For example, as we have discussed elsewhere, a man has
marriages, there are five times more touching, complimenting, smiling,
to pay a bride price (lobola) to the bride’s family. The bride price emphasises the
and laughter than sarcasm, criticism, and insults. When characterised perception of the community of women as valuable and worthy, and is a gesture of
by stubbornness, defensiveness, and withdrawal, conflicts become appreciation from the groom’s family. If the man gets married, he is not alone; nor
detrimental to the relationship because these elements remove the does the wife belong to him alone, because the kinship group is also extended through
marriage. This means that relatives from both sides, the groom and the bride, become
possibility for cooperation and constructive interaction. part of the family. After the marriage, the couple is expected to have children. From the
■ Personality factors. Happily married couples seem to have personality traditional African perspective, children are the glory of marriage, and the more there
characteristics that are more positive, such as self-confidence, maturity, a are of them, the greater the glory. Children are valued greatly and considered wealth
positive self-concept, and the ability to be nurturing towards each other, to the family.
Against this background, a study was conducted to determine black adults’
than unhappily married couples do. Certain personality characteristics, perceptions of the factors involved in healthy family functioning (Zwane et al., 2012).
such as emotional stability and general life satisfaction, also contribute The participants were between 26 and 56 years old, represented different African
toward marital happiness, while emotional instability, poor impulse languages, and most had university qualifications. The results indicated that the
participants regarded the following as important for a healthy marital and family
control and hypersensitivity to criticism may lead to higher rates of
functioning: effective communication, appropriate affective involvement, well-defined
conflict and lower rates of marital satisfaction (Nemechek & Olson, 1999). family rules, clear family boundaries, and a common religion. The findings are largely
In addition, mindfulness, the ability to be sensitive towards the point of similar to other South African and international findings.
view of one’s partner, may help to foster marital relationships that are
more positive and satisfying by creating an environment that is rich with
open-mindedness and flexibility, rather than criticism and rigidity (McGill, (d) Marital satisfaction
2016). On the other hand, mindlessness is associated with unwillingness
to accept or appreciate differences, or one’s assumption that another How happy and satisfied are people in their marriages? Although marital
person’s unique qualities are less favourable than one’s own (Burpee & satisfaction remains relatively constant through the years (i.e. marriages
Langer, 2005). that are initially happy remain happy, and vice versa), there are certain
■ Sexual intimacy. Sexual behaviour and satisfaction remain an important tendencies in partners’ experiences of marital satisfaction. The level of
factor during the adult life span and continue to play a significant role marital satisfaction is usually high in the years after marriage and before
in marital happiness. It has been found that higher sexual satisfaction is the first child is born. A decline takes place when children are born and
related to greater marital happiness, also in the later years (Bookwala, only increases again after the children have left home. This is referred to as
2016). the upswing hypothesis of marital satisfaction (Erber, 2013). These shifts in
marital satisfaction seem to be related to the role demands that increasingly

312 313
become part of the marriage. The addition of children seems to have As emphasised in Chapter 1, a correlation does not necessarily indicate
particularly far-reaching effects on the marital relationship. For example, the causality; therefore, the results should be interpreted with caution. This
demands associated with childcare place a great deal of strain on the marital means that other external or internal factors could play a role in people’s life
couple’s time and energy. During this phase, the marital partners also have satisfaction. For example, unhappiness at work could have an influence on
to put in a great deal of effort to establish their careers, with the result that marital satisfaction, while some people are intrinsically happy or unhappy,
the couple often has little time to spend together. This could affect their regardless of external variables such as marital status.
marital satisfaction. However, one should bear in mind that not all marriages Does the marital relationship
follow this course, and that many couples experience high levels of marital undergo any change as people grow
satisfaction irrespective of the strains of multiple and demanding roles. This older? According to longitudinal
is especially true when there is mutual understanding and support in the and cross-sectional studies, it seems
marriage. It also seems that marriages that show the greatest decline in that both continuity (stability) and
marital satisfaction are characterised by mutual criticism and other negative discontinuity (change) are important
behaviour right from the beginning. In fact, research suggests that specific factors (Glenn, 1991). For example,
and overall problems in marriage largely remain stable during the first four the single best predictor of marital
years of marriage (Lavner et al., 2014). This finding also underlines the myth satisfaction in the later years is the
that many young couples-to-be who experience difficulties believe that quality of the marital relationship
once they are married, ‘things will go better’. during the early years. This means
A South African study investigating the relationship between marital that those who had a high level of
status and life satisfaction indicated that married people are generally emotional intimacy or a high level of Marital satisfaction plays an important role in
adult development
more satisfied with life compared to those who are single, cohabiting (living conflict in their younger years will also
together), widowed, or divorced; in other words, there is a correlation experience this in their later years.
between being married and experiencing life satisfaction (Botha & Booysen, This is an indication that relationships could continue in the same manner
2013). However, as indicated in Table 5.2, only about 50% of the married throughout adulthood.
group regard themselves as satisfied or very satisfied with life. Older couples tend to experience less conflict and more happiness
than middle-aged couples do in several areas of marital life (Kulik, 2016).
Table 5.2. Marital status and life satisfaction (percentages) A reason for this is that the accumulation of shared life experiences (e.g.
Life Marital status living in the same house, caring for the same children, sharing the same
satisfaction financial circumstances) tend to make individuals more compatible. These
Single Cohabiting Widowed Divorced/ Married
Separated shared events could contribute to the development of greater similarities
regarding personalities, perspectives, and values. The shared life experiences
Very 15,0 14,2 14,5 15,5 9,00
unsatisfied and shared decision making could also contribute to spouses experiencing
their relationship as more equitable (fair) and egalitarian (equal). Spouses
Unsatisfied 24,6 28,0 28,4 19,5 19,2
also report that the degree of conflict declines and that the quality of their
Neutral 18,5 20,2 19,7 19,5 20,8
communication patterns improves (see Erber, 2013).
Satisfied 24,7 22,9 22,6 25,2 28,5 Two factors give the marriage relationship of older people a unique
Very 17,2 14,7 14,7 20,3 22,3 character. First, retirement from employment. Many couples find that they
satisfied now have more time for each other, a factor that can promote marital
Botha & Booysen, 2013 happiness. However, it seems that marital quality is lower if the husband
is retired but the wife still works. This is particularly true if the couple’s
relationship was characterised by traditional gender roles (Bookwala, 2016).

314 315
become part of the marriage. The addition of children seems to have As emphasised in Chapter 1, a correlation does not necessarily indicate
particularly far-reaching effects on the marital relationship. For example, the causality; therefore, the results should be interpreted with caution. This
demands associated with childcare place a great deal of strain on the marital means that other external or internal factors could play a role in people’s life
couple’s time and energy. During this phase, the marital partners also have satisfaction. For example, unhappiness at work could have an influence on
to put in a great deal of effort to establish their careers, with the result that marital satisfaction, while some people are intrinsically happy or unhappy,
the couple often has little time to spend together. This could affect their regardless of external variables such as marital status.
marital satisfaction. However, one should bear in mind that not all marriages Does the marital relationship
follow this course, and that many couples experience high levels of marital undergo any change as people grow
satisfaction irrespective of the strains of multiple and demanding roles. This older? According to longitudinal
is especially true when there is mutual understanding and support in the and cross-sectional studies, it seems
marriage. It also seems that marriages that show the greatest decline in that both continuity (stability) and
marital satisfaction are characterised by mutual criticism and other negative discontinuity (change) are important
behaviour right from the beginning. In fact, research suggests that specific factors (Glenn, 1991). For example,
and overall problems in marriage largely remain stable during the first four the single best predictor of marital
years of marriage (Lavner et al., 2014). This finding also underlines the myth satisfaction in the later years is the
that many young couples-to-be who experience difficulties believe that quality of the marital relationship
once they are married, ‘things will go better’. during the early years. This means
A South African study investigating the relationship between marital that those who had a high level of
status and life satisfaction indicated that married people are generally emotional intimacy or a high level of Marital satisfaction plays an important role in
adult development
more satisfied with life compared to those who are single, cohabiting (living conflict in their younger years will also
together), widowed, or divorced; in other words, there is a correlation experience this in their later years.
between being married and experiencing life satisfaction (Botha & Booysen, This is an indication that relationships could continue in the same manner
2013). However, as indicated in Table 5.2, only about 50% of the married throughout adulthood.
group regard themselves as satisfied or very satisfied with life. Older couples tend to experience less conflict and more happiness
than middle-aged couples do in several areas of marital life (Kulik, 2016).
Table 5.2. Marital status and life satisfaction (percentages) A reason for this is that the accumulation of shared life experiences (e.g.
Life Marital status living in the same house, caring for the same children, sharing the same
satisfaction financial circumstances) tend to make individuals more compatible. These
Single Cohabiting Widowed Divorced/ Married
Separated shared events could contribute to the development of greater similarities
regarding personalities, perspectives, and values. The shared life experiences
Very 15,0 14,2 14,5 15,5 9,00
unsatisfied and shared decision making could also contribute to spouses experiencing
their relationship as more equitable (fair) and egalitarian (equal). Spouses
Unsatisfied 24,6 28,0 28,4 19,5 19,2
also report that the degree of conflict declines and that the quality of their
Neutral 18,5 20,2 19,7 19,5 20,8
communication patterns improves (see Erber, 2013).
Satisfied 24,7 22,9 22,6 25,2 28,5 Two factors give the marriage relationship of older people a unique
Very 17,2 14,7 14,7 20,3 22,3 character. First, retirement from employment. Many couples find that they
satisfied now have more time for each other, a factor that can promote marital
Botha & Booysen, 2013 happiness. However, it seems that marital quality is lower if the husband
is retired but the wife still works. This is particularly true if the couple’s
relationship was characterised by traditional gender roles (Bookwala, 2016).

314 315
Second, the gradual shift of emphasis away from the children. Married aged and younger adults do (Erber, 2013).
couples generally experience greater intimacy, mutual support, and harmony An aspect that could challenge older people’s marital satisfaction is
after the children have left. Therefore, the so-called empty nest syndrome is caring for a chronically ill spouse. The pledge taken at marriage to love
largely exaggerated and even regarded by many as a myth (Mitchell, 2016; each other “in sickness and in health” is often tested severely (Cavanaugh
Mount & Moas, 2015). However, the & Blanchard-Fields, 2015). Spousal caregivers usually assume this role
‘empty nest’ may be short-lived, as it is after decades of shared responsibilities in marriage. In the event of chronic
not uncommon for many adult children illness, the division of responsibilities and roles has to be readjusted, which
to return to their parental home due to may burden the relationship with additional stress. Furthermore, spousal
divorce, economic difficulties, or illness. caregivers may feel a loss of companionship and intimacy over the course
Which factors play a role in marital of caregiving. However, marital satisfaction and the caregiving spouse’s
satisfaction? Compared to young and perception of his or her competence to care for the ill spouse may influence
middle-aged couples, older couples his or her ability to adjust and cope. Nevertheless, providing full-time care
consider emotional security and for a spouse is very stressful. For example, caring for a spouse who may not
loyalty as having greater importance remember your name or who you are, who becomes aggressive towards
than sexual intimacy does. On the you and who may not be able to perform basic tasks (such as dressing,
other hand, young couples consider The empty nest syndrome is largely bathing, or toileting) due to a chronic or fatal illness, may challenge even the
communication more important than exaggerated happiest of marriages and may even have serious health consequences for
middle-aged and older couples do, the caregiving spouse.
perhaps because older couples take good communication for granted
(Levenson et al., 1993). However, communication remains important at all (e) Divorce
life stages. The following are examples of communication styles that are
associated with couples who are happily married Belsky (2013): Most adults enter marriage with the belief that the union will last forever.
However, for many people, this does not happen. Their intimacy fails to grow
• There is a high ratio of positive versus negative comments. People who and rather than growing together, they grow apart. Continuous conflict over
are happily married also experience conflict, sometimes intensely. The various matters adds to the decision to rather divorce.
key is to ensure that the number of caring and loving comments in the According to Statistics South Africa (2019), more than 25 000 divorces
relationship outweighs the negative ones. were granted in South Africa in 2016 (in the same year, almost 140 000
• Disagreements do not get personal and destructive. Happily married marriages were registered). The highest divorce rate was among people who
couples rather confine disagreements to the problem, for example: “I had been married for five to nine years. Generally, the proportion of divorces
don’t like it when I come home and the house is messy. What can we do for black South Africans increased, while that of the white population group
to avoid this?” declined from 2003 to 2016. About two thirds of divorces were initiated by
• Happy couples are sensitive regarding the right time to communicate the wives rather than the husbands. The legal aspects of divorce in South
over something that bothers them. To communicate effectively it is Africa are discussed in Box 5.7.
important to select the ‘right’ emotional moment. As the divorce statistics indicate, divorce seems to occur earlier in the
marriage (therefore in early adulthood). The probability of divorce seems
The number of years or decades married is not necessarily an to be higher for people who marry young, people who have lived together
indication of marital satisfaction. Some couples remain dissatisfied in their before marrying, and people who had parents who divorced (Amoateng et
relationships although they remain married. Generally, these relationships al., 2004). However, divorce among middle-aged and older adults seems
are characterised by disagreement and conflict, although older adults seem to be on the rise (Lin et al., 2016). For example, in the USA the divorce rate
to control negative expression of emotions better than dissatisfied middle- among adults aged 50 and older doubled between 1990 and 2010 (Brown

316 317
Second, the gradual shift of emphasis away from the children. Married aged and younger adults do (Erber, 2013).
couples generally experience greater intimacy, mutual support, and harmony An aspect that could challenge older people’s marital satisfaction is
after the children have left. Therefore, the so-called empty nest syndrome is caring for a chronically ill spouse. The pledge taken at marriage to love
largely exaggerated and even regarded by many as a myth (Mitchell, 2016; each other “in sickness and in health” is often tested severely (Cavanaugh
Mount & Moas, 2015). However, the & Blanchard-Fields, 2015). Spousal caregivers usually assume this role
‘empty nest’ may be short-lived, as it is after decades of shared responsibilities in marriage. In the event of chronic
not uncommon for many adult children illness, the division of responsibilities and roles has to be readjusted, which
to return to their parental home due to may burden the relationship with additional stress. Furthermore, spousal
divorce, economic difficulties, or illness. caregivers may feel a loss of companionship and intimacy over the course
Which factors play a role in marital of caregiving. However, marital satisfaction and the caregiving spouse’s
satisfaction? Compared to young and perception of his or her competence to care for the ill spouse may influence
middle-aged couples, older couples his or her ability to adjust and cope. Nevertheless, providing full-time care
consider emotional security and for a spouse is very stressful. For example, caring for a spouse who may not
loyalty as having greater importance remember your name or who you are, who becomes aggressive towards
than sexual intimacy does. On the you and who may not be able to perform basic tasks (such as dressing,
other hand, young couples consider The empty nest syndrome is largely bathing, or toileting) due to a chronic or fatal illness, may challenge even the
communication more important than exaggerated happiest of marriages and may even have serious health consequences for
middle-aged and older couples do, the caregiving spouse.
perhaps because older couples take good communication for granted
(Levenson et al., 1993). However, communication remains important at all (e) Divorce
life stages. The following are examples of communication styles that are
associated with couples who are happily married Belsky (2013): Most adults enter marriage with the belief that the union will last forever.
However, for many people, this does not happen. Their intimacy fails to grow
• There is a high ratio of positive versus negative comments. People who and rather than growing together, they grow apart. Continuous conflict over
are happily married also experience conflict, sometimes intensely. The various matters adds to the decision to rather divorce.
key is to ensure that the number of caring and loving comments in the According to Statistics South Africa (2019), more than 25 000 divorces
relationship outweighs the negative ones. were granted in South Africa in 2016 (in the same year, almost 140 000
• Disagreements do not get personal and destructive. Happily married marriages were registered). The highest divorce rate was among people who
couples rather confine disagreements to the problem, for example: “I had been married for five to nine years. Generally, the proportion of divorces
don’t like it when I come home and the house is messy. What can we do for black South Africans increased, while that of the white population group
to avoid this?” declined from 2003 to 2016. About two thirds of divorces were initiated by
• Happy couples are sensitive regarding the right time to communicate the wives rather than the husbands. The legal aspects of divorce in South
over something that bothers them. To communicate effectively it is Africa are discussed in Box 5.7.
important to select the ‘right’ emotional moment. As the divorce statistics indicate, divorce seems to occur earlier in the
marriage (therefore in early adulthood). The probability of divorce seems
The number of years or decades married is not necessarily an to be higher for people who marry young, people who have lived together
indication of marital satisfaction. Some couples remain dissatisfied in their before marrying, and people who had parents who divorced (Amoateng et
relationships although they remain married. Generally, these relationships al., 2004). However, divorce among middle-aged and older adults seems
are characterised by disagreement and conflict, although older adults seem to be on the rise (Lin et al., 2016). For example, in the USA the divorce rate
to control negative expression of emotions better than dissatisfied middle- among adults aged 50 and older doubled between 1990 and 2010 (Brown

316 317
 view it as the ‘right time’ to get divorced. Third, the population is ageing
Box 5.7. The legal aspects of divorce in South Africa with the result that there are more married couples and therefore more
• A divorce is granted on the following legal grounds:
divorces. Contrary to earlier explanations, the onset of an empty nest, the
– The irretrievable breakdown of the marriage, i.e. the court is satisfied that wife’s or husband’s retirement, and the wife’s or husbands chronic health
the marital relationship between the parties has reached such a state of conditions seem to be unrelated to the likelihood of grey divorce (Lin et al.,
disintegration that there is no reasonable prospect of the restoration of a normal 2016). Rather, factors traditionally associated with divorce among younger
marital relationship. There is no obligation to prove fault on the side of either party,
but merely that the marriage has broken down irreversibly. adults are also valid for older adults.
– Adultery (voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and a person The reasons why people divorce are diverse and may differ from cultural
who is not his or her spouse). group to cultural group and from individual to individual. The most common
– A serious mental disorder.
reasons that people indicate for divorce in South Africa (Preller, 2012)
– The spouse is declared a habitual criminal.
– A long and continuous unconsciousness (coma). overlap largely with international research (Sabour Esmaeili & Schoebi,
• The costs of a divorce: 2017; Gravningen et al., 2017; Scott, 2013):
An uncontested divorce (i.e. both parties agree on the divorce) can cost anything
between about R1 000 and R20 000. The costs mostly depend on the complexity
of the divorce settlement agreement and the complexity surrounding the care and • Communication problems. A lack of communication constitutes the
contact of any minor children. A contested divorce (one of the partners dispute or central reason for divorce and accounts for most of all breakdowns
challenge the divorce) can be extremely expensive in fees and expenditures. Sadly, in a marriage relationship (Grobbelaar & Alsemgeest, 2016; Knapp
it is the present authors’ experience that in such acrimonious (hostile) divorces 2015). Without effective communication, no relationship can function
the parents do not realise (even if this is repeatedly pointed out to them) that
this money could be spent on the care and well-being of the children, rather than efficiently. Communication not only improves a couple’s relationships
fighting each other. but also resolves the differences that inevitably arise in the relationship.
• Duration of the divorce proceedings: In such situations, the goal of positive communication is to compromise,
If a divorce is undefended (uncontested), it can take a few weeks. However, if it is a
not to confront or retaliate. This means the communication should
contested divorce, it can take many months and even years.
• Consent to get divorced: have a cooperative rather than competitive basis, while mutual respect
Spouses do not have to get consent from each other to divorce. If the one spouse should be a major component. This will enable the spouses to overcome
is not willing to get divorced, the other one can get a divorce the challenges of marriage, since communication is ‘the grease that
smoothes frictions’ between partners (Abanyam, 2014). The following
are examples of communication patterns that could lead to relational
& Lin, 2012). Divorce among persons aged 50 and older is generally known breakups such as divorce (Guerrero et al., 2011):
as ‘grey divorce’. The increase of the grey divorce rate could be attributed – Negative communication. All couples have disagreements that can lead
to especially three factors: First, the stigma of getting divorced has declined to conflict and arguments. Research has shown that it is not primarily the
significantly over the last presence or absence of conflict that will determine whether a relationship
few decades. In other will endure, but the way in which the couple deals with the conflict that is
words, where unhappily more important. The following are examples of negative communication
married couples would in such and other situations: continuously interrupting the other partner,
stay together in the blaming, name-calling, bringing up the past, comparing the partner to
past, they now feel much someone else, or being sarcastic, threatening, insulting, or judgemental.
more comfortable to take A type of communication that is regarded as ‘more common than
the step. Second, many adultery and potentially as toxic’, is nagging (Bernstein, 2012). Nagging
couples stay together ‘for refers to continuing demands, complaints, and fault-finding. Research
the sake of the children’. has indicated that people who are subjected to constant nagging are
When these children 2,5 times more likely to die within 10 years than those with less stressful
reach adulthood, couples ‘Grey divorce’ is on the increase
318 319
 view it as the ‘right time’ to get divorced. Third, the population is ageing
Box 5.7. The legal aspects of divorce in South Africa with the result that there are more married couples and therefore more
• A divorce is granted on the following legal grounds:
divorces. Contrary to earlier explanations, the onset of an empty nest, the
– The irretrievable breakdown of the marriage, i.e. the court is satisfied that wife’s or husband’s retirement, and the wife’s or husbands chronic health
the marital relationship between the parties has reached such a state of conditions seem to be unrelated to the likelihood of grey divorce (Lin et al.,
disintegration that there is no reasonable prospect of the restoration of a normal 2016). Rather, factors traditionally associated with divorce among younger
marital relationship. There is no obligation to prove fault on the side of either party,
but merely that the marriage has broken down irreversibly. adults are also valid for older adults.
– Adultery (voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and a person The reasons why people divorce are diverse and may differ from cultural
who is not his or her spouse). group to cultural group and from individual to individual. The most common
– A serious mental disorder.
reasons that people indicate for divorce in South Africa (Preller, 2012)
– The spouse is declared a habitual criminal.
– A long and continuous unconsciousness (coma). overlap largely with international research (Sabour Esmaeili & Schoebi,
• The costs of a divorce: 2017; Gravningen et al., 2017; Scott, 2013):
An uncontested divorce (i.e. both parties agree on the divorce) can cost anything
between about R1 000 and R20 000. The costs mostly depend on the complexity
of the divorce settlement agreement and the complexity surrounding the care and • Communication problems. A lack of communication constitutes the
contact of any minor children. A contested divorce (one of the partners dispute or central reason for divorce and accounts for most of all breakdowns
challenge the divorce) can be extremely expensive in fees and expenditures. Sadly, in a marriage relationship (Grobbelaar & Alsemgeest, 2016; Knapp
it is the present authors’ experience that in such acrimonious (hostile) divorces 2015). Without effective communication, no relationship can function
the parents do not realise (even if this is repeatedly pointed out to them) that
this money could be spent on the care and well-being of the children, rather than efficiently. Communication not only improves a couple’s relationships
fighting each other. but also resolves the differences that inevitably arise in the relationship.
• Duration of the divorce proceedings: In such situations, the goal of positive communication is to compromise,
If a divorce is undefended (uncontested), it can take a few weeks. However, if it is a
not to confront or retaliate. This means the communication should
contested divorce, it can take many months and even years.
• Consent to get divorced: have a cooperative rather than competitive basis, while mutual respect
Spouses do not have to get consent from each other to divorce. If the one spouse should be a major component. This will enable the spouses to overcome
is not willing to get divorced, the other one can get a divorce the challenges of marriage, since communication is ‘the grease that
smoothes frictions’ between partners (Abanyam, 2014). The following
are examples of communication patterns that could lead to relational
& Lin, 2012). Divorce among persons aged 50 and older is generally known breakups such as divorce (Guerrero et al., 2011):
as ‘grey divorce’. The increase of the grey divorce rate could be attributed – Negative communication. All couples have disagreements that can lead
to especially three factors: First, the stigma of getting divorced has declined to conflict and arguments. Research has shown that it is not primarily the
significantly over the last presence or absence of conflict that will determine whether a relationship
few decades. In other will endure, but the way in which the couple deals with the conflict that is
words, where unhappily more important. The following are examples of negative communication
married couples would in such and other situations: continuously interrupting the other partner,
stay together in the blaming, name-calling, bringing up the past, comparing the partner to
past, they now feel much someone else, or being sarcastic, threatening, insulting, or judgemental.
more comfortable to take A type of communication that is regarded as ‘more common than
the step. Second, many adultery and potentially as toxic’, is nagging (Bernstein, 2012). Nagging
couples stay together ‘for refers to continuing demands, complaints, and fault-finding. Research
the sake of the children’. has indicated that people who are subjected to constant nagging are
When these children 2,5 times more likely to die within 10 years than those with less stressful
reach adulthood, couples ‘Grey divorce’ is on the increase
318 319
 relationships are (Lund et al., and the victims often suffer from mental disorders such as depression,
2014). An important reason for anxiety, eating disorders, and alcohol/drug abuse (Ouellet-Morin et al.,
this is that, while nagging is a 2015; Wong & Mellor, 2014).
relatively low level of stress, • Lack or loss of trust. To trust one’s partner means that one believes that
the continuous nature thereof he or she is reliable, dependable, honest, and responsible, and that one
significantly affects the immune feels physically safe and emotionally secure in the relationship. Trust
system. Nagging is especially, is regarded as a precondition for a couple’s long-term success, which
but not exclusively, a complaint is a prerequisite for a marriage to reach its full potential (Diamond et
by men. al., 2017). Therefore, it is understandable that trust is regarded as the
– Withdrawal. This happens when glue that keeps a relationship intact, while the lack or loss of trust is
one spouse continuously with- Communication problems plays a central one of the main reasons for divorce (Asante et al., 2014). The reason
role in divorce
draws from communicating with is that distrust brings forth the worst in people: jealousy, suspicion,
the other. The person either avoids any communication with the other anger, self-doubt, possessiveness, withdrawal, as well as psychological
spouse or, when in interaction, does not respond at all or only minimally. problems such as anxiety, depression, and alcohol/drug abuse. Another
Men tend to use this type of dysfunctional communication more often reason why distrust often leads to divorce is that many people find it
than women do. very difficult and even impossible to restore the trust they had. The
– Lack of openness. Although couples need a certain level of privacy German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900) said, “I’m not
and independence, a degree of disclosure is necessary. (As we have upset because you lied to me, I’m upset that from now on I can’t trust
stated elsewhere, disclosure refers to revealing intimate and personal you.”
information of yourself to your partner.) Several studies have found that • Adultery. Adultery refers to being sexually unfaithful in a marital
the lack of self-disclosure is associated with unsuccessful relationships. relationship. It is a leading cause of divorce worldwide and in South
Significantly more women than men mention lack of openness as a Africa. The terms adultery and infidelity are often used interchangeably.
major factor in the termination of their relationship. However, there is a technical difference: Adultery refers to physical
• Physical and/or emotional abuse. Domestic abuse or violence is one of sexual activity where at least one of the partners is married to another
the most underreported crimes in the world (Amoateng-Boahen, 2015). person. In the case of infidelity, the relationship can be emotional only,
It is also one of the most important reasons for divorce. Abusers can although it often includes a sexual component. Infidelity can occur in
be either a husband or a wife. Abuse occurs among heterosexual and marital as well as committed relationships, although there is a tendency
homosexual married couples, and in all age ranges, culture groups, and to occur mostly in committed relationships. Both adultery and infidelity
socio-economic levels. While women and children are usually the victims, are commonly known as “cheating”. Worldwide, men are more likely to
men are also abused, especially verbally and emotionally but sometimes commit adultery than women are, although some studies indicate that
also physically. Physical abuse usually manifests in physically aggressive men and women cheat at about the same rate (e.g. Eaves & Robertson-
behaviour such as hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, hair pulling, pinching, Smith, 2017). The serious condemnation of adultery in certain cultures
and slapping. Marital rape is a form of physical abuse where force is use is illustrated by the fact that several countries (e.g. Saudi Arabia, Sudan,
to have sexual intercourse with one’s spouse without her or his consent. Iran, Somalia, and Yemen) legally punish it by death, or by punishments
Although this act is not illegal in all countries, South Africa criminalised such as stoning.
marital rape in 1993. Emotional (psychological or mental) abuse is a The psychological reasons why people commit adultery and
pattern of behaviour where the one partner continuously belittles, infidelity are multiple and complex. Gender differences may occur
criticises, threatens, intimidates, and humiliates his or her partner to (Egan & Angus, 2004). Males typically place less emphasis on
undermine the other person’s self-esteem and self-worth. Emotional emotional attachment for sexual relationships, have a greater desire for
abuse can even be more psychologically harmful than physical abuse is, anonymous sexual encounters, and desire a greater number of sexual

320 321
 relationships are (Lund et al., and the victims often suffer from mental disorders such as depression,
2014). An important reason for anxiety, eating disorders, and alcohol/drug abuse (Ouellet-Morin et al.,
this is that, while nagging is a 2015; Wong & Mellor, 2014).
relatively low level of stress, • Lack or loss of trust. To trust one’s partner means that one believes that
the continuous nature thereof he or she is reliable, dependable, honest, and responsible, and that one
significantly affects the immune feels physically safe and emotionally secure in the relationship. Trust
system. Nagging is especially, is regarded as a precondition for a couple’s long-term success, which
but not exclusively, a complaint is a prerequisite for a marriage to reach its full potential (Diamond et
by men. al., 2017). Therefore, it is understandable that trust is regarded as the
– Withdrawal. This happens when glue that keeps a relationship intact, while the lack or loss of trust is
one spouse continuously with- Communication problems plays a central one of the main reasons for divorce (Asante et al., 2014). The reason
role in divorce
draws from communicating with is that distrust brings forth the worst in people: jealousy, suspicion,
the other. The person either avoids any communication with the other anger, self-doubt, possessiveness, withdrawal, as well as psychological
spouse or, when in interaction, does not respond at all or only minimally. problems such as anxiety, depression, and alcohol/drug abuse. Another
Men tend to use this type of dysfunctional communication more often reason why distrust often leads to divorce is that many people find it
than women do. very difficult and even impossible to restore the trust they had. The
– Lack of openness. Although couples need a certain level of privacy German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900) said, “I’m not
and independence, a degree of disclosure is necessary. (As we have upset because you lied to me, I’m upset that from now on I can’t trust
stated elsewhere, disclosure refers to revealing intimate and personal you.”
information of yourself to your partner.) Several studies have found that • Adultery. Adultery refers to being sexually unfaithful in a marital
the lack of self-disclosure is associated with unsuccessful relationships. relationship. It is a leading cause of divorce worldwide and in South
Significantly more women than men mention lack of openness as a Africa. The terms adultery and infidelity are often used interchangeably.
major factor in the termination of their relationship. However, there is a technical difference: Adultery refers to physical
• Physical and/or emotional abuse. Domestic abuse or violence is one of sexual activity where at least one of the partners is married to another
the most underreported crimes in the world (Amoateng-Boahen, 2015). person. In the case of infidelity, the relationship can be emotional only,
It is also one of the most important reasons for divorce. Abusers can although it often includes a sexual component. Infidelity can occur in
be either a husband or a wife. Abuse occurs among heterosexual and marital as well as committed relationships, although there is a tendency
homosexual married couples, and in all age ranges, culture groups, and to occur mostly in committed relationships. Both adultery and infidelity
socio-economic levels. While women and children are usually the victims, are commonly known as “cheating”. Worldwide, men are more likely to
men are also abused, especially verbally and emotionally but sometimes commit adultery than women are, although some studies indicate that
also physically. Physical abuse usually manifests in physically aggressive men and women cheat at about the same rate (e.g. Eaves & Robertson-
behaviour such as hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, hair pulling, pinching, Smith, 2017). The serious condemnation of adultery in certain cultures
and slapping. Marital rape is a form of physical abuse where force is use is illustrated by the fact that several countries (e.g. Saudi Arabia, Sudan,
to have sexual intercourse with one’s spouse without her or his consent. Iran, Somalia, and Yemen) legally punish it by death, or by punishments
Although this act is not illegal in all countries, South Africa criminalised such as stoning.
marital rape in 1993. Emotional (psychological or mental) abuse is a The psychological reasons why people commit adultery and
pattern of behaviour where the one partner continuously belittles, infidelity are multiple and complex. Gender differences may occur
criticises, threatens, intimidates, and humiliates his or her partner to (Egan & Angus, 2004). Males typically place less emphasis on
undermine the other person’s self-esteem and self-worth. Emotional emotional attachment for sexual relationships, have a greater desire for
abuse can even be more psychologically harmful than physical abuse is, anonymous sexual encounters, and desire a greater number of sexual

320 321
 partners than females do. The social double standard, that it seems to available option (Eversole Law, 2017). Much more research on the role of
be more acceptable for men than women to be unfaithful, may play a alcohol has been done than on drug abuse in divorce. Note, however, that
role in these gender differences. Specific qualities of unfaithful males alcohol is also a drug and the distinction between alcohol and drugs is not
and females are the following: Unfaithful males tend to be extraverted only scientifically wrong, but it also testifies to the inconsistency of society
and have psychopathic tendencies such as manipulativeness and lack of in this regard.
guilt feelings. Contradicting evidence exists regarding the self-esteem
of unfaithful males: both high and low self-esteem have been reported
(Eaves & Robertson-Smith, 2017; Schmitt, 2005). Adulterous females
tend to be more neurotic (less emotionally stable) and score high on
agreeableness and social desirability. They are also more selective than
men about whom they are willing to be unfaithful with.
Unfaithful spouses often report a poor sexual relationship and lack
of intimacy in their relationship. The need for reassurance (to feel loved
and understood) also plays an important role. This is accompanied by
a quest for new emotions, especially where boredom is present in the
Drug abuse (alcohol and cigarettes are also drugs)
relationship. However, it must be
emphasised that adultery is often
An extensive study involving almost 20 000 participants revealed
a consequence, rather than the
that nearly 50% of the participants with a past or present case of an
cause of marital conflict (Delvin,
alcohol use disorder divorced at some point in their lives (Cranford,
2013). This means that many men
2014). Among couples in marital therapy, approximately 30% report that
and women who are in unhappy
alcohol is a source of conflict (Cox et al., 2013). The National Healthy
marital relationships ‘escape’
Marriage Resource Centre (2017) provides the following information on
(albeit temporarily) into an extra-
the effects of alcohol on marital quality:
marital affair with someone who
– General marital distress. Individuals in marriages in which one or both
they find more understanding,
spouses abuse alcohol report higher general and extensive levels of
amiable, and even more attractive
marital distress and discontent than do married individuals who are not
than their current spouse. A woman confronts her adulterous husband
married to alcohol abusers.
There are few, if any, other
– Poor communication. Spouses who abuse alcohol tend to use
occurrence in a marital relationship that has such a devastating effect on
communication that is more negative and damaging (e.g. criticising,
the non-involved spouse and children than adultery. Next to the strong
blaming, and contempt), express more anger, and show lower levels of
possibility of a divorce, the non-involved spouse and children usually react
warmth when trying to solve a problem than non-abusers do.
with intense feelings of anger, anxiety, guilt, shame, sadness, and confusion,
– Reduced family responsibilities. Alcohol abuse decreases the drinking
while depression and posttraumatic stress disorder are not uncommon.
spouse’s ability to participate in everyday household tasks and other
Violence occurs frequently. Therefore, it is understandable that adultery is
important responsibilities. A decrease in income is common (Kühn et al.,
a leading cause of divorce in most countries.
2017).
• Alcohol and drug abuse. Alcohol and drug abuse has been described as
– Effects on others. Alcohol abuse not only has a degrading effect on the
a black hole that sucks in everything in its path of destruction. Marriage
person and his/her spouse, but most often leaves disastrous emotional,
is often one of the fatalities. In such a situation, even the strongest of
social, academic, and behavioural scars on the children. Often, also
marriages can corrode quickly to the point where divorce is the best

322 323
 partners than females do. The social double standard, that it seems to available option (Eversole Law, 2017). Much more research on the role of
be more acceptable for men than women to be unfaithful, may play a alcohol has been done than on drug abuse in divorce. Note, however, that
role in these gender differences. Specific qualities of unfaithful males alcohol is also a drug and the distinction between alcohol and drugs is not
and females are the following: Unfaithful males tend to be extraverted only scientifically wrong, but it also testifies to the inconsistency of society
and have psychopathic tendencies such as manipulativeness and lack of in this regard.
guilt feelings. Contradicting evidence exists regarding the self-esteem
of unfaithful males: both high and low self-esteem have been reported
(Eaves & Robertson-Smith, 2017; Schmitt, 2005). Adulterous females
tend to be more neurotic (less emotionally stable) and score high on
agreeableness and social desirability. They are also more selective than
men about whom they are willing to be unfaithful with.
Unfaithful spouses often report a poor sexual relationship and lack
of intimacy in their relationship. The need for reassurance (to feel loved
and understood) also plays an important role. This is accompanied by
a quest for new emotions, especially where boredom is present in the
Drug abuse (alcohol and cigarettes are also drugs)
relationship. However, it must be
emphasised that adultery is often
An extensive study involving almost 20 000 participants revealed
a consequence, rather than the
that nearly 50% of the participants with a past or present case of an
cause of marital conflict (Delvin,
alcohol use disorder divorced at some point in their lives (Cranford,
2013). This means that many men
2014). Among couples in marital therapy, approximately 30% report that
and women who are in unhappy
alcohol is a source of conflict (Cox et al., 2013). The National Healthy
marital relationships ‘escape’
Marriage Resource Centre (2017) provides the following information on
(albeit temporarily) into an extra-
the effects of alcohol on marital quality:
marital affair with someone who
– General marital distress. Individuals in marriages in which one or both
they find more understanding,
spouses abuse alcohol report higher general and extensive levels of
amiable, and even more attractive
marital distress and discontent than do married individuals who are not
than their current spouse. A woman confronts her adulterous husband
married to alcohol abusers.
There are few, if any, other
– Poor communication. Spouses who abuse alcohol tend to use
occurrence in a marital relationship that has such a devastating effect on
communication that is more negative and damaging (e.g. criticising,
the non-involved spouse and children than adultery. Next to the strong
blaming, and contempt), express more anger, and show lower levels of
possibility of a divorce, the non-involved spouse and children usually react
warmth when trying to solve a problem than non-abusers do.
with intense feelings of anger, anxiety, guilt, shame, sadness, and confusion,
– Reduced family responsibilities. Alcohol abuse decreases the drinking
while depression and posttraumatic stress disorder are not uncommon.
spouse’s ability to participate in everyday household tasks and other
Violence occurs frequently. Therefore, it is understandable that adultery is
important responsibilities. A decrease in income is common (Kühn et al.,
a leading cause of divorce in most countries.
2017).
• Alcohol and drug abuse. Alcohol and drug abuse has been described as
– Effects on others. Alcohol abuse not only has a degrading effect on the
a black hole that sucks in everything in its path of destruction. Marriage
person and his/her spouse, but most often leaves disastrous emotional,
is often one of the fatalities. In such a situation, even the strongest of
social, academic, and behavioural scars on the children. Often, also
marriages can corrode quickly to the point where divorce is the best

322 323
 relatives and friends are affected significantly.
– Physical violence. Alcohol intoxication often is associated with aggression
• Differences in priorities and responsibilities. Most partners share
similar priorities in the beginning of their relationship. However, people
and impulsivity, while the ability to think rationally is reduced. Between
grow and change; sometimes they grow together in the same direction,
40% and 60% of battered women report that their husbands are heavy
and at other times, they grow apart (Olver, 2013). When one or both
or problem drinkers. Among married men admitted to alcohol treatment
partners change their priorities in ways that are unacceptable to their
centres, 50% to 70% report involvement in partner violence.
spouse, it may be especially challenging and may lead to the end of a
– Physical and sexual intimacy. Because of the afore-mentioned effects of
relationship. Examples are different opinions regarding having children,
alcohol (including a decline in personal hygiene), it is understandable
a major change in religious beliefs and practices, or significant changes
that physical and sexual intimacy is affected seriously. Alcohol abuse is
in friendships or conflicting relationships with in-laws. Shared interests,
also related to sexual problems such as erectile dysfunction in men and
goals, and ideals form a necessary basis for a successful marriage. When
orgasmic problems in women.
these interests, goals, and ideals are not similar, it remains important to
– Physical and mental health. An additional factor that often has a
seek each other’s input on plans and decisions. Involving each other in
significant effect on abusers and their families is physical and mental
planning and decision making may also result in both partners feeling
health. Regarding physical health, chronic alcohol abuse can reduce a
valued and included in each other’s lives. Such feelings may then lead
person’s life expectancy by 10 years (Schuckit, 2014). The World Health
to higher supportiveness from each other, which in turn would enable
Organization (2014) reports that alcohol abuse contributes to more
partners to carry out their plans more effectively. Research findings show
than 200 diseases (e.g. liver cirrhosis and cancers) and an annual global
that the less spouses share priorities and plan jointly, the greater the
death toll of about 3,5 million. Regarding mental health, chronic alcohol
chances for divorce are (Gere et al., 2016). Differences in responsibilities
abuse is associated with mental disorders such as depression, anxiety,
can also lead to intense conflict in a marriage. For example, domestic
and psychosis (a serious mental disorder where the person loses contact
responsibilities have been described as a marital time bomb if household
with reality). It is estimated that the risk of having a mental illness is
tasks are not shared, especially in cases where both spouses have a
about four times higher for people who abuse alcohol than for people
full-time occupation. According to a study by the Pew Research Centre
who do not. Equally tragic is that, due to the abuser’s behaviour, family
(2007), sharing household chores ranks third in importance on a list of
members often also experience mental problems such as depression,
items often associated with successful marriages, well ahead of factors
anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
such as adequate income, good housing, common interests, and shared
• Finances. The saying “If marriage is all about love, then divorce is all
religious beliefs. This is a significant increase since 1990 when much
about money” has a solid basis. According to research, differences over
fewer adults said sharing household chores were very important to a
money are a main reason for marital conflict and divorce (Dew et al.,
successful marriage. In the years since then, no other item on the list
2012; Meyers, 2012). There are different reasons for this. Divergent values
of the Pew Research Centre has risen in importance nearly as much.
and perspectives on money is a major cause of conflict. A typical example
Interestingly, this rise occurs in all demographic areas: among men as
is when the one spouse is a ‘spender’ and the other a ‘saver’. Another
well as women, among married and unmarried couples, and among the
issue relates to the perceived shared control over finances. Obviously,
old as well as the young. Another time bomb in this area is parental
an autocratic attitude in this regard can lead to tension and feelings of
responsibilities. There are many examples, but the following two are
being dominated and controlled. An unstable income, as in the case of
among the most important. First, the one parent (most often the father)
loss or lack of employment, can create a feeling of insecurity and doubt
largely withdraws from the upbringing of the children. Excuses such as “I
that forms a breeding ground for conflict. However, finances are not
had a hard day at work”; ”You are better with children than I”; and “It is a
always the only reason for divorce. It is often the ‘symptom’, rather than
mother’s responsibility” are often heard. Second, differences occur in the
the ‘disease’. In other words, financial problems frequently ensue from
upbringing and disciplining of the children. For example, the father may
other marital problems such as lack of communication or alcohol abuse.

324 325
 relatives and friends are affected significantly.
– Physical violence. Alcohol intoxication often is associated with aggression
• Differences in priorities and responsibilities. Most partners share
similar priorities in the beginning of their relationship. However, people
and impulsivity, while the ability to think rationally is reduced. Between
grow and change; sometimes they grow together in the same direction,
40% and 60% of battered women report that their husbands are heavy
and at other times, they grow apart (Olver, 2013). When one or both
or problem drinkers. Among married men admitted to alcohol treatment
partners change their priorities in ways that are unacceptable to their
centres, 50% to 70% report involvement in partner violence.
spouse, it may be especially challenging and may lead to the end of a
– Physical and sexual intimacy. Because of the afore-mentioned effects of
relationship. Examples are different opinions regarding having children,
alcohol (including a decline in personal hygiene), it is understandable
a major change in religious beliefs and practices, or significant changes
that physical and sexual intimacy is affected seriously. Alcohol abuse is
in friendships or conflicting relationships with in-laws. Shared interests,
also related to sexual problems such as erectile dysfunction in men and
goals, and ideals form a necessary basis for a successful marriage. When
orgasmic problems in women.
these interests, goals, and ideals are not similar, it remains important to
– Physical and mental health. An additional factor that often has a
seek each other’s input on plans and decisions. Involving each other in
significant effect on abusers and their families is physical and mental
planning and decision making may also result in both partners feeling
health. Regarding physical health, chronic alcohol abuse can reduce a
valued and included in each other’s lives. Such feelings may then lead
person’s life expectancy by 10 years (Schuckit, 2014). The World Health
to higher supportiveness from each other, which in turn would enable
Organization (2014) reports that alcohol abuse contributes to more
partners to carry out their plans more effectively. Research findings show
than 200 diseases (e.g. liver cirrhosis and cancers) and an annual global
that the less spouses share priorities and plan jointly, the greater the
death toll of about 3,5 million. Regarding mental health, chronic alcohol
chances for divorce are (Gere et al., 2016). Differences in responsibilities
abuse is associated with mental disorders such as depression, anxiety,
can also lead to intense conflict in a marriage. For example, domestic
and psychosis (a serious mental disorder where the person loses contact
responsibilities have been described as a marital time bomb if household
with reality). It is estimated that the risk of having a mental illness is
tasks are not shared, especially in cases where both spouses have a
about four times higher for people who abuse alcohol than for people
full-time occupation. According to a study by the Pew Research Centre
who do not. Equally tragic is that, due to the abuser’s behaviour, family
(2007), sharing household chores ranks third in importance on a list of
members often also experience mental problems such as depression,
items often associated with successful marriages, well ahead of factors
anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
such as adequate income, good housing, common interests, and shared
• Finances. The saying “If marriage is all about love, then divorce is all
religious beliefs. This is a significant increase since 1990 when much
about money” has a solid basis. According to research, differences over
fewer adults said sharing household chores were very important to a
money are a main reason for marital conflict and divorce (Dew et al.,
successful marriage. In the years since then, no other item on the list
2012; Meyers, 2012). There are different reasons for this. Divergent values
of the Pew Research Centre has risen in importance nearly as much.
and perspectives on money is a major cause of conflict. A typical example
Interestingly, this rise occurs in all demographic areas: among men as
is when the one spouse is a ‘spender’ and the other a ‘saver’. Another
well as women, among married and unmarried couples, and among the
issue relates to the perceived shared control over finances. Obviously,
old as well as the young. Another time bomb in this area is parental
an autocratic attitude in this regard can lead to tension and feelings of
responsibilities. There are many examples, but the following two are
being dominated and controlled. An unstable income, as in the case of
among the most important. First, the one parent (most often the father)
loss or lack of employment, can create a feeling of insecurity and doubt
largely withdraws from the upbringing of the children. Excuses such as “I
that forms a breeding ground for conflict. However, finances are not
had a hard day at work”; ”You are better with children than I”; and “It is a
always the only reason for divorce. It is often the ‘symptom’, rather than
mother’s responsibility” are often heard. Second, differences occur in the
the ‘disease’. In other words, financial problems frequently ensue from
upbringing and disciplining of the children. For example, the father may
other marital problems such as lack of communication or alcohol abuse.

324 325
 feel the mother is too overprotective and over-involved. Mothers, on the as interpersonal conflicts, prolonged uncertainty, divorce negotiations, and
other hand, often complain that the father is either too strict or too lax residential and financial changes and challenges. Thus, divorce is viewed as
as far as disciplining the children is concerned. As children in many ways a source of multiple chronic strains that might have serious short- and long-
form the core interest of the family, such differences could have a serious term consequences for the divorcees. It includes the following (Allemand et
effect on marital stability. al., 2015):
• Priorities regarding sexual behaviour. This is an intimate and private
area of a couple’s relationship, but it often leads to incompatibilities, ■ Well-being. A decline in well-being across multiple life dimensions for
which in turn results in marital dissatisfaction. A common complaint a significant period of time occurs. Although some studies suggest that
relates to the frequency of sexual intercourse (either too frequent or the period of decline in well-being after a divorce usually lasts about
too infrequent) or sexual experimentation (either the lack thereof or two to three years, other researchers found that these declines could
too much or unacceptable in nature). Sexual incompatibility remains last much longer and in some cases never quite return to ‘normal’ levels
an important reason for marital unhappiness and therefore a potential again.
ground for divorce. Sexual incompatibility is also often used by the guilty ■ Mental health. Divorcees experience a decrease in general mental
spouse as an excuse for infidelity. health. Symptoms include depression, anxiety, an identity crisis, anger
(especially towards the former spouse), substance abuse, low self-
In most cases, divorce is not the result of only one of the aforementioned esteem, and general feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness, or guilt.
factors, but rather a combination of several of these variables. Of course, the Suicide also occurs more among divorced than among married people
golden rule in psychology also applies: Every person, and therefore every (Stack, 2016).
couple, is unique. (See also Box 5.8 regarding young black South Africans’ ■ Physical health. Although less recognised, divorce also affects
perception of divorce.) the divorcees’ physical health. Weight change, fatigue, headaches,
cardiovascular illnesses, and lowered immunity against a variety of
diseases (especially colds and flu) are some of the common consequences.
Box 5.8. Young black people’s perception of divorce A higher mortality rate has also been reported (Malgaroli et al., 2017).
In an exploratory study, Maubane and Langa (2015) investigated young black South ■ Children in divorce. When children are involved, the situation is usually
Africans’ perceptions on divorce in post-apartheid South Africa by interviewing third- worse (Leopold & Kalmijn, 2016). The fight over who should get custody
year students at the University of the Witwatersrand. The research was done against of the children often leads to not only intense emotional conflict, but
the background that the divorce rate in the black population has been increasing after
1994, possibly due to changing socio-economic conditions and traditional values, as also legal battles that add to the financial strain. This conflict often
well as cultural expectations regarding marriage. continues after the divorce when new struggles such as visitation rights
The participants declared that they would rather divorce a partner if they and non-payment of alimony arise. In the post-divorce situation, the
found themselves unhappy in a marriage. Both males and females felt that feelings
parents have to adjust to their redefined roles as residential and non-
of happiness were more important than staying in a marriage solely for financial
stability. Therefore, this study contradicts studies that found that women would rather residential parents. Divorced parents’ parenting skills may be affected
stay in unhappy marriages because they felt they are financially dependent on their negatively due to role overload, irritability, and inability to respond to
husbands. It also emerged that men prefer to encourage their partners to be financially their children’s needs. They also have to cope with the different and
independent rather than depend on them. According to the researchers, this finding
shows that gender dynamics are not static, but dynamic as changes are taking place
often difficult ways in which the children deal with their own divorce
in South Africa. trauma.
■ Economic consequences. Divorce has major economic consequences.
Because divorce means that financial resources that originally went
How do people react to divorce? Divorce is usually a stressful life- to one household now have to go to two households, there is usually
changing experience, even when the marriage was unhappy and divorce was a decrease in general lifestyle. This is especially true for women and
desired. During this time, individuals have to deal with many stressors such children. Sometimes, the homemaker (usually the mother) who used to

326 327
 feel the mother is too overprotective and over-involved. Mothers, on the as interpersonal conflicts, prolonged uncertainty, divorce negotiations, and
other hand, often complain that the father is either too strict or too lax residential and financial changes and challenges. Thus, divorce is viewed as
as far as disciplining the children is concerned. As children in many ways a source of multiple chronic strains that might have serious short- and long-
form the core interest of the family, such differences could have a serious term consequences for the divorcees. It includes the following (Allemand et
effect on marital stability. al., 2015):
• Priorities regarding sexual behaviour. This is an intimate and private
area of a couple’s relationship, but it often leads to incompatibilities, ■ Well-being. A decline in well-being across multiple life dimensions for
which in turn results in marital dissatisfaction. A common complaint a significant period of time occurs. Although some studies suggest that
relates to the frequency of sexual intercourse (either too frequent or the period of decline in well-being after a divorce usually lasts about
too infrequent) or sexual experimentation (either the lack thereof or two to three years, other researchers found that these declines could
too much or unacceptable in nature). Sexual incompatibility remains last much longer and in some cases never quite return to ‘normal’ levels
an important reason for marital unhappiness and therefore a potential again.
ground for divorce. Sexual incompatibility is also often used by the guilty ■ Mental health. Divorcees experience a decrease in general mental
spouse as an excuse for infidelity. health. Symptoms include depression, anxiety, an identity crisis, anger
(especially towards the former spouse), substance abuse, low self-
In most cases, divorce is not the result of only one of the aforementioned esteem, and general feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness, or guilt.
factors, but rather a combination of several of these variables. Of course, the Suicide also occurs more among divorced than among married people
golden rule in psychology also applies: Every person, and therefore every (Stack, 2016).
couple, is unique. (See also Box 5.8 regarding young black South Africans’ ■ Physical health. Although less recognised, divorce also affects
perception of divorce.) the divorcees’ physical health. Weight change, fatigue, headaches,
cardiovascular illnesses, and lowered immunity against a variety of
diseases (especially colds and flu) are some of the common consequences.
Box 5.8. Young black people’s perception of divorce A higher mortality rate has also been reported (Malgaroli et al., 2017).
In an exploratory study, Maubane and Langa (2015) investigated young black South ■ Children in divorce. When children are involved, the situation is usually
Africans’ perceptions on divorce in post-apartheid South Africa by interviewing third- worse (Leopold & Kalmijn, 2016). The fight over who should get custody
year students at the University of the Witwatersrand. The research was done against of the children often leads to not only intense emotional conflict, but
the background that the divorce rate in the black population has been increasing after
1994, possibly due to changing socio-economic conditions and traditional values, as also legal battles that add to the financial strain. This conflict often
well as cultural expectations regarding marriage. continues after the divorce when new struggles such as visitation rights
The participants declared that they would rather divorce a partner if they and non-payment of alimony arise. In the post-divorce situation, the
found themselves unhappy in a marriage. Both males and females felt that feelings
parents have to adjust to their redefined roles as residential and non-
of happiness were more important than staying in a marriage solely for financial
stability. Therefore, this study contradicts studies that found that women would rather residential parents. Divorced parents’ parenting skills may be affected
stay in unhappy marriages because they felt they are financially dependent on their negatively due to role overload, irritability, and inability to respond to
husbands. It also emerged that men prefer to encourage their partners to be financially their children’s needs. They also have to cope with the different and
independent rather than depend on them. According to the researchers, this finding
shows that gender dynamics are not static, but dynamic as changes are taking place
often difficult ways in which the children deal with their own divorce
in South Africa. trauma.
■ Economic consequences. Divorce has major economic consequences.
Because divorce means that financial resources that originally went
How do people react to divorce? Divorce is usually a stressful life- to one household now have to go to two households, there is usually
changing experience, even when the marriage was unhappy and divorce was a decrease in general lifestyle. This is especially true for women and
desired. During this time, individuals have to deal with many stressors such children. Sometimes, the homemaker (usually the mother) who used to

326 327
 stay home with the children is compelled to start working or work longer adjusting. Higher levels of social involvement, including new romantic
hours to cope. In turn, this has a negative effect on her well-being and relationships, are associated with lessened attachment to the former spouse.
functioning, also as a single parent. It is also a way to challenge loneliness and enhance a feeling of belonging.
■ Social relationships. The social effects of divorce should not be • Belief systems. Divorcees’ belief system regarding divorce can influence
underestimated (Burke et al., 2009; Greif, 2012). For example, family their post-divorce adjustment. Those who hold views about marriage that are
and friends often tend to take sides, with the result that each spouse more traditional and religious and believe that divorce is unacceptable and
suffers the loss of important friendships and other relationships. This is even a sin exhibit poorer adjustment than those with views about marriage
aggravated by the fact that it also regularly happens that one or both that are more non-traditional and who view divorce more positively.
spouses have to leave their home, often moving to another town or city • Care and contact of children. In a divorce, children are allocated to one
’to get away from it all’. parent for their daily care (the residential parent), while the other parent
has contact on a regular basis (the non-residential parent). Non-residential
This sombre picture of the effects of divorce, however, is not applicable parents (usually men) are particularly vulnerable. A main reason is the
to all cases. It is often more stressful for both adults and children to remain experience that they have ‘lost’ their children. Thus, feelings of severe loss,
caught up in an unhappy marriage. Some divorcees may even describe their guilt, and parental inadequacy are prominent.
divorce as the best thing they have ever done. This does not mean that such • Initiator of divorce. Being the initiator or non-initiator of the divorce can
divorcees are exempt from the abovementioned effects of divorce, but much have a significant effect on the adjustment of both spouses (Steiner et al.,
rather that they feel free and released from the trauma of their stressful 2015). Since the person who takes the initiative to end the marriage may feel
marriage (Bourassa et al., 2015). In fact, many adults and children adjust well he or she is more in control of the situation, he or she often experiences less
to the changed circumstances and are even able to grow psychologically and distress and self-doubt. On the other hand, the non-initiators may feel that
emotionally because of the experience. Various factors influence the ways in they have lost control and thus experience a sense of powerlessness and
which couples adjust to divorce (Burke et al., 2009; Halford & Sweeper, 2013; hopelessness over this major, undesired, and life-changing event. Therefore,
Henley et al., 2017): it is understandable that the post-divorce adjustment of the initiator is
usually better than that of the non-initiator.
• Pre-divorce functioning. The individual’s pre-divorce psychological • The presence of children can have a significant effect on the adjustment of
functioning forms an important basis. Those who have higher levels of their parents. As mentioned elsewhere, factors such as regular arguments
emotional stability and psychological functioning, as well as better coping over various aspects involving the children, as well as dealing with children
skills before the divorce, are generally more well-adjusted afterwards. who are also trying to come to terms with their own grief create an important
• Demographic factors can play a role. For example, factors such as extra burden.
higher education, higher socio-economic status, and being employed are
associated with better post-divorce adjustment. Are there gender differences regarding the effects of divorce? Generally
• Attachment to former spouse. The degree of attachment to the former speaking, divorce is associated with worse physical and mental health for
spouse can affect adjustment. When one or both spouses remain men than for women (McClintock, 2014; Robards et al., 2012). Men are also
preoccupied with their former spouse – with feelings of either love or hate more likely than women are to commit suicide after a separation (Kölves,
– post-divorce adjustment is hindered. 2010). A recent study found that although women initially experience more
• Social support is a very important factor that influences the effects of any emotional pain following a breakup, they recover more extensively (Morris
trauma and thus divorce. To most divorcees, social support in the form et al., 2015). A main reason is that men are much more dependent on their
of family, friends, and other groups such as the church provides a buffer wives than they tend to admit. As they are usually the non-resident parent,
against the stress and creates a sense of belonging, kinship, and security. they experience that they have not only lost a house but also a home that
• Social involvement. Divorcees who are less involved socially and more provides emotional security and comfort. As mentioned earlier, the feeling
isolated socially following divorce generally have a more difficult time that they have ‘lost’ their children and that they play a relatively small role

328 329
 stay home with the children is compelled to start working or work longer adjusting. Higher levels of social involvement, including new romantic
hours to cope. In turn, this has a negative effect on her well-being and relationships, are associated with lessened attachment to the former spouse.
functioning, also as a single parent. It is also a way to challenge loneliness and enhance a feeling of belonging.
■ Social relationships. The social effects of divorce should not be • Belief systems. Divorcees’ belief system regarding divorce can influence
underestimated (Burke et al., 2009; Greif, 2012). For example, family their post-divorce adjustment. Those who hold views about marriage that are
and friends often tend to take sides, with the result that each spouse more traditional and religious and believe that divorce is unacceptable and
suffers the loss of important friendships and other relationships. This is even a sin exhibit poorer adjustment than those with views about marriage
aggravated by the fact that it also regularly happens that one or both that are more non-traditional and who view divorce more positively.
spouses have to leave their home, often moving to another town or city • Care and contact of children. In a divorce, children are allocated to one
’to get away from it all’. parent for their daily care (the residential parent), while the other parent
has contact on a regular basis (the non-residential parent). Non-residential
This sombre picture of the effects of divorce, however, is not applicable parents (usually men) are particularly vulnerable. A main reason is the
to all cases. It is often more stressful for both adults and children to remain experience that they have ‘lost’ their children. Thus, feelings of severe loss,
caught up in an unhappy marriage. Some divorcees may even describe their guilt, and parental inadequacy are prominent.
divorce as the best thing they have ever done. This does not mean that such • Initiator of divorce. Being the initiator or non-initiator of the divorce can
divorcees are exempt from the abovementioned effects of divorce, but much have a significant effect on the adjustment of both spouses (Steiner et al.,
rather that they feel free and released from the trauma of their stressful 2015). Since the person who takes the initiative to end the marriage may feel
marriage (Bourassa et al., 2015). In fact, many adults and children adjust well he or she is more in control of the situation, he or she often experiences less
to the changed circumstances and are even able to grow psychologically and distress and self-doubt. On the other hand, the non-initiators may feel that
emotionally because of the experience. Various factors influence the ways in they have lost control and thus experience a sense of powerlessness and
which couples adjust to divorce (Burke et al., 2009; Halford & Sweeper, 2013; hopelessness over this major, undesired, and life-changing event. Therefore,
Henley et al., 2017): it is understandable that the post-divorce adjustment of the initiator is
usually better than that of the non-initiator.
• Pre-divorce functioning. The individual’s pre-divorce psychological • The presence of children can have a significant effect on the adjustment of
functioning forms an important basis. Those who have higher levels of their parents. As mentioned elsewhere, factors such as regular arguments
emotional stability and psychological functioning, as well as better coping over various aspects involving the children, as well as dealing with children
skills before the divorce, are generally more well-adjusted afterwards. who are also trying to come to terms with their own grief create an important
• Demographic factors can play a role. For example, factors such as extra burden.
higher education, higher socio-economic status, and being employed are
associated with better post-divorce adjustment. Are there gender differences regarding the effects of divorce? Generally
• Attachment to former spouse. The degree of attachment to the former speaking, divorce is associated with worse physical and mental health for
spouse can affect adjustment. When one or both spouses remain men than for women (McClintock, 2014; Robards et al., 2012). Men are also
preoccupied with their former spouse – with feelings of either love or hate more likely than women are to commit suicide after a separation (Kölves,
– post-divorce adjustment is hindered. 2010). A recent study found that although women initially experience more
• Social support is a very important factor that influences the effects of any emotional pain following a breakup, they recover more extensively (Morris
trauma and thus divorce. To most divorcees, social support in the form et al., 2015). A main reason is that men are much more dependent on their
of family, friends, and other groups such as the church provides a buffer wives than they tend to admit. As they are usually the non-resident parent,
against the stress and creates a sense of belonging, kinship, and security. they experience that they have not only lost a house but also a home that
• Social involvement. Divorcees who are less involved socially and more provides emotional security and comfort. As mentioned earlier, the feeling
isolated socially following divorce generally have a more difficult time that they have ‘lost’ their children and that they play a relatively small role

328 329
in their upbringing and daily lives, aggravates their negative emotional state (f) Remarriage
(Corcoran, 1997). In addition, men are more reluctant to seek professional
help and rather prefer to hide behind a mask of masculinity. This attitude Although divorce is a traumatic event, many people form new relationships
can only prolong the post-divorce adjustment. and are willing to try marriage for a second and even a third time. Hence the
What are the typical stages in adjustment to divorce? Neumann (2011) expression: “Remarriage represents the triumph of hope over experience.”
proposed five psychological stages of divorce: Remarriage is particularly probable if the divorced person is still relatively
young, partly because of the availability of potential partners. Partner
■ Stage 1: Blaming the spouse. During this stage, the focus is on the availability favours men at all ages in the life span because men tend to
spouse. The person blames his or her spouse for all of the past, present, marry women younger than they are. For this reason, the probability that
and future problems in his or her life. The individual is depressed much a divorced woman will remarry declines with increasing age (Bramlet &
of the time and experiences a low energy level. Relatives and friends Mosher, 2002).
describe the individual as “very upset” This stage is regarded as the Although the physical and psychological well-being of remarried people
most difficult of the stages of divorce because of the profound changes, are usually not as high as that of continuously married people, it is better
the loss, and the fear of the unknown. than that of divorced people or people who have never married. Remarried
■ Stage 2: Mourning the loss. Acknowledging the end of the relationship people often experience their second marriage differently from their first
takes place in this stage. The grief is experienced as overwhelming. marriage. They tend to enjoy better communication, resolve disagreements
Often an exaggerated ‘poor me’ attitude is present. The future appears more positively, arrive at decisions more equitably, and divide chores more
hopeless and meaningless. During this stage, individuals have difficulty fairly. However, this does not mean that, as the lyric implies, “Love is better
concentrating on tasks, as they are lost in a world of emotions. the second time round.” People who remarry often report less marital
■ Stage 3: Anger. Although anger is experienced in nearly every stage of satisfaction than during their first marriage, and the divorce rate for second
the divorce process, it is now dominant. Most often, the anger is directed marriages is higher than for first marriages (Banschick, 2012; Livingston,
toward the spouse, but ‘all women’ or ‘all men’ are also targets. There is 2014). A possible reason for this could be that divorcees tend to remarry too
a sense of righteousness to the anger: The spouse is wrong and deserves soon after their divorce when their emotional trauma and conflicts resulting
to suffer. The individual’s energy level and self-esteem are higher than from the divorce have not been resolved yet. These negative emotions often
during the earlier stages. are sustained by a wrathful ex-spouse who regularly adds fuel to the fire. In
■ Stage 4: Being single. A significant change is the growing sense of many instances, the presence of stepchildren is exceedingly stressful and
being a whole person, of not needing the spouse to make him or her often causes the breakup of the second marriage. It is also possible that,
complete. Men and women start to trust themselves to make their own due to their particular temperament, some persons are more vulnerable to
decisions, and their self-image is much improved over the earlier stages. divorce. This implies that people who generally are dissatisfied, difficult and
Their energy level is higher than in the earlier stages. intolerant, or very adventurous, may find it difficult to find happiness in a
■ Stage 5: Re-entry. This last stage of the divorce process is a time of marriage. Similarly, many people do not see themselves as being responsible
settling down. The feeling that the person is in control of his or her life for failure of their previous marriage. They minimise their role in the divorce
again is predominant. Individuals in this stage are able to make long- and view their ex-spouse as the proverbial villain in the story. This lack of
term plans and commitments. insight into themselves can easily pave the way for marital conflict. It is
also possible that previously married persons may identify the signs of a
As is the case with basically all developmental stages, unique individual disintegrating marriage much sooner and therefore may decide to divorce
differences may occur. Therefore, the above-mentioned stages should be much earlier than was the case with the first marriage. In certain cases, it also
regarded as a rough guideline only, since not all people undergoing a divorce seems that once a person discovers that he or she can manage a divorce,
may experience all of the stages, or in the same sequence. they are less afraid of going through the process again.
It seems that remarriage during late adulthood is more satisfying than

330 331
in their upbringing and daily lives, aggravates their negative emotional state (f) Remarriage
(Corcoran, 1997). In addition, men are more reluctant to seek professional
help and rather prefer to hide behind a mask of masculinity. This attitude Although divorce is a traumatic event, many people form new relationships
can only prolong the post-divorce adjustment. and are willing to try marriage for a second and even a third time. Hence the
What are the typical stages in adjustment to divorce? Neumann (2011) expression: “Remarriage represents the triumph of hope over experience.”
proposed five psychological stages of divorce: Remarriage is particularly probable if the divorced person is still relatively
young, partly because of the availability of potential partners. Partner
■ Stage 1: Blaming the spouse. During this stage, the focus is on the availability favours men at all ages in the life span because men tend to
spouse. The person blames his or her spouse for all of the past, present, marry women younger than they are. For this reason, the probability that
and future problems in his or her life. The individual is depressed much a divorced woman will remarry declines with increasing age (Bramlet &
of the time and experiences a low energy level. Relatives and friends Mosher, 2002).
describe the individual as “very upset” This stage is regarded as the Although the physical and psychological well-being of remarried people
most difficult of the stages of divorce because of the profound changes, are usually not as high as that of continuously married people, it is better
the loss, and the fear of the unknown. than that of divorced people or people who have never married. Remarried
■ Stage 2: Mourning the loss. Acknowledging the end of the relationship people often experience their second marriage differently from their first
takes place in this stage. The grief is experienced as overwhelming. marriage. They tend to enjoy better communication, resolve disagreements
Often an exaggerated ‘poor me’ attitude is present. The future appears more positively, arrive at decisions more equitably, and divide chores more
hopeless and meaningless. During this stage, individuals have difficulty fairly. However, this does not mean that, as the lyric implies, “Love is better
concentrating on tasks, as they are lost in a world of emotions. the second time round.” People who remarry often report less marital
■ Stage 3: Anger. Although anger is experienced in nearly every stage of satisfaction than during their first marriage, and the divorce rate for second
the divorce process, it is now dominant. Most often, the anger is directed marriages is higher than for first marriages (Banschick, 2012; Livingston,
toward the spouse, but ‘all women’ or ‘all men’ are also targets. There is 2014). A possible reason for this could be that divorcees tend to remarry too
a sense of righteousness to the anger: The spouse is wrong and deserves soon after their divorce when their emotional trauma and conflicts resulting
to suffer. The individual’s energy level and self-esteem are higher than from the divorce have not been resolved yet. These negative emotions often
during the earlier stages. are sustained by a wrathful ex-spouse who regularly adds fuel to the fire. In
■ Stage 4: Being single. A significant change is the growing sense of many instances, the presence of stepchildren is exceedingly stressful and
being a whole person, of not needing the spouse to make him or her often causes the breakup of the second marriage. It is also possible that,
complete. Men and women start to trust themselves to make their own due to their particular temperament, some persons are more vulnerable to
decisions, and their self-image is much improved over the earlier stages. divorce. This implies that people who generally are dissatisfied, difficult and
Their energy level is higher than in the earlier stages. intolerant, or very adventurous, may find it difficult to find happiness in a
■ Stage 5: Re-entry. This last stage of the divorce process is a time of marriage. Similarly, many people do not see themselves as being responsible
settling down. The feeling that the person is in control of his or her life for failure of their previous marriage. They minimise their role in the divorce
again is predominant. Individuals in this stage are able to make long- and view their ex-spouse as the proverbial villain in the story. This lack of
term plans and commitments. insight into themselves can easily pave the way for marital conflict. It is
also possible that previously married persons may identify the signs of a
As is the case with basically all developmental stages, unique individual disintegrating marriage much sooner and therefore may decide to divorce
differences may occur. Therefore, the above-mentioned stages should be much earlier than was the case with the first marriage. In certain cases, it also
regarded as a rough guideline only, since not all people undergoing a divorce seems that once a person discovers that he or she can manage a divorce,
may experience all of the stages, or in the same sequence. they are less afraid of going through the process again.
It seems that remarriage during late adulthood is more satisfying than

330 331
remarriage during earlier adulthood (Bogard & Spilka, 1996; Watkins &
(g) Widowhood
Waldron, 2017). A reason for this is that both spouses may be widowed
rather than divorced. Their previous experience of a stable relationship
A marriage is dissolved not only by divorce, but also by the death of a partner.
forms a basis for a second successful relationship. They seem to be more
The term widowhood refers to the status of a person who has lost a spouse
trusting and accepting, and less in need of deep sharing of personal feelings.
through death and has not remarried (Erber, 2013). In the case of a woman,
In addition, since the children of both spouses have generally left the
she is called a widow. A widower is the male equivalent. Worldwide, more
parental home, they do not have the additional problems of stepchildren.
women than men are widowed.
However, this does not mean that this kind of marriage is without problems.
The effect of widowhood goes far beyond the ending of a long-term
Some widows and widowers idealise the deceased spouse and are inclined
relationship. The death of a partner represents one of the greatest emotional
to make comparisons. Sometimes children, grandchildren, and others may
and social losses that an individual can experience during the normal
also make comparisons that could be hurtful to the new spouse. In addition,
inheritance may also be a sensitive issue; for example, children may feel
unhappy about the way in which the inheritance is divided between the
biological and stepchildren.
However, even though problems do exist, a remarriage in late adulthood
is often more preferable to alternatives such as loneliness. In addition, it
seems that several factors can act as shields against the inherent difficulties
of a remarriage. For example, researchers of the University of Stellenbosch
(Greeff & Du Toit, 2009), as well as a cross-cultural study investigating
remarried and reconstituted families (i.e. the combined families of the two
remarried couples) in South Africa and Belgium (Greeff & Cloete, 2015)
identified the following resilience factors in this regard:

– Good family relationships and support (mutual respect, cooperation,

and a loving bond).
– Family communication that is affirming and that conveys care and
support. The death of a partner is extremely traumatic
– The family’s ability to have a sense of control over outcomes in life by
having an active orientation in adjusting to and managing stressful
course of life. (Other great losses such as the death of a parent during one’s
situations.
childhood or the death of a child are regarded as unusual (non-normative)
– Activities and routines that help the family to spend time together and
events that happen to relatively few people.)
to create togetherness.
The loss of an intimate personal relationship is characterised by intense
– A strong marital relationship.
grief and a long period of readjustment. The individual has to come to terms
– Support from family and friends.
with the event and accept a new social status and role. For many people, role
– The internal and external handling of problems by redefining stressful
and status change are extremely difficult transitions necessitating profound
events and acquiring and accepting social support.
changes in daily living with the risk of possible social isolation. For both
– Spirituality and religion, which provide meaning and purpose in life
genders, the loss of a spouse means that part of the other partner’s role has
beyond crisis situations.
to be learnt: Widows sometimes have to handle financial matters for the

332 333
remarriage during earlier adulthood (Bogard & Spilka, 1996; Watkins &
(g) Widowhood
Waldron, 2017). A reason for this is that both spouses may be widowed
rather than divorced. Their previous experience of a stable relationship
A marriage is dissolved not only by divorce, but also by the death of a partner.
forms a basis for a second successful relationship. They seem to be more
The term widowhood refers to the status of a person who has lost a spouse
trusting and accepting, and less in need of deep sharing of personal feelings.
through death and has not remarried (Erber, 2013). In the case of a woman,
In addition, since the children of both spouses have generally left the
she is called a widow. A widower is the male equivalent. Worldwide, more
parental home, they do not have the additional problems of stepchildren.
women than men are widowed.
However, this does not mean that this kind of marriage is without problems.
The effect of widowhood goes far beyond the ending of a long-term
Some widows and widowers idealise the deceased spouse and are inclined
relationship. The death of a partner represents one of the greatest emotional
to make comparisons. Sometimes children, grandchildren, and others may
and social losses that an individual can experience during the normal
also make comparisons that could be hurtful to the new spouse. In addition,
inheritance may also be a sensitive issue; for example, children may feel
unhappy about the way in which the inheritance is divided between the
biological and stepchildren.
However, even though problems do exist, a remarriage in late adulthood
is often more preferable to alternatives such as loneliness. In addition, it
seems that several factors can act as shields against the inherent difficulties
of a remarriage. For example, researchers of the University of Stellenbosch
(Greeff & Du Toit, 2009), as well as a cross-cultural study investigating
remarried and reconstituted families (i.e. the combined families of the two
remarried couples) in South Africa and Belgium (Greeff & Cloete, 2015)
identified the following resilience factors in this regard:

– Good family relationships and support (mutual respect, cooperation,

and a loving bond).
– Family communication that is affirming and that conveys care and
support. The death of a partner is extremely traumatic
– The family’s ability to have a sense of control over outcomes in life by
having an active orientation in adjusting to and managing stressful
course of life. (Other great losses such as the death of a parent during one’s
situations.
childhood or the death of a child are regarded as unusual (non-normative)
– Activities and routines that help the family to spend time together and
events that happen to relatively few people.)
to create togetherness.
The loss of an intimate personal relationship is characterised by intense
– A strong marital relationship.
grief and a long period of readjustment. The individual has to come to terms
– Support from family and friends.
with the event and accept a new social status and role. For many people, role
– The internal and external handling of problems by redefining stressful
and status change are extremely difficult transitions necessitating profound
events and acquiring and accepting social support.
changes in daily living with the risk of possible social isolation. For both
– Spirituality and religion, which provide meaning and purpose in life
genders, the loss of a spouse means that part of the other partner’s role has
beyond crisis situations.
to be learnt: Widows sometimes have to handle financial matters for the

332 333
first time, and widowers have to manage household chores. The physical terms of time and transport factors.
and psychological effects of grief after the death of a spouse or partner are • Fear of divorce. Many young South Africans who have been the
discussed in Chapter 7. products of marital dissolution and conflict fear divorce. Couples
As in any life crisis, the way in which widowhood will affect individuals regard cohabitation as a trial marriage in order to determine whether
depends on factors such as personality and circumstances. Although the loss they would be compatible for marriage, and to discover a partner’s
of a spouse is always painful (even in bad marriages) and the adjustment habits, expectations, oddities, and willingness to share responsibilities.
process takes time, the adjustment regarding practical aspects of everyday Many couples believe that cohabitation will improve their chances of
life probably will be easier if both partners are involved in the practical, a successful marriage. Therefore, pre-marital cohabitation seems to
financial, and housekeeping matters in the earlier stages of their lives. accompany the trend to marry later. The viewpoint is also that if the
relationship does not work out, it is easier to walk away from a failed
5.3.1.2 Cohabitation relationship than from a failed marriage. The stigmatisation is also less
than being a divorcee.
Relationships have undergone significant changes over the past decades. • Legal reforms. As we have discussed elsewhere, marriage has largely
Marriage rates have decreased, divorce rates have risen, and an increasing lost its special legal status, as legal reforms have led to a greater
number of couples cohabit (Gassen & Perelli-Harri, 2015; Mhongo & Budlender, recognition of equality and neutrality in matters of common-law
2013; Statistics South Africa, 2015). Cohabitation is generally defined as the marriage, cohabitation, and custody of children. Therefore, cohabitation
state of two people living together as romantically and intimately involved often becomes a permanent alternative to marriage.
partners without being married. Reasons for the worldwide increase in • Equality. Independence and equality are very important factors to many
cohabitation are the following (e.g. Imo, 2017; Makiwane, 2004; Stepien- modern people. Marriage is often associated with dominance of one
Sporek and & Ryznar, 2016): partner; therefore, some regard the traditional marriage as a form of
forced inequality. Cohabitation, on the other hand, represents a more
• Changing societal norms. This refers to increased permissive attitudes flexible, free, and egalitarian relationship.
towards sexuality, peer pressure, and the decrease in parental authority
resulting in the crumbling of traditional norms. As cohabitation becomes However, as logical and ‘attractive’ as cohabitation may sound, there are
increasingly common, cohabitating couples are under less social still many societal opposition and other deterrents to this lifestyle choice.
pressure to marry. In the past, negative attitudes towards ‘living in sin’ Some of these are the following:
(especially aimed at premarital sex) and the stigma that was attached to
it, acted as an important deterrent against cohabitation. However, since ■ Many cultures, subcultures, and religions are still strongly opposed to
the ‘sexual revolution’ in the 1960s, there has been a profound change in cohabitation. In some countries, especially Muslim countries, premarital
this regard. A more permissive and non-judgemental societal view has sex is regarded as a crime that could be punished severely, even by
led to a greater acceptance of premarital sex, especially in a loving and death (Tausch, 2016). Also in South Africa, several religious groups
long-term relationship. still regard cohabitation as ‘living in sin’; consequently, such a couple
• Changing societal structures. Many young people experience extended may be stigmatised and even ostracised (Posel & Rudwick, 2014). Such
periods of training and studying, and are often simultaneously involved condemning attitudes of the family and community could place a heavy
in long-term love relationships. They are often mature enough for burden on a relationship.
marriage, but cannot marry, because of practical difficulties, such as ■ Some people believe that marriage creates a particular mindset, which in
finances. The fact that living together helps to split the living costs is an turn increases commitment and perseverance (DePaulo, 2012; Goodman,
important factor why many couples cohabit. Sharing the rent, electricity, 2017). Marriage begins with the members of the couple committing
and other living costs makes life more affordable, especially for couples vows to each other regarding sacrifice, fidelity, and loyalty. These vows
who struggle financially. Living together may also be more convenient in are absent when couples just move in together.

334 335
first time, and widowers have to manage household chores. The physical terms of time and transport factors.
and psychological effects of grief after the death of a spouse or partner are • Fear of divorce. Many young South Africans who have been the
discussed in Chapter 7. products of marital dissolution and conflict fear divorce. Couples
As in any life crisis, the way in which widowhood will affect individuals regard cohabitation as a trial marriage in order to determine whether
depends on factors such as personality and circumstances. Although the loss they would be compatible for marriage, and to discover a partner’s
of a spouse is always painful (even in bad marriages) and the adjustment habits, expectations, oddities, and willingness to share responsibilities.
process takes time, the adjustment regarding practical aspects of everyday Many couples believe that cohabitation will improve their chances of
life probably will be easier if both partners are involved in the practical, a successful marriage. Therefore, pre-marital cohabitation seems to
financial, and housekeeping matters in the earlier stages of their lives. accompany the trend to marry later. The viewpoint is also that if the
relationship does not work out, it is easier to walk away from a failed
5.3.1.2 Cohabitation relationship than from a failed marriage. The stigmatisation is also less
than being a divorcee.
Relationships have undergone significant changes over the past decades. • Legal reforms. As we have discussed elsewhere, marriage has largely
Marriage rates have decreased, divorce rates have risen, and an increasing lost its special legal status, as legal reforms have led to a greater
number of couples cohabit (Gassen & Perelli-Harri, 2015; Mhongo & Budlender, recognition of equality and neutrality in matters of common-law
2013; Statistics South Africa, 2015). Cohabitation is generally defined as the marriage, cohabitation, and custody of children. Therefore, cohabitation
state of two people living together as romantically and intimately involved often becomes a permanent alternative to marriage.
partners without being married. Reasons for the worldwide increase in • Equality. Independence and equality are very important factors to many
cohabitation are the following (e.g. Imo, 2017; Makiwane, 2004; Stepien- modern people. Marriage is often associated with dominance of one
Sporek and & Ryznar, 2016): partner; therefore, some regard the traditional marriage as a form of
forced inequality. Cohabitation, on the other hand, represents a more
• Changing societal norms. This refers to increased permissive attitudes flexible, free, and egalitarian relationship.
towards sexuality, peer pressure, and the decrease in parental authority
resulting in the crumbling of traditional norms. As cohabitation becomes However, as logical and ‘attractive’ as cohabitation may sound, there are
increasingly common, cohabitating couples are under less social still many societal opposition and other deterrents to this lifestyle choice.
pressure to marry. In the past, negative attitudes towards ‘living in sin’ Some of these are the following:
(especially aimed at premarital sex) and the stigma that was attached to
it, acted as an important deterrent against cohabitation. However, since ■ Many cultures, subcultures, and religions are still strongly opposed to
the ‘sexual revolution’ in the 1960s, there has been a profound change in cohabitation. In some countries, especially Muslim countries, premarital
this regard. A more permissive and non-judgemental societal view has sex is regarded as a crime that could be punished severely, even by
led to a greater acceptance of premarital sex, especially in a loving and death (Tausch, 2016). Also in South Africa, several religious groups
long-term relationship. still regard cohabitation as ‘living in sin’; consequently, such a couple
• Changing societal structures. Many young people experience extended may be stigmatised and even ostracised (Posel & Rudwick, 2014). Such
periods of training and studying, and are often simultaneously involved condemning attitudes of the family and community could place a heavy
in long-term love relationships. They are often mature enough for burden on a relationship.
marriage, but cannot marry, because of practical difficulties, such as ■ Some people believe that marriage creates a particular mindset, which in
finances. The fact that living together helps to split the living costs is an turn increases commitment and perseverance (DePaulo, 2012; Goodman,
important factor why many couples cohabit. Sharing the rent, electricity, 2017). Marriage begins with the members of the couple committing
and other living costs makes life more affordable, especially for couples vows to each other regarding sacrifice, fidelity, and loyalty. These vows
who struggle financially. Living together may also be more convenient in are absent when couples just move in together.

334 335
■ There is a tendency with a significant number of cohabitating couples and mutually understood plans to marry their partners; and they did not
to continue postponing a wedding, which often results in never getting cohabit until the age of 23 or later.
married. Many people find the lack of guarantee that a wedding will How does cohabitation affect older adults? Although cohabitation is still
eventually take place, unacceptable. associated with young people, unmarried cohabitation is becoming a popular
■ Although many legal reforms regarding marriage and cohabitation arrangement for middle-aged and older adults who have been widowed or
have been implemented in South Africa, cohabitation as such is not divorced (Brown & Wright, 2017). In later life, unmarried unions are more
recognised as a legal relationship by South African law (Family Law, 2017; stable and long lasting and cohabitation appears to operate as a long-term
Vermeulen, 2017). In simple terms, men and women living together do alternative to marriage instead of a trial marriage (Treas & Sanabria, 2016).
not have the same legal rights and protection that married couples have.
This is the case irrespective of the duration of the relationship. Therefore, 5.3.1.3 Singlehood
it is understandable that couples do not want to enter a situation where
they do not have definite legal rights and securities as in the case of Another choice in lifestyle is to remain single: the state of being unmarried
marriage. or not involved in a long-term
■ Another argument that is often used against premarital cohabitation is romantic relationship. Singles
the inertia effect. This means that once a couple cohabits, a momentum include people who have never
towards marriage begins and it becomes more difficult to break up been married or those who are
because of the greater investment. The inertia effect is problematic not yet married as well as those
because it drives some couples that would otherwise not have married, who are divorced or widowed
to marry eventually (DiDonato, 2014). and who do not remarry. Single-
hood is increasing in South
How does premarital cohabitation compare with marriage regarding Africa, as elsewhere in the world
stability and quality of the relationship? Older research (e.g. Bramlett & (McKeown, 2015; Stats SA, 2015).
Mosher, 2002; Seltzer, 2000) indicated that cohabiting unions tended The reasons for being single
to be less stable than marriages and that most marriages that involved are diverse. In view of the high
cohabitation tended to be less happy and had a greater likelihood of divorce rate and number of
ending in divorce. However, this finding is now regarded as a reflection of unhappy marriages, an increasing
the people of a previous era who chose to cohabit: They tended to be less number of people are sceptical
conventional and had fewer traditional family and religious values (Guzzo, of marriage. Many also had
2014; Treas & Senabria, 2016). The findings of more recent studies tend to traumatic childhood experiences
be more positive (DePaulo, 2012; Kuperberg, 2014; Mernitz & Kamp Dush, of their parents’ marriage, while
2016): The divorce rate of couples who first cohabit before they marry is others had negative relationship
not higher than the rate of couples who did not cohabit. There are also no experiences as adults. Some stay
differences regarding emotional well-being, satisfaction with relationship, single because they have never
Single — and happy
and effect on the children of such relationships. It seems that not the found the right partners.
cohabitation factor as such will determine marital bliss, but much rather the Although attitudes towards diverse lifestyles are more accepting, the
quality of the relationship, which depends on variables such as personality attitude towards singles has not always been positive, as the single lifestyle
features and support from family and friends. Other important factors that often has been regarded with suspicion. This attitude is still maintained in
could determine that those who cohabited before marriage are likely to many circles. For example, it is often believed that single people are ‘different’
have marital outcomes similar to those who did not live together before and do not want to commit to anybody, or that they would actually have
marriage, are the following (Scott, 2014): The partners only ever cohabited liked to marry, but because of some physical or psychological shortcoming,
with the person they marry; they only began to cohabit after having clear
336 337
■ There is a tendency with a significant number of cohabitating couples and mutually understood plans to marry their partners; and they did not
to continue postponing a wedding, which often results in never getting cohabit until the age of 23 or later.
married. Many people find the lack of guarantee that a wedding will How does cohabitation affect older adults? Although cohabitation is still
eventually take place, unacceptable. associated with young people, unmarried cohabitation is becoming a popular
■ Although many legal reforms regarding marriage and cohabitation arrangement for middle-aged and older adults who have been widowed or
have been implemented in South Africa, cohabitation as such is not divorced (Brown & Wright, 2017). In later life, unmarried unions are more
recognised as a legal relationship by South African law (Family Law, 2017; stable and long lasting and cohabitation appears to operate as a long-term
Vermeulen, 2017). In simple terms, men and women living together do alternative to marriage instead of a trial marriage (Treas & Sanabria, 2016).
not have the same legal rights and protection that married couples have.
This is the case irrespective of the duration of the relationship. Therefore, 5.3.1.3 Singlehood
it is understandable that couples do not want to enter a situation where
they do not have definite legal rights and securities as in the case of Another choice in lifestyle is to remain single: the state of being unmarried
marriage. or not involved in a long-term
■ Another argument that is often used against premarital cohabitation is romantic relationship. Singles
the inertia effect. This means that once a couple cohabits, a momentum include people who have never
towards marriage begins and it becomes more difficult to break up been married or those who are
because of the greater investment. The inertia effect is problematic not yet married as well as those
because it drives some couples that would otherwise not have married, who are divorced or widowed
to marry eventually (DiDonato, 2014). and who do not remarry. Single-
hood is increasing in South
How does premarital cohabitation compare with marriage regarding Africa, as elsewhere in the world
stability and quality of the relationship? Older research (e.g. Bramlett & (McKeown, 2015; Stats SA, 2015).
Mosher, 2002; Seltzer, 2000) indicated that cohabiting unions tended The reasons for being single
to be less stable than marriages and that most marriages that involved are diverse. In view of the high
cohabitation tended to be less happy and had a greater likelihood of divorce rate and number of
ending in divorce. However, this finding is now regarded as a reflection of unhappy marriages, an increasing
the people of a previous era who chose to cohabit: They tended to be less number of people are sceptical
conventional and had fewer traditional family and religious values (Guzzo, of marriage. Many also had
2014; Treas & Senabria, 2016). The findings of more recent studies tend to traumatic childhood experiences
be more positive (DePaulo, 2012; Kuperberg, 2014; Mernitz & Kamp Dush, of their parents’ marriage, while
2016): The divorce rate of couples who first cohabit before they marry is others had negative relationship
not higher than the rate of couples who did not cohabit. There are also no experiences as adults. Some stay
differences regarding emotional well-being, satisfaction with relationship, single because they have never
Single — and happy
and effect on the children of such relationships. It seems that not the found the right partners.
cohabitation factor as such will determine marital bliss, but much rather the Although attitudes towards diverse lifestyles are more accepting, the
quality of the relationship, which depends on variables such as personality attitude towards singles has not always been positive, as the single lifestyle
features and support from family and friends. Other important factors that often has been regarded with suspicion. This attitude is still maintained in
could determine that those who cohabited before marriage are likely to many circles. For example, it is often believed that single people are ‘different’
have marital outcomes similar to those who did not live together before and do not want to commit to anybody, or that they would actually have
marriage, are the following (Scott, 2014): The partners only ever cohabited liked to marry, but because of some physical or psychological shortcoming,
with the person they marry; they only began to cohabit after having clear
336 337
cannot find a partner (Craig, 1996; Timonen & Doyle, 2014). Another image significant issues such as major life-defining decisions. This does not
is that of a flamboyant and exciting lifestyle; although the latter may be true mean they are not interested in feedback. However, they want the
in isolated cases, it cannot be generalised. ultimate decision to be their own and to live life on their own terms.
However, an increasing number of individuals are single by choice, • Many single people enjoy their solitude. People who are single at heart
motivated by the evolving spirit of personal freedom and individual tend to think more fondly about the prospect of spending time alone,
choices of the last few decades. Singlehood may provide opportunities to whereas people who are not single at heart are more likely to worry that
take risks and experiment with change, travel, pursue one’s career, further they might be lonely. For those who value it rather than fear it, solitude
one’s education, or do creative work without concern about how one’s can be refreshing, relaxing, rejuvenating, and inspirational.
quest for self-fulfilment affects another. Such people are ‘single at heart’.
For these people, living single is the way in which they live their best and How does a single lifestyle affect the individual’s psychological
most meaningful lives. They are not motivated by negative factors (e.g. bad development? Judging from our discussion above, the single lifestyle provides
experiences) but by the kind of life they want to live. Reasons why some opportunities for growth and self-actualisation (i.e. the development of one’s
people are happy being single include the following (DePaulo, 2015): potential) and the potential for productivity and happiness. The general
perception that single people are lonely and isolated is not necessarily
• Some people are best able to pursue their interests and passions, and true. Many singles have extensive networks involving family and friends
make meaningful life choices, when they are single. An important reason who provide support, while some prefer to be alone and are lifelong loners.
is that their focus is not on partner relationships but much broader. Generally, a person’s feeling of loneliness is related to his or her quality of
Consequently, they are often more likely than married people are to have relationships (many people feel lonely even in marriage), while personality
a sense of continued growth and development as individuals. also plays a role. For example, many people feel more at ease with their own
• Especially in Western countries, it is a treasured value to feel autonomous company than in the company of others. Therefore, happiness need not be
and in control of your own life. Many single people have a greater sense determined by external factors such as marriage (Sigelman & Rider, 2009).
of autonomy and self-determination than married people do. However, the aforementioned should not be interpreted as propaganda
• In a study comparing married people with people who had always for singlehood but rather as an attempt to present a more balanced view,
been single, there were no differences in self-sufficiency (wanting to especially as most research in the past focused on the disadvantages
manage things on one’s own) (Bookwala & Fekete, 2009). However, self- of singlehood. It is widely accepted that in certain cases, permanent
sufficiency seemed to have an advantage for single people. The more singlehood can have important negative implications for people in terms
self-sufficient singles are, the less they experience negative emotions. of emotional and economic support, well-being, and health. For example,
However, the more married couples embrace self-sufficiency, the more single people can be more exposed to loneliness and, since they are not
they experience negative emotions. supported emotionally and economically by a partner, they are often more
• People who are single at heart have a different attitude about the other likely to experience psychological and material disadvantages, especially
people in their lives. They want to have more options. For example, in old age (Bellani et al., 2017). Therefore, it should be kept in mind that
sometimes they want to go to places with friends or family instead of a marriage and singlehood should not be regarded as a contest: No one side
romantic partner. Sometimes they want to socialise with more than one is the winner (DePaulo, 2015). Once again, the uniqueness of the individual
person at a time. Alternatively, they do not want to socialise at all and and the situation will determine what is best for him or her.
prefer to decline a social invitation that does not interest them. Single
life affords more opportunities to create the style of socialising that
works for the individual.
• The single at heart like to be in charge of their life choices, from minor
matters such as whether to exercise more or indulge in a treat, to

338 339
cannot find a partner (Craig, 1996; Timonen & Doyle, 2014). Another image significant issues such as major life-defining decisions. This does not
is that of a flamboyant and exciting lifestyle; although the latter may be true mean they are not interested in feedback. However, they want the
in isolated cases, it cannot be generalised. ultimate decision to be their own and to live life on their own terms.
However, an increasing number of individuals are single by choice, • Many single people enjoy their solitude. People who are single at heart
motivated by the evolving spirit of personal freedom and individual tend to think more fondly about the prospect of spending time alone,
choices of the last few decades. Singlehood may provide opportunities to whereas people who are not single at heart are more likely to worry that
take risks and experiment with change, travel, pursue one’s career, further they might be lonely. For those who value it rather than fear it, solitude
one’s education, or do creative work without concern about how one’s can be refreshing, relaxing, rejuvenating, and inspirational.
quest for self-fulfilment affects another. Such people are ‘single at heart’.
For these people, living single is the way in which they live their best and How does a single lifestyle affect the individual’s psychological
most meaningful lives. They are not motivated by negative factors (e.g. bad development? Judging from our discussion above, the single lifestyle provides
experiences) but by the kind of life they want to live. Reasons why some opportunities for growth and self-actualisation (i.e. the development of one’s
people are happy being single include the following (DePaulo, 2015): potential) and the potential for productivity and happiness. The general
perception that single people are lonely and isolated is not necessarily
• Some people are best able to pursue their interests and passions, and true. Many singles have extensive networks involving family and friends
make meaningful life choices, when they are single. An important reason who provide support, while some prefer to be alone and are lifelong loners.
is that their focus is not on partner relationships but much broader. Generally, a person’s feeling of loneliness is related to his or her quality of
Consequently, they are often more likely than married people are to have relationships (many people feel lonely even in marriage), while personality
a sense of continued growth and development as individuals. also plays a role. For example, many people feel more at ease with their own
• Especially in Western countries, it is a treasured value to feel autonomous company than in the company of others. Therefore, happiness need not be
and in control of your own life. Many single people have a greater sense determined by external factors such as marriage (Sigelman & Rider, 2009).
of autonomy and self-determination than married people do. However, the aforementioned should not be interpreted as propaganda
• In a study comparing married people with people who had always for singlehood but rather as an attempt to present a more balanced view,
been single, there were no differences in self-sufficiency (wanting to especially as most research in the past focused on the disadvantages
manage things on one’s own) (Bookwala & Fekete, 2009). However, self- of singlehood. It is widely accepted that in certain cases, permanent
sufficiency seemed to have an advantage for single people. The more singlehood can have important negative implications for people in terms
self-sufficient singles are, the less they experience negative emotions. of emotional and economic support, well-being, and health. For example,
However, the more married couples embrace self-sufficiency, the more single people can be more exposed to loneliness and, since they are not
they experience negative emotions. supported emotionally and economically by a partner, they are often more
• People who are single at heart have a different attitude about the other likely to experience psychological and material disadvantages, especially
people in their lives. They want to have more options. For example, in old age (Bellani et al., 2017). Therefore, it should be kept in mind that
sometimes they want to go to places with friends or family instead of a marriage and singlehood should not be regarded as a contest: No one side
romantic partner. Sometimes they want to socialise with more than one is the winner (DePaulo, 2015). Once again, the uniqueness of the individual
person at a time. Alternatively, they do not want to socialise at all and and the situation will determine what is best for him or her.
prefer to decline a social invitation that does not interest them. Single
life affords more opportunities to create the style of socialising that
works for the individual.
• The single at heart like to be in charge of their life choices, from minor
matters such as whether to exercise more or indulge in a treat, to

338 339
 5.3.2 Family lifestyles and relationships
REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. What is a person’s lifestyle? How have the lifestyles of South Africans changed over In this section, we shall discuss the various types of family formations, as
the past few decades?
well as the different types of relationships in the family.
2. Discuss the following types of marriages: a civil marriage, a customary marriage, a
religious marriage, and a civil union.
5.3.2.1 The family
3. Discuss the reasons for the decline in marriage rates in South Africa.
4. Discuss the social value of lobola.
Although the family is regarded as the fundamental unit of most societies,
5. Discuss interracial marriage. What are the barriers that some interracial couples may
face? Are children from these unions necessarily disadvantaged?
the term family is not easy to define. In fact, thousands of definitions of
6. What does a same-sex marriage imply? What is the legal status of same-sex
‘family’ exist, depending on variables such as culture and scientific discipline.
marriages in South Africa? How does this legal status compare with those in other In South Africa, the definition in the White Paper on Families in South Africa
countries? How has legal reform changed attitudes regarding same-sex marriages in by the Department of Social Development (2012, p. 11) is used widely: “A
South Africa? societal group that is related by blood (kinship), adoption, foster care or the
7. Despite the low marital rate, what are South Africans’ attitudes towards marriage in ties of marriage (civil, customary, or religious), civil union or cohabitation, and
general? What are the advantages and benefits of marriage?
go beyond a particular physical residence”. The White Paper calls attention
8. Describe the seven types of marriage relationships. Do these types necessarily
indicate whether the marriage may be successful or not? to the fact that family members do not necessarily have close emotional
9. Which factors may promote the chances of a successful marriage? attachments to one another.
10. Discuss marital satisfaction during the adult life course: How happy and satisfied are Although the family is the cornerstone of society, its form and structure
people in their marriages? Does the marital relationship undergo change as people varies widely. It also transforms over time because of social, economic,
grow older? Which factors play a role in marital satisfaction? Do all older people cultural, and political changes. South Africa is a prime example in this regard
experience a happy marital relationship? How does spousal caregiving affect a
(Kgadima, 2017): For centuries, the African family has been characterised
person’s marital satisfaction?
by the extended family system. This means that a family includes not only
11. What is the current divorce rate in South Africa? What do the divorce statistics
indicate? Discuss the legal aspects of divorce in South Africa. the nuclear family (mother, father and children) but also members of their
12. Discuss the most common reasons why people divorce. extended family (grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, in-laws, nephews,
13. What effects does divorce have on adults? Which factors may contribute to adults’ and nieces). Therefore, the extended family is a much bigger unit of relations
adjustment after divorce? and accompanying responsibilities that gave rise to the old African proverb:
14. Discuss gender differences regarding the effects of divorce. “It takes a village to raise a child.” Several advantages have been attributed
15. Describe the typical stages in adjustment to divorce. to the extended family system (Bashir, 2009; Milardo, 2016). An important
16. Discuss remarriage. Why does remarriage represent the ‘triumph of hope over advantage is a much larger group that can take co-responsibility for a wide
experience’? Is remarriage necessarily better the ‘second time round’? Which variety of tasks and crises, for example by assisting parents with tasks such
resilience factors may shield remarried people and reconstituted families against the
inherent difficulties of remarriage?
as financial struggles, taking care of the elderly, and childcare. In fact, the
17. Discuss the effects of widowhood.
extended family in South Africa continues to be the most important social
18. What is cohabitation? What are the reasons for an increase in cohabitation? What
safety net for children who lose their parents, as these children usually are
are the major societal oppositions and other deterrents against the cohabitation absorbed into their relatives’ families (Department of Social Development,
lifestyle? How does cohabitation compare with marriage regarding stability and 2012). The extended family also has many role models, and the individual
quality of the relationship? Refer to older and more recent research in this regard. has the opportunity to learn about the values and norms of the society from
Which variables may affect the quality of the cohabiting relationship?
different people. This means exposure to different points of view and sharing
19. Your friend indicates that she would like to remain single rather than being committed
to a marital or cohabiting relationship. Should you be worried about her psychological of opinions. Children who grow up in extended families learn to cooperate
development? Give reasons for your answer. Why may some people choose a single and care for others, an ability that is an important asset in ‘the outside
lifestyle rather than a married or cohabiting lifestyle? world’. This does not mean that the extended family system does not have

340 341
 5.3.2 Family lifestyles and relationships
REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. What is a person’s lifestyle? How have the lifestyles of South Africans changed over In this section, we shall discuss the various types of family formations, as
the past few decades?
well as the different types of relationships in the family.
2. Discuss the following types of marriages: a civil marriage, a customary marriage, a
religious marriage, and a civil union.
5.3.2.1 The family
3. Discuss the reasons for the decline in marriage rates in South Africa.
4. Discuss the social value of lobola.
Although the family is regarded as the fundamental unit of most societies,
5. Discuss interracial marriage. What are the barriers that some interracial couples may
face? Are children from these unions necessarily disadvantaged?
the term family is not easy to define. In fact, thousands of definitions of
6. What does a same-sex marriage imply? What is the legal status of same-sex
‘family’ exist, depending on variables such as culture and scientific discipline.
marriages in South Africa? How does this legal status compare with those in other In South Africa, the definition in the White Paper on Families in South Africa
countries? How has legal reform changed attitudes regarding same-sex marriages in by the Department of Social Development (2012, p. 11) is used widely: “A
South Africa? societal group that is related by blood (kinship), adoption, foster care or the
7. Despite the low marital rate, what are South Africans’ attitudes towards marriage in ties of marriage (civil, customary, or religious), civil union or cohabitation, and
general? What are the advantages and benefits of marriage?
go beyond a particular physical residence”. The White Paper calls attention
8. Describe the seven types of marriage relationships. Do these types necessarily
indicate whether the marriage may be successful or not? to the fact that family members do not necessarily have close emotional
9. Which factors may promote the chances of a successful marriage? attachments to one another.
10. Discuss marital satisfaction during the adult life course: How happy and satisfied are Although the family is the cornerstone of society, its form and structure
people in their marriages? Does the marital relationship undergo change as people varies widely. It also transforms over time because of social, economic,
grow older? Which factors play a role in marital satisfaction? Do all older people cultural, and political changes. South Africa is a prime example in this regard
experience a happy marital relationship? How does spousal caregiving affect a
(Kgadima, 2017): For centuries, the African family has been characterised
person’s marital satisfaction?
by the extended family system. This means that a family includes not only
11. What is the current divorce rate in South Africa? What do the divorce statistics
indicate? Discuss the legal aspects of divorce in South Africa. the nuclear family (mother, father and children) but also members of their
12. Discuss the most common reasons why people divorce. extended family (grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, in-laws, nephews,
13. What effects does divorce have on adults? Which factors may contribute to adults’ and nieces). Therefore, the extended family is a much bigger unit of relations
adjustment after divorce? and accompanying responsibilities that gave rise to the old African proverb:
14. Discuss gender differences regarding the effects of divorce. “It takes a village to raise a child.” Several advantages have been attributed
15. Describe the typical stages in adjustment to divorce. to the extended family system (Bashir, 2009; Milardo, 2016). An important
16. Discuss remarriage. Why does remarriage represent the ‘triumph of hope over advantage is a much larger group that can take co-responsibility for a wide
experience’? Is remarriage necessarily better the ‘second time round’? Which variety of tasks and crises, for example by assisting parents with tasks such
resilience factors may shield remarried people and reconstituted families against the
inherent difficulties of remarriage?
as financial struggles, taking care of the elderly, and childcare. In fact, the
17. Discuss the effects of widowhood.
extended family in South Africa continues to be the most important social
18. What is cohabitation? What are the reasons for an increase in cohabitation? What
safety net for children who lose their parents, as these children usually are
are the major societal oppositions and other deterrents against the cohabitation absorbed into their relatives’ families (Department of Social Development,
lifestyle? How does cohabitation compare with marriage regarding stability and 2012). The extended family also has many role models, and the individual
quality of the relationship? Refer to older and more recent research in this regard. has the opportunity to learn about the values and norms of the society from
Which variables may affect the quality of the cohabiting relationship?
different people. This means exposure to different points of view and sharing
19. Your friend indicates that she would like to remain single rather than being committed
to a marital or cohabiting relationship. Should you be worried about her psychological of opinions. Children who grow up in extended families learn to cooperate
development? Give reasons for your answer. Why may some people choose a single and care for others, an ability that is an important asset in ‘the outside
lifestyle rather than a married or cohabiting lifestyle? world’. This does not mean that the extended family system does not have

340 341
disadvantages: Members of this system often complain that there is a lack these family units are discussed later in this chapter.
of privacy (“everybody knows all your business”) and that some members Regardless of the nature of the family system, every family has certain
do not contribute equally to the group. There is also the possibility that psycho-social and biological functions, which include the following
members can become group thinkers, which means that individual thinking (Anastasiu, 2012; Mokomane, 2012):
could be eroded.
Owing to the colonisation of and the accompanying westernisation • Psychological functions. Providing for the psychological needs of its
process, this kind of family system gradually began to crumble, especially members is a major and universal function of a family. The family offers
in urban areas. In South Africa, the situation was aggravated by centuries emotional security. This security not only provides a shelter of emotional
of racial discrimination that accumulated in the apartheid system where safety that the members can always turn to, but also prepares the young
oppressive laws further splintered African traditions (Makiwane et al., members to enter the outside world confidently. Equally important is
2017). For example, many African men left their families in rural areas the love, affection, and respect that family members, especially children,
and migrated to cities in search of jobs to provide for their families. The experience. This gives them self-confidence and a belief that they are
system did not promote favourable conditions for African families, as only wanted – characteristics that enable them to face the hardships of the
labourers were permitted to live in men-only hostels in the towns and cities; world. The family also plays a very important role in the socialisation of
consequently, many African families became fragmented (Kgadima, 2017). the children, teaching them about the norms of society, especially about
This fragmentation also continued because of other factors. For example, what is right and wrong.
African men and later also women became more career oriented and moved • Social functions. The family provides its members with a social identity.
away from the extended family to promote their careers. The influence of (Social identity is a person’s sense of his or her status in a group or
the more individualistic Western culture has also caused African people to society.) A person’s first social status is determined largely by the social
focus more on their own needs and preferences, rather than placing the standing of his or her family in the group or society, the relative wealth
emphasis on other people (Botha & Booysen, 2013; Kgadima, 2017). of the family, where they live, and what the professions of the parents
At present, the nuclear family dominates in South Africa. The advantages are. Social identity plays an important role in a person’s self-esteem and
of this family system are that it often creates stronger bonds because of its confidence.
size. It also promotes a situation in which children can develop individuality • Biological functions. The family plays a very important role in regulating
according to their own unique personalities, and provides parents more sexual activity and sexual reproduction. Although the expression of
control in this regard. Similarly, the nuclear family unit provides a much sexual desire is determined by variables such as culture, religion, and
greater opportunity for taking autonomous decisions (e.g. with whom to time period in history, no society allows its members to satisfy their
socialise) without interference from other members from the extended sexual urges without any
family. There is also more opportunity for family time. limitation. The societal
However, both the nuclear and extended family systems are essential unit that plays a major
family units in our society and should not be played off against each other. role to determine norms
Both meet important needs of individuals and groups, depending on the in this regard is the family.
uniqueness of factors such as culture, time, geographic area, as well as Another biological function
individual and group needs. of the family is to reproduce
Next to the nuclear family and extended family, several other family (i.e. parents reproduce off-
systems exist in South Africa, for example single parents with children; spring), a function without
reconstituted families with stepparents and stepchildren; same-sex parents which the society will
with children; and childless families. In addition, in contrast to the traditional disappear.
male-headed households, many families are female-headed households, • Economic functions. In
grandparent-headed households, and child-headed households. Some of most societies, the family is Families are regarded as the building blocks of
communities
342 343
disadvantages: Members of this system often complain that there is a lack these family units are discussed later in this chapter.
of privacy (“everybody knows all your business”) and that some members Regardless of the nature of the family system, every family has certain
do not contribute equally to the group. There is also the possibility that psycho-social and biological functions, which include the following
members can become group thinkers, which means that individual thinking (Anastasiu, 2012; Mokomane, 2012):
could be eroded.
Owing to the colonisation of and the accompanying westernisation • Psychological functions. Providing for the psychological needs of its
process, this kind of family system gradually began to crumble, especially members is a major and universal function of a family. The family offers
in urban areas. In South Africa, the situation was aggravated by centuries emotional security. This security not only provides a shelter of emotional
of racial discrimination that accumulated in the apartheid system where safety that the members can always turn to, but also prepares the young
oppressive laws further splintered African traditions (Makiwane et al., members to enter the outside world confidently. Equally important is
2017). For example, many African men left their families in rural areas the love, affection, and respect that family members, especially children,
and migrated to cities in search of jobs to provide for their families. The experience. This gives them self-confidence and a belief that they are
system did not promote favourable conditions for African families, as only wanted – characteristics that enable them to face the hardships of the
labourers were permitted to live in men-only hostels in the towns and cities; world. The family also plays a very important role in the socialisation of
consequently, many African families became fragmented (Kgadima, 2017). the children, teaching them about the norms of society, especially about
This fragmentation also continued because of other factors. For example, what is right and wrong.
African men and later also women became more career oriented and moved • Social functions. The family provides its members with a social identity.
away from the extended family to promote their careers. The influence of (Social identity is a person’s sense of his or her status in a group or
the more individualistic Western culture has also caused African people to society.) A person’s first social status is determined largely by the social
focus more on their own needs and preferences, rather than placing the standing of his or her family in the group or society, the relative wealth
emphasis on other people (Botha & Booysen, 2013; Kgadima, 2017). of the family, where they live, and what the professions of the parents
At present, the nuclear family dominates in South Africa. The advantages are. Social identity plays an important role in a person’s self-esteem and
of this family system are that it often creates stronger bonds because of its confidence.
size. It also promotes a situation in which children can develop individuality • Biological functions. The family plays a very important role in regulating
according to their own unique personalities, and provides parents more sexual activity and sexual reproduction. Although the expression of
control in this regard. Similarly, the nuclear family unit provides a much sexual desire is determined by variables such as culture, religion, and
greater opportunity for taking autonomous decisions (e.g. with whom to time period in history, no society allows its members to satisfy their
socialise) without interference from other members from the extended sexual urges without any
family. There is also more opportunity for family time. limitation. The societal
However, both the nuclear and extended family systems are essential unit that plays a major
family units in our society and should not be played off against each other. role to determine norms
Both meet important needs of individuals and groups, depending on the in this regard is the family.
uniqueness of factors such as culture, time, geographic area, as well as Another biological function
individual and group needs. of the family is to reproduce
Next to the nuclear family and extended family, several other family (i.e. parents reproduce off-
systems exist in South Africa, for example single parents with children; spring), a function without
reconstituted families with stepparents and stepchildren; same-sex parents which the society will
with children; and childless families. In addition, in contrast to the traditional disappear.
male-headed households, many families are female-headed households, • Economic functions. In
grandparent-headed households, and child-headed households. Some of most societies, the family is Families are regarded as the building blocks of
communities
342 343
 the basic economic unit. This means that it earns an income that is used of ‘family meal time’, family outings, attending one another’s birthdays,
to satisfy the basic needs of its members, for example food, clothing, and other celebrations and important activities.
housing, education, health care, and general comfort. ■ Coping skills. Healthy families are able to deal effectively and creatively
with daily stressors and difficult life crises. During these times, they
However, no family is an island. Family resources to provide for and depend upon one another for support. When healthy families cannot
support family members are critical to the functionality of families. Families solve their problems, they are willing to seek external help.
with fewer resources, such as insufficient income or a lack of capable ■ Spirituality. Many experts regard spirituality as a powerful source
individuals to perform needed activities, high costs, and a large number of of strength for healthy families. This not necessarily implies that they
dependent individuals, may have difficulties (and even cease) to perform belong to a specific church or religion. It rather means that they share a
traditional family functions because they are unable to provide for the belief in a higher being or power, something greater than they are. They
material or psychological needs of members. For these reasons, poverty, share the same moral values and a worldview that acts as a driving force
unemployment, as well as high rates of social dependency (such as disability, and gives them purpose in life and a sense of optimism. Spiritual well-
illness, or substance use), place severe strains on the resources of families being has been described as the caring centre in each individual that
(Amoateng & Richter, 2004). promotes sharing, love, and compassion (DeFrain & Asay, 2007).
What are the characteristics of a psychologically healthy family? The
following are some of the major qualities (Clark-Jones, 2018; Newland, 2015; Conversely, when families continually and regularly interact in ways
Sale, 2001): that undermine the psychological well-being and physical health of its
members, they are called dysfunctional families. As dysfunctional families
■ Commitment. It is very important that all family members are committed mostly put up a front and deny any wrongdoing, it is almost impossible to
to the family and to one another. For example, they consider the effect determine the prevalence of such families in a society. Most international
on family members before they make important decisions. The family authors estimate that the prevalence rate is more than 50%. This estimation
as a whole is committed to seeing that each member reaches his or may not be much different for South Africa (e.g. see Holborn & Eddy, 2011;
her potential. This may be accomplished by sharing responsibilities, Kheswa, 2017). The following are some of the most common characteristics
having reasonable expectations for each other, respecting the roles each of dysfunctional families (see Hussung, 2017). Note that the characteristics
member plays in the family, and building one another’s self-esteem. The of a psychologically healthy family discussed above are basically absent in
family provides emotional security: Family members are dependable dysfunctional families:
and reliable, and they are available in a time of crisis.
■ Communication. Strong families are characterised by positive, • Poor communication. As mentioned before, communication is one of the
constructive, and meaningful communication. They find it easy to share most important building blocks of a healthy family life. Communication
their feelings with one another and enjoy talking and listening to one in dysfunctional families is usually not only superficial but also negative,
another. If there are differences of opinion, they respect one another’s which takes the form of complaints, criticism and other expressions of
points of view. However, even heated conflict is a part of every family. In displeasure. Individual members often feel misunderstood or that their
such cases, the main goal is to solve the problem and not to prove one voices are not heard. In addition, communication in dysfunctional families
right, becoming disrespectful, sarcastic and insulting in the process. is deceptive, rather than honest and direct: Family members preferably
■ Appreciation and respect. People in psychologically healthy families talk about a particular family member to other members of the family,
deeply care for one another. They express their appreciation and respect but do not confront the person directly. This creates tension, mistrust,
regularly, for example by gentle touches and considerate actions. and general negativity.
■ Spending time together. Healthy families frequently spend meaningful • Substance abuse. Few other factors can destroy a family as much as
time with one another. They have a number of common interests and substance (drug and alcohol) abuse does. When substance abuse exists
enjoy one another’s company. For example, these families have traditions in a family, the substance(s) become the core of their existence, with

344 345
 the basic economic unit. This means that it earns an income that is used of ‘family meal time’, family outings, attending one another’s birthdays,
to satisfy the basic needs of its members, for example food, clothing, and other celebrations and important activities.
housing, education, health care, and general comfort. ■ Coping skills. Healthy families are able to deal effectively and creatively
with daily stressors and difficult life crises. During these times, they
However, no family is an island. Family resources to provide for and depend upon one another for support. When healthy families cannot
support family members are critical to the functionality of families. Families solve their problems, they are willing to seek external help.
with fewer resources, such as insufficient income or a lack of capable ■ Spirituality. Many experts regard spirituality as a powerful source
individuals to perform needed activities, high costs, and a large number of of strength for healthy families. This not necessarily implies that they
dependent individuals, may have difficulties (and even cease) to perform belong to a specific church or religion. It rather means that they share a
traditional family functions because they are unable to provide for the belief in a higher being or power, something greater than they are. They
material or psychological needs of members. For these reasons, poverty, share the same moral values and a worldview that acts as a driving force
unemployment, as well as high rates of social dependency (such as disability, and gives them purpose in life and a sense of optimism. Spiritual well-
illness, or substance use), place severe strains on the resources of families being has been described as the caring centre in each individual that
(Amoateng & Richter, 2004). promotes sharing, love, and compassion (DeFrain & Asay, 2007).
What are the characteristics of a psychologically healthy family? The
following are some of the major qualities (Clark-Jones, 2018; Newland, 2015; Conversely, when families continually and regularly interact in ways
Sale, 2001): that undermine the psychological well-being and physical health of its
members, they are called dysfunctional families. As dysfunctional families
■ Commitment. It is very important that all family members are committed mostly put up a front and deny any wrongdoing, it is almost impossible to
to the family and to one another. For example, they consider the effect determine the prevalence of such families in a society. Most international
on family members before they make important decisions. The family authors estimate that the prevalence rate is more than 50%. This estimation
as a whole is committed to seeing that each member reaches his or may not be much different for South Africa (e.g. see Holborn & Eddy, 2011;
her potential. This may be accomplished by sharing responsibilities, Kheswa, 2017). The following are some of the most common characteristics
having reasonable expectations for each other, respecting the roles each of dysfunctional families (see Hussung, 2017). Note that the characteristics
member plays in the family, and building one another’s self-esteem. The of a psychologically healthy family discussed above are basically absent in
family provides emotional security: Family members are dependable dysfunctional families:
and reliable, and they are available in a time of crisis.
■ Communication. Strong families are characterised by positive, • Poor communication. As mentioned before, communication is one of the
constructive, and meaningful communication. They find it easy to share most important building blocks of a healthy family life. Communication
their feelings with one another and enjoy talking and listening to one in dysfunctional families is usually not only superficial but also negative,
another. If there are differences of opinion, they respect one another’s which takes the form of complaints, criticism and other expressions of
points of view. However, even heated conflict is a part of every family. In displeasure. Individual members often feel misunderstood or that their
such cases, the main goal is to solve the problem and not to prove one voices are not heard. In addition, communication in dysfunctional families
right, becoming disrespectful, sarcastic and insulting in the process. is deceptive, rather than honest and direct: Family members preferably
■ Appreciation and respect. People in psychologically healthy families talk about a particular family member to other members of the family,
deeply care for one another. They express their appreciation and respect but do not confront the person directly. This creates tension, mistrust,
regularly, for example by gentle touches and considerate actions. and general negativity.
■ Spending time together. Healthy families frequently spend meaningful • Substance abuse. Few other factors can destroy a family as much as
time with one another. They have a number of common interests and substance (drug and alcohol) abuse does. When substance abuse exists
enjoy one another’s company. For example, these families have traditions in a family, the substance(s) become the core of their existence, with

344 345
 the result that family rules, roles, and relationships are established and perfectionistic in certain areas, have very high expectations for children
organised around the substances. Conflict, which often results in verbal or other family members, and do not accept failure. This puts additional
and physical abuse, is common. Isolation often occurs as the substance pressure on the family members, which could easily lead to stress,
abuser regularly embarrasses the family, with the result that the family anxiety, depression and other psychopathological symptoms.
withdraws from other family members, friends, and social activities. As
money is spent on substances and the person frequently loses his or From the above, it is clear that conflict is a trademark of dysfunctional
her job, these families commonly are in a financial crisis. The effects of families and that their psychological well-being leaves much to be desired.
substance abuse frequently extend beyond the nuclear family. Extended Equally, if not more tragic, is that individuals from such families often
family members may experience feelings of abandonment, anxiety, fear, continue with this cycle by perpetuating the same or similar dysfunctional
anger, concern, embarrassment, or guilt; they may wish to ignore or cut dynamics in their own families (Hussung, 2017).
ties with the person abusing substances. Some family members even may
feel the need for legal protection from the person abusing substances. 5.3.2.2 Parenthood and parenting
Moreover, the effects on families may continue for generations (Centre
for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2013). Parenthood is the state of being a parent. It involves the role one takes as a
• Denial. Dysfunctional families often live in denial. This means that they mother or father and as a co-parent with one’s partner. Parenting involves
do not acknowledge what is happening in their homes (e.g. conflict, rearing a child, the process of promoting and supporting the psychological
violence, and abuse). They could believe that the (dysfunctional) and physical development of a child from infancy to (and including)
situation is normal and even beneficial. This denial takes various forms. adulthood. It also refers specifically to the techniques, methods, and skills
For example, they believe that “all families are like this”, or they may parents use in raising their child (Labuzan-Lopez, 2015). However, the two
minimise the problem (“I know of families where it is much worse”). terms are often used interchangeably.
Therefore, it is understandable that these family members do not often In this section, the different forms of parenthood and parenting will be
seek professional help. explored.
• Inconsistency and unpredictability. These two characteristics often go
hand in hand in dysfunctional families. Parental inconsistency creates a (a) Parents and children
less structured and thus unpredictable family environment. This makes
it difficult for children to understand and follow their parents’ rules Although increasingly more people decide against parenthood, the wish to
and expectations (Carrasco et al., 2015). With boundaries that change have children is still a universal phenomenon. The birth of a child transforms
all the time, the family members’ self-confidence is eroded; therefore, a couple (or a single parent) into a family. Although many pregnancies
they do not have a sense of security and stability that is important for are unintended or unplanned, one of the biggest decisions a couple has
their general well-being. Thus, an environment is created in which they to make is whether to have children and in which stage of their marriage
constantly feel anxious and fearful. or relationship to have children. This decision may be complicated and
• Excessive control. In a dysfunctional family structure, it is common involves the weighing up of the many benefits of having children (such
that one or both parents often focus on controlling their children to an as personal satisfaction, fulfilling personal needs, continuing the family
excessive extent. For example, an adolescent child is hardly ever allowed line, and companionship), against the many possible drawbacks such as
to leave the house to visit friends or invite friends to their own home. expenses and lifestyle changes. Marital and psychological issues may also
This adds to the isolation in which the family already finds themselves. play a role: Marital issues are associated with the partners’ experience of
It can also have a serious effect on the development of the children, marital satisfaction, their perceptions of the stability of the marriage, and
as their independent functioning and confidence do not develop their perceptions of the effect of the addition of children on the marital
sufficiently. Moreover, this could affect their performance at school and relationship. Unfortunately, many people believe that children can ‘rescue’
in the workplace significantly. The irony is that such parents are often a shaky marriage. However, they do not realise that the role responsibilities

346 347
 the result that family rules, roles, and relationships are established and perfectionistic in certain areas, have very high expectations for children
organised around the substances. Conflict, which often results in verbal or other family members, and do not accept failure. This puts additional
and physical abuse, is common. Isolation often occurs as the substance pressure on the family members, which could easily lead to stress,
abuser regularly embarrasses the family, with the result that the family anxiety, depression and other psychopathological symptoms.
withdraws from other family members, friends, and social activities. As
money is spent on substances and the person frequently loses his or From the above, it is clear that conflict is a trademark of dysfunctional
her job, these families commonly are in a financial crisis. The effects of families and that their psychological well-being leaves much to be desired.
substance abuse frequently extend beyond the nuclear family. Extended Equally, if not more tragic, is that individuals from such families often
family members may experience feelings of abandonment, anxiety, fear, continue with this cycle by perpetuating the same or similar dysfunctional
anger, concern, embarrassment, or guilt; they may wish to ignore or cut dynamics in their own families (Hussung, 2017).
ties with the person abusing substances. Some family members even may
feel the need for legal protection from the person abusing substances. 5.3.2.2 Parenthood and parenting
Moreover, the effects on families may continue for generations (Centre
for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2013). Parenthood is the state of being a parent. It involves the role one takes as a
• Denial. Dysfunctional families often live in denial. This means that they mother or father and as a co-parent with one’s partner. Parenting involves
do not acknowledge what is happening in their homes (e.g. conflict, rearing a child, the process of promoting and supporting the psychological
violence, and abuse). They could believe that the (dysfunctional) and physical development of a child from infancy to (and including)
situation is normal and even beneficial. This denial takes various forms. adulthood. It also refers specifically to the techniques, methods, and skills
For example, they believe that “all families are like this”, or they may parents use in raising their child (Labuzan-Lopez, 2015). However, the two
minimise the problem (“I know of families where it is much worse”). terms are often used interchangeably.
Therefore, it is understandable that these family members do not often In this section, the different forms of parenthood and parenting will be
seek professional help. explored.
• Inconsistency and unpredictability. These two characteristics often go
hand in hand in dysfunctional families. Parental inconsistency creates a (a) Parents and children
less structured and thus unpredictable family environment. This makes
it difficult for children to understand and follow their parents’ rules Although increasingly more people decide against parenthood, the wish to
and expectations (Carrasco et al., 2015). With boundaries that change have children is still a universal phenomenon. The birth of a child transforms
all the time, the family members’ self-confidence is eroded; therefore, a couple (or a single parent) into a family. Although many pregnancies
they do not have a sense of security and stability that is important for are unintended or unplanned, one of the biggest decisions a couple has
their general well-being. Thus, an environment is created in which they to make is whether to have children and in which stage of their marriage
constantly feel anxious and fearful. or relationship to have children. This decision may be complicated and
• Excessive control. In a dysfunctional family structure, it is common involves the weighing up of the many benefits of having children (such
that one or both parents often focus on controlling their children to an as personal satisfaction, fulfilling personal needs, continuing the family
excessive extent. For example, an adolescent child is hardly ever allowed line, and companionship), against the many possible drawbacks such as
to leave the house to visit friends or invite friends to their own home. expenses and lifestyle changes. Marital and psychological issues may also
This adds to the isolation in which the family already finds themselves. play a role: Marital issues are associated with the partners’ experience of
It can also have a serious effect on the development of the children, marital satisfaction, their perceptions of the stability of the marriage, and
as their independent functioning and confidence do not develop their perceptions of the effect of the addition of children on the marital
sufficiently. Moreover, this could affect their performance at school and relationship. Unfortunately, many people believe that children can ‘rescue’
in the workplace significantly. The irony is that such parents are often a shaky marriage. However, they do not realise that the role responsibilities

346 347
associated with having children may complicate a risky marriage even
further. As we have seen in the previous section, marital satisfaction is Box 5.9 The challenges South African parents face
compromised often during the childbearing years. Psychological factors Parenting does not happen in a vacuum, and South African parents face a range
are related to the potential parents’ relationships with their own parents of challenges. Poverty constitutes a particular risk for parenting. A lack of financial
when they were children: Some individuals do not want children because resources not only affects the ability of parents to provide nutrition, health care, and
education, but also makes parenting much more difficult. In addition, more than 50%
of their own negative experiences. Personality factors such as flexibility, of children in South Africa grow up in households where caregivers parent without
independence, and emotional stability may also play a role (see Gerdes et the support of the other parent. Parents struggling with poverty are more likely to
al., 1998; Prinzie et al., 2009). suffer from depression, and depressed parents are more likely to use harsh punishment
and to be inconsistent in their responses to their children’s behaviour. Mothers in this
Parenting can be a rewarding experience, with children playing a great
situation are less likely to be affectionate towards their children, and more likely to
role in adult development. Adults report that children may cause them to use corporal punishment. They are also likely to leave their children unsupervised. This
shift their values or priorities; integrate memories or experiences previously type of harsh, inconsistent parenting, which features a lack of warmth and supervision,
disowned or repressed; become more creative and cognitively flexible; and increases the likelihood of children abusing drugs or alcohol, engaging in risky sexual
behaviour, and becoming involved in crime. Parents living in poverty are also less likely
look at the world with more wonder, awe, and curiosity. Furthermore, when to have the social support that assists better-off parents with their parenting. This
adults let children become part of their developmental journey, children makes it particularly essential to put into place evidence-based programmes that
themselves feel important and valued rather than feel like stepping-stones support parents.
towards the parents fulfilling their own needs (Dillon, 2002). A recent study For example, Gould and Ward (2015) conducted a study in a disadvantaged
community in the Western Cape. They found that physical punishment such as hitting
also found that men and women who have at least one child experience and slapping, parenting stress, parental mental health, and intimate partner violence in
lower mortality risks than childless men and women do (Modig et al., 2017). the home were associated significantly with children’s depression, anxiety, aggression,
Regardless of the universally held view about the joy of parenthood, and violence. The study also found that more than half of the parents living in the
community wanted help with their parenting, and felt that they would benefit from
researchers recently began to ask the question whether parenthood really
home visits or a course on positive parenting (54,1% of parents said they would like a
brings the joy usually assumed. Some researchers have found that there is home visit from someone who could help them with the challenges of parenting, and
no difference in the psychological well-being of parents and non-parents, 37,3% said they would like a course on parenting).
while single parents report less life satisfaction than non-parents do (Deaton (From Gould & Ward, 2016, pp. 1-3.)

& Stone, 2014; Pollmann-Schult, 2014). However, in three related studies,

Nelson and her co-researchers (2012) found that parents (especially fathers)
reported relatively higher levels of happiness, positive emotion, and meaning people dislike. Thus, parental happiness may differ from parent to parent,
in life than non-parents did. At the same time, a cross-national study of 22 while factors such as personality, mental health, social support structures,
countries found that this variable differed from country to country (Glass et and socio-economic factors may play a role. (See Box 5.9 regarding the
al., 2016). An interesting finding of this study was that governmental policies challenges that many South African parents face.)
that made provision for parents to better combine their employment with An aspect of parenting that has led to numerous studies is parenting
parental obligations played a most important role in parental happiness styles, the way parents interact with their children. The most widely accepted
– for both fathers and mothers. Examples are paid leave to look after ill research in this regard was done by Diana Baumrind (1971, 1989, 2012), who
children and even subsidised childcare. In addition to this finding, the identified three parenting styles, while Maccoby and Martin (1983) later
present authors hold the view that the same applies to company policies that added a fourth style. These parenting styles are based on the following
disallow parents to enjoy and share in some of their children’s school and four dimensions of parenting: warmth and nurturance; consistent control;
other activities. However, as we have indicated repeatedly throughout this expectations; and communication. The following description is based on
book, the findings of studies like these are based on averages and specific Louw and Louw (2014):
groups; therefore, we should be careful to generalise the results. Happiness,
and therefore parental (and non-parental) happiness, is a unique personal • The authoritative parenting style. These parents meet the standards
characteristic: Some people would be happy in circumstances that other of all four dimensions of parenting: warmth and nurturance, consistent

348 349
associated with having children may complicate a risky marriage even
further. As we have seen in the previous section, marital satisfaction is Box 5.9 The challenges South African parents face
compromised often during the childbearing years. Psychological factors Parenting does not happen in a vacuum, and South African parents face a range
are related to the potential parents’ relationships with their own parents of challenges. Poverty constitutes a particular risk for parenting. A lack of financial
when they were children: Some individuals do not want children because resources not only affects the ability of parents to provide nutrition, health care, and
education, but also makes parenting much more difficult. In addition, more than 50%
of their own negative experiences. Personality factors such as flexibility, of children in South Africa grow up in households where caregivers parent without
independence, and emotional stability may also play a role (see Gerdes et the support of the other parent. Parents struggling with poverty are more likely to
al., 1998; Prinzie et al., 2009). suffer from depression, and depressed parents are more likely to use harsh punishment
and to be inconsistent in their responses to their children’s behaviour. Mothers in this
Parenting can be a rewarding experience, with children playing a great
situation are less likely to be affectionate towards their children, and more likely to
role in adult development. Adults report that children may cause them to use corporal punishment. They are also likely to leave their children unsupervised. This
shift their values or priorities; integrate memories or experiences previously type of harsh, inconsistent parenting, which features a lack of warmth and supervision,
disowned or repressed; become more creative and cognitively flexible; and increases the likelihood of children abusing drugs or alcohol, engaging in risky sexual
behaviour, and becoming involved in crime. Parents living in poverty are also less likely
look at the world with more wonder, awe, and curiosity. Furthermore, when to have the social support that assists better-off parents with their parenting. This
adults let children become part of their developmental journey, children makes it particularly essential to put into place evidence-based programmes that
themselves feel important and valued rather than feel like stepping-stones support parents.
towards the parents fulfilling their own needs (Dillon, 2002). A recent study For example, Gould and Ward (2015) conducted a study in a disadvantaged
community in the Western Cape. They found that physical punishment such as hitting
also found that men and women who have at least one child experience and slapping, parenting stress, parental mental health, and intimate partner violence in
lower mortality risks than childless men and women do (Modig et al., 2017). the home were associated significantly with children’s depression, anxiety, aggression,
Regardless of the universally held view about the joy of parenthood, and violence. The study also found that more than half of the parents living in the
community wanted help with their parenting, and felt that they would benefit from
researchers recently began to ask the question whether parenthood really
home visits or a course on positive parenting (54,1% of parents said they would like a
brings the joy usually assumed. Some researchers have found that there is home visit from someone who could help them with the challenges of parenting, and
no difference in the psychological well-being of parents and non-parents, 37,3% said they would like a course on parenting).
while single parents report less life satisfaction than non-parents do (Deaton (From Gould & Ward, 2016, pp. 1-3.)

& Stone, 2014; Pollmann-Schult, 2014). However, in three related studies,

Nelson and her co-researchers (2012) found that parents (especially fathers)
reported relatively higher levels of happiness, positive emotion, and meaning people dislike. Thus, parental happiness may differ from parent to parent,
in life than non-parents did. At the same time, a cross-national study of 22 while factors such as personality, mental health, social support structures,
countries found that this variable differed from country to country (Glass et and socio-economic factors may play a role. (See Box 5.9 regarding the
al., 2016). An interesting finding of this study was that governmental policies challenges that many South African parents face.)
that made provision for parents to better combine their employment with An aspect of parenting that has led to numerous studies is parenting
parental obligations played a most important role in parental happiness styles, the way parents interact with their children. The most widely accepted
– for both fathers and mothers. Examples are paid leave to look after ill research in this regard was done by Diana Baumrind (1971, 1989, 2012), who
children and even subsidised childcare. In addition to this finding, the identified three parenting styles, while Maccoby and Martin (1983) later
present authors hold the view that the same applies to company policies that added a fourth style. These parenting styles are based on the following
disallow parents to enjoy and share in some of their children’s school and four dimensions of parenting: warmth and nurturance; consistent control;
other activities. However, as we have indicated repeatedly throughout this expectations; and communication. The following description is based on
book, the findings of studies like these are based on averages and specific Louw and Louw (2014):
groups; therefore, we should be careful to generalise the results. Happiness,
and therefore parental (and non-parental) happiness, is a unique personal • The authoritative parenting style. These parents meet the standards
characteristic: Some people would be happy in circumstances that other of all four dimensions of parenting: warmth and nurturance, consistent

348 349
 control, expectations, and communication. It involves high acceptance attachment, cognition, as well as emotional, academic, and social skills.
and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and the granting of Despite general agreement on the advantages and disadvantages of
appropriate autonomy. Parents are warm and sensitive to their children’s parenting styles, it is equally true that the correlations between parenting
needs but set appropriate limits. The following is an example: “You styles and expected child behaviour are not always strong (Bernstein, 2018;
know you should not have done this. Let us talk on how you can handle Cherry, 2017). The expected child outcomes do not always realise and
the situation next time.” This style is regarded as the most successful sometimes have the opposite result; for example, parents with authoritative
approach to child rearing and is linked to many aspects of competence parenting styles could have children who are rebels or are guilty of antisocial
throughout childhood and adolescence. These include a positive mood, conduct. Various factors such as cultural variations, the personalities of the
self-control, task persistence, cooperativeness, social and moral maturity, parents and the child, socio-economic status, and access to extended family
and good academic performance. also remind us that child-rearing practices should be understood in their
• The authoritarian parenting style. This style is high in control and broader context. It should also be considered that, although it is generally
expectations, but low in nurturance and communication. Authoritarian accepted that parents can influence their children’s behaviour, a child’s
parents appear cold and rejecting. They frequently degrade their characteristics, which are often determined by genetics, can also influence
children by putting them down. To exert control, they shout, command, the parenting style (Oliver et al., 2014). For example, a child might misbehave
and criticise: “‘You do as I tell you, or else …” or “Because I said so.” If the not because the parents are permissive, but the parents became permissive
child disobeys, they resort to force and punishment, including spanking. because they just gave up trying to change their child’s antisocial behaviour.
Outcomes for these children are generally negative: They tend to be As mentioned, culture variations may play a significant role in parenting
unhappy and anxious, show high rates of anger and defiance, and tend styles. This is especially true in South Africa with its unique cultural
to be dependent and overwhelmed by challenging tasks. composition. Roman et al. (2016) provide the following overview on
• The permissive parenting style. These parents show warmth and parenting in the South African context:
nurturance, but fail as far as expectations, control, and communication
are concerned. Parents are generally warm and accepting, but rather ■ Several studies show that parents use mainly an authoritative parenting
than being involved, they tend to be overindulgent and inattentive. style across ethnic groups, with the resulting benefits for young children,
They exert little control over their children’s behaviour, with the result adolescents, and young adults. These studies also suggest that overly
that children have to make many of their own decisions at an age when strict parental behavioural control, monitoring and limit setting predict
they are not yet capable of doing so. An example is that young children high rates of substance abuse during adolescence.
are allowed to go to bed or watch TV whenever they want. Children of ■ Parenting styles of mothers and fathers are perceived as significantly
permissive parents tend to be impulsive, disobedient, and rebellious. different between and within ethnic groups. It seems that mothers
They also tend to be overly demanding and dependent on adults and are generally perceived as being more involved than fathers are. This
show less persistence in tasks than children do whose parents have more suggests that there are stronger relationships between mothers and
control and expectation demands. their children than between fathers and their children, indicated by
• The uninvolved parenting style. These parents do not meet the nurturance, support, satisfaction, affection, and intimacy.
expectations of any of the parenting styles. They tend to be emotionally ■ Black South African fathers scored significantly lower on both
detached, often because of their own overwhelming problems or authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles than whites did. This
because they are attracted to more exciting activities. They tend to finding is consistent within the groups as well. This significant difference
have little time and energy left to cater for their children’s needs. For could be because historically and culturally, black African fathers have
example, when watching her 3-year-old grab a toy from another child, been less involved with their children. This could be related to gender
the uninvolved parent does not attempt to intervene in any way. At its ideologies (i.e. females care for children), and/or to socio-political
extreme, uninvolved parents often maltreat their children by neglecting reasons where fathers have to work away from their families. The greater
them. This style disrupts virtually all aspects of development, including extent of the authoritative parenting style of white parents with more

350 351
 control, expectations, and communication. It involves high acceptance attachment, cognition, as well as emotional, academic, and social skills.
and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and the granting of Despite general agreement on the advantages and disadvantages of
appropriate autonomy. Parents are warm and sensitive to their children’s parenting styles, it is equally true that the correlations between parenting
needs but set appropriate limits. The following is an example: “You styles and expected child behaviour are not always strong (Bernstein, 2018;
know you should not have done this. Let us talk on how you can handle Cherry, 2017). The expected child outcomes do not always realise and
the situation next time.” This style is regarded as the most successful sometimes have the opposite result; for example, parents with authoritative
approach to child rearing and is linked to many aspects of competence parenting styles could have children who are rebels or are guilty of antisocial
throughout childhood and adolescence. These include a positive mood, conduct. Various factors such as cultural variations, the personalities of the
self-control, task persistence, cooperativeness, social and moral maturity, parents and the child, socio-economic status, and access to extended family
and good academic performance. also remind us that child-rearing practices should be understood in their
• The authoritarian parenting style. This style is high in control and broader context. It should also be considered that, although it is generally
expectations, but low in nurturance and communication. Authoritarian accepted that parents can influence their children’s behaviour, a child’s
parents appear cold and rejecting. They frequently degrade their characteristics, which are often determined by genetics, can also influence
children by putting them down. To exert control, they shout, command, the parenting style (Oliver et al., 2014). For example, a child might misbehave
and criticise: “‘You do as I tell you, or else …” or “Because I said so.” If the not because the parents are permissive, but the parents became permissive
child disobeys, they resort to force and punishment, including spanking. because they just gave up trying to change their child’s antisocial behaviour.
Outcomes for these children are generally negative: They tend to be As mentioned, culture variations may play a significant role in parenting
unhappy and anxious, show high rates of anger and defiance, and tend styles. This is especially true in South Africa with its unique cultural
to be dependent and overwhelmed by challenging tasks. composition. Roman et al. (2016) provide the following overview on
• The permissive parenting style. These parents show warmth and parenting in the South African context:
nurturance, but fail as far as expectations, control, and communication
are concerned. Parents are generally warm and accepting, but rather ■ Several studies show that parents use mainly an authoritative parenting
than being involved, they tend to be overindulgent and inattentive. style across ethnic groups, with the resulting benefits for young children,
They exert little control over their children’s behaviour, with the result adolescents, and young adults. These studies also suggest that overly
that children have to make many of their own decisions at an age when strict parental behavioural control, monitoring and limit setting predict
they are not yet capable of doing so. An example is that young children high rates of substance abuse during adolescence.
are allowed to go to bed or watch TV whenever they want. Children of ■ Parenting styles of mothers and fathers are perceived as significantly
permissive parents tend to be impulsive, disobedient, and rebellious. different between and within ethnic groups. It seems that mothers
They also tend to be overly demanding and dependent on adults and are generally perceived as being more involved than fathers are. This
show less persistence in tasks than children do whose parents have more suggests that there are stronger relationships between mothers and
control and expectation demands. their children than between fathers and their children, indicated by
• The uninvolved parenting style. These parents do not meet the nurturance, support, satisfaction, affection, and intimacy.
expectations of any of the parenting styles. They tend to be emotionally ■ Black South African fathers scored significantly lower on both
detached, often because of their own overwhelming problems or authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles than whites did. This
because they are attracted to more exciting activities. They tend to finding is consistent within the groups as well. This significant difference
have little time and energy left to cater for their children’s needs. For could be because historically and culturally, black African fathers have
example, when watching her 3-year-old grab a toy from another child, been less involved with their children. This could be related to gender
the uninvolved parent does not attempt to intervene in any way. At its ideologies (i.e. females care for children), and/or to socio-political
extreme, uninvolved parents often maltreat their children by neglecting reasons where fathers have to work away from their families. The greater
them. This style disrupts virtually all aspects of development, including extent of the authoritative parenting style of white parents with more

350 351
 father involvement than in the other ethnic groups could be linked to a Abandoned and orphaned children are a growing problem in South
more Westernised approach to parenting. Africa, and the number of children entering the legal childcare and
■ Different relationships exist and different interactions occur based on the protection systems is large. Present policy and legislation endorse adoption
gender of the child and the gender of the parent. For example, mothers as the preferred placement of children when their families or primary
tend to be significantly more authoritarian towards their sons and more care-givers are considered not the best way of securing stability in the
authoritative towards their daughters. children’s lives. Adoption affords children the opportunity to be protected
■ Although there has been a shift to a more humanitarian and democratic and nurtured and to establish lifetime relationships in a constitutionally
society with new child protection laws and family policy, the majority entrenched, supportive, and healthy family environment (Children’s Act 38
of the South African population continues to live in poverty, with of 2005). Nevertheless, the number of court-ordered adoptions in South
accompanying social problems such as unemployment, substance abuse, Africa has declined in recent years (Mokomane et al., 2011; Ntongana, 2014).
and crime. Therefore, these parents could be considered at-risk for harsh The majority of children being adopted in South Africa are white children
and punitive parenting. After almost two decades of democracy, with adopted by stepparents, but the overwhelming number of children in the
the acquisition of new child and family laws as well as the abolition of childcare and protection system that are eligible for adoption are black.
corporal punishment, there is an assumption that parenting should be However, the number of black applicants for adoptions is very low. Some
more positive and less punitive. However, research indicates that there of the reasons for this phenomenon are the following (Gerrand & Nathane-
are still serious problems in some families, especially concerning a lack of Taulela, 2015):
parental responsibility. In addition, although child and family laws have
been implemented, parents have not been provided with alternative, • Foster care is currently favoured due to the foster care grant, that is,
more positive means of discipline and child-rearing methods. people receive financial assistance for fostering children, but not when
they are legally adopted.
(b) Adoptive and foster parents • Most black citizens regard the legal adoption process as not in line
with their cultural and ancestral belief systems. Most families practise
Parenthood is not established through biological birth only. Parents may ceremonies to introduce the biological child to living relatives and
adopt or foster children. An adoptive parent is a person who, through a ancestral spirits so that the child can develop a sense of belonging
legal process, adopts a child of another parent or parents as his or her own and identity. Therefore, it is difficult to formally adopt a child whose
child. Foster parents are people who officially take a child into their family origins they do not know – as in the case of an abandoned child – and
for a period, without becoming the child’s legal parents. The child is referred then proceed to change the child’s name after the adoption has been
to as their foster child. finalised. Many black South Africans perceive adoption as severing the
There are several reasons why people adopt children. Infertility (the child’s relationship with his or her clan roots, with serious repercussions
inability to reproduce biologically) is one of the main reasons. However, for the adopted child’s lineage and well-being.
some fertile couples also adopt because they are at risk of passing on a • The adoption screening process is generally complex, costly, intense,
serious genetic or medical condition; they would rather provide a future for and time-consuming. This causes many prospective adoptive parents to
a child who would otherwise have few chances in life; or a pregnancy would abandon the process. Since they already may have taken responsibility
interfere with their lifestyle or career. Single people may adopt because they for raising a relative’s child, they feel that the intensive screening process
lack an appropriate partner or, also as in the case with homosexual couples, is unnecessary.
prefer adoption to using a sperm donor or surrogate mother. Stepparents • Since there is intense pressure on black women to prove their fertility
also often adopt their stepchildren to strengthen the family unity. Many and thereby meet lineage requirements by giving birth to a child, many
childless couples informally adopt a relative’s child to address infertility childless couples are reluctant to be open about adopting a child. They
(Gerrand, 2011). tend to fear the possible stigma associated with infertility and the fear

352 353
 father involvement than in the other ethnic groups could be linked to a Abandoned and orphaned children are a growing problem in South
more Westernised approach to parenting. Africa, and the number of children entering the legal childcare and
■ Different relationships exist and different interactions occur based on the protection systems is large. Present policy and legislation endorse adoption
gender of the child and the gender of the parent. For example, mothers as the preferred placement of children when their families or primary
tend to be significantly more authoritarian towards their sons and more care-givers are considered not the best way of securing stability in the
authoritative towards their daughters. children’s lives. Adoption affords children the opportunity to be protected
■ Although there has been a shift to a more humanitarian and democratic and nurtured and to establish lifetime relationships in a constitutionally
society with new child protection laws and family policy, the majority entrenched, supportive, and healthy family environment (Children’s Act 38
of the South African population continues to live in poverty, with of 2005). Nevertheless, the number of court-ordered adoptions in South
accompanying social problems such as unemployment, substance abuse, Africa has declined in recent years (Mokomane et al., 2011; Ntongana, 2014).
and crime. Therefore, these parents could be considered at-risk for harsh The majority of children being adopted in South Africa are white children
and punitive parenting. After almost two decades of democracy, with adopted by stepparents, but the overwhelming number of children in the
the acquisition of new child and family laws as well as the abolition of childcare and protection system that are eligible for adoption are black.
corporal punishment, there is an assumption that parenting should be However, the number of black applicants for adoptions is very low. Some
more positive and less punitive. However, research indicates that there of the reasons for this phenomenon are the following (Gerrand & Nathane-
are still serious problems in some families, especially concerning a lack of Taulela, 2015):
parental responsibility. In addition, although child and family laws have
been implemented, parents have not been provided with alternative, • Foster care is currently favoured due to the foster care grant, that is,
more positive means of discipline and child-rearing methods. people receive financial assistance for fostering children, but not when
they are legally adopted.
(b) Adoptive and foster parents • Most black citizens regard the legal adoption process as not in line
with their cultural and ancestral belief systems. Most families practise
Parenthood is not established through biological birth only. Parents may ceremonies to introduce the biological child to living relatives and
adopt or foster children. An adoptive parent is a person who, through a ancestral spirits so that the child can develop a sense of belonging
legal process, adopts a child of another parent or parents as his or her own and identity. Therefore, it is difficult to formally adopt a child whose
child. Foster parents are people who officially take a child into their family origins they do not know – as in the case of an abandoned child – and
for a period, without becoming the child’s legal parents. The child is referred then proceed to change the child’s name after the adoption has been
to as their foster child. finalised. Many black South Africans perceive adoption as severing the
There are several reasons why people adopt children. Infertility (the child’s relationship with his or her clan roots, with serious repercussions
inability to reproduce biologically) is one of the main reasons. However, for the adopted child’s lineage and well-being.
some fertile couples also adopt because they are at risk of passing on a • The adoption screening process is generally complex, costly, intense,
serious genetic or medical condition; they would rather provide a future for and time-consuming. This causes many prospective adoptive parents to
a child who would otherwise have few chances in life; or a pregnancy would abandon the process. Since they already may have taken responsibility
interfere with their lifestyle or career. Single people may adopt because they for raising a relative’s child, they feel that the intensive screening process
lack an appropriate partner or, also as in the case with homosexual couples, is unnecessary.
prefer adoption to using a sperm donor or surrogate mother. Stepparents • Since there is intense pressure on black women to prove their fertility
also often adopt their stepchildren to strengthen the family unity. Many and thereby meet lineage requirements by giving birth to a child, many
childless couples informally adopt a relative’s child to address infertility childless couples are reluctant to be open about adopting a child. They
(Gerrand, 2011). tend to fear the possible stigma associated with infertility and the fear

352 353
 that telling others would weaken the parent-child relationship. They
also reason that if secrecy is not maintained, members of the family, the Box. 5.10 Parents’ and adult adoptee’s experience of
ancestors, and members of the community might reject the child. interracial adoption
South African parents who have adopted children from another racial group than their
However, interracial adoption, also called transracial or cross-racial, own have made the following comments (Brown, 2014; Ntongana, 2014):
• It is not always clear what it means to teach a child ‘their own culture’. Culture is a
adoption (i.e. parents and children are not of the same race or ethnicity) difficult issue. It is just as important for a child to see how many different
is on the rise. Because of a growing number of black and coloured children experiences there are in this country.
available for adoption and the significantly more white adoption applicants, • The greatest challenge is the comments that other people make – oblivious of the
legalisation of transracial adoption became a necessity for South Africa. The impact of what they say has on the child. Some people react with confusion,
ignorance, and insensitivity. Others respond with enthusiasm, interest, and
practice of transracial adoption was legalised in 1991. admiration. However, most parents would prefer to be accepted as any other
This policy is not without controversy. For example, some traditionalists family and not commented about.
argue that black children adopted by white parents lose touch with their • The challenge is not to deny a child’s skin colour or to suggest it is irrelevant but to
find other ways of belonging and an ability to live with multiple-identities.
culture and end up losing their identity. Culturally conservative black
• I adopted out of love: The child I fell in love with just happened to be black.
people tend to argue that this practice is a form of cultural genocide, an • My parents are Indian and I am coloured. I am largely at peace with how I fit into
indirect means employed by white people to emasculate (weaken) the black the world around me.
community and its culture and traditions, which is not in accordance with • People always tell me I should go and find my roots. But my roots are with my
family – the ones that adopted me.
the best interests of the child (Tanga & Nyasha, 2017). However, a study • I can’t really say I subscribe to any one culture at this point. Mostly that’s good, but
among young black adults in South Africa revealed a more positive attitude occasionally, of course, you yearn to just identify to one thing.
towards interracial adoption (Bilodeau, 2015). These young adults view the
adoption of black children by white parents as a positive adoptive option
that provides children with stable homes. They also regard it unnecessary satisfied with their decision to adopt (Child Welfare Information Gateway,
that white adoptive parents raise their black children any differently than 2015; Vandivere et al., 2009). Many of the parenting issues involved in
they would a child from their own race, but expressed the importance to raising biological children may also be present in raising adopted or fostered
educate the child about his or her cultural background. children. However, some special problems may arise as well. One special issue
Most white people maintain that the practice of interracial adoption is concerns the forming of attachment bonds. The core problem in families
the most viable alternative option for children in need of care and protection, where children are placed in foster care or where older children are adopted
since every child has the right to parental care and deserves a permanent is often (as in stepfamilies) the formation of attachment bonds, because
home, as stipulated by the Children’s Act 38 of 2005 (Tanga & Nyasha, children have already formed a bond with their biological parents. However,
2017). Some find the argument that a child or baby given up for adoption these attachment relationships are often unstable and destructive, which
still belongs to a particular culture or race, problematic. The assumption is could affect the attachment formation in the new family. Another reason
that the child is not seen as born free, but attached to its ancestors, culture, for problems with bond formation is that some of these children have never
or community. Whites, coloureds and Indians seem to be of the opinion been attached to anyone, with the result that they rebuff any attempts made
that interracial adoption can play a vital role in the evolution of a colour- by the foster or adoptive parents to establish attachment. When the child is
blind South Africa. In addition, the practice of interracial adoption provides adopted as a baby, attachment formation is naturally much easier. However,
opportunities for children to learn about different cultures, which will this bond could be tested during adolescence, especially since adopted
stand them in good stead to cope in a world that is becoming increasingly children often tend to become rebellious during this stage. Reasons for this
globalised. (See Box 5.10 regarding parents’ and adult adoptee’s experience are usually divergent and vary from the tendency to use rebelliousness as
of interracial adoption.) a test of the parents’ love or a desire to locate their biological parents, to
Research indicates that the great majority of adoptive parents are

354 355
 that telling others would weaken the parent-child relationship. They
also reason that if secrecy is not maintained, members of the family, the Box. 5.10 Parents’ and adult adoptee’s experience of
ancestors, and members of the community might reject the child. interracial adoption
South African parents who have adopted children from another racial group than their
However, interracial adoption, also called transracial or cross-racial, own have made the following comments (Brown, 2014; Ntongana, 2014):
• It is not always clear what it means to teach a child ‘their own culture’. Culture is a
adoption (i.e. parents and children are not of the same race or ethnicity) difficult issue. It is just as important for a child to see how many different
is on the rise. Because of a growing number of black and coloured children experiences there are in this country.
available for adoption and the significantly more white adoption applicants, • The greatest challenge is the comments that other people make – oblivious of the
legalisation of transracial adoption became a necessity for South Africa. The impact of what they say has on the child. Some people react with confusion,
ignorance, and insensitivity. Others respond with enthusiasm, interest, and
practice of transracial adoption was legalised in 1991. admiration. However, most parents would prefer to be accepted as any other
This policy is not without controversy. For example, some traditionalists family and not commented about.
argue that black children adopted by white parents lose touch with their • The challenge is not to deny a child’s skin colour or to suggest it is irrelevant but to
find other ways of belonging and an ability to live with multiple-identities.
culture and end up losing their identity. Culturally conservative black
• I adopted out of love: The child I fell in love with just happened to be black.
people tend to argue that this practice is a form of cultural genocide, an • My parents are Indian and I am coloured. I am largely at peace with how I fit into
indirect means employed by white people to emasculate (weaken) the black the world around me.
community and its culture and traditions, which is not in accordance with • People always tell me I should go and find my roots. But my roots are with my
family – the ones that adopted me.
the best interests of the child (Tanga & Nyasha, 2017). However, a study • I can’t really say I subscribe to any one culture at this point. Mostly that’s good, but
among young black adults in South Africa revealed a more positive attitude occasionally, of course, you yearn to just identify to one thing.
towards interracial adoption (Bilodeau, 2015). These young adults view the
adoption of black children by white parents as a positive adoptive option
that provides children with stable homes. They also regard it unnecessary satisfied with their decision to adopt (Child Welfare Information Gateway,
that white adoptive parents raise their black children any differently than 2015; Vandivere et al., 2009). Many of the parenting issues involved in
they would a child from their own race, but expressed the importance to raising biological children may also be present in raising adopted or fostered
educate the child about his or her cultural background. children. However, some special problems may arise as well. One special issue
Most white people maintain that the practice of interracial adoption is concerns the forming of attachment bonds. The core problem in families
the most viable alternative option for children in need of care and protection, where children are placed in foster care or where older children are adopted
since every child has the right to parental care and deserves a permanent is often (as in stepfamilies) the formation of attachment bonds, because
home, as stipulated by the Children’s Act 38 of 2005 (Tanga & Nyasha, children have already formed a bond with their biological parents. However,
2017). Some find the argument that a child or baby given up for adoption these attachment relationships are often unstable and destructive, which
still belongs to a particular culture or race, problematic. The assumption is could affect the attachment formation in the new family. Another reason
that the child is not seen as born free, but attached to its ancestors, culture, for problems with bond formation is that some of these children have never
or community. Whites, coloureds and Indians seem to be of the opinion been attached to anyone, with the result that they rebuff any attempts made
that interracial adoption can play a vital role in the evolution of a colour- by the foster or adoptive parents to establish attachment. When the child is
blind South Africa. In addition, the practice of interracial adoption provides adopted as a baby, attachment formation is naturally much easier. However,
opportunities for children to learn about different cultures, which will this bond could be tested during adolescence, especially since adopted
stand them in good stead to cope in a world that is becoming increasingly children often tend to become rebellious during this stage. Reasons for this
globalised. (See Box 5.10 regarding parents’ and adult adoptee’s experience are usually divergent and vary from the tendency to use rebelliousness as
of interracial adoption.) a test of the parents’ love or a desire to locate their biological parents, to
Research indicates that the great majority of adoptive parents are

354 355
wanting to acquire an identity that is the complete opposite to that of the the sperm of her husband. The resulting embryo is then implanted in the
parents (Berger, 1994). surrogate mother’s womb. Thus, the child is not genetically related to the
All these complications make parenthood considerably more difficult for surrogate mother but only to his or her legal parents. Second, with traditional
non-biological parents. On the other hand, these relationships can be very surrogacy, the surrogate mother is impregnated artificially with the sperm
positive, and most foster and adoptive parents cherish their experiences of a married man whose wife is medically unable to get pregnant. Therefore,
with their children. Berger (1994, p. 513) puts it as follows: Perhaps even the baby is related to the father and the surrogate mother, but not to the
more than biological parenthood, alternative routes to parenthood tend legal mother.
to make adults more humble, less self-absorbed, and more aware of the It is understandable that surrogacy is a very controversial form of assisted
problems facing children everywhere. When this occurs, adults become true reproduction. Some of the criticisms include that prenatal bonding between
exemplars of generativity. As Erikson described it, characterised by the virtue the child and intended mother is absent; that the intended mother may
that is perhaps the most important of all – caring for others. experience feelings of inferiority and even depression; that the community
and even family members may become prejudiced towards the child and
(c) Surrogate parents parents; and that the child could suffer psychologically. Unfortunately, little
empirical research has been conducted to determine the effects of surrogacy
Developments in reproductive technologies and views that are more on surrogate mothers, surrogacy parents, and children (Golombok, 2015).
permissive in this regard have led to new ways in which families are formed. With the research data available, it is safe to conclude at this stage that by
Surrogacy is one of the latest of these reproductive developments. far the majority of studies have found the following (Golombok, 2016; Ruiz-
Surrogacy refers to a situation where a woman (called a surrogate Robledillo et al., 2016; Söderström-Anttila et al., 2016):
mother) agrees to become pregnant and give birth for a contracted party
who, after the birth, will be the legal parent(s) of the baby. The reason for • Surrogate mothers usually do not experience doubt handing over
surrogacy is usually medical in nature; for example, one or both of the the baby to the intended parents. They also do not experience later
intended parent(s) are infertile or the intended mother has health problems. psychological problems.
However, the parents-to-be can also be a homosexual couple. • The legal parents adjust well to the new family member. No major
Although any form of surrogacy is illegal in many countries in the differences in psychological state are indicated between intended
world, it is legal in South Africa. However, there are certain preconditions. mothers, mothers who conceived by means of other types of assisted
For example, it can be done for altruistic reasons only, and the surrogate reproductive technologies (ART), and mothers whose pregnancies were
mother must have had a child of her own. She may not receive any financial the result of natural conception.
compensation for carrying the baby, but could be reimbursed for (pre-) • There are no significant differences concerning psychological well-being
birth medical expenses and loss of income. between surrogacy children and children born after other types of ART
In 1987, Ferreira Jorge (25) and her mother, Pat Anthony (47), made or after natural conception. This is also true for surrogate children of
international headlines when they became the first surrogacy case in South homosexual parents (Golombok et al., 2017).
Africa. Because of a hysterectomy, Ferreira could not conceive another child.
Four of Ferreira’s eggs were fertilised in a laboratory by the father’s sperms (d) Fatherhood
and then implanted into Anthony’s uterus. Three of the eggs developed into
embryos with the result that the grandmother carried the triplets for the For decades, psychologists and other researchers assumed that the mother-
mother. The triplets (one girl and two boys) were born without complications child relationship was the most important one in a child’s life. They focused
and grew into healthy adults. on studying these relationships, and however a child turned out, the mother
There are two forms of surrogacy. First, gestational surrogacy is the often received the credit (or blame). The role of the father was almost
process where the egg of a married woman is fertilised artificially with

356 357
wanting to acquire an identity that is the complete opposite to that of the the sperm of her husband. The resulting embryo is then implanted in the
parents (Berger, 1994). surrogate mother’s womb. Thus, the child is not genetically related to the
All these complications make parenthood considerably more difficult for surrogate mother but only to his or her legal parents. Second, with traditional
non-biological parents. On the other hand, these relationships can be very surrogacy, the surrogate mother is impregnated artificially with the sperm
positive, and most foster and adoptive parents cherish their experiences of a married man whose wife is medically unable to get pregnant. Therefore,
with their children. Berger (1994, p. 513) puts it as follows: Perhaps even the baby is related to the father and the surrogate mother, but not to the
more than biological parenthood, alternative routes to parenthood tend legal mother.
to make adults more humble, less self-absorbed, and more aware of the It is understandable that surrogacy is a very controversial form of assisted
problems facing children everywhere. When this occurs, adults become true reproduction. Some of the criticisms include that prenatal bonding between
exemplars of generativity. As Erikson described it, characterised by the virtue the child and intended mother is absent; that the intended mother may
that is perhaps the most important of all – caring for others. experience feelings of inferiority and even depression; that the community
and even family members may become prejudiced towards the child and
(c) Surrogate parents parents; and that the child could suffer psychologically. Unfortunately, little
empirical research has been conducted to determine the effects of surrogacy
Developments in reproductive technologies and views that are more on surrogate mothers, surrogacy parents, and children (Golombok, 2015).
permissive in this regard have led to new ways in which families are formed. With the research data available, it is safe to conclude at this stage that by
Surrogacy is one of the latest of these reproductive developments. far the majority of studies have found the following (Golombok, 2016; Ruiz-
Surrogacy refers to a situation where a woman (called a surrogate Robledillo et al., 2016; Söderström-Anttila et al., 2016):
mother) agrees to become pregnant and give birth for a contracted party
who, after the birth, will be the legal parent(s) of the baby. The reason for • Surrogate mothers usually do not experience doubt handing over
surrogacy is usually medical in nature; for example, one or both of the the baby to the intended parents. They also do not experience later
intended parent(s) are infertile or the intended mother has health problems. psychological problems.
However, the parents-to-be can also be a homosexual couple. • The legal parents adjust well to the new family member. No major
Although any form of surrogacy is illegal in many countries in the differences in psychological state are indicated between intended
world, it is legal in South Africa. However, there are certain preconditions. mothers, mothers who conceived by means of other types of assisted
For example, it can be done for altruistic reasons only, and the surrogate reproductive technologies (ART), and mothers whose pregnancies were
mother must have had a child of her own. She may not receive any financial the result of natural conception.
compensation for carrying the baby, but could be reimbursed for (pre-) • There are no significant differences concerning psychological well-being
birth medical expenses and loss of income. between surrogacy children and children born after other types of ART
In 1987, Ferreira Jorge (25) and her mother, Pat Anthony (47), made or after natural conception. This is also true for surrogate children of
international headlines when they became the first surrogacy case in South homosexual parents (Golombok et al., 2017).
Africa. Because of a hysterectomy, Ferreira could not conceive another child.
Four of Ferreira’s eggs were fertilised in a laboratory by the father’s sperms (d) Fatherhood
and then implanted into Anthony’s uterus. Three of the eggs developed into
embryos with the result that the grandmother carried the triplets for the For decades, psychologists and other researchers assumed that the mother-
mother. The triplets (one girl and two boys) were born without complications child relationship was the most important one in a child’s life. They focused
and grew into healthy adults. on studying these relationships, and however a child turned out, the mother
There are two forms of surrogacy. First, gestational surrogacy is the often received the credit (or blame). The role of the father was almost
process where the egg of a married woman is fertilised artificially with

356 357
regarded as insignificant. This viewpoint was even held by most courts In this regard, absence of the father can play a critical role: Father absence
in the world, including South Africa. For example, in the large majority of refers to the situation where the father is physically and/or emotionally
family cases (e.g. child custody) the courts would side with the mother. absent to his children. Physical absence is caused by factors such as divorce,
Only recently, South Africa by means of legislation moved to greater gender work obligations, denial of paternity, as well as abandonment due to factors
equality in family cases. However, the practical application of this legislation such as domestic conflict or an extramarital affair. Emotional absence refers
still has a long way to go. to the father’s emotional detachment from his child or children. However, a
In the last several decades, researchers have increasingly realised the few issues should be considered when studying father absence: First, the
significance of the father – and that fathers affect their children just as much, fact that the father is physically present does not mean that he is emotionally
and sometimes even more, than the mother does (Oliker, 2011; Pappas, 2012; present (i.e. emotionally involved with his children). Second, in certain cases,
also see Khaleque & Rohner, 2012). One hypothesis in this regard is that the father’s presence does more emotional harm to the family than his
the father most often is regarded as the ‘leader’ of the family (‘the strong absence. Third, a father can be physically absent but still be emotionally
man’ and protector) with the result that his opinion and behaviour may have present (e.g. by being caring, supportive, and compassionate).
a greater effect. For example, an active and nurturing style of fathering is Despite the fact that men’s (and father’s) presence benefit both their
associated with various advantages for the children, such as better mental partners and their children, fathers are often sadly absent from their families’
and physical health and satisfaction with life, as well as enhanced cognitive lives. It is a parenting tragedy that South Africa has one of the highest rates
development including verbal skills, general intellectual functioning, and of absent fathers in the world. More than 50% of the children growing up
academic achievement. A positive father figure also helps his son to develop in South Africa do so without a father present in the home (UNICEF, 2014).
positive and appropriate gender-role characteristics. Furthermore, knowing This compares to one third in the USA. Regarding father absence among
that they feel loved and appreciated by their father is a good predictor of the population groups in South Africa, black African families especially
young adults’ sense of general well-being. Another interesting finding is that are affected negatively (see Figure 5.6). Various factors are responsible
there seems to be a correlation between a father’s involvement with his for this situation, such as the political history of South Africa that had a
children and the mother’s marital satisfaction (Fuhrmans et al., 2014). (See devastating effect on the family life of many African families (e.g. migrant
Box 5.11 regarding father-daughter relationships.) labour and splitting of families) and the current socio-economic situation,
The mentioned positive developments are brought about by fathers who especially poverty (Ratele et al., 2012). Gender norms about childcare and
are actively involved with their children. Active involvement is often defined the different roles attached to fathers and mothers are still playing an
in terms of engagement (direct interaction), accessibility (being available) important role (Eddy et al., 2013). Among both men and women, fathers are
and responsibility (providing resources). Actively-involved fathers have widely considered as being primarily responsible for supporting the family
close and affectionate relationships with their children, they spend time financially. Generally, these norms lead to men sidestepping non-financial
with their children, they talk to them about things that matter to the child, care responsibilities such as emotional involvement with their children and
they listen to them, they set appropriate rules, but also grant appropriate parenting responsibilities, even if they are physically present.
freedoms – and they are the kind of person their children would want to be Despite this bleak picture, many men are proactively involved in the lives
when they are adults (Pappas, 2012; Peterson, 2011). of their parents and siblings, their own children, those of a partner or sibling,
The opposite is equally true: rejection by the father can have serious and in their extended family. Recent research involving black South African
effects on the children. In fact, it seems that depression, behaviour problems fathers has indicated that a significant number of men choose to be involved
such as substance abuse, as well as general psychological adjustment are fully in the care of their children, despite economic difficulty (Khan, 2017;
linked more closely to the father’s rejection than to the mother’s. A poor also see Makusha & Richter, 2014). This also indicates that many African
relationship with the father can also lead to low self-esteem, poor academic men are willing to move away from patriarchal traditions that sustain gender
achievements, feelings of inadequacy and a negative outlook on the world. inequality. There are also other indications that fatherhood in South Africa

358 359
regarded as insignificant. This viewpoint was even held by most courts In this regard, absence of the father can play a critical role: Father absence
in the world, including South Africa. For example, in the large majority of refers to the situation where the father is physically and/or emotionally
family cases (e.g. child custody) the courts would side with the mother. absent to his children. Physical absence is caused by factors such as divorce,
Only recently, South Africa by means of legislation moved to greater gender work obligations, denial of paternity, as well as abandonment due to factors
equality in family cases. However, the practical application of this legislation such as domestic conflict or an extramarital affair. Emotional absence refers
still has a long way to go. to the father’s emotional detachment from his child or children. However, a
In the last several decades, researchers have increasingly realised the few issues should be considered when studying father absence: First, the
significance of the father – and that fathers affect their children just as much, fact that the father is physically present does not mean that he is emotionally
and sometimes even more, than the mother does (Oliker, 2011; Pappas, 2012; present (i.e. emotionally involved with his children). Second, in certain cases,
also see Khaleque & Rohner, 2012). One hypothesis in this regard is that the father’s presence does more emotional harm to the family than his
the father most often is regarded as the ‘leader’ of the family (‘the strong absence. Third, a father can be physically absent but still be emotionally
man’ and protector) with the result that his opinion and behaviour may have present (e.g. by being caring, supportive, and compassionate).
a greater effect. For example, an active and nurturing style of fathering is Despite the fact that men’s (and father’s) presence benefit both their
associated with various advantages for the children, such as better mental partners and their children, fathers are often sadly absent from their families’
and physical health and satisfaction with life, as well as enhanced cognitive lives. It is a parenting tragedy that South Africa has one of the highest rates
development including verbal skills, general intellectual functioning, and of absent fathers in the world. More than 50% of the children growing up
academic achievement. A positive father figure also helps his son to develop in South Africa do so without a father present in the home (UNICEF, 2014).
positive and appropriate gender-role characteristics. Furthermore, knowing This compares to one third in the USA. Regarding father absence among
that they feel loved and appreciated by their father is a good predictor of the population groups in South Africa, black African families especially
young adults’ sense of general well-being. Another interesting finding is that are affected negatively (see Figure 5.6). Various factors are responsible
there seems to be a correlation between a father’s involvement with his for this situation, such as the political history of South Africa that had a
children and the mother’s marital satisfaction (Fuhrmans et al., 2014). (See devastating effect on the family life of many African families (e.g. migrant
Box 5.11 regarding father-daughter relationships.) labour and splitting of families) and the current socio-economic situation,
The mentioned positive developments are brought about by fathers who especially poverty (Ratele et al., 2012). Gender norms about childcare and
are actively involved with their children. Active involvement is often defined the different roles attached to fathers and mothers are still playing an
in terms of engagement (direct interaction), accessibility (being available) important role (Eddy et al., 2013). Among both men and women, fathers are
and responsibility (providing resources). Actively-involved fathers have widely considered as being primarily responsible for supporting the family
close and affectionate relationships with their children, they spend time financially. Generally, these norms lead to men sidestepping non-financial
with their children, they talk to them about things that matter to the child, care responsibilities such as emotional involvement with their children and
they listen to them, they set appropriate rules, but also grant appropriate parenting responsibilities, even if they are physically present.
freedoms – and they are the kind of person their children would want to be Despite this bleak picture, many men are proactively involved in the lives
when they are adults (Pappas, 2012; Peterson, 2011). of their parents and siblings, their own children, those of a partner or sibling,
The opposite is equally true: rejection by the father can have serious and in their extended family. Recent research involving black South African
effects on the children. In fact, it seems that depression, behaviour problems fathers has indicated that a significant number of men choose to be involved
such as substance abuse, as well as general psychological adjustment are fully in the care of their children, despite economic difficulty (Khan, 2017;
linked more closely to the father’s rejection than to the mother’s. A poor also see Makusha & Richter, 2014). This also indicates that many African
relationship with the father can also lead to low self-esteem, poor academic men are willing to move away from patriarchal traditions that sustain gender
achievements, feelings of inadequacy and a negative outlook on the world. inequality. There are also other indications that fatherhood in South Africa

358 359
 Box 5.11 Father-daughter relationships
Despite the many psychosocial benefits that a good quality father-daughter relationship
holds for female development, it is the least researched bond internationally and in
South Africa. Therefore, we have relatively little empirical information concerning the
effect of fathers’ involvement on their daughters’ psychosocial development. This is
especially true for South Africa with its unique multicultural composition and socio-
political history. The following is a brief summary of what researchers have discovered
thus far (see Lesch & Scheffler, 2016):

• The involvement of authoritative (as opposed to authoritarian, restrictive, or

permissive) fathers, who encourage a perspective that is more ‘democratic’ usually
predicts better psychological well-being for their daughters.
• Fathers who support gender equality views and who encourage their daughters
to challenge gender discrimination can play a significant role in encouraging and
supporting their daughters to break free from unequal gender-based practices.
• Fathers have different relationships with daughters and sons. For example, fathers
tend to be more actively involved with their sons than with their daughters; show
greater attachment behaviours with their sons; appear to be more attuned to and
sensitive towards their sons than to their daughters; and often find it difficult to
be emotional role models for their daughters. However, there is an indication that
Adapted from Mabusela, 2014
differential treatment is found more often in patriarchal societies where males
Figure 5.6 Percentages of present fathers among the population enjoy privileged positions. Therefore, parental preferences seem to be influenced
groups in South Africa by the different roles a specific society ascribes to males and females.
• There seems to be consensus that daughter outcomes are strongly linked to the
quality of the father-daughter relationship as well as to the father’s characteristics,
is entering a new phase: In and that a father can and does play an important role in his daughter’s life. In order
for father involvement to have a positive influence on daughters, fathers should
the last decade, there has
be engaged, accessible, and responsible. The quality of the father-adolescent
been an increase in local daughter relationship influences daughters’ psychosocial well-being in a variety
research on fatherhood (see of ways: A good father-daughter relationship is associated with stress responses
Smith et al., 2014), while in daughters that are positive or more adaptive. The father-daughter relationship
can also determine to what extent a daughter will participate in risk behaviour in
several projects have been adolescence and later in life.
launched to enhance men’s • There is general agreement that fathers are believed to play an important role
care and protection of their in their daughters’ psychosexual development. Fathers’ presence, or absence, has
children. An example is The been reported to influence daughters’ onset of menarche, as well as sex-related
decision-making such as engaging in risky sexual behaviour. Fathers also play a
Fatherhood Project of the role in daughters’ ability to form and maintain intimate relationships in adulthood.
Human Sciences Research Fathers who are perceived by daughters as supportive and understanding have
Council in Pretoria, which positive implications for daughters’ ability to decline unwanted sexual advances.
• Research has shown that fathers influence daughters’ educational achievement
has received national and
and career success. For example, fathers’ own levels of education often have
international recognition. the greatest influence on their daughters in this regard, while daughters’ career
achievements are related closely to their childhood relationships with their fathers.
In addition, close and supportive relationships with fathers are related to daughters’
better academic progress and higher occupational aspirations. However, as we
know by now, many other factors may also play a role in children’s academic
achievement, and that the influence of a father is only one of these factors (albeit
an important one). For example, factors such as academic potential, an academic
Many fathers are proactively involved in the
lives of their children conducive environment, and the quality of father interaction may also play a role.

360 361
 Box 5.11 Father-daughter relationships
Despite the many psychosocial benefits that a good quality father-daughter relationship
holds for female development, it is the least researched bond internationally and in
South Africa. Therefore, we have relatively little empirical information concerning the
effect of fathers’ involvement on their daughters’ psychosocial development. This is
especially true for South Africa with its unique multicultural composition and socio-
political history. The following is a brief summary of what researchers have discovered
thus far (see Lesch & Scheffler, 2016):

• The involvement of authoritative (as opposed to authoritarian, restrictive, or

permissive) fathers, who encourage a perspective that is more ‘democratic’ usually
predicts better psychological well-being for their daughters.
• Fathers who support gender equality views and who encourage their daughters
to challenge gender discrimination can play a significant role in encouraging and
supporting their daughters to break free from unequal gender-based practices.
• Fathers have different relationships with daughters and sons. For example, fathers
tend to be more actively involved with their sons than with their daughters; show
greater attachment behaviours with their sons; appear to be more attuned to and
sensitive towards their sons than to their daughters; and often find it difficult to
be emotional role models for their daughters. However, there is an indication that
Adapted from Mabusela, 2014
differential treatment is found more often in patriarchal societies where males
Figure 5.6 Percentages of present fathers among the population enjoy privileged positions. Therefore, parental preferences seem to be influenced
groups in South Africa by the different roles a specific society ascribes to males and females.
• There seems to be consensus that daughter outcomes are strongly linked to the
quality of the father-daughter relationship as well as to the father’s characteristics,
is entering a new phase: In and that a father can and does play an important role in his daughter’s life. In order
for father involvement to have a positive influence on daughters, fathers should
the last decade, there has
be engaged, accessible, and responsible. The quality of the father-adolescent
been an increase in local daughter relationship influences daughters’ psychosocial well-being in a variety
research on fatherhood (see of ways: A good father-daughter relationship is associated with stress responses
Smith et al., 2014), while in daughters that are positive or more adaptive. The father-daughter relationship
can also determine to what extent a daughter will participate in risk behaviour in
several projects have been adolescence and later in life.
launched to enhance men’s • There is general agreement that fathers are believed to play an important role
care and protection of their in their daughters’ psychosexual development. Fathers’ presence, or absence, has
children. An example is The been reported to influence daughters’ onset of menarche, as well as sex-related
decision-making such as engaging in risky sexual behaviour. Fathers also play a
Fatherhood Project of the role in daughters’ ability to form and maintain intimate relationships in adulthood.
Human Sciences Research Fathers who are perceived by daughters as supportive and understanding have
Council in Pretoria, which positive implications for daughters’ ability to decline unwanted sexual advances.
• Research has shown that fathers influence daughters’ educational achievement
has received national and
and career success. For example, fathers’ own levels of education often have
international recognition. the greatest influence on their daughters in this regard, while daughters’ career
achievements are related closely to their childhood relationships with their fathers.
In addition, close and supportive relationships with fathers are related to daughters’
better academic progress and higher occupational aspirations. However, as we
know by now, many other factors may also play a role in children’s academic
achievement, and that the influence of a father is only one of these factors (albeit
an important one). For example, factors such as academic potential, an academic
Many fathers are proactively involved in the
lives of their children conducive environment, and the quality of father interaction may also play a role.

360 361
(e) Same-sex parenting performance, cognitive development, school adjustment, psychological
health, locus of control, and moral adjustment. Overall, the belief
Like families headed by heterosexual parents, homosexual parents and their that children of lesbian and gay parents suffer deficits in personal
children are a diverse group. Children enter such families in various ways. development has no empirical foundation.
For example, some men and women have had children in a heterosexual • Some studies have found that children from same-sex parents enjoy
relationship that dissolved after one or both parents preferred to rather higher levels of health and well-being than their peers from traditional
accept their sexual orientation and continue with a homosexual lifestyle, or family units do. One explanation is that these parents, because they are
a lesbian mother may choose artificial insemination, while other same-sex aware of possible risks such as discrimination, try harder to fulfil their
couples may choose to adopt children. parental roles.
Many myths exist regarding the fitness of homosexuals to parent children.
General beliefs that homosexual parents are mentally ill; that lesbian mothers (f) Stepfamilies and step-parenting
are less maternal than heterosexual women; that homosexuals’ relationships
with sexual partners leave little time for ongoing relationships with children; The stepfamily is one of the fastest growing forms of family in the world,
and that children’s development will be compromised on a variety of levels, including South Africa. Stepfamilies, also known as reconstituted families
have been refuted by a number of studies. The American Psychological or blended families, are formed when people remarry after a divorce or
Association’s task force on homosexual parenting (APA, 2005; 2013) and after the death of a spouse and establish a new family. Such a family may
other research on this topic (e.g. Crouch et al., 2014; Manning et al., 2015) consist of children from a previous marriage, from either the husband or
indicate the following: the wife’s side, or from both. Often, children are also born from this new
union – thus, literally a situation of “yours, mine, and ours”. It can be
• Heterosexual and homosexual exceedingly difficult to link all the different members of the new family into
parents have not been found a unified whole that functions effectively. Therefore, it is understandable
to differ markedly either in that parenting is regarded as the most difficult aspect of stepfamily life
their overall mental health or (American Psychological Association, 2018).
in their approaches to child Patricia Papernow (1988) introduced the stepfamily cycle in the 1980s
rearing. to establish norms, as well as to provide realistic expectations and a frame of
• There are no reasons to believe reference about what to expect regarding the adjustments to a stepfamily.
that homosexual parents are Since then, she has developed and expanded the model (Papernow, 2013,
unfit parents. They are just as 2015, 2018). According to Papernow, the adequately adjusted stepfamily
likely as heterosexual parents follows seven stages of individual and family system development. These
Many myths exist regarding homosexual parents
to provide supportive home include three early stages, two middle stages, and two later stages:
environments for children.
• There is no evidence to believe that the psychosocial development of • Early stages. The early stages consist of the following sub stages:
children of homosexual parents is affected negatively, relative to that of – In the fantasy stage, the adults try to heal the pain created by divorce
children of heterosexual parents. Children’s gender identity, gender-role or death. The couple are in love and feel excited about their future life
behaviour, gender orientation and relationships with peers, adults and together. Thoughts often include how the children and stepparent
significant others are not compromised. Indeed, homosexual parents are are going to love each other, how the stepparent will be a good
just as likely as heterosexual parents to support and enable children’s parent to the children and that everyone’s life (children included)
psychosocial growth. will be enhanced by the marriage. Ex-spouses are beginning to fade
• Children of homosexual parents are also not disadvantaged in other into the background.
aspects of psychological functioning such as self-concept, academic – During the immersion stage, the realities of stepfamily functioning

362 363
(e) Same-sex parenting performance, cognitive development, school adjustment, psychological
health, locus of control, and moral adjustment. Overall, the belief
Like families headed by heterosexual parents, homosexual parents and their that children of lesbian and gay parents suffer deficits in personal
children are a diverse group. Children enter such families in various ways. development has no empirical foundation.
For example, some men and women have had children in a heterosexual • Some studies have found that children from same-sex parents enjoy
relationship that dissolved after one or both parents preferred to rather higher levels of health and well-being than their peers from traditional
accept their sexual orientation and continue with a homosexual lifestyle, or family units do. One explanation is that these parents, because they are
a lesbian mother may choose artificial insemination, while other same-sex aware of possible risks such as discrimination, try harder to fulfil their
couples may choose to adopt children. parental roles.
Many myths exist regarding the fitness of homosexuals to parent children.
General beliefs that homosexual parents are mentally ill; that lesbian mothers (f) Stepfamilies and step-parenting
are less maternal than heterosexual women; that homosexuals’ relationships
with sexual partners leave little time for ongoing relationships with children; The stepfamily is one of the fastest growing forms of family in the world,
and that children’s development will be compromised on a variety of levels, including South Africa. Stepfamilies, also known as reconstituted families
have been refuted by a number of studies. The American Psychological or blended families, are formed when people remarry after a divorce or
Association’s task force on homosexual parenting (APA, 2005; 2013) and after the death of a spouse and establish a new family. Such a family may
other research on this topic (e.g. Crouch et al., 2014; Manning et al., 2015) consist of children from a previous marriage, from either the husband or
indicate the following: the wife’s side, or from both. Often, children are also born from this new
union – thus, literally a situation of “yours, mine, and ours”. It can be
• Heterosexual and homosexual exceedingly difficult to link all the different members of the new family into
parents have not been found a unified whole that functions effectively. Therefore, it is understandable
to differ markedly either in that parenting is regarded as the most difficult aspect of stepfamily life
their overall mental health or (American Psychological Association, 2018).
in their approaches to child Patricia Papernow (1988) introduced the stepfamily cycle in the 1980s
rearing. to establish norms, as well as to provide realistic expectations and a frame of
• There are no reasons to believe reference about what to expect regarding the adjustments to a stepfamily.
that homosexual parents are Since then, she has developed and expanded the model (Papernow, 2013,
unfit parents. They are just as 2015, 2018). According to Papernow, the adequately adjusted stepfamily
likely as heterosexual parents follows seven stages of individual and family system development. These
Many myths exist regarding homosexual parents
to provide supportive home include three early stages, two middle stages, and two later stages:
environments for children.
• There is no evidence to believe that the psychosocial development of • Early stages. The early stages consist of the following sub stages:
children of homosexual parents is affected negatively, relative to that of – In the fantasy stage, the adults try to heal the pain created by divorce
children of heterosexual parents. Children’s gender identity, gender-role or death. The couple are in love and feel excited about their future life
behaviour, gender orientation and relationships with peers, adults and together. Thoughts often include how the children and stepparent
significant others are not compromised. Indeed, homosexual parents are are going to love each other, how the stepparent will be a good
just as likely as heterosexual parents to support and enable children’s parent to the children and that everyone’s life (children included)
psychosocial growth. will be enhanced by the marriage. Ex-spouses are beginning to fade
• Children of homosexual parents are also not disadvantaged in other into the background.
aspects of psychological functioning such as self-concept, academic – During the immersion stage, the realities of stepfamily functioning

362 363
 begin to set in. Living together exposes differences not known before, – During the contact stage, the relationship between the stepparent
and in this stage, it is normal for family members to experience and the stepchildren, as well as between the stepchildren, has
increased disagreements. The adult has the uneasy feeling that stabilised. This bond can strengthen over time and last a lifetime. The
something is not quite right, but cannot determine precisely what marital relationship becomes a source of nourishment and support.
it is. Stepparents encounter unexpected negative feelings such as Only now, after the major structural changes of the middle stages, a
jealousy, resentment, confusion and inadequacy, as they are subtly, clearly defined stepparent role emerges.
but consistently, excluded by the spouse and stepchildren. Parents – By the resolution stage, the stepfamily has solid relationships, and a
may start feeling conflicting loyalties, caught in the middle between feeling of wholeness as a family exists. Some children prefer to talk
their new spouse and their children. It especially becomes clear to a stepparent about certain subjects. Conflicts in the family are
that parenting differences exist and conflict between the couple now viewed as a normal part of family life and are handled as such.
about expectations, rules, and consequences for the children occur. Family members appreciate their unique identity as a stepfamily.
However, Papernow found that families who begin the journey with a
better understanding of stepfamily challenges spend less time going As we know well by now, formulas in psychology are not always reliable.
through the fantasy and immersion stages. The uniqueness of a human does not allow for it in the same way as in
– In the awareness stage, stepfamilies get more clarity and acceptance. the natural sciences. The same is true for the stepfamily cycle. Stages of a
For example, a better understanding about the biological parent- stepfamily are not cast in stone: They are changeable and even unpredictable.
child bond helps stepparents to comprehend why they often feel like Families can also move back and forth between stages as life events occur.
outsiders. Many of the conflicts from the previous stage remain, but The ‘average’ successful stepfamily completes the cycle within a few years,
the emotional reactions from family members are more tempered. while the less successful families may take a decade and longer. In certain
In short, the stepfamily is able to meet the challenges with more cases, as in the case of many biological families, expectations and hopes are
confidence. not fulfilled. The family can continue to function as a dysfunctional family or
• Middle stages. These stages are characterised primarily by reorganising decide that divorce is a better option.
and establishing the relationships between the new family members Although millions of stepfamilies have strong and loving relationships,
more firmly: studies on average show that non-stepfamilies are better off, albeit only
– During the mobilisation stage, the family, particularly the couple, modestly (Keil, 2014). Why is this? Specific problems resulting from a
air differences more openly. Although it may create the impression reconstituted family include the following (see Australia Counselling, 2018;
that the family is moving in the wrong direction (especially as these Emery, 2004; Hetherington & Kelly, 2002):
arguments can end in turmoil), increased disagreements in this stage
are due to family members feeling more comfortable and confident ■ Unrealistic expectations. Reconstituted families differ considerably from
with each other. These disagreements can also lead to needed and biological families. To expect a reconstituted family to continue from
positive changes in the family. where the original family left off would be unrealistic. Stepparents and
– In the action stage, new agreements about how the family will function stepchildren need to adjust to one another before loving relationships
are negotiated actively. These actions change the family structure, can be formed. Couples who are unrealistic and have a ‘romantic’ notion
family functioning, and family relationships. There is a feeling that about creating the perfect family atmosphere immediately tend to be
things are coming together and will work out. Each member of the overly sensitive if anything does not ‘go according to plan’ and then
couple has a better understanding of what is important to his or her often tend to overreact. In a stepfamily setting, sacrifices come with
partner, and shared experiences among family members become the proverbial territory. Blending families is not a day’s work. It usually
common ground. requires years of effort, communication, and courage.
• Later stages. The later stages are characterised by feelings of caring and ■ Relationships with stepchildren. Many children find it very difficult to
stabilisation: adjust to their new stepfamily situation. They may feel confused and

364 365
 begin to set in. Living together exposes differences not known before, – During the contact stage, the relationship between the stepparent
and in this stage, it is normal for family members to experience and the stepchildren, as well as between the stepchildren, has
increased disagreements. The adult has the uneasy feeling that stabilised. This bond can strengthen over time and last a lifetime. The
something is not quite right, but cannot determine precisely what marital relationship becomes a source of nourishment and support.
it is. Stepparents encounter unexpected negative feelings such as Only now, after the major structural changes of the middle stages, a
jealousy, resentment, confusion and inadequacy, as they are subtly, clearly defined stepparent role emerges.
but consistently, excluded by the spouse and stepchildren. Parents – By the resolution stage, the stepfamily has solid relationships, and a
may start feeling conflicting loyalties, caught in the middle between feeling of wholeness as a family exists. Some children prefer to talk
their new spouse and their children. It especially becomes clear to a stepparent about certain subjects. Conflicts in the family are
that parenting differences exist and conflict between the couple now viewed as a normal part of family life and are handled as such.
about expectations, rules, and consequences for the children occur. Family members appreciate their unique identity as a stepfamily.
However, Papernow found that families who begin the journey with a
better understanding of stepfamily challenges spend less time going As we know well by now, formulas in psychology are not always reliable.
through the fantasy and immersion stages. The uniqueness of a human does not allow for it in the same way as in
– In the awareness stage, stepfamilies get more clarity and acceptance. the natural sciences. The same is true for the stepfamily cycle. Stages of a
For example, a better understanding about the biological parent- stepfamily are not cast in stone: They are changeable and even unpredictable.
child bond helps stepparents to comprehend why they often feel like Families can also move back and forth between stages as life events occur.
outsiders. Many of the conflicts from the previous stage remain, but The ‘average’ successful stepfamily completes the cycle within a few years,
the emotional reactions from family members are more tempered. while the less successful families may take a decade and longer. In certain
In short, the stepfamily is able to meet the challenges with more cases, as in the case of many biological families, expectations and hopes are
confidence. not fulfilled. The family can continue to function as a dysfunctional family or
• Middle stages. These stages are characterised primarily by reorganising decide that divorce is a better option.
and establishing the relationships between the new family members Although millions of stepfamilies have strong and loving relationships,
more firmly: studies on average show that non-stepfamilies are better off, albeit only
– During the mobilisation stage, the family, particularly the couple, modestly (Keil, 2014). Why is this? Specific problems resulting from a
air differences more openly. Although it may create the impression reconstituted family include the following (see Australia Counselling, 2018;
that the family is moving in the wrong direction (especially as these Emery, 2004; Hetherington & Kelly, 2002):
arguments can end in turmoil), increased disagreements in this stage
are due to family members feeling more comfortable and confident ■ Unrealistic expectations. Reconstituted families differ considerably from
with each other. These disagreements can also lead to needed and biological families. To expect a reconstituted family to continue from
positive changes in the family. where the original family left off would be unrealistic. Stepparents and
– In the action stage, new agreements about how the family will function stepchildren need to adjust to one another before loving relationships
are negotiated actively. These actions change the family structure, can be formed. Couples who are unrealistic and have a ‘romantic’ notion
family functioning, and family relationships. There is a feeling that about creating the perfect family atmosphere immediately tend to be
things are coming together and will work out. Each member of the overly sensitive if anything does not ‘go according to plan’ and then
couple has a better understanding of what is important to his or her often tend to overreact. In a stepfamily setting, sacrifices come with
partner, and shared experiences among family members become the proverbial territory. Blending families is not a day’s work. It usually
common ground. requires years of effort, communication, and courage.
• Later stages. The later stages are characterised by feelings of caring and ■ Relationships with stepchildren. Many children find it very difficult to
stabilisation: adjust to their new stepfamily situation. They may feel confused and

364 365
 depressed, have a low self-worth, and even harbour feelings of anger also a biological parent. They might want to dictate the upbringing of
and aggression towards the stepparent and his or her children. This does their children or demand undivided love from their children. Sometimes
not lay a good basis for stepparent-stepchild relationships. The situation stepchildren are very attached to the ex-spouses and may begin to
is often aggravated by the fact that stepchildren’s ambivalent reactions suffer from separation anxiety. Feelings of jealousy may also emerge in
to family transitions is taken personally instead of seeing them as normal the new partner because of the continued interactions of the present
reactions to a stressful situation. Therefore, it is understandable that the spouse with the former spouse.
biggest problems for parents in stepfamilies concern adjusting to the ■ New way of life. Reconstituted families have to form new family
personalities and habits of the children, and acceptance by the children. traditions and develop new ways of doing things. This means that the
Stepmothers, in particular, have problems adjusting, partly because of reconstituted family has to form a new social unit, which implies that
the stereotypes of the ‘wicked stepmother’ and partly because of the fact new relationships and communication styles, disciplinary techniques
that she often spends more time with the children than the stepfather and problem-solving strategies have to be developed. This could create
does. Disciplining the stepchildren is another aspect of stepfamilies that and aggravate adjustment problems.
can create conflict situations and lead to hurtful statements such as
the often heard “You are not my real parent.” According to research, However, a reconstituted family can survive the hurdles if they make an
it is best for parents to discipline their own children – at least in the effort to acknowledge their individual losses and work on fostering the new-
beginning (Tartakovsky, 2016). The importance of good relationships founded relationships. With the right attitude and persistence in developing
with stepchildren is underlined by the fact that poor relationships with their unique family traditions and interactions, stepfamilies can eventually
stepchildren are often a significant reason for a second divorce. develop lasting and emotionally rich relationships (Australia Counselling,
■ Attachment. A family is only as strong as the attachment bonds in the 2018). This family structure is called a neo-traditional family. This means
family. This is also true for stepfamilies. Unfortunately, the formation that, when family structures change, biological mothers, fathers, and
of attachment bonds is a core problem many reconstituted families siblings, as well as stepparents, step-siblings, and extended family, continue
experience. A major reason for this is that the trauma that results from to be significantly connected (Willis, 2012). In other words, the parents form
the loss caused by a divorce or death causes many adults and children a solid committed partnership in which they not only nurture their own
to find it difficult to trust, love, and feel secure again – three important marriage, but also raise their children effectively. Thus, a loving and secure
components of attachment (Brogaard, 2016). It also seems that the home could be created that often is psychologically more satisfying than
negative community stereotypes and myths about stepfamilies (‘wicked the conflict-ridden original family.
stepmother’, ‘bad stepfather’), which are also shared by members of
stepfamilies themselves, could affect the formation of attachment (g) Grandparenthood
bonds negatively (see Planitz & Feeney, 2009). In a study conducted in
Gauteng, the Northern Cape, and the Western Cape, it was found that, Grandparents play a significant role in any community. This role has become
although stepfamily members considered their families to be attached, more important and even essential over the last few decades. South African
factors such as the stepparent-stepchild relationship, length of marriage, researchers give the following reasons for this situation: mothers’ greater
and unrealistic expectations had a negative influence on attachment participation in the work force; frequent father absence; health problems
(Corrie, 2003). or death of one or both parents caused by HIV/AIDS and other illnesses;
■ Extended family. A further problem experienced by reconstituted substance abuse by parents; divorce of the parents; and parents’ mental or
families, but not by biological families, is the larger extended family socio-economic inability to care for the children (Jacobs et al., 2016; Wild,
group, consisting of ex-spouses, ex in-laws, own family, and new in-laws. 2018).
Relationships are often harmed by anger, guilt, jealousy, conflicting value Many advantages are attached to the grandparent role (Bordone &
systems, fear, and misconceptions. One particularly difficult challenge Arpino, 2016; Hayslip & Blumenthal, 2016). It provides a sense of purpose in
faced by reconstituted families is the presence of an ex-spouse who is life and a feeling of being valued at a time in the lives of many adults when

366 367
 depressed, have a low self-worth, and even harbour feelings of anger also a biological parent. They might want to dictate the upbringing of
and aggression towards the stepparent and his or her children. This does their children or demand undivided love from their children. Sometimes
not lay a good basis for stepparent-stepchild relationships. The situation stepchildren are very attached to the ex-spouses and may begin to
is often aggravated by the fact that stepchildren’s ambivalent reactions suffer from separation anxiety. Feelings of jealousy may also emerge in
to family transitions is taken personally instead of seeing them as normal the new partner because of the continued interactions of the present
reactions to a stressful situation. Therefore, it is understandable that the spouse with the former spouse.
biggest problems for parents in stepfamilies concern adjusting to the ■ New way of life. Reconstituted families have to form new family
personalities and habits of the children, and acceptance by the children. traditions and develop new ways of doing things. This means that the
Stepmothers, in particular, have problems adjusting, partly because of reconstituted family has to form a new social unit, which implies that
the stereotypes of the ‘wicked stepmother’ and partly because of the fact new relationships and communication styles, disciplinary techniques
that she often spends more time with the children than the stepfather and problem-solving strategies have to be developed. This could create
does. Disciplining the stepchildren is another aspect of stepfamilies that and aggravate adjustment problems.
can create conflict situations and lead to hurtful statements such as
the often heard “You are not my real parent.” According to research, However, a reconstituted family can survive the hurdles if they make an
it is best for parents to discipline their own children – at least in the effort to acknowledge their individual losses and work on fostering the new-
beginning (Tartakovsky, 2016). The importance of good relationships founded relationships. With the right attitude and persistence in developing
with stepchildren is underlined by the fact that poor relationships with their unique family traditions and interactions, stepfamilies can eventually
stepchildren are often a significant reason for a second divorce. develop lasting and emotionally rich relationships (Australia Counselling,
■ Attachment. A family is only as strong as the attachment bonds in the 2018). This family structure is called a neo-traditional family. This means
family. This is also true for stepfamilies. Unfortunately, the formation that, when family structures change, biological mothers, fathers, and
of attachment bonds is a core problem many reconstituted families siblings, as well as stepparents, step-siblings, and extended family, continue
experience. A major reason for this is that the trauma that results from to be significantly connected (Willis, 2012). In other words, the parents form
the loss caused by a divorce or death causes many adults and children a solid committed partnership in which they not only nurture their own
to find it difficult to trust, love, and feel secure again – three important marriage, but also raise their children effectively. Thus, a loving and secure
components of attachment (Brogaard, 2016). It also seems that the home could be created that often is psychologically more satisfying than
negative community stereotypes and myths about stepfamilies (‘wicked the conflict-ridden original family.
stepmother’, ‘bad stepfather’), which are also shared by members of
stepfamilies themselves, could affect the formation of attachment (g) Grandparenthood
bonds negatively (see Planitz & Feeney, 2009). In a study conducted in
Gauteng, the Northern Cape, and the Western Cape, it was found that, Grandparents play a significant role in any community. This role has become
although stepfamily members considered their families to be attached, more important and even essential over the last few decades. South African
factors such as the stepparent-stepchild relationship, length of marriage, researchers give the following reasons for this situation: mothers’ greater
and unrealistic expectations had a negative influence on attachment participation in the work force; frequent father absence; health problems
(Corrie, 2003). or death of one or both parents caused by HIV/AIDS and other illnesses;
■ Extended family. A further problem experienced by reconstituted substance abuse by parents; divorce of the parents; and parents’ mental or
families, but not by biological families, is the larger extended family socio-economic inability to care for the children (Jacobs et al., 2016; Wild,
group, consisting of ex-spouses, ex in-laws, own family, and new in-laws. 2018).
Relationships are often harmed by anger, guilt, jealousy, conflicting value Many advantages are attached to the grandparent role (Bordone &
systems, fear, and misconceptions. One particularly difficult challenge Arpino, 2016; Hayslip & Blumenthal, 2016). It provides a sense of purpose in
faced by reconstituted families is the presence of an ex-spouse who is life and a feeling of being valued at a time in the lives of many adults when

366 367
it is especially needed and appreciated. It can buffer social isolation and usually presents gifts. However, they remain respected, appreciated, and
loneliness, have a positive effect on health and certain aspects of cognitive treasured.
functioning, and promote a more active lifestyle. There is evidence that it • The formal style. These grandparents usually see their role in traditional
may even lower the mortality rate (Hilbrand et al., 2017). terms, such as occasionally indulging the grandchild, occasionally
Many regard the role that grandparents play in their grandchildren’s babysitting, expressing a strong interest in the grandchild, but maintaining
lives as a key contribution to the community. For example, in transmitting a hands-off attitude towards childrearing, leaving that aspect to the
values and being a source of wisdom, grandparents can have a very positive parents.
influence on their grandchildren. Grandparents often act as attachment • The companionship style. These grandparents see their grandchildren
figures to provide additional stability and security in their grandchildren’s often and like to share activities with them. They very rarely fulfil a
lives. They also often serve as a support system in a time of crisis and can parental role and act as companions rather than caregivers. They also
soften the blow of a divorce, mental disorder, or death of a parent. A study refrain from interfering with their children regarding the raising of their
in a rural area of the Western Cape indicated that when grandparents grandchildren and feel quite comfortable to leave the parenting role to
are the primary caregivers, the grandchildren’s behaviour and academic their children. This style is often characterised by informal playfulness
functioning do not differ significantly from their peers who are raised by and fun.
their own parents (Booys et al., 2015). This is notwithstanding financial and • The involved style. These grandparents are active in the day-to-day
age-related constraints. lives of their grandchildren and assume a parental role. They usually live
However, grandparents could have a negative influence. For example, nearby their grandchildren. As in the case of the companionship style,
some grandparents, as in the case of some parents and other role models, they see their grandchildren often and have a playful relationship with
could foster maladaptive behaviour in their grandchildren by setting bad them, but contrary to the companionship style, they are also involved
examples or displaying psychopathological behaviour (Hayslip et al., in the raising of the children, for instance by giving advice or providing
2015). They can also contribute to marital discord between the parents by practical help.
deliberately becoming entangled in their relationship.
Becoming a grandparent is an exciting time for most adults and Most grandparents experience their role as very satisfactory (Anuradha
represents the acquisition of new roles. However, the role of grandparents is et al., 2016). In fact, the majority of grandparents hold the view that being
defined poorly in modern societies, and in practice, it is determined mainly a grandparent is the most satisfying and important aspect of their lives and
by the needs and interpersonal relationships in the family. This means that it even brings them closer to their own children (Mansson, 2016). Because
that grandparenting styles could differ considerably in different individual grandparents are mainly free from the continuous demands and responsibilities
families, ethnic and (sub) cultural groups, and situations. Factors such as the of parenthood, they often enjoy grandparenthood more than parenthood.
personality and ages of the grandparents and grandchildren, the distance
between their homes, the relationship between the grandparents and
parents, and the health and socio-economic status of everybody involved
could also play a role.
Regardless of the mentioned differences, some general grandparenting
styles have been identified (see Berger, 2014; Cavanaugh & Blanchard-
Fields, 2006):

• The distant style. These grandparents are emotionally distant from their
grandchildren. This emotional distance is usually caused by a geographical
distance between the grandparents and their grandchildren. The distant
grandparent appears mainly on special occasions such as birthdays, and
Most grandparents experience their role as very satisfactory

368 369
it is especially needed and appreciated. It can buffer social isolation and usually presents gifts. However, they remain respected, appreciated, and
loneliness, have a positive effect on health and certain aspects of cognitive treasured.
functioning, and promote a more active lifestyle. There is evidence that it • The formal style. These grandparents usually see their role in traditional
may even lower the mortality rate (Hilbrand et al., 2017). terms, such as occasionally indulging the grandchild, occasionally
Many regard the role that grandparents play in their grandchildren’s babysitting, expressing a strong interest in the grandchild, but maintaining
lives as a key contribution to the community. For example, in transmitting a hands-off attitude towards childrearing, leaving that aspect to the
values and being a source of wisdom, grandparents can have a very positive parents.
influence on their grandchildren. Grandparents often act as attachment • The companionship style. These grandparents see their grandchildren
figures to provide additional stability and security in their grandchildren’s often and like to share activities with them. They very rarely fulfil a
lives. They also often serve as a support system in a time of crisis and can parental role and act as companions rather than caregivers. They also
soften the blow of a divorce, mental disorder, or death of a parent. A study refrain from interfering with their children regarding the raising of their
in a rural area of the Western Cape indicated that when grandparents grandchildren and feel quite comfortable to leave the parenting role to
are the primary caregivers, the grandchildren’s behaviour and academic their children. This style is often characterised by informal playfulness
functioning do not differ significantly from their peers who are raised by and fun.
their own parents (Booys et al., 2015). This is notwithstanding financial and • The involved style. These grandparents are active in the day-to-day
age-related constraints. lives of their grandchildren and assume a parental role. They usually live
However, grandparents could have a negative influence. For example, nearby their grandchildren. As in the case of the companionship style,
some grandparents, as in the case of some parents and other role models, they see their grandchildren often and have a playful relationship with
could foster maladaptive behaviour in their grandchildren by setting bad them, but contrary to the companionship style, they are also involved
examples or displaying psychopathological behaviour (Hayslip et al., in the raising of the children, for instance by giving advice or providing
2015). They can also contribute to marital discord between the parents by practical help.
deliberately becoming entangled in their relationship.
Becoming a grandparent is an exciting time for most adults and Most grandparents experience their role as very satisfactory (Anuradha
represents the acquisition of new roles. However, the role of grandparents is et al., 2016). In fact, the majority of grandparents hold the view that being
defined poorly in modern societies, and in practice, it is determined mainly a grandparent is the most satisfying and important aspect of their lives and
by the needs and interpersonal relationships in the family. This means that it even brings them closer to their own children (Mansson, 2016). Because
that grandparenting styles could differ considerably in different individual grandparents are mainly free from the continuous demands and responsibilities
families, ethnic and (sub) cultural groups, and situations. Factors such as the of parenthood, they often enjoy grandparenthood more than parenthood.
personality and ages of the grandparents and grandchildren, the distance
between their homes, the relationship between the grandparents and
parents, and the health and socio-economic status of everybody involved
could also play a role.
Regardless of the mentioned differences, some general grandparenting
styles have been identified (see Berger, 2014; Cavanaugh & Blanchard-
Fields, 2006):

• The distant style. These grandparents are emotionally distant from their
grandchildren. This emotional distance is usually caused by a geographical
distance between the grandparents and their grandchildren. The distant
grandparent appears mainly on special occasions such as birthdays, and
Most grandparents experience their role as very satisfactory

368 369
 A family structure that has become more prominent in the last few simultaneous experience of both positive and negative feelings about the
decades is the skipped generation family where grandparents (usually the same relationship or individual (e.g. feelings of both love and irritation).
grandmother) raise the children because the parents are absent from the For example, the ambivalence of adult children may stem from negative
household. Therefore, the term refers to the absence or ‘skipped’ middle experiences that originated in their childhood years, or worries about their
generation (the parents). However, grandparents who are the primary or only parents’ declining health. Older parents may feel ambivalent when adult
caregivers in this situation could pay an emotional, physical, and financial children do not meet their expectations with regard to gender roles, lifestyle,
price (e.g. Mohale, 2013). On a psychological level, such grandparents family life, work orientation, career success, or financial stability (Erber, 2013).
are especially at risk for depression (Hadfield, 2014). Although many Overall, adult children seem to report greater ambivalence than their parents
grandparents view this role positively and regard it as a second chance at do. However, research has also shown that although ambivalence does exist
parenting, an opportunity to provide a better future for their grandchildren, in intergenerational relationships, affection and support are more prevalent
and as companionship for themselves, many experience stress associated (Hogerbrugge & Komter, 2012). It also seems that, as adult children become
with this added responsibility on the one hand, and on the other hand, middle-aged, their views and relationships concerning their parents become
express feelings of grief or anger towards their adult sons and daughters less ambivalent and more positive. Although the quality of the relationship
who are not parenting their own children. Some may even experience guilt may be ambivalent, in most cases, parent-child relationships maintain their
and stigmatisation associated with having raised ‘irresponsible’ children importance throughout life. For older adults, these relationships play a vital
(Mokone, 2006). Many grandmothers also deprive themselves in order to role in their general physical and psychological well-being. For adult children,
provide for their grandchildren. Moreover, many grandparents would prefer the attachment bonds remain strong.
not to have these care-giving responsibilities; they would rather use their As children proceed through adulthood, their relationship with their
time in a way they choose (Westaway et al., 2007). However, grandparents’ ageing parents may undergo developmental changes. For example, by taking
satisfaction with this caregiving role may also be associated with the support on the status of an adult and the associated responsibilities (employment,
they receive (instrumentally, financially), their spirituality, and leisure-time parenthood, and involvement in the community), the relationship may
activities (such as clubs for the elderly) (Mokone, 2006). become more equal. This process is referred to as filial maturity, the
acceptance of the parent as a peer with imperfections (Fine & Fincham,
(h) Intergenerational parenting 2013). In some cultures, children feel committed to take care of their ageing
parents in the same way that they were cared for as children. This is referred
In developmental psychology, the term intergenerational parenting mostly to as filial obligation, and is typically encountered in communal societies
refers to the relationship between ageing parents and their adult children. (Whitbourne, 2008). For example, there is a defined difference between the
A core question in this regard is: What happens to the attachment bond living arrangements between white and black elderly people in South Africa.
between parents and children? Does it end, does it fade, or does it continue, While most white elderly persons live separately and tend to conform to first-
with adjustments made for the developmental changes that occur in both the world lifestyles, the majority of Indian, coloured and black older persons live
ageing adult and the adult child? There seems to be a worldwide tendency in multigenerational (or co-resident) households. Care and financial security
that adult children maintain greater contact with their older mothers than for blacks are cited as the most important benefits for the old living in co-
with their older fathers. This is especially true in South Africa where about residence. It seems that both child and parent needs are met in co-resident
50% of children grow up without their fathers, though their fathers are alive households, since many older women fulfil a care-giving role to children and
(Statistics South Africa, 2016). Therefore, it is understandable that there will play an important part in the welfare of the household (Hunter & May, 2003).
not be a strong bond between most of these children and their fathers when However, it should be noted that in South Africa, families are increasingly
they become adults. diverse in age because of divorce and remarriage, the effect of AIDS (where
Several researchers have found that the relationship between ageing grandparents increasingly are taking care of the younger generation) and
parents and their adult children is characterised by varying degrees of cultural and familial factors, such as extended family members sharing the
ambivalence (see Santrock, 2015). In psychology, ambivalence refers to the same dwelling. Therefore, many forms of relationships provide alternatives to

370 371
 A family structure that has become more prominent in the last few simultaneous experience of both positive and negative feelings about the
decades is the skipped generation family where grandparents (usually the same relationship or individual (e.g. feelings of both love and irritation).
grandmother) raise the children because the parents are absent from the For example, the ambivalence of adult children may stem from negative
household. Therefore, the term refers to the absence or ‘skipped’ middle experiences that originated in their childhood years, or worries about their
generation (the parents). However, grandparents who are the primary or only parents’ declining health. Older parents may feel ambivalent when adult
caregivers in this situation could pay an emotional, physical, and financial children do not meet their expectations with regard to gender roles, lifestyle,
price (e.g. Mohale, 2013). On a psychological level, such grandparents family life, work orientation, career success, or financial stability (Erber, 2013).
are especially at risk for depression (Hadfield, 2014). Although many Overall, adult children seem to report greater ambivalence than their parents
grandparents view this role positively and regard it as a second chance at do. However, research has also shown that although ambivalence does exist
parenting, an opportunity to provide a better future for their grandchildren, in intergenerational relationships, affection and support are more prevalent
and as companionship for themselves, many experience stress associated (Hogerbrugge & Komter, 2012). It also seems that, as adult children become
with this added responsibility on the one hand, and on the other hand, middle-aged, their views and relationships concerning their parents become
express feelings of grief or anger towards their adult sons and daughters less ambivalent and more positive. Although the quality of the relationship
who are not parenting their own children. Some may even experience guilt may be ambivalent, in most cases, parent-child relationships maintain their
and stigmatisation associated with having raised ‘irresponsible’ children importance throughout life. For older adults, these relationships play a vital
(Mokone, 2006). Many grandmothers also deprive themselves in order to role in their general physical and psychological well-being. For adult children,
provide for their grandchildren. Moreover, many grandparents would prefer the attachment bonds remain strong.
not to have these care-giving responsibilities; they would rather use their As children proceed through adulthood, their relationship with their
time in a way they choose (Westaway et al., 2007). However, grandparents’ ageing parents may undergo developmental changes. For example, by taking
satisfaction with this caregiving role may also be associated with the support on the status of an adult and the associated responsibilities (employment,
they receive (instrumentally, financially), their spirituality, and leisure-time parenthood, and involvement in the community), the relationship may
activities (such as clubs for the elderly) (Mokone, 2006). become more equal. This process is referred to as filial maturity, the
acceptance of the parent as a peer with imperfections (Fine & Fincham,
(h) Intergenerational parenting 2013). In some cultures, children feel committed to take care of their ageing
parents in the same way that they were cared for as children. This is referred
In developmental psychology, the term intergenerational parenting mostly to as filial obligation, and is typically encountered in communal societies
refers to the relationship between ageing parents and their adult children. (Whitbourne, 2008). For example, there is a defined difference between the
A core question in this regard is: What happens to the attachment bond living arrangements between white and black elderly people in South Africa.
between parents and children? Does it end, does it fade, or does it continue, While most white elderly persons live separately and tend to conform to first-
with adjustments made for the developmental changes that occur in both the world lifestyles, the majority of Indian, coloured and black older persons live
ageing adult and the adult child? There seems to be a worldwide tendency in multigenerational (or co-resident) households. Care and financial security
that adult children maintain greater contact with their older mothers than for blacks are cited as the most important benefits for the old living in co-
with their older fathers. This is especially true in South Africa where about residence. It seems that both child and parent needs are met in co-resident
50% of children grow up without their fathers, though their fathers are alive households, since many older women fulfil a care-giving role to children and
(Statistics South Africa, 2016). Therefore, it is understandable that there will play an important part in the welfare of the household (Hunter & May, 2003).
not be a strong bond between most of these children and their fathers when However, it should be noted that in South Africa, families are increasingly
they become adults. diverse in age because of divorce and remarriage, the effect of AIDS (where
Several researchers have found that the relationship between ageing grandparents increasingly are taking care of the younger generation) and
parents and their adult children is characterised by varying degrees of cultural and familial factors, such as extended family members sharing the
ambivalence (see Santrock, 2015). In psychology, ambivalence refers to the same dwelling. Therefore, many forms of relationships provide alternatives to

370 371
traditional parent-child interactions. Grandparents and/or
What is the nature of intergenerational relationships? The solidarity- ageing parents
conflict model has been developed to address this issue (Giarrusso et al.,
2005). This model includes conflict and affection to describe the complex
interactions between intergenerational family members. The following four
types are identified: Younger adults

– The amicable relationship refers to high affection and low conflict.

– The ambivalent relationship reflects high affection but also high conflict.
– The disharmonious relationship is characterised by low affection and Children
high conflict.
– The civil relationship characterises a pattern of emotional strain but
behavioural decency.

Giarrusso’s study indicated that intergenerational relationships between

older parents and adult children tend to be more amicable than between
middle-aged parents and their young adult children. The latter group
are more inclined to evaluate the relationship as ambivalent. In addition,
perceptions of parents and children of the same situation may differ. For
example, in general, parents tend to view the parent-child relationship more Sandwich generation

favourably than their children do.

An aspect of intergenerational relationships that may be stressful is when 5.3.2.3 Single-parent families
adult children have to provide care for their elderly parents. This is referred
to as the sandwich generation – a generation of people, usually in their The term single-parent family refers to a family structure in which a woman
thirties or forties, responsible for bringing up their own children and caring and her children or a man and his children live alone, for example due to
for their ageing (and often frail) parents (and possibly also grandparents) divorce, desertion, separation and death, or by choice. The most common
(see Oxford Living Dictionaries, 2018). About 25% of working South Africans causes of single-parent families in South Africa are divorce, separation,
are part of the sandwich generation (Old Mutual Corporate Retirement migrant labour and non-marriage, and in most cases, the mother is the
Monitor, 2017). Although caregiving can be fulfilling, added responsibility single parent. About half of South African households are single-parent
and a host of demands create tremendous tensions and challenges for the families (Meintjies & Hall, 2013; Seggie, 2015). This is in sharp contrast with
carer. For families that are poor or who have insufficient income, the need the world average of 14% (Chamie, 2016). However, single-parent families
to provide for the family may lead to more stress and even to abuse of the have increased significantly in most countries over the last few decades.
elderly (see Chapter 6), such as being left alone or unattended. This could Socio-economic factors such as poverty and political aspects such as
cause loyalty strains and compromise positive interactions between adult discrimination have played an important role, while AIDS has also taken its
children, their own children, and their elderly parents. For these reasons, toll. On the other hand, it is equally true that changing value systems such
many elderly persons regard a home for the aged as the most suitable form as the emphasis on freedom of choice have led to greater social acceptance
of accommodation when compared with other arrangements, especially and even support.
in crowded urban settings (Mokone, 1999). (However, many older people Several researchers have commented on the negative consequences of
have to care for ill adult children, which may bring about a different set of single-parent families, specifically regarding the effects on the children (De
dynamics.) Lange et al., 2014; Gounden, 2016), possibly because of the negative effects
single parenthood may have on their parents. For example, both single
372 373
traditional parent-child interactions. Grandparents and/or
What is the nature of intergenerational relationships? The solidarity- ageing parents
conflict model has been developed to address this issue (Giarrusso et al.,
2005). This model includes conflict and affection to describe the complex
interactions between intergenerational family members. The following four
types are identified: Younger adults

– The amicable relationship refers to high affection and low conflict.

– The ambivalent relationship reflects high affection but also high conflict.
– The disharmonious relationship is characterised by low affection and Children
high conflict.
– The civil relationship characterises a pattern of emotional strain but
behavioural decency.

Giarrusso’s study indicated that intergenerational relationships between

older parents and adult children tend to be more amicable than between
middle-aged parents and their young adult children. The latter group
are more inclined to evaluate the relationship as ambivalent. In addition,
perceptions of parents and children of the same situation may differ. For
example, in general, parents tend to view the parent-child relationship more Sandwich generation

favourably than their children do.

An aspect of intergenerational relationships that may be stressful is when 5.3.2.3 Single-parent families
adult children have to provide care for their elderly parents. This is referred
to as the sandwich generation – a generation of people, usually in their The term single-parent family refers to a family structure in which a woman
thirties or forties, responsible for bringing up their own children and caring and her children or a man and his children live alone, for example due to
for their ageing (and often frail) parents (and possibly also grandparents) divorce, desertion, separation and death, or by choice. The most common
(see Oxford Living Dictionaries, 2018). About 25% of working South Africans causes of single-parent families in South Africa are divorce, separation,
are part of the sandwich generation (Old Mutual Corporate Retirement migrant labour and non-marriage, and in most cases, the mother is the
Monitor, 2017). Although caregiving can be fulfilling, added responsibility single parent. About half of South African households are single-parent
and a host of demands create tremendous tensions and challenges for the families (Meintjies & Hall, 2013; Seggie, 2015). This is in sharp contrast with
carer. For families that are poor or who have insufficient income, the need the world average of 14% (Chamie, 2016). However, single-parent families
to provide for the family may lead to more stress and even to abuse of the have increased significantly in most countries over the last few decades.
elderly (see Chapter 6), such as being left alone or unattended. This could Socio-economic factors such as poverty and political aspects such as
cause loyalty strains and compromise positive interactions between adult discrimination have played an important role, while AIDS has also taken its
children, their own children, and their elderly parents. For these reasons, toll. On the other hand, it is equally true that changing value systems such
many elderly persons regard a home for the aged as the most suitable form as the emphasis on freedom of choice have led to greater social acceptance
of accommodation when compared with other arrangements, especially and even support.
in crowded urban settings (Mokone, 1999). (However, many older people Several researchers have commented on the negative consequences of
have to care for ill adult children, which may bring about a different set of single-parent families, specifically regarding the effects on the children (De
dynamics.) Lange et al., 2014; Gounden, 2016), possibly because of the negative effects
single parenthood may have on their parents. For example, both single
372 373
mothers and single fathers may feel overburdened with family responsibilities 5.3.2.4 Emigration: Parents left behind
and may not be emotionally or instrumentally available to their children.
Men are generally less prepared than women are for the simultaneous role Over the past few decades, migration has increased dramatically (UNICEF,
as breadwinner and child-minder, while women may struggle financially. In 2018). (Migration refers to moving from one country or area to another. A
fact, in South Africa the poverty gap between female- and male-headed person is an emigrant upon leaving his or her homeland and an immigrant
households could be as large as upon arriving at his or her destination. In the context of this book, the focus
100% (Rogan, 2014). This does primarily will be on emigration.) Unfavourable political situations such as
not mean that single mothers war and discrimination, socio-economic factors such as poverty and crime,
mainly suffer financially. Single relatives and friends who have migrated, and an adventurous spirit are some
mothers also experience more of the factors motivating individuals and families to move to another country.
constraints in combining work, Emigration has been part of the history of South Africa for a long time.
care, and leisure in daily life than In the apartheid era, many black and white South Africans left the country.
co-parents do (Bakker & Karsten, (Blacks primarily because of the dangerousness of the situation and whites
2013). for reasons of conscience. Elon Musk, mentioned in Chapter 1, was one of the
Single parents often report many conscientious objectors who became famous overseas.) In present-
feelings of downheartedness day South Africa, emigration is a social phenomenon that affects many
and loneliness. They tend to find The single-parent role is influenced by many people’s lives. Especially (but not exclusively) whites have been emigrating
it difficult to form friendship factors because of factors such as the
relationships and to establish high and particularly violent
other support systems. However, some single parents are fortunate because crime rate, affirmative action, and
they form part of an extended family. This family structure provides trying to secure a better future
additional financial, psychological, and social support to the single parent for their children. The reasons for
and because of this, they do not feel as overwhelmed by the demands of emigration by South Africans are
single parenthood. Furthermore, the way in which parents perceive their similar to reasons given by citizens
single-parent role also influences their coping behaviour. For example, to of other countries (Ferreira, 2015).
adopt an active rather than a passive orientation towards crises, utilise However, in many cases the
Emigration has a significant effect on many
community resources, support and friendships, and redefine crisis situations saying ”The grass is not always people’s lives
in terms of meaningfulness may contribute to the single-parent family’s greener on the other side” also
adjustment (Greeff & Aspeling, 2007). applies to emigration (and immigration). Next to problems such as financial
In fact, single parents are not necessarily worse off than two parents are. hardships, cultural adjustments, and discrimination, it is generally accepted
In many cases (e.g. divorce), they are freed from a relationship of continuous that migrants are an at-risk group for mental disorders such as depression,
conflict that may have affected their whole being very negatively. This could anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and psychosomatic disorders
lead to new self-confidence, a feeling of security, and even creativity that form (physical symptoms caused by psychological factors) (Bas-Sarmiento et al.,
the basis of a new future. Even the effect of single parenting on the children, 2017; Watson, 2017). Emigration could also have a significant negative, and in
probably the most important concern of single parents, does not have to be some cases disastrous, effect on family life. It seems that mothers of children
negative. For example, many single parents state increased bonding time who emigrate are affected significantly more negatively than fathers are
with the children as an important advantage. Some studies also found that (Mosca & Barrett, 2016). (See Box 5.12 regarding a mother’s emotions after
positive single parenting does not show any negative influence on the social a child has emigrated.)
and educational development of the children (see Kunz, 2015.) However, it Although relatively little South African research has been done on the
should be noted that the term ‘positive parenting’ is the key concept. effect of emigration on the parents who stay behind, Marchetti-Mercer

374 375
mothers and single fathers may feel overburdened with family responsibilities 5.3.2.4 Emigration: Parents left behind
and may not be emotionally or instrumentally available to their children.
Men are generally less prepared than women are for the simultaneous role Over the past few decades, migration has increased dramatically (UNICEF,
as breadwinner and child-minder, while women may struggle financially. In 2018). (Migration refers to moving from one country or area to another. A
fact, in South Africa the poverty gap between female- and male-headed person is an emigrant upon leaving his or her homeland and an immigrant
households could be as large as upon arriving at his or her destination. In the context of this book, the focus
100% (Rogan, 2014). This does primarily will be on emigration.) Unfavourable political situations such as
not mean that single mothers war and discrimination, socio-economic factors such as poverty and crime,
mainly suffer financially. Single relatives and friends who have migrated, and an adventurous spirit are some
mothers also experience more of the factors motivating individuals and families to move to another country.
constraints in combining work, Emigration has been part of the history of South Africa for a long time.
care, and leisure in daily life than In the apartheid era, many black and white South Africans left the country.
co-parents do (Bakker & Karsten, (Blacks primarily because of the dangerousness of the situation and whites
2013). for reasons of conscience. Elon Musk, mentioned in Chapter 1, was one of the
Single parents often report many conscientious objectors who became famous overseas.) In present-
feelings of downheartedness day South Africa, emigration is a social phenomenon that affects many
and loneliness. They tend to find The single-parent role is influenced by many people’s lives. Especially (but not exclusively) whites have been emigrating
it difficult to form friendship factors because of factors such as the
relationships and to establish high and particularly violent
other support systems. However, some single parents are fortunate because crime rate, affirmative action, and
they form part of an extended family. This family structure provides trying to secure a better future
additional financial, psychological, and social support to the single parent for their children. The reasons for
and because of this, they do not feel as overwhelmed by the demands of emigration by South Africans are
single parenthood. Furthermore, the way in which parents perceive their similar to reasons given by citizens
single-parent role also influences their coping behaviour. For example, to of other countries (Ferreira, 2015).
adopt an active rather than a passive orientation towards crises, utilise However, in many cases the
Emigration has a significant effect on many
community resources, support and friendships, and redefine crisis situations saying ”The grass is not always people’s lives
in terms of meaningfulness may contribute to the single-parent family’s greener on the other side” also
adjustment (Greeff & Aspeling, 2007). applies to emigration (and immigration). Next to problems such as financial
In fact, single parents are not necessarily worse off than two parents are. hardships, cultural adjustments, and discrimination, it is generally accepted
In many cases (e.g. divorce), they are freed from a relationship of continuous that migrants are an at-risk group for mental disorders such as depression,
conflict that may have affected their whole being very negatively. This could anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and psychosomatic disorders
lead to new self-confidence, a feeling of security, and even creativity that form (physical symptoms caused by psychological factors) (Bas-Sarmiento et al.,
the basis of a new future. Even the effect of single parenting on the children, 2017; Watson, 2017). Emigration could also have a significant negative, and in
probably the most important concern of single parents, does not have to be some cases disastrous, effect on family life. It seems that mothers of children
negative. For example, many single parents state increased bonding time who emigrate are affected significantly more negatively than fathers are
with the children as an important advantage. Some studies also found that (Mosca & Barrett, 2016). (See Box 5.12 regarding a mother’s emotions after
positive single parenting does not show any negative influence on the social a child has emigrated.)
and educational development of the children (see Kunz, 2015.) However, it Although relatively little South African research has been done on the
should be noted that the term ‘positive parenting’ is the key concept. effect of emigration on the parents who stay behind, Marchetti-Mercer

374 375
(2012, 2013, 2016, 2017) of the University of the Witwatersrand has made 5.3.2.5 Childless couples
important and interesting contributions by means of a number of studies.
An overarching theme of Marchetti-Mercer’s research is that family who Since the beginning of time, it has been expected of able women to have
stay behind often experience emigration as a loss, even comparing it to children. In all countries in the world, the vast majority of people still hold
a ‘death’. The term migratory mourning is used in this regard. In general, this viewpoint. However, owing to factors such as advances in contraception,
emotional ambivalence prevails in parents’ responses: They understand education, and women’s rights, childlessness is presently seen by many in a
their children’s reasons for emigrating, but still experience deep distress, not different and more acceptable light (see Avison & Furnham, 2015).
only since their children will no longer be physically present in their lives, Usually, a distinction is made between involuntary and voluntary
but also because of the loss of a close relationship with grandchildren. As childlessness (sometimes called ‘childless by circumstance’ and ‘childless
emigration of children commonly takes place when the parents have entered by choice’), although some cases could have elements of both. Involuntary
the last phase of their lives, they may be left lonely, isolated and without a childlessness is the result of infertility problems, which occur in about 2%
psychosocial support system. As one parent put it: “We raised them to leave of all women. Voluntary childlessness refers to people who, for a number of
us” (Minnaar et al., 2014). Therefore, it is common that parents and family reasons, make a conscious lifelong voluntary decision not to have children,
who remain in South Africa feel that those emigrating do not acknowledge including biological, adopted, or stepchildren. Such adults prefer to call
and understand the emotional pain of those left behind. Furthermore, it themselves ‘childfree’. This group represents between about 2% and 15% of
should be considered that those who emigrate also have to do without the young adults (e.g. Fiori et al, 2017; Tunalilar, 2016) and is associated with a
important role that grandparents and other family members can play in the higher income and education level. Support for the voluntary childlessness
family system and the lives of their children. It also seems that the available viewpoint – which includes viewpoints such as ‘Real women have children,
modern communication technologies do not compensate for the void left wise women choose for themselves’ and ‘Parenthood is a life option and
by the physical absence (‘the touch, the smell’) of loved ones. Other South not a duty’ – has grown to such an extent that 1 August of every year was
African researchers such as Ferreira (2015) and Minnaar et al. (2014) came officially declared International Childfree Day.
to similar conclusions. On the other hand, Marchetti-Mercer also refers to There are various reasons why people choose the childfree option, including
international research that shows that parents and their migrant children can the following (e.g. Blacksone & Stewart, 2016; Bimha & Chadwick, 2016):
maintain mutually supportive relationships and that emotional connections
can remain. Démurger (2015) also emphasises that the effect of a family • They rather want to focus on each other and their relationship, without
member’s migration on those who stay behind can be either positive or the interference and demands of children. This includes the freedom to
negative, depending on individual factors and circumstances. travel and take part in time-consuming activities.
• They are afraid that the children may inherit certain genetic physical or
mental characteristics.
Box 5.12 That’s All • They feel that that they will not be good parents because of their own
experiences as children, or they just do not feel attached to children.
The following poem, based on the well-known Afrikaans poem Dis Al by Jan F.E. Cilliers,
was written by a participant in Ferreira’s (2015) research and reflects the emotions of • They are alarmed about environmental effects such as overpopulation
a mother left behind: and pollution.
It’s the blonde
it’s the blue
• Women may be concerned about the possible negative effects that
it’s the veld
pregnancy may have on their bodies.
it’s the air • Research suggests that personality plays a considerable role in
and my child is leaving on a lonely flight, influencing choices concerning parenthood (Avison et al., 2015). Childfree
that’s all (silence) adults tend to be more independent, less agreeable, more introverted,
She will return one day over the mighty ocean,
and stand next to my grave with a falling tear; less religious, and politically more liberal. They also feel stronger about
that’s all. gender equality.

376 377
(2012, 2013, 2016, 2017) of the University of the Witwatersrand has made 5.3.2.5 Childless couples
important and interesting contributions by means of a number of studies.
An overarching theme of Marchetti-Mercer’s research is that family who Since the beginning of time, it has been expected of able women to have
stay behind often experience emigration as a loss, even comparing it to children. In all countries in the world, the vast majority of people still hold
a ‘death’. The term migratory mourning is used in this regard. In general, this viewpoint. However, owing to factors such as advances in contraception,
emotional ambivalence prevails in parents’ responses: They understand education, and women’s rights, childlessness is presently seen by many in a
their children’s reasons for emigrating, but still experience deep distress, not different and more acceptable light (see Avison & Furnham, 2015).
only since their children will no longer be physically present in their lives, Usually, a distinction is made between involuntary and voluntary
but also because of the loss of a close relationship with grandchildren. As childlessness (sometimes called ‘childless by circumstance’ and ‘childless
emigration of children commonly takes place when the parents have entered by choice’), although some cases could have elements of both. Involuntary
the last phase of their lives, they may be left lonely, isolated and without a childlessness is the result of infertility problems, which occur in about 2%
psychosocial support system. As one parent put it: “We raised them to leave of all women. Voluntary childlessness refers to people who, for a number of
us” (Minnaar et al., 2014). Therefore, it is common that parents and family reasons, make a conscious lifelong voluntary decision not to have children,
who remain in South Africa feel that those emigrating do not acknowledge including biological, adopted, or stepchildren. Such adults prefer to call
and understand the emotional pain of those left behind. Furthermore, it themselves ‘childfree’. This group represents between about 2% and 15% of
should be considered that those who emigrate also have to do without the young adults (e.g. Fiori et al, 2017; Tunalilar, 2016) and is associated with a
important role that grandparents and other family members can play in the higher income and education level. Support for the voluntary childlessness
family system and the lives of their children. It also seems that the available viewpoint – which includes viewpoints such as ‘Real women have children,
modern communication technologies do not compensate for the void left wise women choose for themselves’ and ‘Parenthood is a life option and
by the physical absence (‘the touch, the smell’) of loved ones. Other South not a duty’ – has grown to such an extent that 1 August of every year was
African researchers such as Ferreira (2015) and Minnaar et al. (2014) came officially declared International Childfree Day.
to similar conclusions. On the other hand, Marchetti-Mercer also refers to There are various reasons why people choose the childfree option, including
international research that shows that parents and their migrant children can the following (e.g. Blacksone & Stewart, 2016; Bimha & Chadwick, 2016):
maintain mutually supportive relationships and that emotional connections
can remain. Démurger (2015) also emphasises that the effect of a family • They rather want to focus on each other and their relationship, without
member’s migration on those who stay behind can be either positive or the interference and demands of children. This includes the freedom to
negative, depending on individual factors and circumstances. travel and take part in time-consuming activities.
• They are afraid that the children may inherit certain genetic physical or
mental characteristics.
Box 5.12 That’s All • They feel that that they will not be good parents because of their own
experiences as children, or they just do not feel attached to children.
The following poem, based on the well-known Afrikaans poem Dis Al by Jan F.E. Cilliers,
was written by a participant in Ferreira’s (2015) research and reflects the emotions of • They are alarmed about environmental effects such as overpopulation
a mother left behind: and pollution.
It’s the blonde
it’s the blue
• Women may be concerned about the possible negative effects that
it’s the veld
pregnancy may have on their bodies.
it’s the air • Research suggests that personality plays a considerable role in
and my child is leaving on a lonely flight, influencing choices concerning parenthood (Avison et al., 2015). Childfree
that’s all (silence) adults tend to be more independent, less agreeable, more introverted,
She will return one day over the mighty ocean,
and stand next to my grave with a falling tear; less religious, and politically more liberal. They also feel stronger about
that’s all. gender equality.

376 377
 A cross-cultural study indicates that reasons for being childfree reported relationship is with siblings. Between 80% and 90% of all people on earth
by middle-class heterosexual women in South Africa are similar to those have at least one living brother or sister. Relationships between brothers and
reported by women in Western contexts (Bimha & Chadwick, 2016). However, sisters are not governed by legal obligations such as the marital relationship
regardless of the growing support for the voluntary childlessness viewpoint, and the parent-child relationship. Therefore, commitment to siblings is often
this stance is not supported by the large majority worldwide, including less, as spouse, children, and parents mostly take precedence; consequently,
South Africa (Morris et al., 2015; Reining, 2017). It is also clear that cultural the significance of siblings to one another is variable. Some researchers
differences occur. In most traditional black communities in South Africa, have attempted to classify sibling relationships in terms of closeness and
the birth of a child is concrete proof of a man’s virility and potency and of involvement, frequency of contact, and levels of envy and resentment. Five
a women’s fertility (Preston-Whyte, 1993). Although people are evaluated categories have been identified (Gold, 1989; Gold et al., 1990; also see Erber
increasingly in terms of their educational achievements, professional status, 2013):
wealth, and respect in the community, men and women are still expected
to have children. Childlessness is regarded as a tragedy, implying that the • Intimate siblings consider each other as ‘best friends’ and are highly
individual will be left without any support during old age. Although this devoted to one another, share a relationship of mutual love and
support is regarded mainly in economic terms, old age is also regarded as understanding, and confide their personal thoughts and feelings. They
a period in which a person is surrounded by children and grandchildren. have frequent contact, including visits and telephone calls.
Therefore, the birth of a child is valued highly, and in certain instances, this • Congenial siblings feel strong friendship and caring. However, their
value is regarded so highly that the prerequisite of a marriage in which emotional ties are not as deep, except in times of crisis or stress. The
children could be born often becomes irrelevant. Although it is expected contact is usually weekly or monthly. Congenial siblings would name a
of men to marry to pass on the agnatic name, many men are proud of their child or spouse as the person to whom they feel closest and not a sibling.
children born in non-marriage. Many women would like to marry, but if it • Loyal siblings have a bond based on shared family background and
does not happen, their lives may take another direction in which the birth experience a strong sense of family obligation. There is relatively
of children (even in non-marriage) is regarded as an important milestone. little contact. However, upon request they do attend important family
The question whether there is a difference between couples with and occasions such as weddings, funerals, and festive celebrations. They
without children as far as life and marital satisfaction is concerned, remains rarely exchange emotional support, but they would help in times of
largely unanswered at this stage. Some studies report in favour of couples crises such as illness or financial difficulties.
with children, whereas others found evidence in favour of childfree couples, • Apathetic siblings are not close and are not interested in taking any
and a third group of studies could not find any significant difference (Bień responsibility for one another. They do not attend family occasions, and
et al., 2017; Glass et al., 2016; Shapiro, 2014). One of the reasons for these contact is rare, even if they live nearby. They may go for years without
different findings is that child-free parenthood is a relatively new field of talking to each other, not because of anger or disagreement, but rather
study, and more research in the future will hopefully bring more clarity. In because of apathy or indifference.
addition, so many variables are involved in this type of research that it is • Hostile siblings go out of their way to avoid one another. They feel
impossible for researchers to focus on all of the variables in one specific study. contempt and anger and they reject any requests for contact or support.
Understandably, differential approaches to the phenomenon, accompanied They are emotionally involved, but in a negative way. Hostility usually
by different methodologies, may result in differences in research findings. stems from a dispute (e.g. about an inheritance) or envy from past
sibling rivalry or parental favouritism.
5.3.2.6 Sibling relationships
Although Gold’s model is still used by researchers (e.g. Donato & Dillow,
When people think of long-term family relationships, they usually think of 2017; Myers, 2015), it remains an open question whether the model is culture
parents, spouses, and their children. However, the longest-lasting family

378 379
 A cross-cultural study indicates that reasons for being childfree reported relationship is with siblings. Between 80% and 90% of all people on earth
by middle-class heterosexual women in South Africa are similar to those have at least one living brother or sister. Relationships between brothers and
reported by women in Western contexts (Bimha & Chadwick, 2016). However, sisters are not governed by legal obligations such as the marital relationship
regardless of the growing support for the voluntary childlessness viewpoint, and the parent-child relationship. Therefore, commitment to siblings is often
this stance is not supported by the large majority worldwide, including less, as spouse, children, and parents mostly take precedence; consequently,
South Africa (Morris et al., 2015; Reining, 2017). It is also clear that cultural the significance of siblings to one another is variable. Some researchers
differences occur. In most traditional black communities in South Africa, have attempted to classify sibling relationships in terms of closeness and
the birth of a child is concrete proof of a man’s virility and potency and of involvement, frequency of contact, and levels of envy and resentment. Five
a women’s fertility (Preston-Whyte, 1993). Although people are evaluated categories have been identified (Gold, 1989; Gold et al., 1990; also see Erber
increasingly in terms of their educational achievements, professional status, 2013):
wealth, and respect in the community, men and women are still expected
to have children. Childlessness is regarded as a tragedy, implying that the • Intimate siblings consider each other as ‘best friends’ and are highly
individual will be left without any support during old age. Although this devoted to one another, share a relationship of mutual love and
support is regarded mainly in economic terms, old age is also regarded as understanding, and confide their personal thoughts and feelings. They
a period in which a person is surrounded by children and grandchildren. have frequent contact, including visits and telephone calls.
Therefore, the birth of a child is valued highly, and in certain instances, this • Congenial siblings feel strong friendship and caring. However, their
value is regarded so highly that the prerequisite of a marriage in which emotional ties are not as deep, except in times of crisis or stress. The
children could be born often becomes irrelevant. Although it is expected contact is usually weekly or monthly. Congenial siblings would name a
of men to marry to pass on the agnatic name, many men are proud of their child or spouse as the person to whom they feel closest and not a sibling.
children born in non-marriage. Many women would like to marry, but if it • Loyal siblings have a bond based on shared family background and
does not happen, their lives may take another direction in which the birth experience a strong sense of family obligation. There is relatively
of children (even in non-marriage) is regarded as an important milestone. little contact. However, upon request they do attend important family
The question whether there is a difference between couples with and occasions such as weddings, funerals, and festive celebrations. They
without children as far as life and marital satisfaction is concerned, remains rarely exchange emotional support, but they would help in times of
largely unanswered at this stage. Some studies report in favour of couples crises such as illness or financial difficulties.
with children, whereas others found evidence in favour of childfree couples, • Apathetic siblings are not close and are not interested in taking any
and a third group of studies could not find any significant difference (Bień responsibility for one another. They do not attend family occasions, and
et al., 2017; Glass et al., 2016; Shapiro, 2014). One of the reasons for these contact is rare, even if they live nearby. They may go for years without
different findings is that child-free parenthood is a relatively new field of talking to each other, not because of anger or disagreement, but rather
study, and more research in the future will hopefully bring more clarity. In because of apathy or indifference.
addition, so many variables are involved in this type of research that it is • Hostile siblings go out of their way to avoid one another. They feel
impossible for researchers to focus on all of the variables in one specific study. contempt and anger and they reject any requests for contact or support.
Understandably, differential approaches to the phenomenon, accompanied They are emotionally involved, but in a negative way. Hostility usually
by different methodologies, may result in differences in research findings. stems from a dispute (e.g. about an inheritance) or envy from past
sibling rivalry or parental favouritism.
5.3.2.6 Sibling relationships
Although Gold’s model is still used by researchers (e.g. Donato & Dillow,
When people think of long-term family relationships, they usually think of 2017; Myers, 2015), it remains an open question whether the model is culture
parents, spouses, and their children. However, the longest-lasting family

378 379
fair (Gold did his research on older white Americans) and to what extent and often provide support on a variety of levels. More than 2000 years ago,
it is still valid in a world where family functioning and thus relations are the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle identified three types of friendships
changing continuously. that are still referred to today. The first is friendship of utility, which is not
The relationship that develops among siblings in childhood may differ based on affection for each other, but both people derive some benefit from
significantly from the relationship that evolves in adulthood. Sibling each other. An example is a business relationship. The second is friendship
relationships in adulthood is characterised mostly by affection, loyalty, of pleasure where the other person is not viewed as a sincere friend, but
warmth, support, and a sense of security and belonging. Conversely, it could rather as a source of pleasure or enjoyment. An example is to enjoy the
also be characterised by ambivalence and ambiguity, becoming hurtful, company of a very witty person. The third is friendship of the good, which
apathetic, uncertain, competitive, or exhausting (Greif & Woolley, 2015). is based on mutual respect and appreciation for what the other represents
However, the majority of sibling relationships in adulthood are close and as a person. Aristotle regarded the first two friendships as relatively short-
caring (see Santrock, 2015). Those siblings who are emotionally close in lived and superficial, and the friendship of the good as the only true and
adulthood usually had the same relationship during childhood. Close sibling long-lasting one. In this section, we shall focus on friends and peripheral
relationships rarely develop for the first time in adulthood. Adults with social relationships.
positive sibling relationships report higher life satisfaction and lower rates
of depression later in life (Lohmann, 2014). (a)  Friends
Variability in sibling relationships usually occurs over time, since the
extent of commitment to particular family members can be influenced by Friends remain important in each phase of the life span. Friends serve as a
life events (Connidis, 2010; Spitze & Trent, 2016). As children grow up and buffer against stress and provide a sense of identity and history. Friendships
form their own attachments, and when partners are lost through divorce and are often based on mutual interests and values and usually develop
death, older persons may need and want to reinvest in other relationships, among people of the same generation or at the same stage of family life.
including those with siblings. On the other hand, adults who have not had The meaning of friendship changes little over the life span, but its context
long-term partners and/or children may have had higher involvement with and content may change. There is overwhelming evidence that friendship
siblings throughout their lives, both as recipients and providers of support.
This is particularly true of women. In multigenerational and extended families,
siblings may be involved in childcare and other support. Furthermore, sisters
tend to be more involved than their brothers are when caring for ageing
parents, although brothers tend to show responsibility on a more practical
level.
Most research on siblings involves biological kinships. However, owing
to increases in divorce, remarriage, cohabiting, and births out of wedlock,
the number of half-siblings (one shared biological parent), step-siblings
(unrelated through biological ties), and step-like siblings (through parent’s
cohabiting partner) create more complex family interactions and more
diverse sibling relationships and may constitute unique tensions and
ambivalence (Connidis, 2005).

5.3.2.7 Friendships

Although social ties with family members remain an important aspect

throughout people’s lives, not all social ties are with family members. Both Friends play a very important role in our lives
friends and other acquaintances form meaningful parts of people’s daily lives
380 381
fair (Gold did his research on older white Americans) and to what extent and often provide support on a variety of levels. More than 2000 years ago,
it is still valid in a world where family functioning and thus relations are the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle identified three types of friendships
changing continuously. that are still referred to today. The first is friendship of utility, which is not
The relationship that develops among siblings in childhood may differ based on affection for each other, but both people derive some benefit from
significantly from the relationship that evolves in adulthood. Sibling each other. An example is a business relationship. The second is friendship
relationships in adulthood is characterised mostly by affection, loyalty, of pleasure where the other person is not viewed as a sincere friend, but
warmth, support, and a sense of security and belonging. Conversely, it could rather as a source of pleasure or enjoyment. An example is to enjoy the
also be characterised by ambivalence and ambiguity, becoming hurtful, company of a very witty person. The third is friendship of the good, which
apathetic, uncertain, competitive, or exhausting (Greif & Woolley, 2015). is based on mutual respect and appreciation for what the other represents
However, the majority of sibling relationships in adulthood are close and as a person. Aristotle regarded the first two friendships as relatively short-
caring (see Santrock, 2015). Those siblings who are emotionally close in lived and superficial, and the friendship of the good as the only true and
adulthood usually had the same relationship during childhood. Close sibling long-lasting one. In this section, we shall focus on friends and peripheral
relationships rarely develop for the first time in adulthood. Adults with social relationships.
positive sibling relationships report higher life satisfaction and lower rates
of depression later in life (Lohmann, 2014). (a)  Friends
Variability in sibling relationships usually occurs over time, since the
extent of commitment to particular family members can be influenced by Friends remain important in each phase of the life span. Friends serve as a
life events (Connidis, 2010; Spitze & Trent, 2016). As children grow up and buffer against stress and provide a sense of identity and history. Friendships
form their own attachments, and when partners are lost through divorce and are often based on mutual interests and values and usually develop
death, older persons may need and want to reinvest in other relationships, among people of the same generation or at the same stage of family life.
including those with siblings. On the other hand, adults who have not had The meaning of friendship changes little over the life span, but its context
long-term partners and/or children may have had higher involvement with and content may change. There is overwhelming evidence that friendship
siblings throughout their lives, both as recipients and providers of support.
This is particularly true of women. In multigenerational and extended families,
siblings may be involved in childcare and other support. Furthermore, sisters
tend to be more involved than their brothers are when caring for ageing
parents, although brothers tend to show responsibility on a more practical
level.
Most research on siblings involves biological kinships. However, owing
to increases in divorce, remarriage, cohabiting, and births out of wedlock,
the number of half-siblings (one shared biological parent), step-siblings
(unrelated through biological ties), and step-like siblings (through parent’s
cohabiting partner) create more complex family interactions and more
diverse sibling relationships and may constitute unique tensions and
ambivalence (Connidis, 2005).

5.3.2.7 Friendships

Although social ties with family members remain an important aspect

throughout people’s lives, not all social ties are with family members. Both Friends play a very important role in our lives
friends and other acquaintances form meaningful parts of people’s daily lives
380 381
contributes significantly to mental and physical well-being in adulthood. regardless of the situation. There is also a strong assurance that secrets
will be kept and gossiping to and by others will not happen.
Although the number of friends remains more or less constant throughout • Honesty means openly and truthfully communicating one’s emotions,
the adult years, some developmental trends are noticeable. People not only motivations and goals to one’s friends. This implies that one sometimes
tend to make more friends during early adulthood than during any later has to confront one’s friend. However, an open friendship will make
stage, but friendships also reach a special functionality during this period. room for an honest relationship. Lying to a friend not only devalues the
Since many people in this stage have moved away from their parents and relationship but also can affect a person’s physical and mental health
do not have the responsibilities that come with spouses and children, their (Kelly, 2012).
friends provide important companionship and support (see Berger, 2014). As
young adults become involved in committed romantic relationships, some Despite these characteristics, friendship relations during adulthood
of the friendships they had as individuals are being replaced by, or added are divergent. The following friendship styles have been identified and are
to, couple friendships (i.e. friendships with other couples) (Blieszner, 2016). among those used most widely by researchers (Matthews, 1986, 2000;
During middle adulthood, social networks tend to become smaller and more Miche et al., 2013):
intimate. The reason for this may be that during middle age, people are
involved more intensely with their own families and work and therefore have ■ The independent style. Adults who follow this friendship style enjoy
less time to devote to a wide circle of friends. However, the quality of midlife interaction with others, but do not have a close relationship with anyone.
friendships often makes up for what they lack in quantity. Among older They emphasise their self-sufficiency and independence and maintain a
adults, friendships are typically no longer limited to work and parenting as psychological distance from others. In general, they do not desire close,
in earlier periods of adulthood, but are more focused on companionship and intimate, and long-lasting friendships.
support. The fact that people choose their friendships may be especially ■ The discerning style. Adults who follow this friendship style have a small
important to older people, who often experience diminishing control over circle of friends to whom they are attached and whom they regard as
their lives. This element of choice may explain why many older people have very important. They also clearly distinguish between close, dependable,
close friends, and why those who have an active circle of friends are happier and long-term friends and more casual, impersonal acquaintances. These
and healthier (Chen, 2017; Huxhold et al., 2014). In fact, research suggests people usually do not make new friends in late adulthood but keep their
that older adults could value friendships even more than family relationships friends throughout life.
(Chopik, 2017). ■ The gregarious (or acquisitive) style. These people usually form close
A good friendship has several characteristics (Degges-White & Van friendships with many people. Some of these they describe as special
Tieghem, 2015; Whitbourne, 2008): friends and others as friends whose companionship they enjoy. They are
always ready to form new friendships and are optimistic about forming
• Reciprocity is regarded as a major dimension that underlies close new friendships.
friendships. The fundamental characteristic of reciprocity is a mutual
exchange (give and take) at a deep emotional level of intimacy, support, In addition to these divergent friendship styles, gender differences in
sharing, and companionship. friendships are also evident in adulthood and may reflect continuity in the
• Trustworthiness is often the so-called ‘make or break’ element in any learnt behaviours from childhood. Women’s friendship relationships tend
friendship. It refers to qualities such as reliability, truthfulness, and to be more intimate and based on reciprocal trust and support, especially
integrity. This means friends can confide in each other. in times of crises. Self-disclosure is also more common than in men. It is
• Dependability means that friends are always available for one another also characterised by a stronger emotional element, often accompanied
and that they are willing to support each other at any time. by a higher incidence of anxiety and jealousy. Men’s friendships are often
• Loyalty in a friendship indicates that the friends will stand by each other, characterised by friendly competition and social interaction such as playing

382 383
contributes significantly to mental and physical well-being in adulthood. regardless of the situation. There is also a strong assurance that secrets
will be kept and gossiping to and by others will not happen.
Although the number of friends remains more or less constant throughout • Honesty means openly and truthfully communicating one’s emotions,
the adult years, some developmental trends are noticeable. People not only motivations and goals to one’s friends. This implies that one sometimes
tend to make more friends during early adulthood than during any later has to confront one’s friend. However, an open friendship will make
stage, but friendships also reach a special functionality during this period. room for an honest relationship. Lying to a friend not only devalues the
Since many people in this stage have moved away from their parents and relationship but also can affect a person’s physical and mental health
do not have the responsibilities that come with spouses and children, their (Kelly, 2012).
friends provide important companionship and support (see Berger, 2014). As
young adults become involved in committed romantic relationships, some Despite these characteristics, friendship relations during adulthood
of the friendships they had as individuals are being replaced by, or added are divergent. The following friendship styles have been identified and are
to, couple friendships (i.e. friendships with other couples) (Blieszner, 2016). among those used most widely by researchers (Matthews, 1986, 2000;
During middle adulthood, social networks tend to become smaller and more Miche et al., 2013):
intimate. The reason for this may be that during middle age, people are
involved more intensely with their own families and work and therefore have ■ The independent style. Adults who follow this friendship style enjoy
less time to devote to a wide circle of friends. However, the quality of midlife interaction with others, but do not have a close relationship with anyone.
friendships often makes up for what they lack in quantity. Among older They emphasise their self-sufficiency and independence and maintain a
adults, friendships are typically no longer limited to work and parenting as psychological distance from others. In general, they do not desire close,
in earlier periods of adulthood, but are more focused on companionship and intimate, and long-lasting friendships.
support. The fact that people choose their friendships may be especially ■ The discerning style. Adults who follow this friendship style have a small
important to older people, who often experience diminishing control over circle of friends to whom they are attached and whom they regard as
their lives. This element of choice may explain why many older people have very important. They also clearly distinguish between close, dependable,
close friends, and why those who have an active circle of friends are happier and long-term friends and more casual, impersonal acquaintances. These
and healthier (Chen, 2017; Huxhold et al., 2014). In fact, research suggests people usually do not make new friends in late adulthood but keep their
that older adults could value friendships even more than family relationships friends throughout life.
(Chopik, 2017). ■ The gregarious (or acquisitive) style. These people usually form close
A good friendship has several characteristics (Degges-White & Van friendships with many people. Some of these they describe as special
Tieghem, 2015; Whitbourne, 2008): friends and others as friends whose companionship they enjoy. They are
always ready to form new friendships and are optimistic about forming
• Reciprocity is regarded as a major dimension that underlies close new friendships.
friendships. The fundamental characteristic of reciprocity is a mutual
exchange (give and take) at a deep emotional level of intimacy, support, In addition to these divergent friendship styles, gender differences in
sharing, and companionship. friendships are also evident in adulthood and may reflect continuity in the
• Trustworthiness is often the so-called ‘make or break’ element in any learnt behaviours from childhood. Women’s friendship relationships tend
friendship. It refers to qualities such as reliability, truthfulness, and to be more intimate and based on reciprocal trust and support, especially
integrity. This means friends can confide in each other. in times of crises. Self-disclosure is also more common than in men. It is
• Dependability means that friends are always available for one another also characterised by a stronger emotional element, often accompanied
and that they are willing to support each other at any time. by a higher incidence of anxiety and jealousy. Men’s friendships are often
• Loyalty in a friendship indicates that the friends will stand by each other, characterised by friendly competition and social interaction such as playing

382 383
sports and games. They talk more about external matters such as sports,
cars, work, and politics (in early adulthood, girls and sex are important REVIEW THIS SECTION
themes). They are less likely to tell other men about their failures, emotional 1. Why is it difficult to define the term family? What is the South African definition of
problems, and relationship dilemmas (Berger, 2014). Male friends also touch a family? Do all family members necessarily have close emotional attachments to
one another less than female friends do. one another?
However, contrary to conclusions that females are the more sociable sex, 2. Discuss the nature of family systems in South Africa. Which factors contribute to the
some studies demonstrate that males exhibit a higher threshold of tolerance changes in family systems?

of same-sex peers than females do. This means that they are more accepting 3. Discuss the functions of a family system. Discuss the characteristics of a
psychologically healthy family. Discuss the characteristics of a dysfunctional family.
of the stresses and strains within friendship or peer relationships. Compared
to females, males interact in larger groups across a variety of institutions 4. Discuss the statement that ‘the decision to have children may be complicated’. What
advantages and disadvantages may having children have? What challenges do
and form more enduring relationships with same-sex peers. In contrast, many South African parents face?
females appear to hold higher standards for friendship relationships than
5. Discuss Baumrind and Maccoby and Martin’s styles of parenting and the influence
males do, perhaps because of their greater desire for intimacy. Females these styles may have on children. Why may the correlations between parenting
tend to be more aware of social signals and may weigh negative information styles and expected child behaviour not always be strong? Discuss Roman et al.’s
more heavily than males do, because negative information disrupts the research on parenting in the South African context.
establishment of intimacy. For this reason, more female than male students 6. What is the difference between an adoptive parent and a foster parent? Describe
tend to request a change of roommates at campus residences (Benenson et the reasons why people adopt children. What are the functions of adoption? Discuss
the reasons why black couples are reluctant to adopt.
al., 2009).
7. What is interracial adoption? Why is it on the rise? Discuss the controversy regarding
interracial adoption.
(b) Peripheral social relationships
8. How may parenting issues in raising adopted children be similar and/or dissimilar to
raising biological children?
As we have seen from the convoy model, older adults tend to limit their social
9. What is surrogacy? Distinguish between gestational surrogacy and traditional
interactions with individuals with whom they emotionally feel less close surrogacy. Why is surrogacy a controversial form of assisted reproduction? Discuss
and are generally less interested than younger adults are in socialising with the current research findings regarding surrogacy.
unfamiliar individuals. As noted earlier, younger adults typically have larger 10. Discuss the importance of a father in the development of his children. How could
social networks, including less intimate acquaintances. Nevertheless, many father absence affect a child? What are the reasons for the high rate of father
older adults maintain some peripheral ties with people who are not intimate absence in the black population of South Africa? What is the aim of the Fatherhood
Project of the Human Sciences Research Council?
members of their social circle. These may be people with whom they have
regular contact, but extensive social and emotional support is not expected, 11. What are the myths regarding the fitness of homosexual couples to parent children?
Discuss the findings of the task force of the American Psychological Association and
although some level of instrumental support may be given, such as service other research on homosexual parents and the effects of their parenting on their
providers (e.g. a religious or spiritual leader, caregiver, nursing home or old- children.
age home staff, doctor, dentist, pharmacist, hairdresser, and supermarket 12. What is a reconstituted or blended family? How are these families formed? Discuss
and department store workers) or neighbours. Such contacts are not the stepfamily cycle as formulated by Patricia Papernow. Do all reconstituted families
intimate, but they hold some significance in older adults’ daily lives (Erber, go through these cycles in the same order? Discuss the specific problems that may
be encountered by reconstituted families. How could problems largely be avoided?
2005). These relationships are also mentioned with great appreciation by a What is a neo-traditional family?
critically acclaimed South African writer, who at the age of 95 published her
13. Why has the role of grandparents become more important in the last few decades?
last book in which she described her experience of the ageing process and What are the advantages attached to the grandparent role for the grandparent?
her increasing reliance on such support systems (Joubert, 2017). What contributions do grandparents make to their grandchildren? Are these
influences always positive?

384 385
sports and games. They talk more about external matters such as sports,
cars, work, and politics (in early adulthood, girls and sex are important REVIEW THIS SECTION
themes). They are less likely to tell other men about their failures, emotional 1. Why is it difficult to define the term family? What is the South African definition of
problems, and relationship dilemmas (Berger, 2014). Male friends also touch a family? Do all family members necessarily have close emotional attachments to
one another less than female friends do. one another?
However, contrary to conclusions that females are the more sociable sex, 2. Discuss the nature of family systems in South Africa. Which factors contribute to the
some studies demonstrate that males exhibit a higher threshold of tolerance changes in family systems?

of same-sex peers than females do. This means that they are more accepting 3. Discuss the functions of a family system. Discuss the characteristics of a
psychologically healthy family. Discuss the characteristics of a dysfunctional family.
of the stresses and strains within friendship or peer relationships. Compared
to females, males interact in larger groups across a variety of institutions 4. Discuss the statement that ‘the decision to have children may be complicated’. What
advantages and disadvantages may having children have? What challenges do
and form more enduring relationships with same-sex peers. In contrast, many South African parents face?
females appear to hold higher standards for friendship relationships than
5. Discuss Baumrind and Maccoby and Martin’s styles of parenting and the influence
males do, perhaps because of their greater desire for intimacy. Females these styles may have on children. Why may the correlations between parenting
tend to be more aware of social signals and may weigh negative information styles and expected child behaviour not always be strong? Discuss Roman et al.’s
more heavily than males do, because negative information disrupts the research on parenting in the South African context.
establishment of intimacy. For this reason, more female than male students 6. What is the difference between an adoptive parent and a foster parent? Describe
tend to request a change of roommates at campus residences (Benenson et the reasons why people adopt children. What are the functions of adoption? Discuss
the reasons why black couples are reluctant to adopt.
al., 2009).
7. What is interracial adoption? Why is it on the rise? Discuss the controversy regarding
interracial adoption.
(b) Peripheral social relationships
8. How may parenting issues in raising adopted children be similar and/or dissimilar to
raising biological children?
As we have seen from the convoy model, older adults tend to limit their social
9. What is surrogacy? Distinguish between gestational surrogacy and traditional
interactions with individuals with whom they emotionally feel less close surrogacy. Why is surrogacy a controversial form of assisted reproduction? Discuss
and are generally less interested than younger adults are in socialising with the current research findings regarding surrogacy.
unfamiliar individuals. As noted earlier, younger adults typically have larger 10. Discuss the importance of a father in the development of his children. How could
social networks, including less intimate acquaintances. Nevertheless, many father absence affect a child? What are the reasons for the high rate of father
older adults maintain some peripheral ties with people who are not intimate absence in the black population of South Africa? What is the aim of the Fatherhood
Project of the Human Sciences Research Council?
members of their social circle. These may be people with whom they have
regular contact, but extensive social and emotional support is not expected, 11. What are the myths regarding the fitness of homosexual couples to parent children?
Discuss the findings of the task force of the American Psychological Association and
although some level of instrumental support may be given, such as service other research on homosexual parents and the effects of their parenting on their
providers (e.g. a religious or spiritual leader, caregiver, nursing home or old- children.
age home staff, doctor, dentist, pharmacist, hairdresser, and supermarket 12. What is a reconstituted or blended family? How are these families formed? Discuss
and department store workers) or neighbours. Such contacts are not the stepfamily cycle as formulated by Patricia Papernow. Do all reconstituted families
intimate, but they hold some significance in older adults’ daily lives (Erber, go through these cycles in the same order? Discuss the specific problems that may
be encountered by reconstituted families. How could problems largely be avoided?
2005). These relationships are also mentioned with great appreciation by a What is a neo-traditional family?
critically acclaimed South African writer, who at the age of 95 published her
13. Why has the role of grandparents become more important in the last few decades?
last book in which she described her experience of the ageing process and What are the advantages attached to the grandparent role for the grandparent?
her increasing reliance on such support systems (Joubert, 2017). What contributions do grandparents make to their grandchildren? Are these
influences always positive?

384 385
 REVIEW THIS SECTION (continued)
5.4.1 The importance of work

14. Discuss the various styles of grandparenting. What factors contribute to the Apart from the economic value of work, it also contributes to an individual’s
different grandparenting styles? How do most grandparents experience their role? identity. For example, many adults may answer the question “Who are you?”
What is a skipped-generation family? How do grandparents in a skipped-generation
in terms of their careers. Additionally, work is a way in which individuals
family experience their role?
satisfy many of their psychological and social needs. More specifically, work
15. What is intergenerational parenting? What is the core question in this regard? Why
may the relationship between ageing parents and their adult children be ambivalent?
fulfils the following functions (Bosman et al., 2005; Santrock, 2015):
Describe the age-related changes in intergenerational relationships. Discuss
the solidarity-conflict model as an example of the complexity of intergenerational
relationships. Discuss the issue of the so-called sandwich generation.
• A person’s identity is often defined according to the kind of work he
or she does. This is illustrated by the fact that a person’s occupation
16. What is a single-parent family? How may this family structure be formed? What may is often one of the first subjects that come up when strangers meet or
the specific stressors of a single-parent family be? Which factors may guard against
when one asks about someone one does not know.
the negative effects of single-parenthood?
17. Discuss the effects on parents of children who emigrate to other countries.
• Work is a means to physical survival and provides an income to feed,
clothe and shelter families and important others.
18. Distinguish between involuntary and voluntary childlessness. Discuss the reasons
why people may choose the option to be childfree. How may culture have an
• Work provides opportunities to be creative or productive. Therefore,
influence on a person’s decision to remain childless? Are there differences between work is a form of self-expression.
couples with and without children regarding life and marital satisfaction? • Work improves physical health by reducing the risk of diseases such as
19. Describe the nature of sibling relationships in adulthood. Discuss Gold’s five high blood pressure, diabetes, and coronary heart disease.
categories of sibling relationships in terms of closeness and involvement. How may
sibling relationships in adulthood differ from sibling relationships during childhood?
• Work improves mental health by decreasing stress, depression, and
anxiety, and generates a general sense of well-being.
How may changes in life events affect the relationship?
• Work determines an individual’s place and status in society.
20. Describe the type of friendships defined by Aristotle more than 2000 years ago.
Do you think these types may still apply today? Give reasons for your answer. What
• Work contributes to the individual’s feeling of self-esteem and therefore
is the function of friends in adulthood? How do friendships change over the adult life contributes to the formation of his or her self-concept.
span? What are the characteristics of a good friendship? Discuss the divergent • Work creates a structure and rhythm to life: It defines one’s daily
friendship styles during adulthood. How do men’s and women’s friendships differ? schedules and outlines the programme for days, weeks, and months of
What are the peripheral social relationships of the elderly? Why may these be
the year.
important?
• Work provides opportunities for social interactions outside the family.
• Work provides opportunities for personal development and intellectual
growth.
5.4 WORK AND LEISURE
Not all individuals value work in the same way. Some individuals focus
Work is something common to all of humanity and always has been (Nydegger on the intrinsic factors of their work and others on the extrinsic factors
et al., 2017). In fact, human civilisation was built on work. In the earliest (Bektas, 2017; Whitbourne, 2008). Intrinsic factors refer to the attitude
stages of human civilisation, work was confined to simple tasks involving of the individual towards her/his job and to the characteristics of work
the most basic of human needs: food, childcare, and shelter. However, owing (such as being interesting or challenging) as well as to the specific skills
to technological, cultural, political, and economic developments, work has that it requires. Extrinsic factors refer to aspects such as salary, the work
become not only an essential part of our lives to survive and develop, environment, working hours, attitudes and support from colleagues, and
but also a factor that could have a major effect on our general well-being opportunities for promotion. People who focus on the intrinsic factors are
(Hannan et al., 2017). more inclined to experience work satisfaction, motivation, and personal
involvement in their work than those who focus on extrinsic factors. They

386 387
 REVIEW THIS SECTION (continued)
5.4.1 The importance of work

14. Discuss the various styles of grandparenting. What factors contribute to the Apart from the economic value of work, it also contributes to an individual’s
different grandparenting styles? How do most grandparents experience their role? identity. For example, many adults may answer the question “Who are you?”
What is a skipped-generation family? How do grandparents in a skipped-generation
in terms of their careers. Additionally, work is a way in which individuals
family experience their role?
satisfy many of their psychological and social needs. More specifically, work
15. What is intergenerational parenting? What is the core question in this regard? Why
may the relationship between ageing parents and their adult children be ambivalent?
fulfils the following functions (Bosman et al., 2005; Santrock, 2015):
Describe the age-related changes in intergenerational relationships. Discuss
the solidarity-conflict model as an example of the complexity of intergenerational
relationships. Discuss the issue of the so-called sandwich generation.
• A person’s identity is often defined according to the kind of work he
or she does. This is illustrated by the fact that a person’s occupation
16. What is a single-parent family? How may this family structure be formed? What may is often one of the first subjects that come up when strangers meet or
the specific stressors of a single-parent family be? Which factors may guard against
when one asks about someone one does not know.
the negative effects of single-parenthood?
17. Discuss the effects on parents of children who emigrate to other countries.
• Work is a means to physical survival and provides an income to feed,
clothe and shelter families and important others.
18. Distinguish between involuntary and voluntary childlessness. Discuss the reasons
why people may choose the option to be childfree. How may culture have an
• Work provides opportunities to be creative or productive. Therefore,
influence on a person’s decision to remain childless? Are there differences between work is a form of self-expression.
couples with and without children regarding life and marital satisfaction? • Work improves physical health by reducing the risk of diseases such as
19. Describe the nature of sibling relationships in adulthood. Discuss Gold’s five high blood pressure, diabetes, and coronary heart disease.
categories of sibling relationships in terms of closeness and involvement. How may
sibling relationships in adulthood differ from sibling relationships during childhood?
• Work improves mental health by decreasing stress, depression, and
anxiety, and generates a general sense of well-being.
How may changes in life events affect the relationship?
• Work determines an individual’s place and status in society.
20. Describe the type of friendships defined by Aristotle more than 2000 years ago.
Do you think these types may still apply today? Give reasons for your answer. What
• Work contributes to the individual’s feeling of self-esteem and therefore
is the function of friends in adulthood? How do friendships change over the adult life contributes to the formation of his or her self-concept.
span? What are the characteristics of a good friendship? Discuss the divergent • Work creates a structure and rhythm to life: It defines one’s daily
friendship styles during adulthood. How do men’s and women’s friendships differ? schedules and outlines the programme for days, weeks, and months of
What are the peripheral social relationships of the elderly? Why may these be
the year.
important?
• Work provides opportunities for social interactions outside the family.
• Work provides opportunities for personal development and intellectual
growth.
5.4 WORK AND LEISURE
Not all individuals value work in the same way. Some individuals focus
Work is something common to all of humanity and always has been (Nydegger on the intrinsic factors of their work and others on the extrinsic factors
et al., 2017). In fact, human civilisation was built on work. In the earliest (Bektas, 2017; Whitbourne, 2008). Intrinsic factors refer to the attitude
stages of human civilisation, work was confined to simple tasks involving of the individual towards her/his job and to the characteristics of work
the most basic of human needs: food, childcare, and shelter. However, owing (such as being interesting or challenging) as well as to the specific skills
to technological, cultural, political, and economic developments, work has that it requires. Extrinsic factors refer to aspects such as salary, the work
become not only an essential part of our lives to survive and develop, environment, working hours, attitudes and support from colleagues, and
but also a factor that could have a major effect on our general well-being opportunities for promotion. People who focus on the intrinsic factors are
(Hannan et al., 2017). more inclined to experience work satisfaction, motivation, and personal
involvement in their work than those who focus on extrinsic factors. They

386 387
are also more inclined to define their identities in terms of their work. fathers are also inclined to withdraw from their parental duties (Richter,
The value that work has for the individual can be derived from the fact 2008). An unemployed person’s physical health may be compromised in
that most people indicate that they would continue to work, even if it were several ways, for example by headaches, heart problems, alcohol and drug
not necessary (e.g. if they should win or inherit a lot of money), or that abuse, sleep disorders, and eating disorders. An increased mortality rate has
they would like to continue working after retirement, even if only on a part- also been found (Santrock, 2015).
time basis. Other evidence regarding the meaning of work for individuals is Another factor relating to the changing employment scene is job
related to their reactions when they lose their jobs. insecurity. Employees who anticipate potential job loss and those who have
However, not everybody is fortunate to have a job or career. Rising retained their positions after experiencing downsizing may feel the adverse
unemployment is a worldwide phenomenon. In South Africa, the effects as profoundly as those who are made redundant. Some negative
unemployment rate is about 25% or 15 million people (Statistics South effects include burnout, low morale, decreased commitment, reduced
Africa, 2018). (Comparative international figures are USA, UK and Germany loyalty, and reduced performance (Bosman et al., 2005).
about 4%; Greece about 25%, Brazil about 12% and Niger in West Africa An important factor that contributes to a person’s adjustment after
less than 3%.) This phenomenon is attributable to various factors that may losing his or her job is the context in which the person evaluates the situation.
vary from country to country. These factors include low productivity, lack of Some individuals can transform unemployment into new opportunities for
entrepreneurship to create own employment opportunities, technological emotional and professional growth. For example, they begin to explore
development that has replaced human labour with technical processes, poor career options and to direct their search toward jobs that provide a better
education and resulting inadequate person-job fit than the one they had (Kanfer & Button, 2015). Unemployment
skills, poor governmental economic could also stimulate entrepreneurship and creativity. The ingenuity of
policies, and political corruption. some people in desperate circumstances is often astonishing and a salient
Unemployment is regarded as reminder of the resilience people show in the face of adversity. Consider, for
one of the most serious dilemmas example, the informal sector, small businesses and flea markets that have
a country could face, as the become important features of the South African economy.
consequences involve all spheres
of life. Unemployment not only has 5.4.2 The career cycle
serious economic consequences,
but also far-reaching psychological Some authors such as Daniel Levinson have proposed that adult growth and
effects such as problems with life development proceed through a series of stages and transitional phases.
goals, stigmatisation, poor self- During each stage, certain tasks have to be fulfilled, while the transitional
concept, and uncertain identity. phases are characterised by the questioning and reassessment of the
The latter could lead to anxiety and existing structure, the exploration of possible changes and the taking of
depression, as well as feelings of appropriate decisions. These, and similar viewpoints, have been applied in
worthlessness, anger, aggression, career psychology. Various researchers propose a series of stages according
lack of self-confidence, boredom, Unemployment is one of South Africa’s most to which people’s career cycle develops (see Bergh, 2017; Coetzee &
reduced motivation, and isolation serious dilemmas Schreuder, 2016). Some of the stages, tasks, and issues of the career cycle
from friends and family (Belle et al., are the following:
2018). Unemployment also affects the marital relationship, often with divorce
as a result. Family life may also be affected negatively, for example through (a) The pre-career period (younger than 20 years)
family violence and child abuse, while suicide and even homicide have been
reported. The authority of the parents could also be undermined, which During this period, the focus is on career choice and preparation for a
in turn obstructs the maintenance of discipline and control. Unemployed career. This usually occurs during late adolescence when various options

388 389
are also more inclined to define their identities in terms of their work. fathers are also inclined to withdraw from their parental duties (Richter,
The value that work has for the individual can be derived from the fact 2008). An unemployed person’s physical health may be compromised in
that most people indicate that they would continue to work, even if it were several ways, for example by headaches, heart problems, alcohol and drug
not necessary (e.g. if they should win or inherit a lot of money), or that abuse, sleep disorders, and eating disorders. An increased mortality rate has
they would like to continue working after retirement, even if only on a part- also been found (Santrock, 2015).
time basis. Other evidence regarding the meaning of work for individuals is Another factor relating to the changing employment scene is job
related to their reactions when they lose their jobs. insecurity. Employees who anticipate potential job loss and those who have
However, not everybody is fortunate to have a job or career. Rising retained their positions after experiencing downsizing may feel the adverse
unemployment is a worldwide phenomenon. In South Africa, the effects as profoundly as those who are made redundant. Some negative
unemployment rate is about 25% or 15 million people (Statistics South effects include burnout, low morale, decreased commitment, reduced
Africa, 2018). (Comparative international figures are USA, UK and Germany loyalty, and reduced performance (Bosman et al., 2005).
about 4%; Greece about 25%, Brazil about 12% and Niger in West Africa An important factor that contributes to a person’s adjustment after
less than 3%.) This phenomenon is attributable to various factors that may losing his or her job is the context in which the person evaluates the situation.
vary from country to country. These factors include low productivity, lack of Some individuals can transform unemployment into new opportunities for
entrepreneurship to create own employment opportunities, technological emotional and professional growth. For example, they begin to explore
development that has replaced human labour with technical processes, poor career options and to direct their search toward jobs that provide a better
education and resulting inadequate person-job fit than the one they had (Kanfer & Button, 2015). Unemployment
skills, poor governmental economic could also stimulate entrepreneurship and creativity. The ingenuity of
policies, and political corruption. some people in desperate circumstances is often astonishing and a salient
Unemployment is regarded as reminder of the resilience people show in the face of adversity. Consider, for
one of the most serious dilemmas example, the informal sector, small businesses and flea markets that have
a country could face, as the become important features of the South African economy.
consequences involve all spheres
of life. Unemployment not only has 5.4.2 The career cycle
serious economic consequences,
but also far-reaching psychological Some authors such as Daniel Levinson have proposed that adult growth and
effects such as problems with life development proceed through a series of stages and transitional phases.
goals, stigmatisation, poor self- During each stage, certain tasks have to be fulfilled, while the transitional
concept, and uncertain identity. phases are characterised by the questioning and reassessment of the
The latter could lead to anxiety and existing structure, the exploration of possible changes and the taking of
depression, as well as feelings of appropriate decisions. These, and similar viewpoints, have been applied in
worthlessness, anger, aggression, career psychology. Various researchers propose a series of stages according
lack of self-confidence, boredom, Unemployment is one of South Africa’s most to which people’s career cycle develops (see Bergh, 2017; Coetzee &
reduced motivation, and isolation serious dilemmas Schreuder, 2016). Some of the stages, tasks, and issues of the career cycle
from friends and family (Belle et al., are the following:
2018). Unemployment also affects the marital relationship, often with divorce
as a result. Family life may also be affected negatively, for example through (a) The pre-career period (younger than 20 years)
family violence and child abuse, while suicide and even homicide have been
reported. The authority of the parents could also be undermined, which During this period, the focus is on career choice and preparation for a
in turn obstructs the maintenance of discipline and control. Unemployed career. This usually occurs during late adolescence when various options

388 389
are considered. Choosing a career is one of the most important and difficult is the positive feelings that result from an appraisal of one’s work; in other
decisions of a person’s life. A variety of factors such as finances, aptitude, words, how content one is with one’s work. In general, job satisfaction tends
interest, and opportunities play a role and even complicate the decision. The to increase gradually with age, although age is not the only defining factor.
career that is chosen will determine what kind of training will be necessary, if Other factors such as a good fit between the job and the person, relationship
any. If training is necessary, it means that actual entry into a career could be with colleagues, relationship with leadership, financial compensation,
postponed by several years. It is common during this period of training that benefits and perks, and opportunity for development and advancement
individuals realise that they have made the wrong choice and should rather also play a role. It is often said that job satisfaction is a journey, not a final
pursue another career. destination (Riza et al., 2016). The role of personality in job satisfaction is
controversial, mainly because of contradictory findings. For example, some
(b) The early career period have found that extraversion is linked positively to job satisfaction, while
other researchers found no correlation (Bui, 2017; Yang et al., 2014). A
This stage means that the person is entering a career and that a challenging reason for this is that, although extraversion may correlate positively with
and interesting phase in his or her life has begun. Entering a career is some occupations (such as salespersons, advocates, and politicians), it will
accompanied by new roles and responsibilities. When individuals enter the not necessary be a good fit for others (such as accountants, statisticians,
world of careers for the first time, they are often confronted by unexpected and librarians). Regarding gender, female employees seem to experience
problems and frustrations. For example, new workers often enter the work a higher level of job satisfaction than male employees do (Iroegbu, 2015).
situation with high expectations, but often experience a ‘reality shock’. This The reason for this could be that males are generally the main breadwinners
reality shock can be attributed to a gap between the expectations of the work of the family; therefore, they tend to shoulder many responsibilities in
situation and the reality that is experienced. Individuals often have a ‘dream’ this regard. Because their financial responsibilities are usually larger, their
regarding the goals they would like to reach in their careers. Therefore, it is expectations from their jobs are usually higher than those of females, and
not strange for young workers to experience less job satisfaction than older the inability of the public service to meet these expectations could lead to
workers do (Iroegbu, 2015), or change jobs more often than older workers reduced job satisfaction.
do (Fan & DeVaro, 2015). Job-hopping by younger workers is often related Although most of the aforementioned variables regarding job
to the fact that, over time, they tend to acquire better insight into their own satisfaction also apply to South Africa, South African workers often have to
personalities, abilities, and aspirations and thus realise that their initial career battle with additional factors. For example, black South Africans experience
choices were incorrect. In due course, the initial frustrations are overcome, more racial harassment in the workplace than white employees do and
especially as workers acquire skills and their self-confidence improves. A thus show lower job satisfaction (Stoermer et al., 2017). The detrimental
mentor is often of the utmost importance in assisting new workers in their effects of racial harassment in the workplace on job satisfaction seem to
adjustment process. Hereafter, a period of consolidation and establishment be more pronounced among highly career-oriented individuals and/or
occurs, which implies that individuals become more realistic regarding their among employees with no or low managerial rank. On the other hand, white
careers. (especially male) employees experience more job insecurity than their black
male counterparts do (De Beer et al., 2016). This insecurity mainly stems
(c) The mid-career period (about 35 to 50 years) from politically motivated factors such as affirmative action.
A dilemma that occurs especially during the mid-career period (but
The importance and influence of work continue during mid-life. During this is not exclusive to this period), is workaholism, a phenomenon that has
period, workers are usually in the maintenance stage, which is marked by a prevalence of nearly 10% among the working population (Andreassen,
continual adjustment processes to improve their position. In general, workers 2014). Although different viewpoints of the phenomenon exist, Clark and her
obtain more autonomy in their work situation and work life as they grow co-workers (2016) provide the following definition and description: Feeling
older. If they advance in status and salary, workers are likely to experience compelled to work because of internal pressures; having persistent thoughts
more job satisfaction than during the earlier career stages. Job satisfaction about work when not working; working beyond what is reasonably expected

390 391
are considered. Choosing a career is one of the most important and difficult is the positive feelings that result from an appraisal of one’s work; in other
decisions of a person’s life. A variety of factors such as finances, aptitude, words, how content one is with one’s work. In general, job satisfaction tends
interest, and opportunities play a role and even complicate the decision. The to increase gradually with age, although age is not the only defining factor.
career that is chosen will determine what kind of training will be necessary, if Other factors such as a good fit between the job and the person, relationship
any. If training is necessary, it means that actual entry into a career could be with colleagues, relationship with leadership, financial compensation,
postponed by several years. It is common during this period of training that benefits and perks, and opportunity for development and advancement
individuals realise that they have made the wrong choice and should rather also play a role. It is often said that job satisfaction is a journey, not a final
pursue another career. destination (Riza et al., 2016). The role of personality in job satisfaction is
controversial, mainly because of contradictory findings. For example, some
(b) The early career period have found that extraversion is linked positively to job satisfaction, while
other researchers found no correlation (Bui, 2017; Yang et al., 2014). A
This stage means that the person is entering a career and that a challenging reason for this is that, although extraversion may correlate positively with
and interesting phase in his or her life has begun. Entering a career is some occupations (such as salespersons, advocates, and politicians), it will
accompanied by new roles and responsibilities. When individuals enter the not necessary be a good fit for others (such as accountants, statisticians,
world of careers for the first time, they are often confronted by unexpected and librarians). Regarding gender, female employees seem to experience
problems and frustrations. For example, new workers often enter the work a higher level of job satisfaction than male employees do (Iroegbu, 2015).
situation with high expectations, but often experience a ‘reality shock’. This The reason for this could be that males are generally the main breadwinners
reality shock can be attributed to a gap between the expectations of the work of the family; therefore, they tend to shoulder many responsibilities in
situation and the reality that is experienced. Individuals often have a ‘dream’ this regard. Because their financial responsibilities are usually larger, their
regarding the goals they would like to reach in their careers. Therefore, it is expectations from their jobs are usually higher than those of females, and
not strange for young workers to experience less job satisfaction than older the inability of the public service to meet these expectations could lead to
workers do (Iroegbu, 2015), or change jobs more often than older workers reduced job satisfaction.
do (Fan & DeVaro, 2015). Job-hopping by younger workers is often related Although most of the aforementioned variables regarding job
to the fact that, over time, they tend to acquire better insight into their own satisfaction also apply to South Africa, South African workers often have to
personalities, abilities, and aspirations and thus realise that their initial career battle with additional factors. For example, black South Africans experience
choices were incorrect. In due course, the initial frustrations are overcome, more racial harassment in the workplace than white employees do and
especially as workers acquire skills and their self-confidence improves. A thus show lower job satisfaction (Stoermer et al., 2017). The detrimental
mentor is often of the utmost importance in assisting new workers in their effects of racial harassment in the workplace on job satisfaction seem to
adjustment process. Hereafter, a period of consolidation and establishment be more pronounced among highly career-oriented individuals and/or
occurs, which implies that individuals become more realistic regarding their among employees with no or low managerial rank. On the other hand, white
careers. (especially male) employees experience more job insecurity than their black
male counterparts do (De Beer et al., 2016). This insecurity mainly stems
(c) The mid-career period (about 35 to 50 years) from politically motivated factors such as affirmative action.
A dilemma that occurs especially during the mid-career period (but
The importance and influence of work continue during mid-life. During this is not exclusive to this period), is workaholism, a phenomenon that has
period, workers are usually in the maintenance stage, which is marked by a prevalence of nearly 10% among the working population (Andreassen,
continual adjustment processes to improve their position. In general, workers 2014). Although different viewpoints of the phenomenon exist, Clark and her
obtain more autonomy in their work situation and work life as they grow co-workers (2016) provide the following definition and description: Feeling
older. If they advance in status and salary, workers are likely to experience compelled to work because of internal pressures; having persistent thoughts
more job satisfaction than during the earlier career stages. Job satisfaction about work when not working; working beyond what is reasonably expected

390 391
of the worker (as established by work-family conflict, whereas work engagement is related positively to
the requirements of the job or work-family enrichment.
basic economic needs) despite the
potential for negative consequences Several personality traits have been linked to workaholism, of which
(e.g. marital or health issues). conscientiousness, emotional instability, and perfectionism are among the
Clark and her co-workers refer to most important (Jackson et al., 2016; Součková et al., 2014). However, these
the question whether workaholism is correlations are relatively weak, and there are many differences across
a positive or negative phenomenon. studies (Clark et al., 2016). Two of the reasons for this are that researchers’
Some have argued that workaholism definitions of workaholism differ and that they use different measuring
is associated with a high level of instruments in their research.
eustress (pleasant stress) and Furthermore, the mid-career period has its own set of problems:
other positive outcomes such as Individuals who have already been working for several decades could now
job and life satisfaction and high reach a career plateau, which means that they have reached a stage where
performance, and that workaholics there are not many opportunities for advancement, or where the prospects
may serve as role models for other of being promoted become limited. The reasons could be external and/or
employees. Workaholics have also Workaholism could have a variety of negative
internal (Godschalk & Fender, 2015). External reasons include the structure
been described as hard workers who outcomes of the organisation that makes it impossible for promotion or because the
greatly enjoy their work. However, person has not kept up with developments in his or her field. Internal reasons
the research overwhelmingly supports the view that workaholism is a include lack of motivation or feelings of inadequacy. This could result in
negative phenomenon associated with a wide variety of negative outcomes. individuals questioning and evaluating their values and career goals, which
Clarke et al. regard it as important to distinguish between workaholism and could cause them to realise that they have not yet attained their goals or
work engagement (hard work) (also see American Psychiatric Association, dream and that they most probably never will. Conversely, this could lead
2017; Killinger, 2011): to a more balanced perspective, such as developing other interests, or
heightened input such as investing more time and energy in their work, or
• The motivations underlying these two behaviours differ. Whereas opting for a career change.
engaged workers are driven to work because they find it intrinsically Another problem that often occurs during the mid-career stage is the
pleasurable, workaholics are driven to work because they feel an inner so-called burnout syndrome or work burnout. The burnout syndrome or
compulsion to work — a feeling that they ‘must be’ working. work burnout is associated with work-related stress and is characterised by
• The emotions that workaholics and engaged workers seem to emotional and physical fatigue, feelings of inefficiency, helplessness, and loss
experience differ significantly. For example, workaholism is related to of control. Therefore, various psychological, physical, social, and interpersonal
the experience of negative discrete emotions (i.e. guilt, anxiety, anger, problems may result, such as depression and anxiety, and withdrawal from
and disappointment), be it personal, at work, or at home, which often family and friends. At work, lower productivity, professional mistakes, poor
leads to the worker using work as an escape mechanism. On the other working relationships, absenteeism, and sudden resignation also occur
hand, work engagement is related to the experience of positive discrete (Khdour et al, 2015; Suñer-Soler et al., 2014). Burnout is particularly common
emotions (i.e. joviality, attentiveness, and self-assurance) at work and in individuals who work in the helping professions (e.g. teaching, mental
home. health professions, medical professions, the legal profession, and police
• The consequences differ. Workaholism is linked primarily with negative service). Several South African studies have indicated high prevalence rates
outcomes, while work engagement is linked primarily with positive in several of these professions. For example, the emotional exhaustion rate
outcomes. For example, there is a correlation between workaholism and among a group of therapists (psychologists, social workers, occupational
therapists, etc.) is nearly 60% (Du Plessis et al., 2014). In another study,

392 393
of the worker (as established by work-family conflict, whereas work engagement is related positively to
the requirements of the job or work-family enrichment.
basic economic needs) despite the
potential for negative consequences Several personality traits have been linked to workaholism, of which
(e.g. marital or health issues). conscientiousness, emotional instability, and perfectionism are among the
Clark and her co-workers refer to most important (Jackson et al., 2016; Součková et al., 2014). However, these
the question whether workaholism is correlations are relatively weak, and there are many differences across
a positive or negative phenomenon. studies (Clark et al., 2016). Two of the reasons for this are that researchers’
Some have argued that workaholism definitions of workaholism differ and that they use different measuring
is associated with a high level of instruments in their research.
eustress (pleasant stress) and Furthermore, the mid-career period has its own set of problems:
other positive outcomes such as Individuals who have already been working for several decades could now
job and life satisfaction and high reach a career plateau, which means that they have reached a stage where
performance, and that workaholics there are not many opportunities for advancement, or where the prospects
may serve as role models for other of being promoted become limited. The reasons could be external and/or
employees. Workaholics have also Workaholism could have a variety of negative
internal (Godschalk & Fender, 2015). External reasons include the structure
been described as hard workers who outcomes of the organisation that makes it impossible for promotion or because the
greatly enjoy their work. However, person has not kept up with developments in his or her field. Internal reasons
the research overwhelmingly supports the view that workaholism is a include lack of motivation or feelings of inadequacy. This could result in
negative phenomenon associated with a wide variety of negative outcomes. individuals questioning and evaluating their values and career goals, which
Clarke et al. regard it as important to distinguish between workaholism and could cause them to realise that they have not yet attained their goals or
work engagement (hard work) (also see American Psychiatric Association, dream and that they most probably never will. Conversely, this could lead
2017; Killinger, 2011): to a more balanced perspective, such as developing other interests, or
heightened input such as investing more time and energy in their work, or
• The motivations underlying these two behaviours differ. Whereas opting for a career change.
engaged workers are driven to work because they find it intrinsically Another problem that often occurs during the mid-career stage is the
pleasurable, workaholics are driven to work because they feel an inner so-called burnout syndrome or work burnout. The burnout syndrome or
compulsion to work — a feeling that they ‘must be’ working. work burnout is associated with work-related stress and is characterised by
• The emotions that workaholics and engaged workers seem to emotional and physical fatigue, feelings of inefficiency, helplessness, and loss
experience differ significantly. For example, workaholism is related to of control. Therefore, various psychological, physical, social, and interpersonal
the experience of negative discrete emotions (i.e. guilt, anxiety, anger, problems may result, such as depression and anxiety, and withdrawal from
and disappointment), be it personal, at work, or at home, which often family and friends. At work, lower productivity, professional mistakes, poor
leads to the worker using work as an escape mechanism. On the other working relationships, absenteeism, and sudden resignation also occur
hand, work engagement is related to the experience of positive discrete (Khdour et al, 2015; Suñer-Soler et al., 2014). Burnout is particularly common
emotions (i.e. joviality, attentiveness, and self-assurance) at work and in individuals who work in the helping professions (e.g. teaching, mental
home. health professions, medical professions, the legal profession, and police
• The consequences differ. Workaholism is linked primarily with negative service). Several South African studies have indicated high prevalence rates
outcomes, while work engagement is linked primarily with positive in several of these professions. For example, the emotional exhaustion rate
outcomes. For example, there is a correlation between workaholism and among a group of therapists (psychologists, social workers, occupational
therapists, etc.) is nearly 60% (Du Plessis et al., 2014). In another study,

392 393
findings show that the burnout rate among medical doctors is about 75% (d) The late career period (about 50 to 65 years)
(Rossouw et al., 2011). Police officers in particular suffer from high burnout
rates (Louw & Viviers, 2010). Burnout-related outcomes such as stress, This period is generally characterised by deceleration and disengagement,
trauma and anxiety often lead to suicide (Wasserman et al., 2015). where workers begin planning in earnest for their impending retirement
The main reasons for burnout and begin separating themselves from their work. However, many others
include working in a high-pressure continue as before with no signs of deceleration and disengagement. In
environment (especially if it is dis- fact, South African industrial psychologists Schreuder and Coetzee (2016)
organised); the person feels that state that people in this career period still make valuable contributions in
he or she has no or little control their fields. Some individuals only then move into senior and managerial
over his or her work; salaries are positions where they have more executive responsibilities and decision-
poor; the person feels unskilled making requirements.
for the specific job; or the person As we have seen in Chapter 3, there are several myths concerning the
is over-committed and has nature and effect of cognitive abilities during this career period. Two
unrealistic career expectations. perspectives should be kept in mind in this regard (see Santrock, 2015):
Personality characteristics such First, older workers perform better than their younger counterparts do in
as high idealism, perfectionism, certain areas that are important but have a weak link with cognitive ability.
extreme loyalty, or emotional For example, people in the late career period tend to have lower rates of
instability and general negativity absenteeism and fewer mishaps. Second, in occupations with high levels of
may also play a role (Martínez- intellectual demands, cognitive decline is non-significant due to continuous
Zaragoza, 2017; Zadel, 2018). A Burnout syndrome cognitive stimulation. In this regard, the use-it-or-lose-it hypothesis has
lack of family support has also been suggested. According to this hypothesis, ageing-related reduction
been linked to burnout (Louw, capacities are in part due to the disuse of certain skills and abilities, and
2014). Work burnout is usually a reaction to long-term stress rather than the lack of cognitive challenges during adulthood and old age (Wang &
a sudden crisis. It is often associated with high-level occupations, although Shi, 2016). Therefore, exposure to complex cognitive challenges (such as in
individuals in low-paying, low-status careers where they have little say and continued work-related challenges) can stimulate constructive neurological
are subjected to abuse from their superiors could also experience work changes in the brain that may enhance the ability of the brain to compensate
burnout. However, even in highly stressful situations, many people remain for age-related reduction in cognitive functioning.
unaffected, usually because of factors such as social support, personality
factors such as resilience, as well as positive coping strategies (Louw & (e) Retirement
Viviers, 2010; Wasserman et al., 2015).
What are the effects of age-related changes in adults’ work performance? The retirement phase begins when people stop working full-time. The
Research has indicated that in most occupations, middle-aged workers mandatory retirement age in South Africa is 65 years in most organisations.
perform their work as competently as younger adults do (see Santrock, However, many self-employed people such as doctors, psychologists,
2015). However, the ability to work effectively usually peaks during middle lawyers, artists, artisans, and business people are not affected by a
age because of increased motivation, work experience, employer loyalty, compulsory retirement age. Others retire completely from one job, only to
and improved strategic thinking. Age-related declines occur in some work take on another part-time job.
areas or occupations where physicality plays an important role, such as The issue of mandatory retirement at the age of 65 (or any other age) has
professional sports, or where sensory acuity is important (such as in the become very controversial and is regarded by many as age discrimination
case of air traffic controllers). or ageism. The view is that as long as workers compare favourably with
colleagues in younger age groups, it is unacceptable to force them to retire

394 395
findings show that the burnout rate among medical doctors is about 75% (d) The late career period (about 50 to 65 years)
(Rossouw et al., 2011). Police officers in particular suffer from high burnout
rates (Louw & Viviers, 2010). Burnout-related outcomes such as stress, This period is generally characterised by deceleration and disengagement,
trauma and anxiety often lead to suicide (Wasserman et al., 2015). where workers begin planning in earnest for their impending retirement
The main reasons for burnout and begin separating themselves from their work. However, many others
include working in a high-pressure continue as before with no signs of deceleration and disengagement. In
environment (especially if it is dis- fact, South African industrial psychologists Schreuder and Coetzee (2016)
organised); the person feels that state that people in this career period still make valuable contributions in
he or she has no or little control their fields. Some individuals only then move into senior and managerial
over his or her work; salaries are positions where they have more executive responsibilities and decision-
poor; the person feels unskilled making requirements.
for the specific job; or the person As we have seen in Chapter 3, there are several myths concerning the
is over-committed and has nature and effect of cognitive abilities during this career period. Two
unrealistic career expectations. perspectives should be kept in mind in this regard (see Santrock, 2015):
Personality characteristics such First, older workers perform better than their younger counterparts do in
as high idealism, perfectionism, certain areas that are important but have a weak link with cognitive ability.
extreme loyalty, or emotional For example, people in the late career period tend to have lower rates of
instability and general negativity absenteeism and fewer mishaps. Second, in occupations with high levels of
may also play a role (Martínez- intellectual demands, cognitive decline is non-significant due to continuous
Zaragoza, 2017; Zadel, 2018). A Burnout syndrome cognitive stimulation. In this regard, the use-it-or-lose-it hypothesis has
lack of family support has also been suggested. According to this hypothesis, ageing-related reduction
been linked to burnout (Louw, capacities are in part due to the disuse of certain skills and abilities, and
2014). Work burnout is usually a reaction to long-term stress rather than the lack of cognitive challenges during adulthood and old age (Wang &
a sudden crisis. It is often associated with high-level occupations, although Shi, 2016). Therefore, exposure to complex cognitive challenges (such as in
individuals in low-paying, low-status careers where they have little say and continued work-related challenges) can stimulate constructive neurological
are subjected to abuse from their superiors could also experience work changes in the brain that may enhance the ability of the brain to compensate
burnout. However, even in highly stressful situations, many people remain for age-related reduction in cognitive functioning.
unaffected, usually because of factors such as social support, personality
factors such as resilience, as well as positive coping strategies (Louw & (e) Retirement
Viviers, 2010; Wasserman et al., 2015).
What are the effects of age-related changes in adults’ work performance? The retirement phase begins when people stop working full-time. The
Research has indicated that in most occupations, middle-aged workers mandatory retirement age in South Africa is 65 years in most organisations.
perform their work as competently as younger adults do (see Santrock, However, many self-employed people such as doctors, psychologists,
2015). However, the ability to work effectively usually peaks during middle lawyers, artists, artisans, and business people are not affected by a
age because of increased motivation, work experience, employer loyalty, compulsory retirement age. Others retire completely from one job, only to
and improved strategic thinking. Age-related declines occur in some work take on another part-time job.
areas or occupations where physicality plays an important role, such as The issue of mandatory retirement at the age of 65 (or any other age) has
professional sports, or where sensory acuity is important (such as in the become very controversial and is regarded by many as age discrimination
case of air traffic controllers). or ageism. The view is that as long as workers compare favourably with
colleagues in younger age groups, it is unacceptable to force them to retire

394 395
based on their chronological age. It is understandable that age discrimination
and thus forced retirement can have serious emotional problems (depression,
• Voluntary versus involuntary retirement. People who retire voluntarily
adjust better than those who are forced to retire. This underlines the
anxiety, low self-worth, etc.) and resulting physical health deterioration for
importance of control or mastery over one’s environment in maintaining
an older person who is still a good worker and does not want to retire.
well-being in old age. Not having a say in the timing of one’s retirement
challenges one’s opportunities for self-management.
• Future expectations. Retirement anxiety or the fear of the social
consequences of retirement, particularly the loss of contacts and social
status predicts how difficult adjustment to retirement will be.
• Attitude towards work. Individuals’ lifelong attitudes towards work
influence their attitudes towards retirement. Individuals who base their
identities mainly on their careers and who have few interests outside their
work find it difficult to adjust to the changed status of retirement, which
is often why some people prefer to continue working after retirement.
• Preparation for retirement. Persons who are well prepared for retirement
find adjustment after retirement much easier than those who are not
prepared for it do. For example, social scientists increasingly emphasise
the importance of a positive attitude and healthy lifestyle before
retirement. This implies that a positive attitude towards retirement
and realistic planning for this stage of life are important factors that
contribute to the adjustment to retirement.
In several countries, such as the USA, forced retirement is illegal. Based
on South African legal cases, Du Toit (2016) states that an employer in South
Retirement is a lifelong process, not a single event. In this regard, Ken
Africa cannot force an employee to retire, even if that employee has reached
Dychtwald (2018) identified five stages of emotional progression into
the age of 65. However, if the organisation that the person works for has a
retirement. This is only a guideline, as individual differences are, as always,
specific policy regarding a particular age of retirement, the employee has to
on the foreground:
abide by that policy (Chenia & Hofmeyr, 2018).
Retirement from work is one of the major life course transitions in late
■ Stage 1: Imagination (15 to 6 years before retirement). Although
adult life. It is a multidimensional transition that affects several life domains.
retirement is still years away, during this stage, people have very positive
The transition involves two developmental challenges: adjustment to the
views about retirement. However, not many are ‘on track’ in terms of
loss of the work role and the social ties associated with work, and the
preparation for retirement.
development of a satisfactory post-retirement lifestyle. The degree to which
■ Stage 2: Anticipation (5 years before retirement). As retirement draws
people will be able to adjust to retirement may be influenced by the following
closer, positive emotions are experienced, and by far the majority feel
(Aluodi & Njuguna, 2017; Van Solinge & Henkens, 2008; Whitbourne, 2008):
they will be able to achieve their dreams in retirement. However, in
the two years before retirement, worries and anxiety increase, with a
• Access to resources. Retirement satisfaction is related primarily to the
significant percentage saying they will feel a sense of loss after their
individual’s access to key resources such as finances, health, and the
retirement from work.
marital relationship. A loss of resources that cannot be compensated
■ Stage 3: Liberation (beginning of retirement and one year following).
for, such as one’s health or the loss of one’s partner, reduces retirement
This stage usually begins with excitement, relief, and enthusiasm.
satisfaction. People who enjoy financial security generally enjoy greater
However, this ‘honeymoon phase’ is often short-lived as the adjustments
retirement satisfaction.
from work life soon begin to set in. Some early retirees feel unsettled,
396 397
based on their chronological age. It is understandable that age discrimination
and thus forced retirement can have serious emotional problems (depression,
• Voluntary versus involuntary retirement. People who retire voluntarily
adjust better than those who are forced to retire. This underlines the
anxiety, low self-worth, etc.) and resulting physical health deterioration for
importance of control or mastery over one’s environment in maintaining
an older person who is still a good worker and does not want to retire.
well-being in old age. Not having a say in the timing of one’s retirement
challenges one’s opportunities for self-management.
• Future expectations. Retirement anxiety or the fear of the social
consequences of retirement, particularly the loss of contacts and social
status predicts how difficult adjustment to retirement will be.
• Attitude towards work. Individuals’ lifelong attitudes towards work
influence their attitudes towards retirement. Individuals who base their
identities mainly on their careers and who have few interests outside their
work find it difficult to adjust to the changed status of retirement, which
is often why some people prefer to continue working after retirement.
• Preparation for retirement. Persons who are well prepared for retirement
find adjustment after retirement much easier than those who are not
prepared for it do. For example, social scientists increasingly emphasise
the importance of a positive attitude and healthy lifestyle before
retirement. This implies that a positive attitude towards retirement
and realistic planning for this stage of life are important factors that
contribute to the adjustment to retirement.
In several countries, such as the USA, forced retirement is illegal. Based
on South African legal cases, Du Toit (2016) states that an employer in South
Retirement is a lifelong process, not a single event. In this regard, Ken
Africa cannot force an employee to retire, even if that employee has reached
Dychtwald (2018) identified five stages of emotional progression into
the age of 65. However, if the organisation that the person works for has a
retirement. This is only a guideline, as individual differences are, as always,
specific policy regarding a particular age of retirement, the employee has to
on the foreground:
abide by that policy (Chenia & Hofmeyr, 2018).
Retirement from work is one of the major life course transitions in late
■ Stage 1: Imagination (15 to 6 years before retirement). Although
adult life. It is a multidimensional transition that affects several life domains.
retirement is still years away, during this stage, people have very positive
The transition involves two developmental challenges: adjustment to the
views about retirement. However, not many are ‘on track’ in terms of
loss of the work role and the social ties associated with work, and the
preparation for retirement.
development of a satisfactory post-retirement lifestyle. The degree to which
■ Stage 2: Anticipation (5 years before retirement). As retirement draws
people will be able to adjust to retirement may be influenced by the following
closer, positive emotions are experienced, and by far the majority feel
(Aluodi & Njuguna, 2017; Van Solinge & Henkens, 2008; Whitbourne, 2008):
they will be able to achieve their dreams in retirement. However, in
the two years before retirement, worries and anxiety increase, with a
• Access to resources. Retirement satisfaction is related primarily to the
significant percentage saying they will feel a sense of loss after their
individual’s access to key resources such as finances, health, and the
retirement from work.
marital relationship. A loss of resources that cannot be compensated
■ Stage 3: Liberation (beginning of retirement and one year following).
for, such as one’s health or the loss of one’s partner, reduces retirement
This stage usually begins with excitement, relief, and enthusiasm.
satisfaction. People who enjoy financial security generally enjoy greater
However, this ‘honeymoon phase’ is often short-lived as the adjustments
retirement satisfaction.
from work life soon begin to set in. Some early retirees feel unsettled,
396 397
 anxious, and even bored after spending most of their life in a work-
centred identity.
■ Stage 4: Reorientation (2 to 15 years after retirement). During the
reorientation stage, many may say the joy of retirement has passed,
giving way to feelings of emptiness, worry, and boredom. This is the
point in the progression where an emotional plunge may occur to varying
degrees.
■ Stage 5: Reconciliation (16 or more years after retirement). This stage is
marked by increased contentment, acceptance, and personal reflection.
Retirees have come to terms with all that retirement has to offer. While
there is an upward mood swing, some people report feelings of sadness
and even depression as they
confront end-of-life issues.

Despite retirement and the

Older people can make a valuable contribution to society
associated adjustments, many
older South Africans continue to 5.4.3 Women’s career cycle
contribute to society in meaningful
ways, dispelling the myth that old Generally speaking, the career cycle described earlier is more typical of men
people are a burden to society. than of women. Many women derive personal meaning and satisfaction
Families are central to later life, from multiple domains of life, including but not limited to work. However,
with grandparents playing a for most men, work tends to fulfil a much more central role in shaping their
significant role. Many older people identity (Kovalenko & Kovalenko, 2011). Because of several factors (e.g. legal
are active, contributory adults steps to promote equality) women’s career cycle and role in the workplace
who provide a significant amount have changed significantly over the last few decades.
of practical and financial support However, several obstacles remain in a woman’s career path. A major one
to their families. Older people also is discrimination in the work situation, which is based primarily on certain
make an enormous contribution to Retirement can be a happy and fulfilling life stage
stereotypes and myths regarding women and work (e.g. that they are not
society as volunteers and personal work- or achievement-orientated and that pregnancies occur at inopportune
care providers, while many have some sort of paid work past retirement times, such as at an organisation’s busiest time). This unfortunate situation is
age (HSBC, 2007). However, research has pointed out that South Africa is reflected in the finding that about one third of South African companies have
very low on the list of best countries to retire in. When it comes to material no women in senior management positions (University of Cape Town, 2017).
well-being as such, SA scored the lowest of the 150 countries included in Dubell and Struwig (2014) describe this state of affairs as follows: Women’s
the survey (Global Retirement Index, 2015). Many elderly persons in South career progress appears to be influenced by what has been termed a glass
Africa are unable to create an affordable retirement funding plan and a large ceiling, referring to an abstract barrier that prevents the promotion of women
number will cash in their pension to cover necessities (Old Mutual, 2017; to higher and executive positions. One of the most prominent barriers is
Statistics South Africa, 2014). According to researchers in this field, there is gender stereotypes. The stereotype of gender roles, especially that women
an urgent need for health and social services to be restructured to provide are inferior to men and that they lack the ability to deal with the challenges
effective care for older South Africans, especially those living in rural areas of senior management, is a worldwide phenomenon. Gender stereotypes
(Gómez-Olivé et al., 2010). extend to leadership stereotypes where the tendency is to associate

398 399
 anxious, and even bored after spending most of their life in a work-
centred identity.
■ Stage 4: Reorientation (2 to 15 years after retirement). During the
reorientation stage, many may say the joy of retirement has passed,
giving way to feelings of emptiness, worry, and boredom. This is the
point in the progression where an emotional plunge may occur to varying
degrees.
■ Stage 5: Reconciliation (16 or more years after retirement). This stage is
marked by increased contentment, acceptance, and personal reflection.
Retirees have come to terms with all that retirement has to offer. While
there is an upward mood swing, some people report feelings of sadness
and even depression as they
confront end-of-life issues.

Despite retirement and the

Older people can make a valuable contribution to society
associated adjustments, many
older South Africans continue to 5.4.3 Women’s career cycle
contribute to society in meaningful
ways, dispelling the myth that old Generally speaking, the career cycle described earlier is more typical of men
people are a burden to society. than of women. Many women derive personal meaning and satisfaction
Families are central to later life, from multiple domains of life, including but not limited to work. However,
with grandparents playing a for most men, work tends to fulfil a much more central role in shaping their
significant role. Many older people identity (Kovalenko & Kovalenko, 2011). Because of several factors (e.g. legal
are active, contributory adults steps to promote equality) women’s career cycle and role in the workplace
who provide a significant amount have changed significantly over the last few decades.
of practical and financial support However, several obstacles remain in a woman’s career path. A major one
to their families. Older people also is discrimination in the work situation, which is based primarily on certain
make an enormous contribution to Retirement can be a happy and fulfilling life stage
stereotypes and myths regarding women and work (e.g. that they are not
society as volunteers and personal work- or achievement-orientated and that pregnancies occur at inopportune
care providers, while many have some sort of paid work past retirement times, such as at an organisation’s busiest time). This unfortunate situation is
age (HSBC, 2007). However, research has pointed out that South Africa is reflected in the finding that about one third of South African companies have
very low on the list of best countries to retire in. When it comes to material no women in senior management positions (University of Cape Town, 2017).
well-being as such, SA scored the lowest of the 150 countries included in Dubell and Struwig (2014) describe this state of affairs as follows: Women’s
the survey (Global Retirement Index, 2015). Many elderly persons in South career progress appears to be influenced by what has been termed a glass
Africa are unable to create an affordable retirement funding plan and a large ceiling, referring to an abstract barrier that prevents the promotion of women
number will cash in their pension to cover necessities (Old Mutual, 2017; to higher and executive positions. One of the most prominent barriers is
Statistics South Africa, 2014). According to researchers in this field, there is gender stereotypes. The stereotype of gender roles, especially that women
an urgent need for health and social services to be restructured to provide are inferior to men and that they lack the ability to deal with the challenges
effective care for older South Africans, especially those living in rural areas of senior management, is a worldwide phenomenon. Gender stereotypes
(Gómez-Olivé et al., 2010). extend to leadership stereotypes where the tendency is to associate

398 399
the profile of a competent worth, and intrinsic satisfaction (Person et al., 2016). In addition, increasingly
manager or leader with typical more women, especially professional women, are inclined to maintain
male characteristics. Further continuity in their careers. However, it does seem that women in the more
barriers to women’s career traditionally male careers such as medicine, law and business, are more likely
progress are an inhospitable to be more achievement-orientated than women in the more traditionally
organisational culture, a lack female careers such as teaching, social work and nursing are. Women in the
of female mentors and role latter careers are more inclined to make provision for marriage and family
models, social exclusion from responsibilities in their career cycles.
male networks and family
responsibility that is mostly
regarded as the (additional) Box 5.12 Toxic Femininity
‘responsibility of a woman’. Gender stereotypes An interesting phenomenon in the workplace is ‘toxic femininity’. It refers to women in
The career cycles of women an organisation who are hostile to nurturance and cooperation, preferring aggression
who enter the workforce and backstabbing to get ahead. This style denotes a superficially agreeable, yet
ruthless, self-focused, and false individual. Her authoritarian style poisons the working
are characterised mostly by interruption and follow a variety of patterns, environment that could otherwise nourish new ideas. Her ‘top-down’ communication
determined by their personal and family circumstances. Women’s careers style promotes a culture of dishonesty and fear. She knows how to be pleasing to those
could follow one of the following patterns (Golan, 1986): at the top and how to control and
step on and over those below. She
creates friction, pits co-workers
• Regular career. These women begin their careers after their training against each other, and promotes
and continue working with few or no interruptions. This career pattern dissension and an atmosphere of
resembles the traditional career cycle of men. suspicion and distrust.

• Interrupted career. Such women begin a career, but interrupt it for a few
How effective are these
women as leaders? Not very.
years (usually to raise children) and then return to the workforce. Some Research has indicated that an
establish their careers, begin a family, and return to the workforce after encouraging style and promoting
a few years. Others enter a career, interrupt it to raise children, and never cooperation are much more
effective leadership styles than
return to work. competitiveness, especially when
• Second career. Women who follow this career pattern typically begin fuelled by negativities.
Toxic femininity
their training and career when their children are almost ready to leave Sreenivasan & Weinberger (2017).
home, or after a divorce.
• Modified second career. This career pattern is typical of women who
begin their training while their children are still at home, but the children 5.4.4 Leisure and recreation
are old enough not to require full-time care. After training, they then
begin to work, often on a part-time basis, until the last child has left Leisure and recreation are defined as the periods during which individuals
home, after which they return to work full-time. have no work obligations and during which they can unwind and spend their
time as they wish (Collins English Dictionary, 2018). Leisure and recreation
In reality, women have the same attitudes as men regarding work-related are often used as synonyms, but the following distinction is made frequently:
aspects such as aspiration level, tolerance to frustration, and motivation for Leisure is relaxing time such as watching TV, reading, listening to music,
performance (Sebastian, 2013). (However, see Box 5.13 on toxic femininity.) or visiting friends. Recreation involves significant physical activity of a
Findings from a qualitative study with a group of South African women thrilling and exciting nature, such as sporting activities (e.g. hiking, biking,
indicate that similar to men, work enhances women’s sense of identity, self- or surfboarding), travelling, bird watching, or other enjoyable activities such

400 401
the profile of a competent worth, and intrinsic satisfaction (Person et al., 2016). In addition, increasingly
manager or leader with typical more women, especially professional women, are inclined to maintain
male characteristics. Further continuity in their careers. However, it does seem that women in the more
barriers to women’s career traditionally male careers such as medicine, law and business, are more likely
progress are an inhospitable to be more achievement-orientated than women in the more traditionally
organisational culture, a lack female careers such as teaching, social work and nursing are. Women in the
of female mentors and role latter careers are more inclined to make provision for marriage and family
models, social exclusion from responsibilities in their career cycles.
male networks and family
responsibility that is mostly
regarded as the (additional) Box 5.12 Toxic Femininity
‘responsibility of a woman’. Gender stereotypes An interesting phenomenon in the workplace is ‘toxic femininity’. It refers to women in
The career cycles of women an organisation who are hostile to nurturance and cooperation, preferring aggression
who enter the workforce and backstabbing to get ahead. This style denotes a superficially agreeable, yet
ruthless, self-focused, and false individual. Her authoritarian style poisons the working
are characterised mostly by interruption and follow a variety of patterns, environment that could otherwise nourish new ideas. Her ‘top-down’ communication
determined by their personal and family circumstances. Women’s careers style promotes a culture of dishonesty and fear. She knows how to be pleasing to those
could follow one of the following patterns (Golan, 1986): at the top and how to control and
step on and over those below. She
creates friction, pits co-workers
• Regular career. These women begin their careers after their training against each other, and promotes
and continue working with few or no interruptions. This career pattern dissension and an atmosphere of
resembles the traditional career cycle of men. suspicion and distrust.

• Interrupted career. Such women begin a career, but interrupt it for a few
How effective are these
women as leaders? Not very.
years (usually to raise children) and then return to the workforce. Some Research has indicated that an
establish their careers, begin a family, and return to the workforce after encouraging style and promoting
a few years. Others enter a career, interrupt it to raise children, and never cooperation are much more
effective leadership styles than
return to work. competitiveness, especially when
• Second career. Women who follow this career pattern typically begin fuelled by negativities.
Toxic femininity
their training and career when their children are almost ready to leave Sreenivasan & Weinberger (2017).
home, or after a divorce.
• Modified second career. This career pattern is typical of women who
begin their training while their children are still at home, but the children 5.4.4 Leisure and recreation
are old enough not to require full-time care. After training, they then
begin to work, often on a part-time basis, until the last child has left Leisure and recreation are defined as the periods during which individuals
home, after which they return to work full-time. have no work obligations and during which they can unwind and spend their
time as they wish (Collins English Dictionary, 2018). Leisure and recreation
In reality, women have the same attitudes as men regarding work-related are often used as synonyms, but the following distinction is made frequently:
aspects such as aspiration level, tolerance to frustration, and motivation for Leisure is relaxing time such as watching TV, reading, listening to music,
performance (Sebastian, 2013). (However, see Box 5.13 on toxic femininity.) or visiting friends. Recreation involves significant physical activity of a
Findings from a qualitative study with a group of South African women thrilling and exciting nature, such as sporting activities (e.g. hiking, biking,
indicate that similar to men, work enhances women’s sense of identity, self- or surfboarding), travelling, bird watching, or other enjoyable activities such

400 401
as hobbies. In this section, the two terms, unless otherwise indicated, are disorders such as dementia has been reported widely. On a personal level,
used as synonyms. a person may experience a range of psychological benefits, including an
Because of the work ethic, i.e. that hard work must be one’s first enhanced sense of meaning in life and well-being, and even a feeling of self-
priority, research has focused more on people’s career development than reinvention. Leisure also has social importance, for example for people who
on their leisure time or recreation. However, there seems to be increasing feel lonely, who like to meet new people, are widowed, or have to relocate
interest in the general life satisfaction of humans. Career development for various reasons.
programmes currently emphasise not only the value of career choice, which It should be considered that leisure is affected by various variables;
could contribute to a liveable income and work satisfaction, but also to for example, gender (men generally have more leisure time than women
opportunities for recreation (HSBC, 2007). In fact, research has indicated do, who have more parenting and household duties); culture (in some
a relationship between happiness and recreation. Furthermore, recreation cultures, sports activities dominate, while others are more into artistic and/
contributes to life satisfaction, stress relief, people’s feelings of self-esteem, or homebound activities); and socio-historic changes (i.e. leisure activities
and their identities (consider how many people relate their identities to sport). change over time, such as the change to electronic devices and the Internet
In fact, South Africa’s Reconstruction and Development Programme of 1994 over the last few decades).
accepted that sport and recreation contribute to the development of human
potential and regarded them as a part of a normal lifestyle. Consequently,
it has been accepted that more accessible and affordable facilities should REVIEW THIS SECTION
be created and that active participation in sport and recreation should
1. Why is work an important aspect of adults’ lives? Describe the various functions
be encouraged. Activities that individuals undertake during their leisure that work fulfils.
time could fulfil a great variety of needs, such as physical fitness, social 2. What are the intrinsic and extrinsic values of work? How do these values affect
interaction, community service, and creative activities. An interesting hobby, people’s work satisfaction?
for example, may compensate for an uninteresting job. 3. Discuss the rising unemployment rate in South Africa in terms of the following:
How do leisure time activities change throughout adulthood? Young (a) How do we compare with other countries? (b) What are the reasons for the
adults are more likely than older adults are to take part in activities that high unemployment rate? (c) What are the effects of unemployment? (d) What are
the effects of job insecurity? (e) How could people counteract the negative effects
require vigorous physical activity. Young adults prefer to be part of large of losing their jobs?
groups and participate in a large variety of activities, whereas older adults
4. Discuss the career cycle with regard to:
prefer smaller groups and participate only in activities that they enjoy. - the pre-career period
Leisure can be of particular importance during middle adulthood - the early career period
(Santrock, 2015). By middle adulthood, more money is usually available for - the mid-career period
- the late career period
many individuals. There is also more free time (e.g. children are older or have - retirement
left the home). In short, middle adulthood may produce not only more time
5. Discuss the following phenomena: (a) workaholism (b) work engagement
for leisure, but also the financial means to take it to a higher level. If a person (c) burnout syndrome.
has developed fulfilling leisure activities in middle adulthood that can be 6. Discuss the factors that could affect adjustment to retirement. Describe the five
continued into retirement, the transition from a full-time work to retirement stages of emotional progression into retirement. How do retired people contribute
can be less stressful. to society? Why does South Africa score so low on the Global Retirement Index?
Although leisure is important across the life span and can have a 7. Discuss women’s career cycle. What are the obstacles in a woman’s career path?
significant effect on various aspects of a person’s life, it has a special place What are the typical career patterns that women may follow? In what ways are
women’s career paths, attitudes, and aspirations similar to or different from those
in late adulthood (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014). Leisure activities can of men? Discuss the phenomenon of ‘toxic femininity’.
contribute to older adults maintaining their health through physical activity, 8. Define leisure and recreation. Why is leisure time important in career development?
as well as their cognitive functioning by means of intellectual stimulation. How do leisure activities change throughout adulthood? Describe the variables
A lower risk for cardiovascular illnesses such as heart failure and cognitive that may affect leisure time.

402 403
as hobbies. In this section, the two terms, unless otherwise indicated, are disorders such as dementia has been reported widely. On a personal level,
used as synonyms. a person may experience a range of psychological benefits, including an
Because of the work ethic, i.e. that hard work must be one’s first enhanced sense of meaning in life and well-being, and even a feeling of self-
priority, research has focused more on people’s career development than reinvention. Leisure also has social importance, for example for people who
on their leisure time or recreation. However, there seems to be increasing feel lonely, who like to meet new people, are widowed, or have to relocate
interest in the general life satisfaction of humans. Career development for various reasons.
programmes currently emphasise not only the value of career choice, which It should be considered that leisure is affected by various variables;
could contribute to a liveable income and work satisfaction, but also to for example, gender (men generally have more leisure time than women
opportunities for recreation (HSBC, 2007). In fact, research has indicated do, who have more parenting and household duties); culture (in some
a relationship between happiness and recreation. Furthermore, recreation cultures, sports activities dominate, while others are more into artistic and/
contributes to life satisfaction, stress relief, people’s feelings of self-esteem, or homebound activities); and socio-historic changes (i.e. leisure activities
and their identities (consider how many people relate their identities to sport). change over time, such as the change to electronic devices and the Internet
In fact, South Africa’s Reconstruction and Development Programme of 1994 over the last few decades).
accepted that sport and recreation contribute to the development of human
potential and regarded them as a part of a normal lifestyle. Consequently,
it has been accepted that more accessible and affordable facilities should REVIEW THIS SECTION
be created and that active participation in sport and recreation should
1. Why is work an important aspect of adults’ lives? Describe the various functions
be encouraged. Activities that individuals undertake during their leisure that work fulfils.
time could fulfil a great variety of needs, such as physical fitness, social 2. What are the intrinsic and extrinsic values of work? How do these values affect
interaction, community service, and creative activities. An interesting hobby, people’s work satisfaction?
for example, may compensate for an uninteresting job. 3. Discuss the rising unemployment rate in South Africa in terms of the following:
How do leisure time activities change throughout adulthood? Young (a) How do we compare with other countries? (b) What are the reasons for the
adults are more likely than older adults are to take part in activities that high unemployment rate? (c) What are the effects of unemployment? (d) What are
the effects of job insecurity? (e) How could people counteract the negative effects
require vigorous physical activity. Young adults prefer to be part of large of losing their jobs?
groups and participate in a large variety of activities, whereas older adults
4. Discuss the career cycle with regard to:
prefer smaller groups and participate only in activities that they enjoy. - the pre-career period
Leisure can be of particular importance during middle adulthood - the early career period
(Santrock, 2015). By middle adulthood, more money is usually available for - the mid-career period
- the late career period
many individuals. There is also more free time (e.g. children are older or have - retirement
left the home). In short, middle adulthood may produce not only more time
5. Discuss the following phenomena: (a) workaholism (b) work engagement
for leisure, but also the financial means to take it to a higher level. If a person (c) burnout syndrome.
has developed fulfilling leisure activities in middle adulthood that can be 6. Discuss the factors that could affect adjustment to retirement. Describe the five
continued into retirement, the transition from a full-time work to retirement stages of emotional progression into retirement. How do retired people contribute
can be less stressful. to society? Why does South Africa score so low on the Global Retirement Index?
Although leisure is important across the life span and can have a 7. Discuss women’s career cycle. What are the obstacles in a woman’s career path?
significant effect on various aspects of a person’s life, it has a special place What are the typical career patterns that women may follow? In what ways are
women’s career paths, attitudes, and aspirations similar to or different from those
in late adulthood (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014). Leisure activities can of men? Discuss the phenomenon of ‘toxic femininity’.
contribute to older adults maintaining their health through physical activity, 8. Define leisure and recreation. Why is leisure time important in career development?
as well as their cognitive functioning by means of intellectual stimulation. How do leisure activities change throughout adulthood? Describe the variables
A lower risk for cardiovascular illnesses such as heart failure and cognitive that may affect leisure time.

402 403
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6
Successful Ageing and
Mental Health
405
404
6
Successful Ageing and
Mental Health
405
 Aging is not lost youth but a new stage of opportunity and strength. 6.2 SUCCESSFUL AGEING
Betty Friedan
The happiest people don’t have the best of everything. They make Successful ageing is regarded as a prominent theme in gerontology and
the best of everything. Author unknown has been described as “one of gerontology’s most successful ideas” (Katz
& Calasanti, 2015, p. 26). The term was introduced in the 1950s and was
Do not let the things that you cannot do prevent you from doing
popularised in the 1980s as an antipode (opposite) for the largely negative
what you can do. Anonymous
perspective generally held of older adults as lonely, socially isolated,
None are as old as those who have outlived enthusiasm. H.D. Thoreau depressed, suicidal, demented, frail, and a burden to society (Aldwin &
Igarashi, 2015). In the past, research mostly focused on the negative aspects
6.1 INTRODUCTION of ageing, or preventing the decline of youth (Fries, 2002). Since then, the
concept ‘successful’ has generated a discourse on several similar terms such
The fact that the Older Persons Act, No. 13 was promulgated (put into as positive ageing, optimal ageing, effective ageing, independent ageing,
effect) by the South African Government in 2006 is tangible evidence that healthy ageing, productive ageing, and active ageing. Nevertheless, the
the elderly are finally beginning to receive the awareness they have been concept of successful ageing has generated theoretical paradigms, health
denied for too long. The objects of the Act are to measurements, retirement lifestyles, policy agendas, and anti-ageing ideals
(Katz & Calasanti, 2015).
– maintain and promote the status, well-being, safety, and security of Although researchers do not always agree on the definition of successful
older persons; ageing, the term in short refers to the fact that persons are ageing well on all
– maintain and protect the rights of older persons; levels of their functioning; therefore, physically, cognitively, emotionally, and
– shift the emphasis from institutional care to community-based socially (Brown, 2016). One of the major dilemmas researchers face in this
care to ensure that an older person remains in his or her home in regard is that there is no universal set of criteria for determining successful
the community for as long as possible; ageing. Nonetheless, researchers Rowe and Kahn (1997) identified a
– regulate the registration, establishment, and management of definition of successful ageing from their work at the MacArthur Foundation
services and the establishment and management of residential Research Network on Successful Aging. This definition, consisting of three
facilities for older persons; components, became the operative standard for many decades. According
– combat the abuse of older persons. to this definition, successful ageing refers to (a) freedom from disease
and disease-related disability; (b) maintaining high cognitive and physical
This Act was a tangible and much needed step to protect the interests functioning; and (c) active engagement in social and productive activities.
and concerns of an important but often neglected part of society – the Therefore, the assumption is that, in order to age successfully, a person
elderly. Although older adults in many communities do receive the respect should reach all three of these criteria. Although the model was followed for
and status they deserve, it is equally true that they are often pushed aside and many years, its usefulness has since been questioned. For example, some
even rejected by others. However, with a growing population of older people researchers in ageing studies are critical of the Rowe-Kahn model, since it
in the world as well as in South Africa, and considering their changing roles, implies that failure on the part of those who do not meet these criteria do
not only legislation but also a change in attitude towards the elderly has not age successfully. In fact, some researchers are even critical of the term
become essential. Every society has an obligation to promote the optimal “successful ageing” because it excludes those persons who do not meet
level of the social, physical, mental, and emotional well-being of its elderly. arbitrary criteria (Katz & Calasanti, 2015). Some of the limitations of the
The aforementioned is especially true when the regrettable situation in model are the following:
which many elderly find themselves is considered. In this chapter, several
factors that could affect the quality of life of this group of special people • Methodological issues. One of the greatest challenges for researchers
are discussed. working in the field of successful ageing, is the inconsistency across
406 407
 Aging is not lost youth but a new stage of opportunity and strength. 6.2 SUCCESSFUL AGEING
Betty Friedan
The happiest people don’t have the best of everything. They make Successful ageing is regarded as a prominent theme in gerontology and
the best of everything. Author unknown has been described as “one of gerontology’s most successful ideas” (Katz
& Calasanti, 2015, p. 26). The term was introduced in the 1950s and was
Do not let the things that you cannot do prevent you from doing
popularised in the 1980s as an antipode (opposite) for the largely negative
what you can do. Anonymous
perspective generally held of older adults as lonely, socially isolated,
None are as old as those who have outlived enthusiasm. H.D. Thoreau depressed, suicidal, demented, frail, and a burden to society (Aldwin &
Igarashi, 2015). In the past, research mostly focused on the negative aspects
6.1 INTRODUCTION of ageing, or preventing the decline of youth (Fries, 2002). Since then, the
concept ‘successful’ has generated a discourse on several similar terms such
The fact that the Older Persons Act, No. 13 was promulgated (put into as positive ageing, optimal ageing, effective ageing, independent ageing,
effect) by the South African Government in 2006 is tangible evidence that healthy ageing, productive ageing, and active ageing. Nevertheless, the
the elderly are finally beginning to receive the awareness they have been concept of successful ageing has generated theoretical paradigms, health
denied for too long. The objects of the Act are to measurements, retirement lifestyles, policy agendas, and anti-ageing ideals
(Katz & Calasanti, 2015).
– maintain and promote the status, well-being, safety, and security of Although researchers do not always agree on the definition of successful
older persons; ageing, the term in short refers to the fact that persons are ageing well on all
– maintain and protect the rights of older persons; levels of their functioning; therefore, physically, cognitively, emotionally, and
– shift the emphasis from institutional care to community-based socially (Brown, 2016). One of the major dilemmas researchers face in this
care to ensure that an older person remains in his or her home in regard is that there is no universal set of criteria for determining successful
the community for as long as possible; ageing. Nonetheless, researchers Rowe and Kahn (1997) identified a
– regulate the registration, establishment, and management of definition of successful ageing from their work at the MacArthur Foundation
services and the establishment and management of residential Research Network on Successful Aging. This definition, consisting of three
facilities for older persons; components, became the operative standard for many decades. According
– combat the abuse of older persons. to this definition, successful ageing refers to (a) freedom from disease
and disease-related disability; (b) maintaining high cognitive and physical
This Act was a tangible and much needed step to protect the interests functioning; and (c) active engagement in social and productive activities.
and concerns of an important but often neglected part of society – the Therefore, the assumption is that, in order to age successfully, a person
elderly. Although older adults in many communities do receive the respect should reach all three of these criteria. Although the model was followed for
and status they deserve, it is equally true that they are often pushed aside and many years, its usefulness has since been questioned. For example, some
even rejected by others. However, with a growing population of older people researchers in ageing studies are critical of the Rowe-Kahn model, since it
in the world as well as in South Africa, and considering their changing roles, implies that failure on the part of those who do not meet these criteria do
not only legislation but also a change in attitude towards the elderly has not age successfully. In fact, some researchers are even critical of the term
become essential. Every society has an obligation to promote the optimal “successful ageing” because it excludes those persons who do not meet
level of the social, physical, mental, and emotional well-being of its elderly. arbitrary criteria (Katz & Calasanti, 2015). Some of the limitations of the
The aforementioned is especially true when the regrettable situation in model are the following:
which many elderly find themselves is considered. In this chapter, several
factors that could affect the quality of life of this group of special people • Methodological issues. One of the greatest challenges for researchers
are discussed. working in the field of successful ageing, is the inconsistency across
406 407
 studies in terms of the conceptualisation of the term and the measures high-risk factors (e.g., smoking, obesity, low activity levels). Successful
used to study successful ageing, so much so that the meaning of ageing refers to minimal functional loss (e.g. little or no age-related
successful ageing is more implied than delineated (Pruchno et al., 2010). decrease in physiological and cognitive functioning), with extrinsic factors
For example, in a review of 28 studies Depp and Jeste (2006) identified playing a neutral or positive role. Therefore, Rowe and Kahn merged
29 definitions. This clearly presents limitations to research on successful physical, cognitive, and lifestyle factors with measurable indicators of
ageing. disease and disability, which they coined the ‘new gerontology’. However,
• Adaptations and extensions. Researchers concerned with the empirical this model fails to address the implications of the fact that a disease-free
and methodological limitations of successful ageing have responded older age is unrealistic for most people. In fact, studies that incorporated
by extending or adapting successful ageing criteria in other ways. For the perspectives of older adults into the model of successful ageing found
example, researchers such as Von Humboldt and Leal (2014) include that optimism, effective coping styles, life satisfaction and well-being,
the effective use of adaptive strategies to optimise personal functioning as well as social and community involvement are much more important
within the limitations of personal abilities and resources. In fact, more to ageing successfully than traditional measures of physical health and
than 100 variations of the original model have been proposed (Rowe & wellness (Reichstadt et al., 2010).
Kahn, 2015). • Personal choice. The Rowe-Kahn successful ageing model over-
• Objective and subjective meaning. One of the most important points emphasises personal choice, agency, and lifestyle. For example, the model
of criticism against the Rowe-Kahn model is that successful ageing is assumes that ageing is largely under the control of the individual and that
assessed by means of objective measures and therefore neglects the successful ageing is dependent upon individual choices and behaviours.
experience of older people of what ageing means to them, successful This assumption neglects the various social and environmental factors
or otherwise. Therefore, the subjective experience of each of these and life situations that either limit or facilitate personal choice and the
components by the individual is equally important. In studies using the capacity to age successfully (Rowe & Cosco, 2016).
Rowe-Kahn criteria and including older persons’ view of their own ageing
process, only about one fifth of the participants could be classified as 6.2.1 Factors that may affect successful ageing
ageing successfully according to the Rowe-Kahn criteria, while more than
half rated themselves as ageing successfully (Jeste, 2005; Strawbridge With reference to the difficulty in identifying components of successful
et al., 2002). Recent research confirms these findings (Depp et al., 2012; ageing, some authors (e.g. Brown, 2016; Serfontein, 2015) argue that variables
Whitley et al., 2016). The repeatedly demonstrated discrepancy between such as culture, values, and expectations, past experiences, subjectivity,
objective criteria and older individuals’ experiences and definitions of fluctuation in abilities, and individual differences make it very difficult to
successful ageing have resulted in researchers arguing that a combination determine the main components of successful ageing. On the other hand, it is
of objective and subjective measures should be used in research. For equally true that research has identified several factors that play a significant
example, Pruchno et al. (2010, p. 822) state that such a combination of role in successful ageing. In the preceding chapters, we have alluded to
methods could render a typology “of successful aging, whereby some factors that could contribute to people’s positive ageing process, including
people are successful according to both definitions, others are successful their cognitive, physical, and psychological development. Factors such as
to neither, and still others are successful according to one, but not the stimulating activities, physical activity, positive attitudes and relationships,
other definition”. This subjective component can also play an important positive coping mechanisms, and a healthy lifestyle have all been mentioned
role in the way successful ageing is experienced differently in various in this regard, and may all contribute to successful ageing. Other factors that
cultures and value systems. may affect people’s experience of successful ageing are discussed next.
• Overemphasis on biomedical factors. The Rowe-Kahn model largely
incorporated a medical framework in which usual ageing and successful
6.2.1.1 Attitudes towards ageing
ageing could be differentiated. Usual ageing refers to normal decline in
biological, physical, and cognitive functioning, heightened by extrinsic or
Attitude towards ageing incorporates self-perceptions of ageing, cultural
408 409
 studies in terms of the conceptualisation of the term and the measures high-risk factors (e.g., smoking, obesity, low activity levels). Successful
used to study successful ageing, so much so that the meaning of ageing refers to minimal functional loss (e.g. little or no age-related
successful ageing is more implied than delineated (Pruchno et al., 2010). decrease in physiological and cognitive functioning), with extrinsic factors
For example, in a review of 28 studies Depp and Jeste (2006) identified playing a neutral or positive role. Therefore, Rowe and Kahn merged
29 definitions. This clearly presents limitations to research on successful physical, cognitive, and lifestyle factors with measurable indicators of
ageing. disease and disability, which they coined the ‘new gerontology’. However,
• Adaptations and extensions. Researchers concerned with the empirical this model fails to address the implications of the fact that a disease-free
and methodological limitations of successful ageing have responded older age is unrealistic for most people. In fact, studies that incorporated
by extending or adapting successful ageing criteria in other ways. For the perspectives of older adults into the model of successful ageing found
example, researchers such as Von Humboldt and Leal (2014) include that optimism, effective coping styles, life satisfaction and well-being,
the effective use of adaptive strategies to optimise personal functioning as well as social and community involvement are much more important
within the limitations of personal abilities and resources. In fact, more to ageing successfully than traditional measures of physical health and
than 100 variations of the original model have been proposed (Rowe & wellness (Reichstadt et al., 2010).
Kahn, 2015). • Personal choice. The Rowe-Kahn successful ageing model over-
• Objective and subjective meaning. One of the most important points emphasises personal choice, agency, and lifestyle. For example, the model
of criticism against the Rowe-Kahn model is that successful ageing is assumes that ageing is largely under the control of the individual and that
assessed by means of objective measures and therefore neglects the successful ageing is dependent upon individual choices and behaviours.
experience of older people of what ageing means to them, successful This assumption neglects the various social and environmental factors
or otherwise. Therefore, the subjective experience of each of these and life situations that either limit or facilitate personal choice and the
components by the individual is equally important. In studies using the capacity to age successfully (Rowe & Cosco, 2016).
Rowe-Kahn criteria and including older persons’ view of their own ageing
process, only about one fifth of the participants could be classified as 6.2.1 Factors that may affect successful ageing
ageing successfully according to the Rowe-Kahn criteria, while more than
half rated themselves as ageing successfully (Jeste, 2005; Strawbridge With reference to the difficulty in identifying components of successful
et al., 2002). Recent research confirms these findings (Depp et al., 2012; ageing, some authors (e.g. Brown, 2016; Serfontein, 2015) argue that variables
Whitley et al., 2016). The repeatedly demonstrated discrepancy between such as culture, values, and expectations, past experiences, subjectivity,
objective criteria and older individuals’ experiences and definitions of fluctuation in abilities, and individual differences make it very difficult to
successful ageing have resulted in researchers arguing that a combination determine the main components of successful ageing. On the other hand, it is
of objective and subjective measures should be used in research. For equally true that research has identified several factors that play a significant
example, Pruchno et al. (2010, p. 822) state that such a combination of role in successful ageing. In the preceding chapters, we have alluded to
methods could render a typology “of successful aging, whereby some factors that could contribute to people’s positive ageing process, including
people are successful according to both definitions, others are successful their cognitive, physical, and psychological development. Factors such as
to neither, and still others are successful according to one, but not the stimulating activities, physical activity, positive attitudes and relationships,
other definition”. This subjective component can also play an important positive coping mechanisms, and a healthy lifestyle have all been mentioned
role in the way successful ageing is experienced differently in various in this regard, and may all contribute to successful ageing. Other factors that
cultures and value systems. may affect people’s experience of successful ageing are discussed next.
• Overemphasis on biomedical factors. The Rowe-Kahn model largely
incorporated a medical framework in which usual ageing and successful
6.2.1.1 Attitudes towards ageing
ageing could be differentiated. Usual ageing refers to normal decline in
biological, physical, and cognitive functioning, heightened by extrinsic or
Attitude towards ageing incorporates self-perceptions of ageing, cultural
408 409
and personal beliefs about ageing, age identity, as well as physical and other they would not remember them anyway); when they are referred to in the
psychological factors (Depp et al., 2016). As we have seen in Chapter 4, social third person while they are present (assuming that they either cannot hear,
attitudes and the views of others influence people’s views of themselves. One or are not persons of consequence); or when decisions are made that will
example of this is the emphasis of some societies on youthful appearance, affect the older person without prior consultation (the assumption is that
as is often portrayed in the media. This results in many people embarking on they do not have the cognitive capacity to make decisions themselves). One
various procedures to maintain or retain their youthful appearance. of the most common manifestations of ageism in daily life is patronising
A particularly devastating attitude is ageism. Ageism is a form of prejudice language or ‘elder speak’ as discussed in Chapter 3. A form of ageism that
and refers to discrimination based on chronological age. It usually indicates has become institutionalised and even law in several countries like South
prejudice against people in middle but especially late adulthood. Just as Africa, is mandatory or compulsory retirement. As discussed in Chapter 5,
its counterparts, racism and sexism, ageism may have a major influence on this means that people have to retire when they reach a certain age (usually
the adjustment and well-being of older people. It is interesting that of the 60 or 65), regardless of the fact that they are still more productive and
three categories (ageism, racism, and sexism), ageism is the only one where creative than many of their younger counterparts.
the members of the discriminating group (the younger) will eventually join The traumatic effect of prejudice is well known. Central to this effect
the group they are discriminating against (the older). Despite the fact that is the effect prejudice has on the self-concept and therefore on the ideas,
ageism may have a similar effect on people as racism and sexism do, ageism feelings, and attitudes that a person has about his or her own identity, worth,
has been much less researched than either racism or sexism. capabilities, and limitations. Therefore, social stereotypes could create self-
stereotypes and influence people’s ideas about the ageing process (Levy,
2003). For example, people may fear the ageing process and be upset
when normal age-related changes and declines begin to appear. Negative
attitudes towards ageing could have several adverse consequences, such as
cognitive and mood disturbances, poorer overall functioning, and a higher
morbidity rate. The influence of ageism is illustrated by a longitudinal study
(Levy et al., 2002), which indicated that older adults who have positive
experiences concerning stereotypes show better memory functioning, a
more positive and balanced view of life, and more positive self-concepts
than those who have negative experiences. In addition, a positive self-
concept is related to longevity (on average, they live 7,5 years longer than
those with negative self-concepts) and better mental health (people with
As in the case of most other forms of prejudice, ageism is based largely negative self-concepts indicated feelings of worthlessness). Similar findings
on stereotypes and generalisations, for example: were reported by numerous other authors and researchers (e.g. Allen, 2016;
Chrisler et al., 2016; Freeman et al., 2016).
– Old people are all alike. According to cross-cultural research, a diverse spectrum of attitudes
– Old people have little to offer society. toward ageing exists. Earlier research portrayed a somewhat misleading
– Old people behave like children. viewpoint. For example, older studies indicated that older people enjoy high
– Old people suffer from at least one serious illness. prestige in cultures that are autocratic, static (unchanging), and collectivistic,
– Old people feel alone and lonely, and are just waiting to die. while in many modern, industrialised, and individualistic countries, older
– Old people live in the past. people generally are not valued highly; they are not regarded as ‘profitable’
in a society where materialism plays a pivotal role. However, later and
Ageism is often subtle and implicit rather than explicit; for example, more recent research has shown this perspective to be an oversimplification
when the elderly are not given dates or messages (the assumption is that of a much more complex situation (Bergman, et al., 2013; Stuart-Hamilton,

410 411
and personal beliefs about ageing, age identity, as well as physical and other they would not remember them anyway); when they are referred to in the
psychological factors (Depp et al., 2016). As we have seen in Chapter 4, social third person while they are present (assuming that they either cannot hear,
attitudes and the views of others influence people’s views of themselves. One or are not persons of consequence); or when decisions are made that will
example of this is the emphasis of some societies on youthful appearance, affect the older person without prior consultation (the assumption is that
as is often portrayed in the media. This results in many people embarking on they do not have the cognitive capacity to make decisions themselves). One
various procedures to maintain or retain their youthful appearance. of the most common manifestations of ageism in daily life is patronising
A particularly devastating attitude is ageism. Ageism is a form of prejudice language or ‘elder speak’ as discussed in Chapter 3. A form of ageism that
and refers to discrimination based on chronological age. It usually indicates has become institutionalised and even law in several countries like South
prejudice against people in middle but especially late adulthood. Just as Africa, is mandatory or compulsory retirement. As discussed in Chapter 5,
its counterparts, racism and sexism, ageism may have a major influence on this means that people have to retire when they reach a certain age (usually
the adjustment and well-being of older people. It is interesting that of the 60 or 65), regardless of the fact that they are still more productive and
three categories (ageism, racism, and sexism), ageism is the only one where creative than many of their younger counterparts.
the members of the discriminating group (the younger) will eventually join The traumatic effect of prejudice is well known. Central to this effect
the group they are discriminating against (the older). Despite the fact that is the effect prejudice has on the self-concept and therefore on the ideas,
ageism may have a similar effect on people as racism and sexism do, ageism feelings, and attitudes that a person has about his or her own identity, worth,
has been much less researched than either racism or sexism. capabilities, and limitations. Therefore, social stereotypes could create self-
stereotypes and influence people’s ideas about the ageing process (Levy,
2003). For example, people may fear the ageing process and be upset
when normal age-related changes and declines begin to appear. Negative
attitudes towards ageing could have several adverse consequences, such as
cognitive and mood disturbances, poorer overall functioning, and a higher
morbidity rate. The influence of ageism is illustrated by a longitudinal study
(Levy et al., 2002), which indicated that older adults who have positive
experiences concerning stereotypes show better memory functioning, a
more positive and balanced view of life, and more positive self-concepts
than those who have negative experiences. In addition, a positive self-
concept is related to longevity (on average, they live 7,5 years longer than
those with negative self-concepts) and better mental health (people with
As in the case of most other forms of prejudice, ageism is based largely negative self-concepts indicated feelings of worthlessness). Similar findings
on stereotypes and generalisations, for example: were reported by numerous other authors and researchers (e.g. Allen, 2016;
Chrisler et al., 2016; Freeman et al., 2016).
– Old people are all alike. According to cross-cultural research, a diverse spectrum of attitudes
– Old people have little to offer society. toward ageing exists. Earlier research portrayed a somewhat misleading
– Old people behave like children. viewpoint. For example, older studies indicated that older people enjoy high
– Old people suffer from at least one serious illness. prestige in cultures that are autocratic, static (unchanging), and collectivistic,
– Old people feel alone and lonely, and are just waiting to die. while in many modern, industrialised, and individualistic countries, older
– Old people live in the past. people generally are not valued highly; they are not regarded as ‘profitable’
in a society where materialism plays a pivotal role. However, later and
Ageism is often subtle and implicit rather than explicit; for example, more recent research has shown this perspective to be an oversimplification
when the elderly are not given dates or messages (the assumption is that of a much more complex situation (Bergman, et al., 2013; Stuart-Hamilton,

410 411
2012). For example, in-group differences may occur: In many individualistic Box 6.1 Abuse of the elderly in South Africa (continued)
societies, the aged are valued, while in many collectivistic societies, the elders As in the case of sexual abuse, elder abuse is a crime that can be punished severely.
are exploited and abused. In addition, the definition of an individualistic and According to a survey by the South African Department of Health (2008; also see
collective country is very arbitrary. A multicultural country such as South Africa Acierno, 2017),
is a good example. (See Box 6.1 regarding abuse of the elderly in South Africa). – more than 50% of the participants have personal knowledge of elder abuse;
– the prevalence rates of elder abuse are: psychological/emotional abuse 37%,
financial abuse 36%, general maltreatment 11%, neglect and lack of care 8%,
and physical violence 8%;
Box 6.1 Abuse of the elderly in South Africa – the place of occurrence of elder abuse is: at home 54%, in the community 42%,
and at institutions 4%;
Just like child abuse and domestic violence, the maltreatment of older people — referred
– most forms of abuse experienced by older persons are from grandchildren
to as ‘elder abuse’ — still remains a largely concealed crisis that seldom becomes part of
55%, spouse 20%, children 16%, caregivers 4%, community members 3%, and
official statistics. The World Health Organisation (2016) estimates that 1 in 10 older people
other household members 2%;
experiences abuse every month. However, a South African study found that more than
– the victim is usually between 70 to 80 years, and seven times more females
60% of elderly people in the Mafikeng area suffered from abuse (Bigala & Ayiga, 2014).
than males are abused. The victim often suffers from chronic diseases,
What precisely constitutes elder abuse? According to the South African Older
incontinence (involuntary urination and/or defecation) and disability of one
Persons Act, elder abuse is defined as any conduct or lack of appropriate action,
kind or another. He or she has limited financial means, poor social interaction,
occurring within a relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes
and limited living space;
harm or distress or is likely to cause harm or distress to an older person. Although there
– the abuser is usually between 55-60 years or very young, more often female
are various kinds of abuse, the following are the most widely agreed upon by experts
(55%) than male (45%)
(Ananias & Strydom, 2014; South African Government Services, 2008):
– the abuser is very commonly a family member (85%).
• Physical abuse: Any physical act that results in injury or death of an older person. It is of the utmost importance that this growing problem, which affects so many
For example, slapping, hitting, pushing, rough handling, cutting, using physical of our older citizens, should receive much more research attention. Only then shall
restraints, administering incorrect or excessive medication, or any physical act that we achieve a better understanding of the dynamics and, consequently, treatment and
causes injury, death, or physical/mental suffering. prevention of this horrendous crime. Equally important: We owe it to our elderly after a
• Sexual abuse: Any act that results in the exploitation of an older person lifelong contribution to society.
for the purposes of sexual or erotic gratification without his or her full knowledge,
understanding, and consent. Examples of sexual abuse are unwanted intimacy,
touching in a sexual way, and rape. Although some studies have hinted to the fact that public (and personal)
• Psychological abuse: A pattern of degrading or humiliating conduct (verbal or non- attitudes towards ageing could be changed (Depp et al., 2016), Palmore
verbal) towards an older person, which affects his or her psychological or emotional
functioning negatively. For example, rejection, isolation, oppression, name-calling (2015, p. 874) affirms that a major problem with attempting to reduce ageism
or ridicule, accusations, and deprivation of affection and cognitive stimulation. is that it is ingrained in our culture: “Ageism is so much a part of our culture
• Financial abuse: The illegal or fraudulent use of older persons’ money, property, that most people are not even aware of it. It is like the air we breathe. Most
valuables, or assets, under duress or without their consent or full understanding
people become aware of it only when they grow old enough to suffer some
or knowledge of the consequences. For example, staying with the older person
and refusing to make any financial contribution towards the household is regarded discrimination in employment or some disparaging remark or ‘joke’ about
as elder abuse. their age”. Negative attitudes and beliefs about older persons are found even
• Neglect: Not providing or withholding care and basic necessities required for in very young children (Perdue, 2016).
physical and mental well-being. For example, lack of food, warmth, shelter, clothing,
medication, emotional support, and stimulation. This also includes the prevention
Fortunately, research has shown that many older people do not accept
of self-neglect. negative stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination of society passively.
• Violation of human rights (system abuse): The denial of fundamental rights Many older adults are remarkably resilient and use a variety of strategies
such as respect, dignity, personal privacy, freedom of thought, belief, opinion, to respond to and cope with stress to protect their self-esteem and well-
speech, expression, and movement of older people. This includes ‘witchcraft’
(especially older women displaying characteristics associated with ageing and being (Richeson & Shelton, 2006). (See Box 6.2 on the stereotype of a
perceived as participating in witchcraft), which may result in stigmatisation, ‘cranky old man’.) However, the fact that many elders do become victims
exclusion, physical harm and death. should encourage societies to fight the undermining of the effectiveness
and usefulness of such a large part of the population with everything in
their power.
412 413
2012). For example, in-group differences may occur: In many individualistic Box 6.1 Abuse of the elderly in South Africa (continued)
societies, the aged are valued, while in many collectivistic societies, the elders As in the case of sexual abuse, elder abuse is a crime that can be punished severely.
are exploited and abused. In addition, the definition of an individualistic and According to a survey by the South African Department of Health (2008; also see
collective country is very arbitrary. A multicultural country such as South Africa Acierno, 2017),
is a good example. (See Box 6.1 regarding abuse of the elderly in South Africa). – more than 50% of the participants have personal knowledge of elder abuse;
– the prevalence rates of elder abuse are: psychological/emotional abuse 37%,
financial abuse 36%, general maltreatment 11%, neglect and lack of care 8%,
and physical violence 8%;
Box 6.1 Abuse of the elderly in South Africa – the place of occurrence of elder abuse is: at home 54%, in the community 42%,
and at institutions 4%;
Just like child abuse and domestic violence, the maltreatment of older people — referred
– most forms of abuse experienced by older persons are from grandchildren
to as ‘elder abuse’ — still remains a largely concealed crisis that seldom becomes part of
55%, spouse 20%, children 16%, caregivers 4%, community members 3%, and
official statistics. The World Health Organisation (2016) estimates that 1 in 10 older people
other household members 2%;
experiences abuse every month. However, a South African study found that more than
– the victim is usually between 70 to 80 years, and seven times more females
60% of elderly people in the Mafikeng area suffered from abuse (Bigala & Ayiga, 2014).
than males are abused. The victim often suffers from chronic diseases,
What precisely constitutes elder abuse? According to the South African Older
incontinence (involuntary urination and/or defecation) and disability of one
Persons Act, elder abuse is defined as any conduct or lack of appropriate action,
kind or another. He or she has limited financial means, poor social interaction,
occurring within a relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes
and limited living space;
harm or distress or is likely to cause harm or distress to an older person. Although there
– the abuser is usually between 55-60 years or very young, more often female
are various kinds of abuse, the following are the most widely agreed upon by experts
(55%) than male (45%)
(Ananias & Strydom, 2014; South African Government Services, 2008):
– the abuser is very commonly a family member (85%).
• Physical abuse: Any physical act that results in injury or death of an older person. It is of the utmost importance that this growing problem, which affects so many
For example, slapping, hitting, pushing, rough handling, cutting, using physical of our older citizens, should receive much more research attention. Only then shall
restraints, administering incorrect or excessive medication, or any physical act that we achieve a better understanding of the dynamics and, consequently, treatment and
causes injury, death, or physical/mental suffering. prevention of this horrendous crime. Equally important: We owe it to our elderly after a
• Sexual abuse: Any act that results in the exploitation of an older person lifelong contribution to society.
for the purposes of sexual or erotic gratification without his or her full knowledge,
understanding, and consent. Examples of sexual abuse are unwanted intimacy,
touching in a sexual way, and rape. Although some studies have hinted to the fact that public (and personal)
• Psychological abuse: A pattern of degrading or humiliating conduct (verbal or non- attitudes towards ageing could be changed (Depp et al., 2016), Palmore
verbal) towards an older person, which affects his or her psychological or emotional
functioning negatively. For example, rejection, isolation, oppression, name-calling (2015, p. 874) affirms that a major problem with attempting to reduce ageism
or ridicule, accusations, and deprivation of affection and cognitive stimulation. is that it is ingrained in our culture: “Ageism is so much a part of our culture
• Financial abuse: The illegal or fraudulent use of older persons’ money, property, that most people are not even aware of it. It is like the air we breathe. Most
valuables, or assets, under duress or without their consent or full understanding
people become aware of it only when they grow old enough to suffer some
or knowledge of the consequences. For example, staying with the older person
and refusing to make any financial contribution towards the household is regarded discrimination in employment or some disparaging remark or ‘joke’ about
as elder abuse. their age”. Negative attitudes and beliefs about older persons are found even
• Neglect: Not providing or withholding care and basic necessities required for in very young children (Perdue, 2016).
physical and mental well-being. For example, lack of food, warmth, shelter, clothing,
medication, emotional support, and stimulation. This also includes the prevention
Fortunately, research has shown that many older people do not accept
of self-neglect. negative stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination of society passively.
• Violation of human rights (system abuse): The denial of fundamental rights Many older adults are remarkably resilient and use a variety of strategies
such as respect, dignity, personal privacy, freedom of thought, belief, opinion, to respond to and cope with stress to protect their self-esteem and well-
speech, expression, and movement of older people. This includes ‘witchcraft’
(especially older women displaying characteristics associated with ageing and being (Richeson & Shelton, 2006). (See Box 6.2 on the stereotype of a
perceived as participating in witchcraft), which may result in stigmatisation, ‘cranky old man’.) However, the fact that many elders do become victims
exclusion, physical harm and death. should encourage societies to fight the undermining of the effectiveness
and usefulness of such a large part of the population with everything in
their power.
412 413
 6.2.1.2 Personality characteristics
Box 6.2 Cranky Old Man
When an old man died in the geriatric ward of a nursing home in a country town, It is realised increasingly that the role played by personality characteristics
it was believed that he had nothing left of any value. Later, when the nurses were
in individuals’ experience of old age is of vital importance. Hooker
going through his meagre possessions, they found this poem. Although he left nothing
materialistic to the world, he gave us something much more valuable — this poem: (2008, p. 10), a leading expert, states, “Much of what we know about
What do you see nurses? What do you see?
optimal ageing has focused on the lifelong importance of health-related
What are you thinking when you’re looking at me? behavior — exercise, drinking and eating ... being engaged in life and
A cranky old man not very wise, having a strong social network. But personality is arguably the driving
Uncertain of habit, with faraway eyes?
Who dribbles his food and makes no reply. force behind all of these.” In South Africa, Duckitt (1983) also found
When you say in a loud voice ‘I do wish you’d try!’ that an individual’s personality structure provides a relatively better
Who seems not to notice the things that you do.
And forever is losing a sock or shoe?
explanation of individual adjustment to old age than social resources,
Who, resisting or not lets you do as you will, social interaction, or profound changes in lifestyle do.
With bathing and feeding, the long day to fill? The existing research data indicate that the following personality
Is that what you’re thinking? Is that what you see?
Then open your eyes, nurse, you’re not looking at me. traits in particular seem to play an important role in successful ageing
I’ll tell you who I am as I sit here so still, (Baek et al., 2016; Chapman, 2011; George, 2006; Hooker, 2008; also see
As I do at your bidding, as I eat at your will.
I’m a small child of Ten with a father and mother,
Chapter 4: Personality Development):
Brothers and sisters who love one another
A young boy of Sixteen with wings on his feet
Dreaming that soon now a lover he’ll meet.
• Strong sense of meaning: a positive interpretation of one’s
A groom soon at Twenty my heart gives a leap. existence and the world; the sense of having a worthwhile
Remembering the vows that I promised to keep. purpose and value in life.
At Twenty-Five, now I have young of my own.
Who need me to guide and a secure happy home. • Sense of mastery: a global sense of control over one’s present
A man of Thirty, my young now grown fast, and future life circumstances.
Bound to each other with ties that should last.
At Forty, my young sons have grown and are gone,
• Emotional stability (low neuroticism): consistency and predict–
But my woman is beside me to see I don’t mourn. ability in emotional reactions, the ability to withstand
At Fifty, once more, babies play ‘round my knee, minor setbacks, failures, difficulties, and other stresses without
Again, we know children, my loved one and me.
Dark days are upon me, my wife is now dead.
emotional outbursts.
I look at the future, I shudder with dread. • Flexibility: adjustability to change; the ability to be adaptable or
For my young are all rearing young of their own. variable, and willingness to compromise. Such a person is usually
And I think of the years and the love that I’ve known.
I’m now an old man and nature is cruel. not rigid in his or her ideas.
It’s jest to make old age look like a fool.
The body, it crumbles, grace and vigour depart.
• Goal-directedness: directed to attain a specific goal or goals and
There is now a stone where I once had a heart.
finding other routes or ways to achieve goals when hindered.
But inside this old carcass a young man still dwells, • Conscientiousness: the person shows self-discipline, is
And now and again my battered heart swells achievement orientated, acts dutiful, is dependable, tends to be
I remember the joys, I remember the pain.
And I’m loving and living life over again. perfectionistic, and has solid moral values.
I think of the years all too few, gone too fast.
And accept the stark fact that nothing can last.
• Extraversion: outgoing, unreserved, expressive, and a seemingly
So open your eyes, people, open and see.
confident approach to life. Such a person is focused on the social
Not a cranky old man, look closer, see ME. environment, enjoys human interactions, is enthusiastic, talkative,
and tends to seek out excitement.
Remember this poem when you next meet an older person whom you might brush
aside without looking at the young soul within... one day, all of us will be there, too. • Low hostility level: not being aggressive or antagonistic, but
friendly, kind, and sympathetic.

414 415
 6.2.1.2 Personality characteristics
Box 6.2 Cranky Old Man
When an old man died in the geriatric ward of a nursing home in a country town, It is realised increasingly that the role played by personality characteristics
it was believed that he had nothing left of any value. Later, when the nurses were
in individuals’ experience of old age is of vital importance. Hooker
going through his meagre possessions, they found this poem. Although he left nothing
materialistic to the world, he gave us something much more valuable — this poem: (2008, p. 10), a leading expert, states, “Much of what we know about
What do you see nurses? What do you see?
optimal ageing has focused on the lifelong importance of health-related
What are you thinking when you’re looking at me? behavior — exercise, drinking and eating ... being engaged in life and
A cranky old man not very wise, having a strong social network. But personality is arguably the driving
Uncertain of habit, with faraway eyes?
Who dribbles his food and makes no reply. force behind all of these.” In South Africa, Duckitt (1983) also found
When you say in a loud voice ‘I do wish you’d try!’ that an individual’s personality structure provides a relatively better
Who seems not to notice the things that you do.
And forever is losing a sock or shoe?
explanation of individual adjustment to old age than social resources,
Who, resisting or not lets you do as you will, social interaction, or profound changes in lifestyle do.
With bathing and feeding, the long day to fill? The existing research data indicate that the following personality
Is that what you’re thinking? Is that what you see?
Then open your eyes, nurse, you’re not looking at me. traits in particular seem to play an important role in successful ageing
I’ll tell you who I am as I sit here so still, (Baek et al., 2016; Chapman, 2011; George, 2006; Hooker, 2008; also see
As I do at your bidding, as I eat at your will.
I’m a small child of Ten with a father and mother,
Chapter 4: Personality Development):
Brothers and sisters who love one another
A young boy of Sixteen with wings on his feet
Dreaming that soon now a lover he’ll meet.
• Strong sense of meaning: a positive interpretation of one’s
A groom soon at Twenty my heart gives a leap. existence and the world; the sense of having a worthwhile
Remembering the vows that I promised to keep. purpose and value in life.
At Twenty-Five, now I have young of my own.
Who need me to guide and a secure happy home. • Sense of mastery: a global sense of control over one’s present
A man of Thirty, my young now grown fast, and future life circumstances.
Bound to each other with ties that should last.
At Forty, my young sons have grown and are gone,
• Emotional stability (low neuroticism): consistency and predict–
But my woman is beside me to see I don’t mourn. ability in emotional reactions, the ability to withstand
At Fifty, once more, babies play ‘round my knee, minor setbacks, failures, difficulties, and other stresses without
Again, we know children, my loved one and me.
Dark days are upon me, my wife is now dead.
emotional outbursts.
I look at the future, I shudder with dread. • Flexibility: adjustability to change; the ability to be adaptable or
For my young are all rearing young of their own. variable, and willingness to compromise. Such a person is usually
And I think of the years and the love that I’ve known.
I’m now an old man and nature is cruel. not rigid in his or her ideas.
It’s jest to make old age look like a fool.
The body, it crumbles, grace and vigour depart.
• Goal-directedness: directed to attain a specific goal or goals and
There is now a stone where I once had a heart.
finding other routes or ways to achieve goals when hindered.
But inside this old carcass a young man still dwells, • Conscientiousness: the person shows self-discipline, is
And now and again my battered heart swells achievement orientated, acts dutiful, is dependable, tends to be
I remember the joys, I remember the pain.
And I’m loving and living life over again. perfectionistic, and has solid moral values.
I think of the years all too few, gone too fast.
And accept the stark fact that nothing can last.
• Extraversion: outgoing, unreserved, expressive, and a seemingly
So open your eyes, people, open and see.
confident approach to life. Such a person is focused on the social
Not a cranky old man, look closer, see ME. environment, enjoys human interactions, is enthusiastic, talkative,
and tends to seek out excitement.
Remember this poem when you next meet an older person whom you might brush
aside without looking at the young soul within... one day, all of us will be there, too. • Low hostility level: not being aggressive or antagonistic, but
friendly, kind, and sympathetic.

414 415
 their lives. Those who have a low sense of mastery have a fatalistic sense of
• Resilience: the capacity of an individual to adjust successfully to and
a predetermined future, over which they have no control. High mastery has
even thrive on difficult and traumatic life experiences.
been associated with fewer anxiety symptoms, and has also been shown to
be a protective trait against economic hardship and deteriorating health.
It seems that relatively stable personality traits and a capacity to face
A related concept, self-efficacy, refers to a sense of mastery in specific
demanding life events successfully underlie both the continuance of life
tasks (Bandura, 1997). A high level of self-efficacy has been associated with
satisfaction over the entire life span and individual differences in successful
improved quality of life, less loneliness, less psychological distress, and better
ageing. In most cases, people who have coped well with the demands of life
cognitive functioning in older adults (Kostka & Jachimowicz, 2010). Greater
during childhood and early adulthood will also be able to do so during late
self-efficacy may also promote adherence to healthy behaviour such as the
and middle adulthood. Unfortunately, the opposite is also true (Lupien &
adoption and maintenance of regular exercise.
Wan, 2004).
A key question in the study of ageing and particularly older adulthood is
6.2.1.3 Locus of control whether locus of control changes over the adult life span. Although it may
seem that there must be a straightforward answer, the question has evoked
Individuals’ perception of their ability to influence the course and outcome much controversy. It is commonly believed that people become more
of their life experiences is a very important determinant of successful ageing. external and less internal in their locus of control as they move towards late
In this regard, Rotter (1969) coined the term locus of control to assess how adulthood. This viewpoint is based on the assumption that many situations
much control people have over the conditions in their lives. He distinguished over which the individual does not seem to have control occur more often in
between an internal (or personal) locus of control and an external locus late adulthood. Examples are compulsory retirement, which usually leads to
of control. In the former, individuals believe that they themselves largely a decrease in income, as well as the deterioration of own health, deterioration
determine their behaviour and future. People with an external locus of of the health of loved ones and associated caring, and the loss of friends and
control believe that they have little or no part in what happens to them; family. Some early research data have indeed indicated that older adults, in
their lives are determined by chance or external factors. comparison with younger adults, feel less able to control their life situations
(Cicirelli, 1980; Pratt & Norris, 1994). However, other studies could not
replicate these findings (see Erber, 2013; Foos & Clark, 2008).
Once again, one of the golden rules in psychology should be applied
to obtain more clarity on this topic. Often, if not mostly, researchers work
with numbers and, more specifically, averages. This inevitably means that
there always will be exceptions; that is, there are people (often a significant
number), who do not fall within the limits of being ‘average’. In the case of
locus of control, this principle has been illustrated by findings that certain
groups of elderly do show high levels of external control; for example, those
who live in nursing homes or ailing older adults who are largely dependent
on others. On the other hand, people who have a higher level of education,
enjoy better health, and have an intimate relationship with someone show
higher levels of internal control. These elderly people see themselves as
competent and in control of their lives, are treated as such by other people,
Some researchers refer to the aspect of control as mastery. As we have and experience a significant degree of life satisfaction. Therefore, intra-
mentioned in the previous section, mastery refers to the global sense of individual (internal) factors play a role.
control over one’s future and life circumstances (Depp et al., 2016). Individuals The type of locus of control older adults experience could also be
with a high sense of mastery have a sense of control over events in their influenced by the way they are viewed and treated by others (Erber, 2013).
daily living and tend to believe that they can solve problems that arise in
416 417
 their lives. Those who have a low sense of mastery have a fatalistic sense of
• Resilience: the capacity of an individual to adjust successfully to and
a predetermined future, over which they have no control. High mastery has
even thrive on difficult and traumatic life experiences.
been associated with fewer anxiety symptoms, and has also been shown to
be a protective trait against economic hardship and deteriorating health.
It seems that relatively stable personality traits and a capacity to face
A related concept, self-efficacy, refers to a sense of mastery in specific
demanding life events successfully underlie both the continuance of life
tasks (Bandura, 1997). A high level of self-efficacy has been associated with
satisfaction over the entire life span and individual differences in successful
improved quality of life, less loneliness, less psychological distress, and better
ageing. In most cases, people who have coped well with the demands of life
cognitive functioning in older adults (Kostka & Jachimowicz, 2010). Greater
during childhood and early adulthood will also be able to do so during late
self-efficacy may also promote adherence to healthy behaviour such as the
and middle adulthood. Unfortunately, the opposite is also true (Lupien &
adoption and maintenance of regular exercise.
Wan, 2004).
A key question in the study of ageing and particularly older adulthood is
6.2.1.3 Locus of control whether locus of control changes over the adult life span. Although it may
seem that there must be a straightforward answer, the question has evoked
Individuals’ perception of their ability to influence the course and outcome much controversy. It is commonly believed that people become more
of their life experiences is a very important determinant of successful ageing. external and less internal in their locus of control as they move towards late
In this regard, Rotter (1969) coined the term locus of control to assess how adulthood. This viewpoint is based on the assumption that many situations
much control people have over the conditions in their lives. He distinguished over which the individual does not seem to have control occur more often in
between an internal (or personal) locus of control and an external locus late adulthood. Examples are compulsory retirement, which usually leads to
of control. In the former, individuals believe that they themselves largely a decrease in income, as well as the deterioration of own health, deterioration
determine their behaviour and future. People with an external locus of of the health of loved ones and associated caring, and the loss of friends and
control believe that they have little or no part in what happens to them; family. Some early research data have indeed indicated that older adults, in
their lives are determined by chance or external factors. comparison with younger adults, feel less able to control their life situations
(Cicirelli, 1980; Pratt & Norris, 1994). However, other studies could not
replicate these findings (see Erber, 2013; Foos & Clark, 2008).
Once again, one of the golden rules in psychology should be applied
to obtain more clarity on this topic. Often, if not mostly, researchers work
with numbers and, more specifically, averages. This inevitably means that
there always will be exceptions; that is, there are people (often a significant
number), who do not fall within the limits of being ‘average’. In the case of
locus of control, this principle has been illustrated by findings that certain
groups of elderly do show high levels of external control; for example, those
who live in nursing homes or ailing older adults who are largely dependent
on others. On the other hand, people who have a higher level of education,
enjoy better health, and have an intimate relationship with someone show
higher levels of internal control. These elderly people see themselves as
competent and in control of their lives, are treated as such by other people,
Some researchers refer to the aspect of control as mastery. As we have and experience a significant degree of life satisfaction. Therefore, intra-
mentioned in the previous section, mastery refers to the global sense of individual (internal) factors play a role.
control over one’s future and life circumstances (Depp et al., 2016). Individuals The type of locus of control older adults experience could also be
with a high sense of mastery have a sense of control over events in their influenced by the way they are viewed and treated by others (Erber, 2013).
daily living and tend to believe that they can solve problems that arise in
416 417
(Also, see the section on ageism.) Stereotyping older adults as ‘having little people. The social security payment system of the country may play an
to offer to society’ or ‘behaving like children’ could have a damaging effect important role in this situation: Poorer South Africans over the age of 60
on their perception of their personal control (Lachman et al., 2011). “This are eligible for a monthly pension from the government. However, this
could turn into a vicious circle — if older adults feel that they have little money is often taken by the younger, unemployed members of a family
or no control, they may lose their motivation to engage in behaviours that for their own needs, or often has to feed the extended family, including
actually could affect what happens to them” (Lachman et al., 2011, p. 259). grandchildren and unemployed adult children (Charlton & Kalula, 2015;
Therefore, a self-fulfilling prophecy could result, which means that people Van den Berg et al., 2010).
tend to start behaving in the way they are expected to. • About 72% of the elderly population live in multigenerational households.
It is interesting that there is an indication that the internal locus of control Although this is a valuable support system, the irony is that the more
of many South Africans has steadily increased since 1994 when the country economically successful South Africans become, the greater the strain
became a democracy (Stander, 2014; Van Wijk, 2013). It will be interesting placed on that support system.
to see what future research will tell us to what extent this has also affected • Malnutrition in older persons is underestimated, underdiagnosed, and
the well-being of the elderly. undertreated (Marais, 2017). The consequences include poor immune
function, reduced muscle and tissue mass, dizziness, breathing difficulties,
6.2.1.4 Socio-economic conditions increased risk of infection, hypothermia, post-operative complications,
as well as feelings of tiredness and depression.
It is generally accepted that economic factors and financial security play an • At the same time, there is an alarming increase in the incidence of
important role in the overall well-being of people. Factors associated with obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and stroke, which are effectively lifestyle
economic conditions, such as income, economic opportunities, education, diseases. This is particularly prevalent among the more affluent sectors
healthcare, and other services such as clean and healthy environments, of the population.
have a significant effect on the ageing experience. Our current knowledge
regarding associated socio-economic conditions in South Africa, are the However, poverty is not only
following (The Demographics of Ageing in South Africa, 2017): about not having employment,
adequate nutrition, reasonable
• When compared with global standards, South Africa is classified as housing conditions, effective
being in the intermediate stage of ageing (Hoffman, 2016). Because the sanitation, clean water, and access
ageing population (i.e. the number of people over 60) is growing at a to medical facilities, education,
faster rate than elsewhere on the African continent and within poorer and learning opportunities. The
socio-economic conditions than the developed world, the consequences psychological effects of poverty
for the elderly may be more problematic. are just as damaging as the
• Currently, 40% of the elderly in South Africa are poor, 33% make an physical and material effect
average living, and 27% are classified as financially secure. (Innabi, 2014). Examples of the
• Chronic poverty affects one in four older adults, with the bulk of chronic psychological effects of poverty
Poverty can have serious psychological effects

poverty affecting black South Africans. are the following (Terre Blanche,
• The highest effect of negative ageing is in populations where social and 2008):
economic hardships are the greatest and where poverty and HIV/AIDS
have the greatest effect. ■ A sense of hopelessness is experienced. Because poor people feel
• Rural provinces, where access to healthcare and other services for the caught up in a miserable situation, the so-called poverty trap, with little
elderly may be minimal, have higher proportions of poor elderly persons or no indication of being able to escape, hopelessness is a common
than urban areas have. feeling. This lays the foundation for developing a sense of learned
• Household food poverty is highest in households headed by older
418 419
(Also, see the section on ageism.) Stereotyping older adults as ‘having little people. The social security payment system of the country may play an
to offer to society’ or ‘behaving like children’ could have a damaging effect important role in this situation: Poorer South Africans over the age of 60
on their perception of their personal control (Lachman et al., 2011). “This are eligible for a monthly pension from the government. However, this
could turn into a vicious circle — if older adults feel that they have little money is often taken by the younger, unemployed members of a family
or no control, they may lose their motivation to engage in behaviours that for their own needs, or often has to feed the extended family, including
actually could affect what happens to them” (Lachman et al., 2011, p. 259). grandchildren and unemployed adult children (Charlton & Kalula, 2015;
Therefore, a self-fulfilling prophecy could result, which means that people Van den Berg et al., 2010).
tend to start behaving in the way they are expected to. • About 72% of the elderly population live in multigenerational households.
It is interesting that there is an indication that the internal locus of control Although this is a valuable support system, the irony is that the more
of many South Africans has steadily increased since 1994 when the country economically successful South Africans become, the greater the strain
became a democracy (Stander, 2014; Van Wijk, 2013). It will be interesting placed on that support system.
to see what future research will tell us to what extent this has also affected • Malnutrition in older persons is underestimated, underdiagnosed, and
the well-being of the elderly. undertreated (Marais, 2017). The consequences include poor immune
function, reduced muscle and tissue mass, dizziness, breathing difficulties,
6.2.1.4 Socio-economic conditions increased risk of infection, hypothermia, post-operative complications,
as well as feelings of tiredness and depression.
It is generally accepted that economic factors and financial security play an • At the same time, there is an alarming increase in the incidence of
important role in the overall well-being of people. Factors associated with obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and stroke, which are effectively lifestyle
economic conditions, such as income, economic opportunities, education, diseases. This is particularly prevalent among the more affluent sectors
healthcare, and other services such as clean and healthy environments, of the population.
have a significant effect on the ageing experience. Our current knowledge
regarding associated socio-economic conditions in South Africa, are the However, poverty is not only
following (The Demographics of Ageing in South Africa, 2017): about not having employment,
adequate nutrition, reasonable
• When compared with global standards, South Africa is classified as housing conditions, effective
being in the intermediate stage of ageing (Hoffman, 2016). Because the sanitation, clean water, and access
ageing population (i.e. the number of people over 60) is growing at a to medical facilities, education,
faster rate than elsewhere on the African continent and within poorer and learning opportunities. The
socio-economic conditions than the developed world, the consequences psychological effects of poverty
for the elderly may be more problematic. are just as damaging as the
• Currently, 40% of the elderly in South Africa are poor, 33% make an physical and material effect
average living, and 27% are classified as financially secure. (Innabi, 2014). Examples of the
• Chronic poverty affects one in four older adults, with the bulk of chronic psychological effects of poverty
Poverty can have serious psychological effects

poverty affecting black South Africans. are the following (Terre Blanche,
• The highest effect of negative ageing is in populations where social and 2008):
economic hardships are the greatest and where poverty and HIV/AIDS
have the greatest effect. ■ A sense of hopelessness is experienced. Because poor people feel
• Rural provinces, where access to healthcare and other services for the caught up in a miserable situation, the so-called poverty trap, with little
elderly may be minimal, have higher proportions of poor elderly persons or no indication of being able to escape, hopelessness is a common
than urban areas have. feeling. This lays the foundation for developing a sense of learned
• Household food poverty is highest in households headed by older
418 419
 helplessness. This refers to a feeling of powerlessness and lack of poverty, regardless of whether it is a cause or a consequence.
motivation that individuals experience after having been exposed to
a series of unpleasant events. They feel that they cannot control their 6.2.1.5 Dependency
environment, which could lead to an inability to make use of existing or
other options. Dependency is a key element in the life cycle: Individuals begin their lives
■ Poverty induces uncertainty about the future. This consequence links as being totally dependent, then move through a long phase of relative
with the previous one: Hopelessness refers more to the present situation independence and then enter the last life stage with an increase in
in which people find themselves, while uncertainty about the future dependency (Baltes, 1989). Various types of dependency that could affect
is about expectations of the way in which the situation may develop. ageing have been identified, especially as far as older adults are concerned
This makes poor people feel even more vulnerable, particularly since (e.g. Gardner, 2003; Moane, 1993):
they do not have the same safety nets that more affluent people have;
consequently, they have to live with greater levels of apprehension and • Physical or medical dependency refers to the degree to which a person’s
uncertainty. physical health enables him or her to function relatively independently.
■ A feeling of alienation from mainstream society occurs. This may cause A growing body of evidence indicates that specific conditions, including
poor people to feel like strangers in their own communities. Often, a cognitive decline, obesity, loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength, and
sense of rejection is experienced, and a situation of ‘we’ (the poor) and chronic pain are linked strongly to physical functioning (Anton et al.,
‘they’ (the non-poor) develops. In certain cases, a sense of alienation and 2015). The health of elderly persons should be of such a nature that
a need to survive translate into (particularly) economic crimes such as they are largely self-sufficient and are able to perform what is referred
theft and robbery. to as the ‘instrumental activities’ of living. These include shopping,
preparing meals, housekeeping, handling money, taking medicine, and
Another important consequence of poverty is its link with mental using the telephone. As mentioned earlier (see Chapter 2), the health
disorders (Elliot, 2016; Funk et al., 2012). In fact, financial strain is regarded of a large proportion of the South African population leaves much to be
widely as a relatively good predictor of developing a future mental disorder. desired, to a large extent because of AIDS-related diseases. Therefore,
Therefore, it is not surprising that a broad range of mental disorders has been it can be expected that their physical or medical dependency is also
associated with poverty of both the individual and his or her impoverished unacceptably high. However, only about 16% of the total South African
community. Examples are depression and resulting suicide, anxiety disorders, population have a medical scheme, while only about 7% of the elderly do
substance-related disorders (e.g. alcoholism and drug dependency) and (Council for Medical Schemes, 2016; Moloi, 2016). Although many more
serious disorders such as schizophrenia where the person loses touch with do make use of private healthcare (without the benefit of a medical
reality. Nevertheless, as mentioned before, any correlation (relationship) scheme), it is still less than 50% (Pretorius, 2017). The rest have to make
between two or more factors should be interpreted with caution. This is also use of state facilities that often have problems of their own, for example
true for the correlation between poverty and mental disorders. There are two unavailability, inadequate facilities and medical care, shortage of staff,
basic questions in this regard: (a) Are all the chronic and severe stressors and overcrowding. Therefore, urgent steps should be taken to contribute
that are associated with poverty likely to cause a mental disorder?, or (b) to the successful ageing of the South African elderly in this regard.
Is poverty the result of a mental disorder that causes so much restraint and • Psychological dependency refers to the extent to which individuals’
incapability that the individual cannot cope with life and therefore cannot cognitive abilities (in particular their capacity to process information
function properly to earn a decent income? and to make decisions) and their emotional functioning enable
These two questions are still being debated. The present authors hold them to function independently and maintain their emotional well-
the view that both may be correct — depending on the individual and being (Fillenbaum, 1985). Although there are certain deficits in the
the specific situation. Rather than spending too much time debating the cognitive functioning of the elderly (see Chapter 3), it is equally true
correlation issue, more should be done to promote policies to address that the cognitive functioning of most elderly people enables them to
function independently. Mostly when they experience illnesses such as
420 421
 helplessness. This refers to a feeling of powerlessness and lack of poverty, regardless of whether it is a cause or a consequence.
motivation that individuals experience after having been exposed to
a series of unpleasant events. They feel that they cannot control their 6.2.1.5 Dependency
environment, which could lead to an inability to make use of existing or
other options. Dependency is a key element in the life cycle: Individuals begin their lives
■ Poverty induces uncertainty about the future. This consequence links as being totally dependent, then move through a long phase of relative
with the previous one: Hopelessness refers more to the present situation independence and then enter the last life stage with an increase in
in which people find themselves, while uncertainty about the future dependency (Baltes, 1989). Various types of dependency that could affect
is about expectations of the way in which the situation may develop. ageing have been identified, especially as far as older adults are concerned
This makes poor people feel even more vulnerable, particularly since (e.g. Gardner, 2003; Moane, 1993):
they do not have the same safety nets that more affluent people have;
consequently, they have to live with greater levels of apprehension and • Physical or medical dependency refers to the degree to which a person’s
uncertainty. physical health enables him or her to function relatively independently.
■ A feeling of alienation from mainstream society occurs. This may cause A growing body of evidence indicates that specific conditions, including
poor people to feel like strangers in their own communities. Often, a cognitive decline, obesity, loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength, and
sense of rejection is experienced, and a situation of ‘we’ (the poor) and chronic pain are linked strongly to physical functioning (Anton et al.,
‘they’ (the non-poor) develops. In certain cases, a sense of alienation and 2015). The health of elderly persons should be of such a nature that
a need to survive translate into (particularly) economic crimes such as they are largely self-sufficient and are able to perform what is referred
theft and robbery. to as the ‘instrumental activities’ of living. These include shopping,
preparing meals, housekeeping, handling money, taking medicine, and
Another important consequence of poverty is its link with mental using the telephone. As mentioned earlier (see Chapter 2), the health
disorders (Elliot, 2016; Funk et al., 2012). In fact, financial strain is regarded of a large proportion of the South African population leaves much to be
widely as a relatively good predictor of developing a future mental disorder. desired, to a large extent because of AIDS-related diseases. Therefore,
Therefore, it is not surprising that a broad range of mental disorders has been it can be expected that their physical or medical dependency is also
associated with poverty of both the individual and his or her impoverished unacceptably high. However, only about 16% of the total South African
community. Examples are depression and resulting suicide, anxiety disorders, population have a medical scheme, while only about 7% of the elderly do
substance-related disorders (e.g. alcoholism and drug dependency) and (Council for Medical Schemes, 2016; Moloi, 2016). Although many more
serious disorders such as schizophrenia where the person loses touch with do make use of private healthcare (without the benefit of a medical
reality. Nevertheless, as mentioned before, any correlation (relationship) scheme), it is still less than 50% (Pretorius, 2017). The rest have to make
between two or more factors should be interpreted with caution. This is also use of state facilities that often have problems of their own, for example
true for the correlation between poverty and mental disorders. There are two unavailability, inadequate facilities and medical care, shortage of staff,
basic questions in this regard: (a) Are all the chronic and severe stressors and overcrowding. Therefore, urgent steps should be taken to contribute
that are associated with poverty likely to cause a mental disorder?, or (b) to the successful ageing of the South African elderly in this regard.
Is poverty the result of a mental disorder that causes so much restraint and • Psychological dependency refers to the extent to which individuals’
incapability that the individual cannot cope with life and therefore cannot cognitive abilities (in particular their capacity to process information
function properly to earn a decent income? and to make decisions) and their emotional functioning enable
These two questions are still being debated. The present authors hold them to function independently and maintain their emotional well-
the view that both may be correct — depending on the individual and being (Fillenbaum, 1985). Although there are certain deficits in the
the specific situation. Rather than spending too much time debating the cognitive functioning of the elderly (see Chapter 3), it is equally true
correlation issue, more should be done to promote policies to address that the cognitive functioning of most elderly people enables them to
function independently. Mostly when they experience illnesses such as
420 421
 Alzheimer’s disease or emotional disorders such as depression, serious they can rely and from whom they can obtain support. However, in South
psychological dependency sets in (as will be discussed later in this Africa, these networks are decreasing in size and quality. Reasons for this
chapter). An interesting aspect of psychological dependency is that, include the emigration and urbanisation of children (who traditionally cared
despite the fact that receiving care from people with whom they have a especially for the rural elderly in the past), children who are overwhelmed
close relationship is beneficial for older adults in general, the receipt of by the increasing demands of their careers and own families, and the death
care may erode older adults’ sense of independence and competence. of children especially because of AIDS-related illnesses. In turn, this could
Several studies have documented care recipients’ negative reactions affect the well-being of such elderly people significantly.
such as feeling indebted, helpless, and incompetent to being helped
(Kwak et al., 2014). Therefore, it is important to remember that there is a 6.2.1.6 Major life events and daily hassles
fine line between assisting and undignifying a person.
• Social dependency involves the capacity to maintain satisfying Various researchers have found that the experience of both major life
interpersonal relationships and to obtain needed social support from events and daily hassles (little irritations and frustrations such as a flat
the community. It also includes having the capacity to make decisions tyre, a traffic jam, the unavailability of parking, a flat cell phone battery,
about where, when and how to engage in social interactions (Meurer forgetting an appointment, an argument with a colleague, etc.) is linked to
et al., 2014). It is especially important that the elderly should keep and numerous negative physical health outcomes, as well as mental health and
even strengthen their friendship relationships. Research has shown that psychological well-being (Schonfeld et al., 2016; Scott et al., 2017). However,
perceived lack of social support and negative stereotyping significantly it seems that the effect of even a single dramatic life event – especially if it
predict more anxiety towards ageing (Ramirez & Palacios-Espinosa, were expected – is not as significant in the long run as some people think; it
2016). Therefore, society has an equally important task not only to accept is rather the unexpected life event
the elderly as full and equal members of society, but also to supply the or clustering of daily hassles that
necessary social support. has a cumulative and significant
• Financial dependency refers to the inability of individuals and families effect on adjustment (Aldwin et
to meet their needs consistently with minimal or no special financial al., 2014; Greenberg, 2014). In fact,
assistance from private or public organisations (Gates et al., 2016). research has revealed that these
Therefore, financial dependency is linked closely with poverty. People chronic daily hassles are often a
who are less financially dependent on others tend to experience a better indication of psychological
greater feeling of well-being than those who are dependent (Schaie & and physical disorders than a
Willis, 2002). One reason is that people who are financially dependent single major life event is (De
are restricted from achieving even relatively small goals in life. Their Longis, 2014; Hoyer & Roodin, Daily hassles such as traffic jams can affect a
person’s well-being significantly
expectations are blocked, and their experience of self-fulfilment is 2009).
damaged seriously. Therefore, feelings of inferiority and uncertainty are As far as a correlation between age and daily hassles is concerned, it
common. seems that individuals in early and middle adulthood experience more daily
hassles than those in late adulthood (Almeida & Horn, 2004; Stawski et al.,
The effect that dependency has on particularly the elderly finds expression 2008). This is understandable, as the situations in which the elderly find
in the words of a 78-year-old woman who suffered from a chronic illness: themselves have less potential for such hassles to occur. Researchers have
“The pain I can bear. You can get used to that part. What really bothers me also found that the elderly prefer to make fewer choices than young adults
is not being able to take care of myself. The loss of dignity is something you do (Reed et al., 2008), which also explains the afore-mentioned finding. In
can’t imagine” (Gormly & Brodzinsky, 1989, p. 500). addition, the type of hassles may change with age. Older adults report more
Fortunately, as discussed in Chapter 5, a large proportion of older health-related hassles, but fewer problems with parents, children, spouses,
people are embedded in a network of kin, friends, and neighbours on whom work, relatives and money than the younger adult groups do.

422 423
 Alzheimer’s disease or emotional disorders such as depression, serious they can rely and from whom they can obtain support. However, in South
psychological dependency sets in (as will be discussed later in this Africa, these networks are decreasing in size and quality. Reasons for this
chapter). An interesting aspect of psychological dependency is that, include the emigration and urbanisation of children (who traditionally cared
despite the fact that receiving care from people with whom they have a especially for the rural elderly in the past), children who are overwhelmed
close relationship is beneficial for older adults in general, the receipt of by the increasing demands of their careers and own families, and the death
care may erode older adults’ sense of independence and competence. of children especially because of AIDS-related illnesses. In turn, this could
Several studies have documented care recipients’ negative reactions affect the well-being of such elderly people significantly.
such as feeling indebted, helpless, and incompetent to being helped
(Kwak et al., 2014). Therefore, it is important to remember that there is a 6.2.1.6 Major life events and daily hassles
fine line between assisting and undignifying a person.
• Social dependency involves the capacity to maintain satisfying Various researchers have found that the experience of both major life
interpersonal relationships and to obtain needed social support from events and daily hassles (little irritations and frustrations such as a flat
the community. It also includes having the capacity to make decisions tyre, a traffic jam, the unavailability of parking, a flat cell phone battery,
about where, when and how to engage in social interactions (Meurer forgetting an appointment, an argument with a colleague, etc.) is linked to
et al., 2014). It is especially important that the elderly should keep and numerous negative physical health outcomes, as well as mental health and
even strengthen their friendship relationships. Research has shown that psychological well-being (Schonfeld et al., 2016; Scott et al., 2017). However,
perceived lack of social support and negative stereotyping significantly it seems that the effect of even a single dramatic life event – especially if it
predict more anxiety towards ageing (Ramirez & Palacios-Espinosa, were expected – is not as significant in the long run as some people think; it
2016). Therefore, society has an equally important task not only to accept is rather the unexpected life event
the elderly as full and equal members of society, but also to supply the or clustering of daily hassles that
necessary social support. has a cumulative and significant
• Financial dependency refers to the inability of individuals and families effect on adjustment (Aldwin et
to meet their needs consistently with minimal or no special financial al., 2014; Greenberg, 2014). In fact,
assistance from private or public organisations (Gates et al., 2016). research has revealed that these
Therefore, financial dependency is linked closely with poverty. People chronic daily hassles are often a
who are less financially dependent on others tend to experience a better indication of psychological
greater feeling of well-being than those who are dependent (Schaie & and physical disorders than a
Willis, 2002). One reason is that people who are financially dependent single major life event is (De
are restricted from achieving even relatively small goals in life. Their Longis, 2014; Hoyer & Roodin, Daily hassles such as traffic jams can affect a
person’s well-being significantly
expectations are blocked, and their experience of self-fulfilment is 2009).
damaged seriously. Therefore, feelings of inferiority and uncertainty are As far as a correlation between age and daily hassles is concerned, it
common. seems that individuals in early and middle adulthood experience more daily
hassles than those in late adulthood (Almeida & Horn, 2004; Stawski et al.,
The effect that dependency has on particularly the elderly finds expression 2008). This is understandable, as the situations in which the elderly find
in the words of a 78-year-old woman who suffered from a chronic illness: themselves have less potential for such hassles to occur. Researchers have
“The pain I can bear. You can get used to that part. What really bothers me also found that the elderly prefer to make fewer choices than young adults
is not being able to take care of myself. The loss of dignity is something you do (Reed et al., 2008), which also explains the afore-mentioned finding. In
can’t imagine” (Gormly & Brodzinsky, 1989, p. 500). addition, the type of hassles may change with age. Older adults report more
Fortunately, as discussed in Chapter 5, a large proportion of older health-related hassles, but fewer problems with parents, children, spouses,
people are embedded in a network of kin, friends, and neighbours on whom work, relatives and money than the younger adult groups do.

422 423
 The question whether the intensity of emotional reactions to these active and content with their lives than unhealthy people (Schaie & Willis,
stressors remains similar throughout the various adult life stages led to 2002). Good health and life satisfaction could just as well cause a higher
different findings. On the one hand, it was found that this is indeed the case active lifestyle, than the other way round. Thirdly, the activity theory does
(Lachman, 2002). On the other hand, there are indications that although not consider that successful ageing is relative: What is wonderful and great
exposure to these hassles decreases in later life, the subjective intensity for one, may be terrible and dreadful for another. For example, for individuals
increases (Aldwin et al., 2014). A reason for these inconsistent findings could who have had a high activity level during their lives, it will usually be
be that different research methodologies were used. Whatever the case may important to continue on the same or similar level. They will find an inactive
be, it shows that the emotional reaction of the elderly is at least as intense lifestyle boring and dull, while those who were relatively inactive could find
as that of other age groups. that their new ‘life of leisure’ suits them perfectly. Thus, the individual’s own
unique needs and wishes are the determining factors. Fourthly, the activity
6.2.1.7 Active lifestyle theory does not indicate which activities are more important. For example,
is physical activity more important that psychological activities such as
This concept, also called active ageing, is the process of optimising meditation and yoga are?
opportunities for health, participation, and security to enhance quality of life Because of the afore-mentioned criticism, the continuity theory was
as people age. This is important, as it allows people to realise their potential formulated (Atchley, 2000). According to this theory, older adults will
for physical, social, and mental well-being throughout the life course. The achieve successful ageing by maintaining the same activities, behaviours,
term ‘active’ refers to continuing participation in social, economic, cultural, and relationships as they did in their earlier years of life. The implication
spiritual, and civic affairs, not only the ability to be physically active or to of the continuity theory is that any significant change will lead to lower
participate in the labour force. Older people who retire from work or live adjustment and self-esteem in older adults (Whitbourne, 2008). However,
with disabilities can remain active contributors to their families, peers, the continuity theory did not have the last word. Critics of the theory point
communities, and nations. Active ageing aims to extend healthy life out that one of the core principles of the theory – that present activities,
expectancy and quality of life for all people as they age (World Health behaviours, and relationships lay the basis for successful ageing – is flawed.
Organisation, 2017). Present adaptation strategies may not be the most successful strategies in
An active lifestyle has always been associated widely with general later life. For example, at present, one may handle one’s stress levels well
psychological well-being. This viewpoint led to the formulation of the by going for a run or to go for dinner at a nice restaurant. However, in later
activity theory in the 1960s (Havighurst, 1961). According to the activity life, one may not be physically able to run or afford to eat at a restaurant.
theory, older adults try to maintain their level of social interaction by Critics also point out that the continuity theory does not consider that some
substituting new roles when old roles have become redundant or are no people actually want to change some of their behaviours or roles of the
longer available. For example, a man who has retired may become involved past. For example, a person who handled his world by being aggressive may
in volunteer work, or a widow may join a new social group. The activity decide to change his ways later in his life.
theory claims that if older adults are successful in replacing social roles they In reality, both discontinuity and continuity play important roles in
have lost, they will experience more life satisfaction, higher self-esteem and development and, generally, in moving from one milestone to another across
a sense of well-being. the life span (Lynch et al., 2016). Once again, it seems that the golden rule
Although the activity theory sounds very logical and initially was in psychology should be respected; although theories may make valuable
accepted by many, criticism soon cast a shadow over the reliability of the contributions to people in general, the uniqueness of the individual should
theory (e.g., Paul et al., 2012; Versey, 2016). Firstly, a high activity level does always be regarded as the most important.
not necessarily lead to higher life satisfaction or healthy ageing. Diversity
among individuals is not considered. In fact, all of us know people who are
not active but who are psychologically and physically healthy. Secondly, the 6.2.1.8 Religion and spirituality
direction of the correlation – an active lifestyle leads to life satisfaction – is
questioned. More specifically: At any stage, healthy people tend to be more Another important point of criticism against the Rowe-Kahn model
424 425
 The question whether the intensity of emotional reactions to these active and content with their lives than unhealthy people (Schaie & Willis,
stressors remains similar throughout the various adult life stages led to 2002). Good health and life satisfaction could just as well cause a higher
different findings. On the one hand, it was found that this is indeed the case active lifestyle, than the other way round. Thirdly, the activity theory does
(Lachman, 2002). On the other hand, there are indications that although not consider that successful ageing is relative: What is wonderful and great
exposure to these hassles decreases in later life, the subjective intensity for one, may be terrible and dreadful for another. For example, for individuals
increases (Aldwin et al., 2014). A reason for these inconsistent findings could who have had a high activity level during their lives, it will usually be
be that different research methodologies were used. Whatever the case may important to continue on the same or similar level. They will find an inactive
be, it shows that the emotional reaction of the elderly is at least as intense lifestyle boring and dull, while those who were relatively inactive could find
as that of other age groups. that their new ‘life of leisure’ suits them perfectly. Thus, the individual’s own
unique needs and wishes are the determining factors. Fourthly, the activity
6.2.1.7 Active lifestyle theory does not indicate which activities are more important. For example,
is physical activity more important that psychological activities such as
This concept, also called active ageing, is the process of optimising meditation and yoga are?
opportunities for health, participation, and security to enhance quality of life Because of the afore-mentioned criticism, the continuity theory was
as people age. This is important, as it allows people to realise their potential formulated (Atchley, 2000). According to this theory, older adults will
for physical, social, and mental well-being throughout the life course. The achieve successful ageing by maintaining the same activities, behaviours,
term ‘active’ refers to continuing participation in social, economic, cultural, and relationships as they did in their earlier years of life. The implication
spiritual, and civic affairs, not only the ability to be physically active or to of the continuity theory is that any significant change will lead to lower
participate in the labour force. Older people who retire from work or live adjustment and self-esteem in older adults (Whitbourne, 2008). However,
with disabilities can remain active contributors to their families, peers, the continuity theory did not have the last word. Critics of the theory point
communities, and nations. Active ageing aims to extend healthy life out that one of the core principles of the theory – that present activities,
expectancy and quality of life for all people as they age (World Health behaviours, and relationships lay the basis for successful ageing – is flawed.
Organisation, 2017). Present adaptation strategies may not be the most successful strategies in
An active lifestyle has always been associated widely with general later life. For example, at present, one may handle one’s stress levels well
psychological well-being. This viewpoint led to the formulation of the by going for a run or to go for dinner at a nice restaurant. However, in later
activity theory in the 1960s (Havighurst, 1961). According to the activity life, one may not be physically able to run or afford to eat at a restaurant.
theory, older adults try to maintain their level of social interaction by Critics also point out that the continuity theory does not consider that some
substituting new roles when old roles have become redundant or are no people actually want to change some of their behaviours or roles of the
longer available. For example, a man who has retired may become involved past. For example, a person who handled his world by being aggressive may
in volunteer work, or a widow may join a new social group. The activity decide to change his ways later in his life.
theory claims that if older adults are successful in replacing social roles they In reality, both discontinuity and continuity play important roles in
have lost, they will experience more life satisfaction, higher self-esteem and development and, generally, in moving from one milestone to another across
a sense of well-being. the life span (Lynch et al., 2016). Once again, it seems that the golden rule
Although the activity theory sounds very logical and initially was in psychology should be respected; although theories may make valuable
accepted by many, criticism soon cast a shadow over the reliability of the contributions to people in general, the uniqueness of the individual should
theory (e.g., Paul et al., 2012; Versey, 2016). Firstly, a high activity level does always be regarded as the most important.
not necessarily lead to higher life satisfaction or healthy ageing. Diversity
among individuals is not considered. In fact, all of us know people who are
not active but who are psychologically and physically healthy. Secondly, the 6.2.1.8 Religion and spirituality
direction of the correlation – an active lifestyle leads to life satisfaction – is
questioned. More specifically: At any stage, healthy people tend to be more Another important point of criticism against the Rowe-Kahn model
424 425
of successful ageing discussed at the beginning of this chapter, is the
underemphasis of spirituality, the so-called “forgotten factor” (Crowther et • Demands and requirements. Many institutionalised religions place high
al., 2002, p. 613). This factor plays a significant role in the lives of many demands and requirements on their members, such as the prohibition
elderly and therefore cannot be denied as a component of successful ageing. of alcohol, drugs (including tobacco), and extramarital sex. The fact
Religion and spirituality are two terms not easily defined. In fact, no that they engage less in such unhealthy behaviours could be a possible
generally accepted definition of either of the concepts exists. In short, religion explanation for their better health.
could be regarded as an organised system of beliefs and practices that has • Stress relief. It is well-known that meditation is an effective stress
the aim to worship and honour God or a god (see Box 6.3 for information on reliever that could reduce blood pressure and decrease heart rate.
religions in South Africa). In essence, spirituality is a response to the search (Meditation is the act of relaxing the body and focusing one’s mind
by human beings for meaning in their lives (Marcoen, 2005). It is not an on a specific target or goal. In
organised system such as religion, but rather a private and individualised the process, inner calm and
connection with God or a god. People who are religious may or may not peacefulness is achieved.) Since
be spiritual, and people who are spiritual may be or may not be religious prayer or chanting, reading
(Foos & Clark, 2008). For practical reasons, and because these two concepts RS writings, and watching or
are so intertwined, we shall use the abbreviation RS (religion/spirituality) to listening to RS programmes
refer to both in the following overview. are regarded as forms of
meditation, the practitioners
of these RS customs thus
Box 6.3 Religion in the world and South Africa employ an effective technique
against stress and other health
About 85% of the world population has some form of faith. The largest religion is
Christianity, which makes up about one third of all religions. (However, Christianity vulnerabilities.
consists of nearly 40 000 different denominations). Islam is second, with nearly 25%,
and Hinduism is third with about 15%. The vast majority (86%) of South Africans
• Social support. Members of RS
communities are known for the
describe their religious affiliation as ‘Christian’, while a further 6% indicate that they
are not affiliated to any religion in particular. Five percent of individuals subscribe to
social support they provide to
Meditation is an effective stress reliever
religions that are described as ‘ancestral, tribal, animist, or other traditional African members. The psychological Credit: SARIE/Willem Lourens
religions’ (Statistics South Africa, 2014). contribution of this social
support and accompanying assurance, comfort, and consolation to
the individual’s psychological and physical well-being should never
Research data show that RS is associated with successful ageing be underestimated. However, it is not only a matter of receiving social
(Coleman et al., 2016; Depp et al., 2012; Noronha, 2015). For example, RS support. At the same time, individual members also learn to focus
persons tend to have beyond themselves and their own problems, seeing and assisting others
with their struggles, receiving much gratification from it in the process.
– higher general psychological well-being and life satisfaction; • Positive outlook and hope. RS could also be beneficial because it
– fewer physical health problems and an even lower mortality rate; provides a positive outlook and hope. In other words, RS individuals
– fewer mental health problems such as depression and a lower suicide are able to place their problems and suffering in a broader and eternal
rate; context of human suffering and a ‘hereafter’ where there will be no
– more positive relationships with other people and a better social network more pain and misery. It is generally known and accepted that hope is
from which to draw emotional support and encouragement. one of the strongest forces to combat suffering. A related advantage
Several explanations have been offered for the positive influence of RS, is that RS provides individuals with a meaning and purpose in life. In
for instance (Foos & Clark, 2008; Pew Research Centre, 2016): turn, this is a good preventive and therapeutic factor against existential

426 427
of successful ageing discussed at the beginning of this chapter, is the
underemphasis of spirituality, the so-called “forgotten factor” (Crowther et • Demands and requirements. Many institutionalised religions place high
al., 2002, p. 613). This factor plays a significant role in the lives of many demands and requirements on their members, such as the prohibition
elderly and therefore cannot be denied as a component of successful ageing. of alcohol, drugs (including tobacco), and extramarital sex. The fact
Religion and spirituality are two terms not easily defined. In fact, no that they engage less in such unhealthy behaviours could be a possible
generally accepted definition of either of the concepts exists. In short, religion explanation for their better health.
could be regarded as an organised system of beliefs and practices that has • Stress relief. It is well-known that meditation is an effective stress
the aim to worship and honour God or a god (see Box 6.3 for information on reliever that could reduce blood pressure and decrease heart rate.
religions in South Africa). In essence, spirituality is a response to the search (Meditation is the act of relaxing the body and focusing one’s mind
by human beings for meaning in their lives (Marcoen, 2005). It is not an on a specific target or goal. In
organised system such as religion, but rather a private and individualised the process, inner calm and
connection with God or a god. People who are religious may or may not peacefulness is achieved.) Since
be spiritual, and people who are spiritual may be or may not be religious prayer or chanting, reading
(Foos & Clark, 2008). For practical reasons, and because these two concepts RS writings, and watching or
are so intertwined, we shall use the abbreviation RS (religion/spirituality) to listening to RS programmes
refer to both in the following overview. are regarded as forms of
meditation, the practitioners
of these RS customs thus
Box 6.3 Religion in the world and South Africa employ an effective technique
against stress and other health
About 85% of the world population has some form of faith. The largest religion is
Christianity, which makes up about one third of all religions. (However, Christianity vulnerabilities.
consists of nearly 40 000 different denominations). Islam is second, with nearly 25%,
and Hinduism is third with about 15%. The vast majority (86%) of South Africans
• Social support. Members of RS
communities are known for the
describe their religious affiliation as ‘Christian’, while a further 6% indicate that they
are not affiliated to any religion in particular. Five percent of individuals subscribe to
social support they provide to
Meditation is an effective stress reliever
religions that are described as ‘ancestral, tribal, animist, or other traditional African members. The psychological Credit: SARIE/Willem Lourens
religions’ (Statistics South Africa, 2014). contribution of this social
support and accompanying assurance, comfort, and consolation to
the individual’s psychological and physical well-being should never
Research data show that RS is associated with successful ageing be underestimated. However, it is not only a matter of receiving social
(Coleman et al., 2016; Depp et al., 2012; Noronha, 2015). For example, RS support. At the same time, individual members also learn to focus
persons tend to have beyond themselves and their own problems, seeing and assisting others
with their struggles, receiving much gratification from it in the process.
– higher general psychological well-being and life satisfaction; • Positive outlook and hope. RS could also be beneficial because it
– fewer physical health problems and an even lower mortality rate; provides a positive outlook and hope. In other words, RS individuals
– fewer mental health problems such as depression and a lower suicide are able to place their problems and suffering in a broader and eternal
rate; context of human suffering and a ‘hereafter’ where there will be no
– more positive relationships with other people and a better social network more pain and misery. It is generally known and accepted that hope is
from which to draw emotional support and encouragement. one of the strongest forces to combat suffering. A related advantage
Several explanations have been offered for the positive influence of RS, is that RS provides individuals with a meaning and purpose in life. In
for instance (Foos & Clark, 2008; Pew Research Centre, 2016): turn, this is a good preventive and therapeutic factor against existential

426 427
 crises in particular (“who and why am I?”) and related symptoms such & Roodin, 2009). Therefore, some people who prefer to live alone are no
as depression and anxiety. lonelier than people who live with friends or family.
Although many younger people tend to associate loneliness with the
elderly, research has shown that loneliness is usually a relatively stable
characteristic across the adult life span (Demakakos et al., 2006). (See Box
6.4 regarding loneliness among university students.) Thus, the perception
that loneliness primarily occurs during late adulthood is refuted. According
to several surveys, loneliness levels peak in young adulthood (as high as
about 25%), while they gradually diminish throughout middle and early old
age (Vitelli, 2016). Only when people reach the age of about 80 or above,
reported levels of perceived loneliness pass levels seen in young adulthood.
However, the majority of older people are neither lonely nor become lonely
as they age (Antonucci, 2014; Landeiro et al., 2017).

Box 6.4 Loneliness among university students in 25 countries

In a cross-national study, factors associated with loneliness were investigated, while the
degree to which loneliness affects health status and risky behaviour among university
There are hundreds of paths up the mountain, all leading to the same place, so it doesn’t students was also determined (Peltser & Pengpid, 2017). Data were collected from
matter which path you take. The only person wasting time is the one who runs around the nearly 20 000 university students in 25 countries (females = 58.6%; from Africa =
mountain, telling everyone that his or her path is wrong. Hindu Proverb
33.5%). Loneliness was associated with lower family wealth, living in a low or lower
middle income country, and feeling alone during childhood. Moreover, psychosocial
6.2.1.9 Loneliness factors of perceived lack of control, low organised religious activity, high non-organised
religious activity, high intrinsic religiosity, and low social support were associated with
loneliness. Lonely students were also likely to self-report poor subjective health status,
Imagine a condition that is associated with about a 25% increase in the sleeping problems, short sleep duration, tobacco use, heavy internet use, aggressive
risk of premature mortality and is associated with several mental disorders. behaviour, injury, and risky sexual behaviour.
Imagine too that in industrialised countries, about a third of people are
affected by this condition, with one person in 12 affected severely, and that
these proportions are increasing. Income, education, gender, and ethnicity However, it is very important that age should not be regarded as a
do not play a role in it (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2018). Not many people will singular feature or cause for feelings of loneliness. Instead, age and various
guess the name of this condition – loneliness. other factors combine to predict feelings of loneliness (Ferreira-Alves et al.,
It is important to distinguish between being lonely (loneliness) and 2014):
being alone (aloneness). It has been said that loneliness is the pain of being Many situations such as divorce and not having close friends can cause
alone, while aloneness is the joy of being alone. Loneliness can be defined loneliness. However, it is accepted widely that the death of a spouse usually
as an unpleasant and distressing emotional state in which an individual causes the most intense and extensive feelings of loneliness. Emotionally,
experiences a strong feeling of emptiness and isolation. One can feel lonely, the surviving spouse loses his or her psychologically most important and
even if one is surrounded by a crowd. As far as aloneness is concerned, most intimate relationship. For many, the anchor and purpose of their existence
people often long to get away from the ‘madding crowd’, just to be on their is lost. They cease to be loved and are deprived of the opportunity to love.
own for a while. Being alone may heal, whereas loneliness can hurt (Hoyer Additionally, the death of a spouse immediately removes the source of many
of the person’s social interactions, which adds to the loneliness (Schaie &

428 429
 crises in particular (“who and why am I?”) and related symptoms such & Roodin, 2009). Therefore, some people who prefer to live alone are no
as depression and anxiety. lonelier than people who live with friends or family.
Although many younger people tend to associate loneliness with the
elderly, research has shown that loneliness is usually a relatively stable
characteristic across the adult life span (Demakakos et al., 2006). (See Box
6.4 regarding loneliness among university students.) Thus, the perception
that loneliness primarily occurs during late adulthood is refuted. According
to several surveys, loneliness levels peak in young adulthood (as high as
about 25%), while they gradually diminish throughout middle and early old
age (Vitelli, 2016). Only when people reach the age of about 80 or above,
reported levels of perceived loneliness pass levels seen in young adulthood.
However, the majority of older people are neither lonely nor become lonely
as they age (Antonucci, 2014; Landeiro et al., 2017).

Box 6.4 Loneliness among university students in 25 countries

In a cross-national study, factors associated with loneliness were investigated, while the
degree to which loneliness affects health status and risky behaviour among university
There are hundreds of paths up the mountain, all leading to the same place, so it doesn’t students was also determined (Peltser & Pengpid, 2017). Data were collected from
matter which path you take. The only person wasting time is the one who runs around the nearly 20 000 university students in 25 countries (females = 58.6%; from Africa =
mountain, telling everyone that his or her path is wrong. Hindu Proverb
33.5%). Loneliness was associated with lower family wealth, living in a low or lower
middle income country, and feeling alone during childhood. Moreover, psychosocial
6.2.1.9 Loneliness factors of perceived lack of control, low organised religious activity, high non-organised
religious activity, high intrinsic religiosity, and low social support were associated with
loneliness. Lonely students were also likely to self-report poor subjective health status,
Imagine a condition that is associated with about a 25% increase in the sleeping problems, short sleep duration, tobacco use, heavy internet use, aggressive
risk of premature mortality and is associated with several mental disorders. behaviour, injury, and risky sexual behaviour.
Imagine too that in industrialised countries, about a third of people are
affected by this condition, with one person in 12 affected severely, and that
these proportions are increasing. Income, education, gender, and ethnicity However, it is very important that age should not be regarded as a
do not play a role in it (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2018). Not many people will singular feature or cause for feelings of loneliness. Instead, age and various
guess the name of this condition – loneliness. other factors combine to predict feelings of loneliness (Ferreira-Alves et al.,
It is important to distinguish between being lonely (loneliness) and 2014):
being alone (aloneness). It has been said that loneliness is the pain of being Many situations such as divorce and not having close friends can cause
alone, while aloneness is the joy of being alone. Loneliness can be defined loneliness. However, it is accepted widely that the death of a spouse usually
as an unpleasant and distressing emotional state in which an individual causes the most intense and extensive feelings of loneliness. Emotionally,
experiences a strong feeling of emptiness and isolation. One can feel lonely, the surviving spouse loses his or her psychologically most important and
even if one is surrounded by a crowd. As far as aloneness is concerned, most intimate relationship. For many, the anchor and purpose of their existence
people often long to get away from the ‘madding crowd’, just to be on their is lost. They cease to be loved and are deprived of the opportunity to love.
own for a while. Being alone may heal, whereas loneliness can hurt (Hoyer Additionally, the death of a spouse immediately removes the source of many
of the person’s social interactions, which adds to the loneliness (Schaie &

428 429
Willis, 2002). Therefore, it is understandable that psychological symptoms & Malan, 2012). One of the main reasons for this is the absence of
such as depression and anxiety are common in such situations. However, it meaningful interpersonal interactions.
should also be considered that the fact that a person is in a relationship does • A controversial question is to what extent pets can alleviate loneliness.
not shield a person against loneliness. Unfulfilled relationships can play just Although many people accept this for granted, scientific evidence to
as an important role in loneliness as the loss or lack of a partner (Tilikainen support this belief is slim (Needell et al., 2016; Pikhartova et al., 2014).
& Seppänen, 2017). A South African study made a similar finding (Buckle, 2015). It seems to
Researchers have identified several personality factors that seem to play confirm that although pets (and factors such as television) could be the
a role in loneliness, such as intraversion, suspiciousness, self-consciousness, proverbial balm; there is not a replacement for meaningful interpersonal
shyness, an external locus of control, submissiveness, and a lack of self- interactions and relationships.
confidence (see Le Roux, 2004; Nayyar & Singh, 2011). People who feel • A factor that is obvious but often underestimated is the significant
lonely also tend to be irritable and evaluate other people negatively. It contribution of hearing loss to loneliness (Ciorba et al., 2012; Sung et
seems that loneliness can shape a person’s personality through social al., 2015). Not only does the person isolate him- or herself, but is also
inactivity and withdrawal (Mund & Meyer, 2015). As we have seen in Chapter isolated by others.
4, one’s personality is influenced partly by those with whom one interacts • In a comparative international study, it was found that South African
and the part one plays in one’s social relationships. People who do not have students were significantly less lonely than Australian students were (Le
these interactions and, for example, have an anxious, shy, and introverted Roux & Connors, 2001). In a more recent study with a South African group
personality are more likely to miss out on these experiences. This further of postgraduate students, a general low level of loneliness was found
shapes their personality in directions that lead to more isolation and (Lesch et al., 2016). The participants were found to be lonelier in the
loneliness. romantic domain than in the social or family loneliness domains. Single
Other interesting research data concerning loneliness are the following participants also had higher levels of romantic and general loneliness
(e.g. Beaumont, 2013; Demakakos et al., Dimakakos 2006; Ferreira-Alves et than participants in committed relationships had. Therefore, the results
al., 2014): suggest that relationship status has a significant influence on loneliness
and confirm the value of romantic relationships in young adults’ lives.
• More women than men report feeling lonely, but this difference decreases
with age, and for those over 80 years, there is almost no difference The experience of loneliness can have detrimental effects on health and
between the genders. well-being across the life span, especially in older people (Cacioppo et al.,
• Living with a partner and experiencing feelings of closeness lowers rates 2014; Queen et al., 2014; Thomas, 2015). Some examples of the consequences
of loneliness. of loneliness are depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, low life satisfaction,
• Contact with children is an important guard against loneliness. low self-esteem, poor physical health, cardiovascular problems, high blood
Grandchildren can also play an important role. However, having children pressure, and even earlier death. According to some authors, loneliness
but not having a close relationship with any of them is associated with has a similar influence on a person’s health as cigarette smoking has (Holt-
higher rates of loneliness than being childless. Lunstad et al., 2015).
• Higher economic status can play an important role in combating Throughout this section in this chapter, we have alluded to people’s
loneliness because it affords more opportunities to engage with others, quality of life and well-being as aspects involved in successful ageing. Box
but its effect declines after the age of 75. 6.5 refers to quality of life and happiness of older South Africans, while Box
• Friends tend to underestimate a person’s loneliness. 6.6 refers to the psychological well-being of two distinct groups of elderly
• Residential care facilities are not always a safeguard against loneliness. South Africans.
In fact, a South African study found that older people are more prone
to experience loneliness when living in residential care facilities (Roos

430 431
Willis, 2002). Therefore, it is understandable that psychological symptoms & Malan, 2012). One of the main reasons for this is the absence of
such as depression and anxiety are common in such situations. However, it meaningful interpersonal interactions.
should also be considered that the fact that a person is in a relationship does • A controversial question is to what extent pets can alleviate loneliness.
not shield a person against loneliness. Unfulfilled relationships can play just Although many people accept this for granted, scientific evidence to
as an important role in loneliness as the loss or lack of a partner (Tilikainen support this belief is slim (Needell et al., 2016; Pikhartova et al., 2014).
& Seppänen, 2017). A South African study made a similar finding (Buckle, 2015). It seems to
Researchers have identified several personality factors that seem to play confirm that although pets (and factors such as television) could be the
a role in loneliness, such as intraversion, suspiciousness, self-consciousness, proverbial balm; there is not a replacement for meaningful interpersonal
shyness, an external locus of control, submissiveness, and a lack of self- interactions and relationships.
confidence (see Le Roux, 2004; Nayyar & Singh, 2011). People who feel • A factor that is obvious but often underestimated is the significant
lonely also tend to be irritable and evaluate other people negatively. It contribution of hearing loss to loneliness (Ciorba et al., 2012; Sung et
seems that loneliness can shape a person’s personality through social al., 2015). Not only does the person isolate him- or herself, but is also
inactivity and withdrawal (Mund & Meyer, 2015). As we have seen in Chapter isolated by others.
4, one’s personality is influenced partly by those with whom one interacts • In a comparative international study, it was found that South African
and the part one plays in one’s social relationships. People who do not have students were significantly less lonely than Australian students were (Le
these interactions and, for example, have an anxious, shy, and introverted Roux & Connors, 2001). In a more recent study with a South African group
personality are more likely to miss out on these experiences. This further of postgraduate students, a general low level of loneliness was found
shapes their personality in directions that lead to more isolation and (Lesch et al., 2016). The participants were found to be lonelier in the
loneliness. romantic domain than in the social or family loneliness domains. Single
Other interesting research data concerning loneliness are the following participants also had higher levels of romantic and general loneliness
(e.g. Beaumont, 2013; Demakakos et al., Dimakakos 2006; Ferreira-Alves et than participants in committed relationships had. Therefore, the results
al., 2014): suggest that relationship status has a significant influence on loneliness
and confirm the value of romantic relationships in young adults’ lives.
• More women than men report feeling lonely, but this difference decreases
with age, and for those over 80 years, there is almost no difference The experience of loneliness can have detrimental effects on health and
between the genders. well-being across the life span, especially in older people (Cacioppo et al.,
• Living with a partner and experiencing feelings of closeness lowers rates 2014; Queen et al., 2014; Thomas, 2015). Some examples of the consequences
of loneliness. of loneliness are depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, low life satisfaction,
• Contact with children is an important guard against loneliness. low self-esteem, poor physical health, cardiovascular problems, high blood
Grandchildren can also play an important role. However, having children pressure, and even earlier death. According to some authors, loneliness
but not having a close relationship with any of them is associated with has a similar influence on a person’s health as cigarette smoking has (Holt-
higher rates of loneliness than being childless. Lunstad et al., 2015).
• Higher economic status can play an important role in combating Throughout this section in this chapter, we have alluded to people’s
loneliness because it affords more opportunities to engage with others, quality of life and well-being as aspects involved in successful ageing. Box
but its effect declines after the age of 75. 6.5 refers to quality of life and happiness of older South Africans, while Box
• Friends tend to underestimate a person’s loneliness. 6.6 refers to the psychological well-being of two distinct groups of elderly
• Residential care facilities are not always a safeguard against loneliness. South Africans.
In fact, a South African study found that older people are more prone
to experience loneliness when living in residential care facilities (Roos

430 431
 Box 6.5 How quality of life affects the happiness of
REVIEW THIS SECTION
older South Africans
1. What are the objectives of the Older Persons Act No 13 of 2006? Why did this act
The elderly in South Africa face a complex set of challenges. South Africans over the age of
become necessary?
50 have spent most of their lives under apartheid, with restricted access for black, Indian,
and coloured South Africans to education, residence, and employment opportunities. 2. Discuss the following statement: The term successful ageing has been described as
Tellingly, only 42% of the black population aged 60 and older, in comparison with 98% of one of gerontology’s most successful ideas.
the white population of the same age, has received any education. The majority of older 3. What does the term successful ageing refer to? What is one of the major dilemmas
black South Africans are poorly educated, unemployed, and if employed, paid minimal researchers face in this regard?
wages. The AIDS epidemic has brought added responsibility to older black South Africans.
At a time when considerations about retirement should be made, older black South 4. Describe the three components of successful ageing suggested by Rowe and Kahn.
Africans have little choice but to look after and support their children, grandchildren, and What is the assumption of this model? Why is this model being questioned
other relatives infected or affected by the epidemic. currently? Why are some researchers critical of the term successful ageing? Discuss
In their research, Westaway et al. (2007) incorporated more than 700 participants the limitations of Rowe and Kahn’s model of successful ageing.
aged between 50 years and 93 years from the Pretoria area. The aim was to determine 5. Discuss in detail the following factors that may influence people’s experience of
which personal quality of life domains affect the happiness of older South Africans.
ageing: (1) Attitudes towards ageing; (2) Personality characteristics; (3) Locus of
Seven items were used to assess satisfaction with oneself, family life, and friendship,
control; (4) Socio-economic conditions; (5) Dependency; (6) Major life events and
time to do things, neighbours, social life, and health. Satisfaction with social life was the
daily hassles; (7) Active lifestyle; (8) Religion and spirituality; (9) Loneliness.
most important predictor of happiness for blacks and Indians; satisfaction with oneself
for whites, and time to do things for coloureds. An important finding was that black 6. Discuss the phenomenon of elder abuse in South Africa.
participants who acted as caregivers had the poorest quality of life and were less happy 7. How does quality of life affect the happiness of older South Africans?
than those without caregiving responsibilities were. This finding was confirmed by
another South African study by Gurayah (2015). This underlines the burden that people
who take care of, for example, AIDS patients and their families have to carry.

6.3 OLD AGE AND MENTAL HEALTH

Box 6.6 Psychological well-being of two ethnic
groups in South Africa Mental health plays a very important role in the well-being and quality
of life of the elderly. Over the last few decades, greater awareness of the
In a study to determine to what extent certain psychological and demographic factors
play a role in the well-being of isiXhosa- and English-speaking elderly in the Eastern importance and extent of mental health has developed. This played a role
Cape, Anathi Ntozini (2017) found the following: in the fact that mental health costs of the largest medical aid fund in South
Main similarities. A positive relationship between religiosity/spirituality and Africa increased by more than 80% between 2011 and 2016 (Broomberg,
psychological well-being of the elderly was discernible, irrespective of political
history and ethnicity. The study also found that loneliness correlated positively with 2017).
the following psychological well-being scales: autonomy, environmental mastery, Between approximately 10% and 25% of all elderly people suffer from
purpose in life, and self-acceptance. This means that the higher the levels of loneliness a mental disorder that is serious enough to require professional help
experienced by both groups, regardless of socio-demographic variables, the lower
the levels of psychological well-being in terms of all four of the well-being scales. A (American Psychological Association, 2017; Andreas et al., 2017; Troller et
significant statistical relationship was also found between physical activity and well- al., 2007). However, overall, the elderly do not have a higher prevalence of
being, regardless of socio-demographic variables. most mental disorders than other age groups do. Nonetheless, as we shall
Main differences. The English-speaking elderly were more likely to have high self-
acceptance than the isiXhosa-speaking elderly were. They were also more likely to have see later, certain disorders do have a more significant prevalence and effect
a positive attitude toward self, acknowledged and accepted multiple aspects of the self on the elderly. However, this should also be seen in perspective: In all life
and felt positive about past life. They were also more likely to have a strong purpose in stages, there seem to be disorders that are more prevalent than in other
life, a sense of directedness, felt there was meaning to present and past life, held beliefs
that gave life meaning, and had aims and objectives for living. The English-speaking stages; for example, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children
elderly also showed higher levels of autonomy. and drug abuse in adolescence and early adulthood. Unfortunately, as
Comparatively, the study found that isiXhosa elderly reported lower levels of in other life stages, several factors lead to the underreporting and thus
psychological well-being than the English-speaking elderly did, but that religiosity and
spirituality were important parameters that might influence the psychological well- undertreatment of mental disorders in the elderly. (It is estimated widely
being of the elderly. that at least 50% of mental disorders go unreported.) An important factor
432 433
 Box 6.5 How quality of life affects the happiness of
REVIEW THIS SECTION
older South Africans
1. What are the objectives of the Older Persons Act No 13 of 2006? Why did this act
The elderly in South Africa face a complex set of challenges. South Africans over the age of
become necessary?
50 have spent most of their lives under apartheid, with restricted access for black, Indian,
and coloured South Africans to education, residence, and employment opportunities. 2. Discuss the following statement: The term successful ageing has been described as
Tellingly, only 42% of the black population aged 60 and older, in comparison with 98% of one of gerontology’s most successful ideas.
the white population of the same age, has received any education. The majority of older 3. What does the term successful ageing refer to? What is one of the major dilemmas
black South Africans are poorly educated, unemployed, and if employed, paid minimal researchers face in this regard?
wages. The AIDS epidemic has brought added responsibility to older black South Africans.
At a time when considerations about retirement should be made, older black South 4. Describe the three components of successful ageing suggested by Rowe and Kahn.
Africans have little choice but to look after and support their children, grandchildren, and What is the assumption of this model? Why is this model being questioned
other relatives infected or affected by the epidemic. currently? Why are some researchers critical of the term successful ageing? Discuss
In their research, Westaway et al. (2007) incorporated more than 700 participants the limitations of Rowe and Kahn’s model of successful ageing.
aged between 50 years and 93 years from the Pretoria area. The aim was to determine 5. Discuss in detail the following factors that may influence people’s experience of
which personal quality of life domains affect the happiness of older South Africans.
ageing: (1) Attitudes towards ageing; (2) Personality characteristics; (3) Locus of
Seven items were used to assess satisfaction with oneself, family life, and friendship,
control; (4) Socio-economic conditions; (5) Dependency; (6) Major life events and
time to do things, neighbours, social life, and health. Satisfaction with social life was the
daily hassles; (7) Active lifestyle; (8) Religion and spirituality; (9) Loneliness.
most important predictor of happiness for blacks and Indians; satisfaction with oneself
for whites, and time to do things for coloureds. An important finding was that black 6. Discuss the phenomenon of elder abuse in South Africa.
participants who acted as caregivers had the poorest quality of life and were less happy 7. How does quality of life affect the happiness of older South Africans?
than those without caregiving responsibilities were. This finding was confirmed by
another South African study by Gurayah (2015). This underlines the burden that people
who take care of, for example, AIDS patients and their families have to carry.

6.3 OLD AGE AND MENTAL HEALTH

Box 6.6 Psychological well-being of two ethnic
groups in South Africa Mental health plays a very important role in the well-being and quality
of life of the elderly. Over the last few decades, greater awareness of the
In a study to determine to what extent certain psychological and demographic factors
play a role in the well-being of isiXhosa- and English-speaking elderly in the Eastern importance and extent of mental health has developed. This played a role
Cape, Anathi Ntozini (2017) found the following: in the fact that mental health costs of the largest medical aid fund in South
Main similarities. A positive relationship between religiosity/spirituality and Africa increased by more than 80% between 2011 and 2016 (Broomberg,
psychological well-being of the elderly was discernible, irrespective of political
history and ethnicity. The study also found that loneliness correlated positively with 2017).
the following psychological well-being scales: autonomy, environmental mastery, Between approximately 10% and 25% of all elderly people suffer from
purpose in life, and self-acceptance. This means that the higher the levels of loneliness a mental disorder that is serious enough to require professional help
experienced by both groups, regardless of socio-demographic variables, the lower
the levels of psychological well-being in terms of all four of the well-being scales. A (American Psychological Association, 2017; Andreas et al., 2017; Troller et
significant statistical relationship was also found between physical activity and well- al., 2007). However, overall, the elderly do not have a higher prevalence of
being, regardless of socio-demographic variables. most mental disorders than other age groups do. Nonetheless, as we shall
Main differences. The English-speaking elderly were more likely to have high self-
acceptance than the isiXhosa-speaking elderly were. They were also more likely to have see later, certain disorders do have a more significant prevalence and effect
a positive attitude toward self, acknowledged and accepted multiple aspects of the self on the elderly. However, this should also be seen in perspective: In all life
and felt positive about past life. They were also more likely to have a strong purpose in stages, there seem to be disorders that are more prevalent than in other
life, a sense of directedness, felt there was meaning to present and past life, held beliefs
that gave life meaning, and had aims and objectives for living. The English-speaking stages; for example, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children
elderly also showed higher levels of autonomy. and drug abuse in adolescence and early adulthood. Unfortunately, as
Comparatively, the study found that isiXhosa elderly reported lower levels of in other life stages, several factors lead to the underreporting and thus
psychological well-being than the English-speaking elderly did, but that religiosity and
spirituality were important parameters that might influence the psychological well- undertreatment of mental disorders in the elderly. (It is estimated widely
being of the elderly. that at least 50% of mental disorders go unreported.) An important factor
432 433
for this underreporting is stigma. The National Mental Health Information older people. Furthermore, mental health has an effect on physical health
Centre (2003) states the following: “Stigma is not just a matter of using the and vice versa (WHO, 2016). For example, older adults with physical health
wrong word or action. Stigma is about disrespect. It is the use of negative conditions such as heart disease have higher rates of depression than those
labels to identify a person living with mental illness. Stigma is a barrier. Fear who are medically well. Conversely, untreated depression in an older person
of stigma, and the resulting discrimination, discourages individuals and their with heart disease can affect the outcome of the physical disease negatively.
families from getting the help they need.” A second factor that could play Before we discuss the most relevant disorders, it is very important to
a role in underreporting is that professional psychological and psychiatric take note of the following:
services are relatively unknown in developing countries and therefore also
in large parts of South Africa. Not only are such services not known, but they • A person often suffers from more than one psychological disorder.
also have to compete with traditional medicine and healers, which affects For example, an anxiety disorder could be accompanied by a sleeping
both the official reporting of such cases and the prognosis (the course and disorder, while depression and substance (drug) abuse are often
chance of recovery from a disorder). A third factor is that most people in associated. The presence of another disorder (or disorders) alongside
developing countries do not have the necessary means to afford professional the primary diagnosis is known as comorbidity.
psychological and psychiatric services. Although the Government provides • There is a difference in intensity in each psychological disorder. Just as
the services free of charge, they are not available for the majority of the one could have a light cold or a heavy cold, a person could have a less
population, especially those in the rural areas. In addition, such facilities are severe depression (and can still function) or a serious depression where
often understaffed. Clearly, this is a problem that the Government should he or she cannot function.
address urgently. • According to most classification systems of psychological disorders,
apart from the symptoms, the disorder must also meet certain additional
criteria such as duration and age. For example, depressive symptoms
must be present for at least 14 days before depression can be diagnosed.
Therefore, it is very important to realise that the mere presence of
symptoms is not enough to justify a professional diagnosis.
• There are several diagnostic or classification systems of psychological
disorders. Although these systems are fundamentally the same, there
are also significant differences. The two most widely used systems are
Emotional older man at psychotherapist’s office the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) by the World Health
Organization (WHO) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Regarding the aetiology (causes) of mental disorders, a unique interaction Disorders (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The
of multiple social, psychological, and biological factors determines the level disorders discussed in this book are mostly based on both these two
of mental health of a person at any point in time (WHO, 2016). In some cases, systems. In South Africa, the official system is the ICD, although the DSM
biological factors can play the dominant role (e.g. dementia and Parkinson’s is used frequently in research and training.
disease), while in other cases, a severe traumatic event (e.g. the loss of a loved • Factors such as culture can affect the way in which some symptoms of a
one) can trigger the disorder. Adding to the typical life stressors common to psychological disorder manifest (are expressed). For example, depressed
all people, many older adults lose their ability to live independently because people from a traditional African culture often express more physical
of limited mobility, chronic pain, frailty or other mental or physical problems. symptoms than their Western counterparts do. However, most disorders
Several require some form of long-term care. In addition, older people are have similar and recognisable symptoms throughout the world.
more likely to experience events such as bereavement, a drop in socio- • In most cases, professional intervention by a psychologist or psychiatrist
economic status with retirement, or a disability. All of these factors can result has positive results. Therapy often consists of a combination of
in isolation, loss of independence, loneliness, and psychological distress in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy (medication). As in most other

434 435
for this underreporting is stigma. The National Mental Health Information older people. Furthermore, mental health has an effect on physical health
Centre (2003) states the following: “Stigma is not just a matter of using the and vice versa (WHO, 2016). For example, older adults with physical health
wrong word or action. Stigma is about disrespect. It is the use of negative conditions such as heart disease have higher rates of depression than those
labels to identify a person living with mental illness. Stigma is a barrier. Fear who are medically well. Conversely, untreated depression in an older person
of stigma, and the resulting discrimination, discourages individuals and their with heart disease can affect the outcome of the physical disease negatively.
families from getting the help they need.” A second factor that could play Before we discuss the most relevant disorders, it is very important to
a role in underreporting is that professional psychological and psychiatric take note of the following:
services are relatively unknown in developing countries and therefore also
in large parts of South Africa. Not only are such services not known, but they • A person often suffers from more than one psychological disorder.
also have to compete with traditional medicine and healers, which affects For example, an anxiety disorder could be accompanied by a sleeping
both the official reporting of such cases and the prognosis (the course and disorder, while depression and substance (drug) abuse are often
chance of recovery from a disorder). A third factor is that most people in associated. The presence of another disorder (or disorders) alongside
developing countries do not have the necessary means to afford professional the primary diagnosis is known as comorbidity.
psychological and psychiatric services. Although the Government provides • There is a difference in intensity in each psychological disorder. Just as
the services free of charge, they are not available for the majority of the one could have a light cold or a heavy cold, a person could have a less
population, especially those in the rural areas. In addition, such facilities are severe depression (and can still function) or a serious depression where
often understaffed. Clearly, this is a problem that the Government should he or she cannot function.
address urgently. • According to most classification systems of psychological disorders,
apart from the symptoms, the disorder must also meet certain additional
criteria such as duration and age. For example, depressive symptoms
must be present for at least 14 days before depression can be diagnosed.
Therefore, it is very important to realise that the mere presence of
symptoms is not enough to justify a professional diagnosis.
• There are several diagnostic or classification systems of psychological
disorders. Although these systems are fundamentally the same, there
are also significant differences. The two most widely used systems are
Emotional older man at psychotherapist’s office the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) by the World Health
Organization (WHO) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Regarding the aetiology (causes) of mental disorders, a unique interaction Disorders (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The
of multiple social, psychological, and biological factors determines the level disorders discussed in this book are mostly based on both these two
of mental health of a person at any point in time (WHO, 2016). In some cases, systems. In South Africa, the official system is the ICD, although the DSM
biological factors can play the dominant role (e.g. dementia and Parkinson’s is used frequently in research and training.
disease), while in other cases, a severe traumatic event (e.g. the loss of a loved • Factors such as culture can affect the way in which some symptoms of a
one) can trigger the disorder. Adding to the typical life stressors common to psychological disorder manifest (are expressed). For example, depressed
all people, many older adults lose their ability to live independently because people from a traditional African culture often express more physical
of limited mobility, chronic pain, frailty or other mental or physical problems. symptoms than their Western counterparts do. However, most disorders
Several require some form of long-term care. In addition, older people are have similar and recognisable symptoms throughout the world.
more likely to experience events such as bereavement, a drop in socio- • In most cases, professional intervention by a psychologist or psychiatrist
economic status with retirement, or a disability. All of these factors can result has positive results. Therapy often consists of a combination of
in isolation, loss of independence, loneliness, and psychological distress in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy (medication). As in most other

434 435
 physical illnesses, the earlier the disorder is recognised and treated, many other reasons why one could feel feverish. Several other symptoms
the better the prognosis. Therefore, the early reporting of perturbing must be present before a final diagnosis of flu could be made. On the other
symptoms by family and friends is of the utmost importance. hand, it is important to be at least aware of the possibility of the presence
• These diagnostic or classification systems change, with certain disorders of a mental disorder so that early and necessary steps could be taken. As
removed and others added with every new edition. For example, mentioned, the early reporting of perturbing symptoms is very important.
homosexuality was regarded as a psychological disorder up to the 1970s, Therefore, family, friends and acquaintances should not shy away from
when it was removed. The number of professionally acknowledged obtaining professional help, should they become aware of these indications.
mental disorders have also increased dramatically over time. For Although the following symptoms are not automatically indicative of a
example, in the first edition of the DSM in 1952, the total number was mental disorder, they could be regarded as warning signs to get more and
106. The fifth edition in 2013 included 312. especially professional information regarding one’s concern (e.g. American
• Not all mental health professionals agree with a classification and Psychiatric Association, 2017; National Institute of Mental Health, 2016):
diagnostic system of mental health problems. See Box 6.7 in this regard.
■ Subtle changes. One of the first signs of a possible mental disorder is
subtle changes in the person’s behaviour, emotions and thoughts over
Box 6.7 Is a diagnosis really necessary? a period. At first, only people knowing the person well (e.g. family and
Some psychologists hold the view that a diagnosis and therefore ‘putting a person in close friends) will notice the changes. This is the best time to encourage
a specific box’ holds more disadvantages than advantages. Peter Kinderman (2017), the person to see a professional ‘just to make sure’.
former President of the British Psychological Society (BPS), also holds this view.
Various viewpoints expressed are the following:
■ Social withdrawal. Many people with a mental disorder tend to withdraw
socially. A typical example is losing interest in activities that the person
• The dominant diagnostic framework in mental health is unreliable, invalid, and
felt enthusiastic about previously. The person becomes withdrawn, is
even bizarre.
• Committees of experts – with vested interests – fail to agree on diagnostic criteria. less talkative, and tries to avoid social contact with others.
• Statistical analyses fail to identify clusters of symptoms that correspond to the ■ Mood changes. The person is often described more ‘emotionally different
alleged ‘disorders’. than before’. For example, the person is depressed and cries easily; has
• There is widespread opposition from a wide group of professional and service
user-led groups.
emotional outbursts, or exhibits extreme elation.
• Psychiatric diagnostic labels have huge implications – they affect access to ■ Excessive worry and anxiousness. The person seems to be chronically
healthcare, legal issues, and employment rights, and they lead to discrimination tensed and tends to worry excessively over relatively small things.
and stigma. They tend to be applied to the person (not the problems) and they Therefore, making mountains out of molehills is common behaviour. This
tend to linger on over time (not disappearing when the original problems disappear
or change). is often associated with guilt feelings or expressions of worthlessness
(e.g. ‘I’m a failure’ or ‘I can’t do anything right’).
However, there are alternatives: an application of science and the description of
what is found in common sense language. Therefore, one can identify the observed
■ Substance abuse. While substance abuse seemingly could be the main
phenomena, describe them clearly, and relate one’s observations to one’s knowledge problem in a person’s life, it is also possible that it is used to cope with an
of relevant science. For example, identifying social anxiety – a perfectly understandable underlying mental problem. This is called ‘self-medication’. For example,
human phenomenon – rather than diagnosing social anxiety disorder. In addition, many people abuse alcohol in an attempt to reduce the psychological
all of us can recognise posttraumatic stress. It adds very little to add ‘disorder’ to
posttraumatic stress, to turn it into a posttraumatic stress disorder … except to imply pain of an underlying depression, anxiety, or feelings of inferiority.
that there’s something wrong with the person... ■ Changes in personal care. In some cases, a person with a mental disorder
will neglect personal care and hygiene.
■ Sleep and/or appetite changes. Sleeping and/or eating too little or too
Are there possible indications of the presence of a psychological
much could be a warning sign. This is often accompanied by weight loss,
disorder? It is often risky to provide warnings signs of a psychological
weight gain, or fluctuating weight.
disorder, as many symptoms do not necessarily imply the presence of such
■ Memory problems. Lapses in memory can be caused by many physical
a disorder. For example, fever is an important symptom of flu, but there are
436 437
 physical illnesses, the earlier the disorder is recognised and treated, many other reasons why one could feel feverish. Several other symptoms
the better the prognosis. Therefore, the early reporting of perturbing must be present before a final diagnosis of flu could be made. On the other
symptoms by family and friends is of the utmost importance. hand, it is important to be at least aware of the possibility of the presence
• These diagnostic or classification systems change, with certain disorders of a mental disorder so that early and necessary steps could be taken. As
removed and others added with every new edition. For example, mentioned, the early reporting of perturbing symptoms is very important.
homosexuality was regarded as a psychological disorder up to the 1970s, Therefore, family, friends and acquaintances should not shy away from
when it was removed. The number of professionally acknowledged obtaining professional help, should they become aware of these indications.
mental disorders have also increased dramatically over time. For Although the following symptoms are not automatically indicative of a
example, in the first edition of the DSM in 1952, the total number was mental disorder, they could be regarded as warning signs to get more and
106. The fifth edition in 2013 included 312. especially professional information regarding one’s concern (e.g. American
• Not all mental health professionals agree with a classification and Psychiatric Association, 2017; National Institute of Mental Health, 2016):
diagnostic system of mental health problems. See Box 6.7 in this regard.
■ Subtle changes. One of the first signs of a possible mental disorder is
subtle changes in the person’s behaviour, emotions and thoughts over
Box 6.7 Is a diagnosis really necessary? a period. At first, only people knowing the person well (e.g. family and
Some psychologists hold the view that a diagnosis and therefore ‘putting a person in close friends) will notice the changes. This is the best time to encourage
a specific box’ holds more disadvantages than advantages. Peter Kinderman (2017), the person to see a professional ‘just to make sure’.
former President of the British Psychological Society (BPS), also holds this view.
Various viewpoints expressed are the following:
■ Social withdrawal. Many people with a mental disorder tend to withdraw
socially. A typical example is losing interest in activities that the person
• The dominant diagnostic framework in mental health is unreliable, invalid, and
felt enthusiastic about previously. The person becomes withdrawn, is
even bizarre.
• Committees of experts – with vested interests – fail to agree on diagnostic criteria. less talkative, and tries to avoid social contact with others.
• Statistical analyses fail to identify clusters of symptoms that correspond to the ■ Mood changes. The person is often described more ‘emotionally different
alleged ‘disorders’. than before’. For example, the person is depressed and cries easily; has
• There is widespread opposition from a wide group of professional and service
user-led groups.
emotional outbursts, or exhibits extreme elation.
• Psychiatric diagnostic labels have huge implications – they affect access to ■ Excessive worry and anxiousness. The person seems to be chronically
healthcare, legal issues, and employment rights, and they lead to discrimination tensed and tends to worry excessively over relatively small things.
and stigma. They tend to be applied to the person (not the problems) and they Therefore, making mountains out of molehills is common behaviour. This
tend to linger on over time (not disappearing when the original problems disappear
or change). is often associated with guilt feelings or expressions of worthlessness
(e.g. ‘I’m a failure’ or ‘I can’t do anything right’).
However, there are alternatives: an application of science and the description of
what is found in common sense language. Therefore, one can identify the observed
■ Substance abuse. While substance abuse seemingly could be the main
phenomena, describe them clearly, and relate one’s observations to one’s knowledge problem in a person’s life, it is also possible that it is used to cope with an
of relevant science. For example, identifying social anxiety – a perfectly understandable underlying mental problem. This is called ‘self-medication’. For example,
human phenomenon – rather than diagnosing social anxiety disorder. In addition, many people abuse alcohol in an attempt to reduce the psychological
all of us can recognise posttraumatic stress. It adds very little to add ‘disorder’ to
posttraumatic stress, to turn it into a posttraumatic stress disorder … except to imply pain of an underlying depression, anxiety, or feelings of inferiority.
that there’s something wrong with the person... ■ Changes in personal care. In some cases, a person with a mental disorder
will neglect personal care and hygiene.
■ Sleep and/or appetite changes. Sleeping and/or eating too little or too
Are there possible indications of the presence of a psychological
much could be a warning sign. This is often accompanied by weight loss,
disorder? It is often risky to provide warnings signs of a psychological
weight gain, or fluctuating weight.
disorder, as many symptoms do not necessarily imply the presence of such
■ Memory problems. Lapses in memory can be caused by many physical
a disorder. For example, fever is an important symptom of flu, but there are
436 437
 and psychological conditions such as substance abuse, poor nutrition, 6.3.1 Mood disorders
medication side effects, stress, infections, anxiety, and depression
(American Psychological Association, 2017). As we have discussed in Depression and bipolar disorder are the most important syndromes in this
Chapter 3, all of us sometimes forget where we put our keys, a person’s group of disorders.
name, or even an appointment. However, it is important to understand
that, as a person grows older, a fine line between ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ 6.3.1.1 Depression
memory loss develops. As in the case of all the other mentioned
‘warning signs’, a good indication of seeking professional information or Depression is characterised by symptoms such as intense sadness, a
help is when the symptom causes significant disruption in the person’s decrease in interest and activity, irritability, a poor self-image, excessive or
functioning and to others in his or her life. inappropriate guilt feelings, a lack of concentration, and thoughts of death.
According to international research, an estimated 1% to 5% of adults
As in other life phases, the onset of mental disorders varies widely in old older than 65 suffer from a serious
age. Some have suffered from chronic mental disorders most of their lives, form of depression, called major
while others have had periodic episodes of mental disorders. Yet, others depressive disorder (Barry & Byers,
experience mental disorders for the first time late in life, either brought 2016; Edelstein et al., 2016). In
about by brain changes or triggered or intensified by bereavement or other South Africa, the prevalence was
losses that tend to occur in old age. found to vary between 4% and 15%
Some of the most common mental disorders among older adults will (Narainsamy et al., 2015; Pandey
be discussed in the following sections. As mentioned, most disorders have et al., 2017; Peltzer & Phaswana-
similar and recognisable symptoms throughout the world, although it Mafuya, 2013). In comparison
seems that factors such as culture can play a role in their manifestation. The with the mentioned international
same applies to prevalence, although variables such as different research prevalence, this is worrying. Several
methodologies and diagnostic criteria have led to (sometimes significant) factors could be responsible for this
different findings. It should also be considered that in psychological research, situation. For example, it reflects
the average is often used as the point of reference, with the result that there the general low rate of well-being
could be substantial individual differences. (happiness) of South Africans as
mentioned in Chapter 1. The high
“When did you start
prevalence of HIV/AIDS could also
thinking there might be “When you play a role in the perturbing rate Intense sadness is a major symptom
something wrong with
you?”
told me!” of depression among older South of depression
Africans. For example, a high
percentage, namely about 40%, of a group of HIV-infected and -affected
older South Africans have had a depressive episode (Nyirenda et al., 2013).
Contrary to the perception of many, the prevalence of major depressive
disorder and most other mental disorders (dementia is the biggest exception)
is not higher in older compared to younger adults. In fact, in many cases
(including depression and anxiety), the prevalence is lower in older adults,
sometimes up to 50% lower (Piazza & Charles, 2012). It is noteworthy that
the prevalence for a minor depressive disorder (the presence of depressive
symptoms that are not extensive enough to meet the criteria of a major

438 439
 and psychological conditions such as substance abuse, poor nutrition, 6.3.1 Mood disorders
medication side effects, stress, infections, anxiety, and depression
(American Psychological Association, 2017). As we have discussed in Depression and bipolar disorder are the most important syndromes in this
Chapter 3, all of us sometimes forget where we put our keys, a person’s group of disorders.
name, or even an appointment. However, it is important to understand
that, as a person grows older, a fine line between ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ 6.3.1.1 Depression
memory loss develops. As in the case of all the other mentioned
‘warning signs’, a good indication of seeking professional information or Depression is characterised by symptoms such as intense sadness, a
help is when the symptom causes significant disruption in the person’s decrease in interest and activity, irritability, a poor self-image, excessive or
functioning and to others in his or her life. inappropriate guilt feelings, a lack of concentration, and thoughts of death.
According to international research, an estimated 1% to 5% of adults
As in other life phases, the onset of mental disorders varies widely in old older than 65 suffer from a serious
age. Some have suffered from chronic mental disorders most of their lives, form of depression, called major
while others have had periodic episodes of mental disorders. Yet, others depressive disorder (Barry & Byers,
experience mental disorders for the first time late in life, either brought 2016; Edelstein et al., 2016). In
about by brain changes or triggered or intensified by bereavement or other South Africa, the prevalence was
losses that tend to occur in old age. found to vary between 4% and 15%
Some of the most common mental disorders among older adults will (Narainsamy et al., 2015; Pandey
be discussed in the following sections. As mentioned, most disorders have et al., 2017; Peltzer & Phaswana-
similar and recognisable symptoms throughout the world, although it Mafuya, 2013). In comparison
seems that factors such as culture can play a role in their manifestation. The with the mentioned international
same applies to prevalence, although variables such as different research prevalence, this is worrying. Several
methodologies and diagnostic criteria have led to (sometimes significant) factors could be responsible for this
different findings. It should also be considered that in psychological research, situation. For example, it reflects
the average is often used as the point of reference, with the result that there the general low rate of well-being
could be substantial individual differences. (happiness) of South Africans as
mentioned in Chapter 1. The high
“When did you start
prevalence of HIV/AIDS could also
thinking there might be “When you play a role in the perturbing rate Intense sadness is a major symptom
something wrong with
you?”
told me!” of depression among older South of depression
Africans. For example, a high
percentage, namely about 40%, of a group of HIV-infected and -affected
older South Africans have had a depressive episode (Nyirenda et al., 2013).
Contrary to the perception of many, the prevalence of major depressive
disorder and most other mental disorders (dementia is the biggest exception)
is not higher in older compared to younger adults. In fact, in many cases
(including depression and anxiety), the prevalence is lower in older adults,
sometimes up to 50% lower (Piazza & Charles, 2012). It is noteworthy that
the prevalence for a minor depressive disorder (the presence of depressive
symptoms that are not extensive enough to meet the criteria of a major

438 439
depressive disorder) is much higher: nearly 20%. Yet, also these symptoms 6.3.1.2 Bipolar disorder
are not higher in older than in younger adults (Hinrichsen, 2016).
To a great extent, the symptoms of depression in older adults are similar Bipolar disorder is characterised by fluctuations between depression and
to those found in younger adults (Hinrichsen, 2016). However, older adults mania (inappropriate euphoria, hyperactivity, lack of inhibitions, risk taking,
are more inclined to complain about anhedonia (loss of interest) than about talkativeness, inflated self-esteem, and decreased need for sleep). In the
depressed mood when compared with younger adults. Older depressed past, this disorder was known as manic-depressive illness. Between the
people also express more physical complaints, sleep problems, agitation, periods of depression and mania, the individual could be symptom free. It
and hypochondriasis (also called hypochondria; an unfounded fear of a seems that the prevalence of bipolar disorder decreases with age, with rates
person that he or she is ill). Approximately 50% of depressed older adults from 1,4% in the young adult population to about 0,3% among individuals
experience their first depressive episode in old age (Edelstein et al., 2016). It 65 and older (Azorin et al., 2012). Although the viewpoint in the past was
is important to bear in mind that depressed older adults are more inclined that bipolar disorder is a lifelong disorder that usually begins during early
to commit suicide than younger adults are. Regarding gender differences, adulthood, it now is accepted widely that in certain cases, this disorder may
there is general consensus that depression is higher and often more severe develop in late adulthood. Especially during the manic phase, there are
among older women. However, it seems that after the age of about 80, men several significant psychological symptoms that are similar to dementia (to
report more symptoms (see Erber, 2013). be discussed later), for example cognitive dysfunction such as impairment
An important characteristic of depression that is not always considered of memory, judgement, perception, and problem-solving. Confusion and
is that it tends to recur. Approximately 50% to 60% of individuals who have psychosis (severe mental disorder where significant contact with reality is
had one depressive episode, experience another one. About 70% to 80% of lost) are also common. Because the symptoms are similar, elderly patients
those individuals will experience a third episode, while approximately 90% with mood disorders are sometimes misdiagnosed as having dementia
of those will experience a fourth episode (Edelstein et al., 2015; Liu & Alloy, (Woudstra et al., 2014).
2010).
It is equally important to realise that depression affects not only the
psychological well-being of a person, but also his or her physical functioning.
Examples include increased aches and pains (e.g. headaches and back
pain), chronic fatigue, digestive problems, changes in appetite and weight,
and decreased interest in sex. Especially important is that depression can
affect the immune system, which makes people more vulnerable to diseases
(Jenney & Dougall, 2016; Reed & Raison, 2016). This is especially true for the
elderly, as even mild depression may affect their immune system (McGuire
et al., 2002). It has also been reported that depression in elderly people
can cause early mortality (Ho & Ng, 2016; Pratt et al., 2016). Therefore, it
is no surprise that depression in later life frequently coexists with other
medical illnesses such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, chronic lung disease,
hypertension, sleep disorders, diabetes, and arthritis. Since the psychological Bipolar disorder is characterised by fluctuations between depression and mania

and physical symptoms of depression are often so intertwined, family, friends,

and even professionals may miss the diagnosis of depression, preventing Fortunately, psychotherapy and medication (and especially a
effective treatment. Consequently, many find themselves having to cope combination of both) can lead to a recovery or at least a significant relief of
with symptoms that could otherwise be treated easily. the symptoms of the mood disorders.

440 441
depressive disorder) is much higher: nearly 20%. Yet, also these symptoms 6.3.1.2 Bipolar disorder
are not higher in older than in younger adults (Hinrichsen, 2016).
To a great extent, the symptoms of depression in older adults are similar Bipolar disorder is characterised by fluctuations between depression and
to those found in younger adults (Hinrichsen, 2016). However, older adults mania (inappropriate euphoria, hyperactivity, lack of inhibitions, risk taking,
are more inclined to complain about anhedonia (loss of interest) than about talkativeness, inflated self-esteem, and decreased need for sleep). In the
depressed mood when compared with younger adults. Older depressed past, this disorder was known as manic-depressive illness. Between the
people also express more physical complaints, sleep problems, agitation, periods of depression and mania, the individual could be symptom free. It
and hypochondriasis (also called hypochondria; an unfounded fear of a seems that the prevalence of bipolar disorder decreases with age, with rates
person that he or she is ill). Approximately 50% of depressed older adults from 1,4% in the young adult population to about 0,3% among individuals
experience their first depressive episode in old age (Edelstein et al., 2016). It 65 and older (Azorin et al., 2012). Although the viewpoint in the past was
is important to bear in mind that depressed older adults are more inclined that bipolar disorder is a lifelong disorder that usually begins during early
to commit suicide than younger adults are. Regarding gender differences, adulthood, it now is accepted widely that in certain cases, this disorder may
there is general consensus that depression is higher and often more severe develop in late adulthood. Especially during the manic phase, there are
among older women. However, it seems that after the age of about 80, men several significant psychological symptoms that are similar to dementia (to
report more symptoms (see Erber, 2013). be discussed later), for example cognitive dysfunction such as impairment
An important characteristic of depression that is not always considered of memory, judgement, perception, and problem-solving. Confusion and
is that it tends to recur. Approximately 50% to 60% of individuals who have psychosis (severe mental disorder where significant contact with reality is
had one depressive episode, experience another one. About 70% to 80% of lost) are also common. Because the symptoms are similar, elderly patients
those individuals will experience a third episode, while approximately 90% with mood disorders are sometimes misdiagnosed as having dementia
of those will experience a fourth episode (Edelstein et al., 2015; Liu & Alloy, (Woudstra et al., 2014).
2010).
It is equally important to realise that depression affects not only the
psychological well-being of a person, but also his or her physical functioning.
Examples include increased aches and pains (e.g. headaches and back
pain), chronic fatigue, digestive problems, changes in appetite and weight,
and decreased interest in sex. Especially important is that depression can
affect the immune system, which makes people more vulnerable to diseases
(Jenney & Dougall, 2016; Reed & Raison, 2016). This is especially true for the
elderly, as even mild depression may affect their immune system (McGuire
et al., 2002). It has also been reported that depression in elderly people
can cause early mortality (Ho & Ng, 2016; Pratt et al., 2016). Therefore, it
is no surprise that depression in later life frequently coexists with other
medical illnesses such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, chronic lung disease,
hypertension, sleep disorders, diabetes, and arthritis. Since the psychological Bipolar disorder is characterised by fluctuations between depression and mania

and physical symptoms of depression are often so intertwined, family, friends,

and even professionals may miss the diagnosis of depression, preventing Fortunately, psychotherapy and medication (and especially a
effective treatment. Consequently, many find themselves having to cope combination of both) can lead to a recovery or at least a significant relief of
with symptoms that could otherwise be treated easily. the symptoms of the mood disorders.

440 441
6.3.2 Anxiety disorders Symptoms include restlessness, irritability, being easily fatigued, muscle
tension, distress about making decisions, difficulty concentrating, sleep
Anxiety is a state characterised by intense tension, distress, and physiological problems, and generally feeling on edge. (See also Box 6.8 on worrying
reactions such as palpitations of the heart and excessive sweating. in adulthood.)
Other symptoms include restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, • Panic disorder is marked by recurrent panic attacks that include
irritability, and increased muscle tension. Considering these symptoms, symptoms such as sweating, trembling, sensations of shortness of breath
it is understandable why anxiety and fear are often (wrongly) used as or choking, and heart palpitations. Such attacks often happen suddenly,
synonyms. Although fear and anxiety are interrelated, there are important without warning, and many individuals believe they are suffering a heart
differences. Fear is an emotional response to a known or definite threat (e.g. attack.
a fear of snakes). The person suffering from anxiety, on the other hand, does • Phobias are excessive and irrational fear reactions about certain objects
not perceive a definite and immediate threat, but rather a potential, vague (e.g. spiders or heights) or situations (such as flying in airplanes) that are
and even unknown endangerment that leads to a chronic sense of worry or distressing or intrusive. Psychologists have categorised a few hundred
tension. phobias.
Anxiety disorders refer to a group of disorders characterised by the • Social anxiety disorder is also known as social phobia. People with
above symptoms that often manifest in different ways. Although the anxiety this disorder experience significant anxiety and discomfort about the
disorders have been relatively well researched, only relatively recently late- possibility of being embarrassed, humiliated, judged, or looked down
life anxiety is beginning to receive the research attention it deserves. From upon in social interactions. Other common symptoms include difficulty
the existing data, it has become clear that anxiety is one of the most common making friends and even avoiding social situations such as eating out,
and significant mental health problems affecting the elderly. The prevalence • Obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterised by persistent, un-
of anxiety disorder in older adults varies between approximately 5% and controllable feelings and thoughts (obsessions) and routines or rituals
15% (Barry & Byers, 2016; Mohlman & Bryant, 2016). However, symptoms (compulsions). Some common examples include compulsive hand
of anxiety have been reported in more than 40% of elderly patients with a washing in response to a fear of germs, repeatedly checking work for
disability or chronic medical illness (Cully & Stanley, 2008). errors, and continuous ‘overcleaning’ (e.g. of the house).
The diagnosis of anxiety disorder in the elderly could be challenging
(Erber, 2013). First, anxiety often coexists with depression, and the symptoms
of the two disorders overlap to a degree. Second, the symptoms of both
disorders are similar to those of heart problems, thyroid dysfunction, or the
side effects of some medications.
As mentioned, anxiety disorders can manifest in various ways. In fact,
anxiety disorders could be regarded as an overarching term for a number
of sub disorders, of which the following could be regarded as most relevant
for later adulthood (American Psychiatric Association, 2017; American
Psychological Association, 2016; National Institute of Mental Health, 2016):

• Generalised anxiety disorder is the most common anxiety disorder

among the elderly. It is characterised by persistent worry or anxious
feelings. People with this disorder worry about a number of concerns,
such as health problems or finances, and may have a general sense that
something bad is going to happen. However, these worries are out of
proportion to the effect of the situation, and sometimes even imagined.
• Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop after the person has
experienced or witnessed severe physical or emotional trauma such as a
442 443
6.3.2 Anxiety disorders Symptoms include restlessness, irritability, being easily fatigued, muscle
tension, distress about making decisions, difficulty concentrating, sleep
Anxiety is a state characterised by intense tension, distress, and physiological problems, and generally feeling on edge. (See also Box 6.8 on worrying
reactions such as palpitations of the heart and excessive sweating. in adulthood.)
Other symptoms include restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, • Panic disorder is marked by recurrent panic attacks that include
irritability, and increased muscle tension. Considering these symptoms, symptoms such as sweating, trembling, sensations of shortness of breath
it is understandable why anxiety and fear are often (wrongly) used as or choking, and heart palpitations. Such attacks often happen suddenly,
synonyms. Although fear and anxiety are interrelated, there are important without warning, and many individuals believe they are suffering a heart
differences. Fear is an emotional response to a known or definite threat (e.g. attack.
a fear of snakes). The person suffering from anxiety, on the other hand, does • Phobias are excessive and irrational fear reactions about certain objects
not perceive a definite and immediate threat, but rather a potential, vague (e.g. spiders or heights) or situations (such as flying in airplanes) that are
and even unknown endangerment that leads to a chronic sense of worry or distressing or intrusive. Psychologists have categorised a few hundred
tension. phobias.
Anxiety disorders refer to a group of disorders characterised by the • Social anxiety disorder is also known as social phobia. People with
above symptoms that often manifest in different ways. Although the anxiety this disorder experience significant anxiety and discomfort about the
disorders have been relatively well researched, only relatively recently late- possibility of being embarrassed, humiliated, judged, or looked down
life anxiety is beginning to receive the research attention it deserves. From upon in social interactions. Other common symptoms include difficulty
the existing data, it has become clear that anxiety is one of the most common making friends and even avoiding social situations such as eating out,
and significant mental health problems affecting the elderly. The prevalence • Obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterised by persistent, un-
of anxiety disorder in older adults varies between approximately 5% and controllable feelings and thoughts (obsessions) and routines or rituals
15% (Barry & Byers, 2016; Mohlman & Bryant, 2016). However, symptoms (compulsions). Some common examples include compulsive hand
of anxiety have been reported in more than 40% of elderly patients with a washing in response to a fear of germs, repeatedly checking work for
disability or chronic medical illness (Cully & Stanley, 2008). errors, and continuous ‘overcleaning’ (e.g. of the house).
The diagnosis of anxiety disorder in the elderly could be challenging
(Erber, 2013). First, anxiety often coexists with depression, and the symptoms
of the two disorders overlap to a degree. Second, the symptoms of both
disorders are similar to those of heart problems, thyroid dysfunction, or the
side effects of some medications.
As mentioned, anxiety disorders can manifest in various ways. In fact,
anxiety disorders could be regarded as an overarching term for a number
of sub disorders, of which the following could be regarded as most relevant
for later adulthood (American Psychiatric Association, 2017; American
Psychological Association, 2016; National Institute of Mental Health, 2016):

• Generalised anxiety disorder is the most common anxiety disorder

among the elderly. It is characterised by persistent worry or anxious
feelings. People with this disorder worry about a number of concerns,
such as health problems or finances, and may have a general sense that
something bad is going to happen. However, these worries are out of
proportion to the effect of the situation, and sometimes even imagined.
• Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop after the person has
experienced or witnessed severe physical or emotional trauma such as a
442 443
 natural disaster, serious accident, or crime. Symptoms include flashbacks
of the trauma, nightmares, and sadness, fear, or anger that interfere with Box 6.8 Worrying in adulthood
a person’s everyday routine for months or years after the traumatic Worry can be defined as a mental state of being distressed and troubled over a real or
experience. potential problem. Worrying is a normal part of life, although in its extreme state, it is the
key characteristic of a generalised anxiety disorder. In fact, worry and anxiety are often
used as synonyms, but there are important differences (Winch, 2016). For example,
When the burden of anxiety disorders on the quality of life and health of worry is caused by more realistic concerns, while anxiety is more vague and inexplicit.
the elderly and their families is considered, it is understandable why “late-life That is, the person who worries mostly can tell you precisely why he or she worries.
anxiety represents a significant public concern in our aging society” (Bower The person who is anxious finds it difficult to put his finger on the cause. Worry also
tends to be a temporary state, but anxiety can linger. This means that once the issue of
et al., 2015, p. 68). As in the case of the mood disorders, psychotherapy and
worrying is resolved, the worry diminishes and disappears. Anxiety on the other hand,
medication can play an important role in the healing process of a person can linger for long periods and even jump from one ‘problem’ to another (one week
who suffers from an anxiety disorder. the person feels anxious about his/her future, then about his/her health, then about
the children, etc.). Furthermore, worry tends to be more controllable than anxiety is. By
using problem-solving strategies to deal with the cause of one’s worry or trying not to
6.3.3 Dementia think about it, one can reduce it significantly. In the case of anxiety, persons have much
less control, because problem-solving strategies are not as effective and they cannot
Dementia (also called neurocognitive disorder and popularly known ‘get a grip’ on their emotions. Miloyan and Buley (2015) provide the following overview
as senility) is an umbrella term for a group of mental disorders that are on worry during adulthood (see references in their article):
There is a gradual age-related downward trend in worry frequency: Older adults
characterised by the degeneration of the brain from which there is no report fewer worries than younger adults do. However, older adults with higher levels
recovery. These disorders are characterised especially by multiple mental of anxiety and depression worry comparatively more than adults without anxiety
deficits such as loss of memory, judgement, and reasoning, with the result or depression do. Furthermore, there seems to be age-related differences in worry
content. For example, older adults tend to worry about their own health, as well as
that effective daily functioning is jeopardised seriously. Usually, but not
the health and well-being of loved ones. Conversely, younger adults tend to worry
exclusively, dementia is found in persons older than about 65 years. There about work, finances, and interpersonal relations. Older adults also tend to worry
are many different types of dementia. Alzheimer’s disease is the best known more about particular topics than younger adults do, including family concerns and
example and accounts for about 60% to 80% of all dementia cases. Because world issues such as protection of the environment, the economy of the country,
retirement, and becoming a burden to people. A reason for the age-related reductions
Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia, it often is used in worry frequency is changes in emotional processes: Older adults experience more
wrongly as a synonym for dementia. positive and fewer negative emotional states. Negative emotional states are also more
transient for older than for younger adults, partly due to an improved capacity for
emotion regulation. Furthermore, compared to younger adults, older adults realise that
excessive worry will not reduce the problem and they report being more tolerant of
uncertainty. Consequently, older adults may be less likely to worry about the potential
occurrence of negative future events that lie outside of their control. Despite these
general age-related trends, there are important differences within the population of
older adults. For example, those who report comparatively higher levels of worry tend
to have negative attitudes and beliefs about the future, as well as an external locus of
control.
Excessive worry can have serious clinical (psychiatric/medical) implications for the
individual. It is associated with severe distress that can affect a person’s well-being
and functioning significantly. For example, a decline in learning and memory can occur,
while health-related conditions such as coronary heart disease and arthritis have
been reported. However, worry can also have a positive function: It acts as a useful
mechanism that could serve to reduce the likelihood or effect of future harm and may
thereby be strategically employed.

Symbolic presentation of memory loss and brain ageing due to dementia

444 445
 natural disaster, serious accident, or crime. Symptoms include flashbacks
of the trauma, nightmares, and sadness, fear, or anger that interfere with Box 6.8 Worrying in adulthood
a person’s everyday routine for months or years after the traumatic Worry can be defined as a mental state of being distressed and troubled over a real or
experience. potential problem. Worrying is a normal part of life, although in its extreme state, it is the
key characteristic of a generalised anxiety disorder. In fact, worry and anxiety are often
used as synonyms, but there are important differences (Winch, 2016). For example,
When the burden of anxiety disorders on the quality of life and health of worry is caused by more realistic concerns, while anxiety is more vague and inexplicit.
the elderly and their families is considered, it is understandable why “late-life That is, the person who worries mostly can tell you precisely why he or she worries.
anxiety represents a significant public concern in our aging society” (Bower The person who is anxious finds it difficult to put his finger on the cause. Worry also
tends to be a temporary state, but anxiety can linger. This means that once the issue of
et al., 2015, p. 68). As in the case of the mood disorders, psychotherapy and
worrying is resolved, the worry diminishes and disappears. Anxiety on the other hand,
medication can play an important role in the healing process of a person can linger for long periods and even jump from one ‘problem’ to another (one week
who suffers from an anxiety disorder. the person feels anxious about his/her future, then about his/her health, then about
the children, etc.). Furthermore, worry tends to be more controllable than anxiety is. By
using problem-solving strategies to deal with the cause of one’s worry or trying not to
6.3.3 Dementia think about it, one can reduce it significantly. In the case of anxiety, persons have much
less control, because problem-solving strategies are not as effective and they cannot
Dementia (also called neurocognitive disorder and popularly known ‘get a grip’ on their emotions. Miloyan and Buley (2015) provide the following overview
as senility) is an umbrella term for a group of mental disorders that are on worry during adulthood (see references in their article):
There is a gradual age-related downward trend in worry frequency: Older adults
characterised by the degeneration of the brain from which there is no report fewer worries than younger adults do. However, older adults with higher levels
recovery. These disorders are characterised especially by multiple mental of anxiety and depression worry comparatively more than adults without anxiety
deficits such as loss of memory, judgement, and reasoning, with the result or depression do. Furthermore, there seems to be age-related differences in worry
content. For example, older adults tend to worry about their own health, as well as
that effective daily functioning is jeopardised seriously. Usually, but not
the health and well-being of loved ones. Conversely, younger adults tend to worry
exclusively, dementia is found in persons older than about 65 years. There about work, finances, and interpersonal relations. Older adults also tend to worry
are many different types of dementia. Alzheimer’s disease is the best known more about particular topics than younger adults do, including family concerns and
example and accounts for about 60% to 80% of all dementia cases. Because world issues such as protection of the environment, the economy of the country,
retirement, and becoming a burden to people. A reason for the age-related reductions
Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia, it often is used in worry frequency is changes in emotional processes: Older adults experience more
wrongly as a synonym for dementia. positive and fewer negative emotional states. Negative emotional states are also more
transient for older than for younger adults, partly due to an improved capacity for
emotion regulation. Furthermore, compared to younger adults, older adults realise that
excessive worry will not reduce the problem and they report being more tolerant of
uncertainty. Consequently, older adults may be less likely to worry about the potential
occurrence of negative future events that lie outside of their control. Despite these
general age-related trends, there are important differences within the population of
older adults. For example, those who report comparatively higher levels of worry tend
to have negative attitudes and beliefs about the future, as well as an external locus of
control.
Excessive worry can have serious clinical (psychiatric/medical) implications for the
individual. It is associated with severe distress that can affect a person’s well-being
and functioning significantly. For example, a decline in learning and memory can occur,
while health-related conditions such as coronary heart disease and arthritis have
been reported. However, worry can also have a positive function: It acts as a useful
mechanism that could serve to reduce the likelihood or effect of future harm and may
thereby be strategically employed.

Symbolic presentation of memory loss and brain ageing due to dementia

444 445
 The prevalence of dementia for those aged 60 years and older varies As is the case with most other disorders, dementia can affect each
between 5% and 7% in most world regions (Prince et al., 2013). More specifically, individual differently, depending on factors such as the intensity and nature
prevalence estimates are approximately 1% to 2% at the age of 65 years and as of the symptoms, as well as the person’s personality before the onset of the
high as 30% by age 85 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Unfortunately, disorder. Associated mental disorders add to the bleak clinical picture, for
there is a lack of prevalence research data on dementia in South Africa. Although example the following (Regan, 2016; also see Castro & Smith, 2015):
De Jager and her co-authors (2015) refer to studies that found a prevalence
rate of between 6% and 8% in elderly South Africans, these studies are not ■ Mood disorders. About 40% of people with dementia also suffer from
representative of the nation. depression. Depression not only may be a symptom of dementia, but
Regarding gender differences, most researchers have found that women are there are also indications that it is a risk factor for dementia (i.e. the risk
at greater risk for dementia, especially at a high age. However, in some studies, to develop dementia is higher if a person has depression). The risk for
no gender differences were found. The type of dementia may also play a role. developing bipolar disorder also seems to be higher in dementia patients.
The World Health Organisation (2016) divides the main symptoms of ■ Anxiety disorders. At least one of these disorders occurs in up to about
dementia into three stages: 20% of people suffering from dementia. Chemical changes in the brain
may increase periods of anxiety attacks in the later stages of the illness.
• Early stage. The early stage of dementia is often overlooked, because the ■ Psychosis. As mentioned, this is a group of severe mental disorders where
onset is gradual. Common symptoms include contact with reality is lost. It is known popularly and legally as insanity.
– forgetfulness, which is usually the earliest warning sign; Schizophrenia is the best-known example. Hallucinations (for example,
– losing track of time; seeing or hearing things that do not exist) and delusions (false beliefs)
– becoming lost in familiar places. are the prominent symptoms. These symptoms could occur in about 50%
• Middle stage. As dementia progresses to the middle stage, the signs and of Alzheimer’s disease cases.
symptoms become clearer and more restricting. These include
– becoming more forgetful of recent events and people’s names; From the mentioned symptoms, it is clear that dementia, specifically
– becoming lost at home; Alzheimer’s disease, has a serious and extensive effect on the functioning
– having increasing difficulty with communication, especially talking and quality of life of the individual. It also explains why dementia is one of the
and following a conversation; major causes of disability and dependency among older people worldwide
– becoming less expressive and more withdrawn; (Alzheimer’s Association, 2017).
– needing help with personal care; Dementia is usually caused by the degeneration of brain cells (Janssen,
– experiencing behaviour changes, including wandering and repeated 2013). This implies the death of brain cells and a severe decline in the
questioning; effectiveness of the existing cells (Stuart-Hamilton, 2012). The symptoms of
– having difficulty performing simple tasks. dementia are explained by the fact that the part of the brain responsible
• Late stage. The late stage of dementia is one of near total dependence for cognitive functions such as thoughts, memories, language, and actions,
and inactivity. Memory disturbances are serious and the physical signs are affected. While inheriting dementia directly is rare, genes are believed to
and symptoms become more obvious. Symptoms include play some role in almost all cases of dementia (Alzheimer’s Society, 2017).
– becoming unaware of time and place; If a person has a direct family member (a parent, brother, or sister) with
– having difficulty recognising relatives and friends; dementia, that person is more likely to develop the disease. However, it is
– having an increasing need for assisted self-care such as eating, important to remember that these so-called ‘risk genes’ only increase the
bathing, and getting dressed; probability of developing a disease – it is not an accomplished fact that it
– having difficulty walking; will happen. Furthermore, it should be noted that a head injury, a stroke,
– experiencing behaviour changes that may escalate and include or a brain tumour could also cause dementia. Possibly, some environmental
aggression and restlessness. factors such as smoking, air pollution, and cognitive inactivity could also be

446 447
 The prevalence of dementia for those aged 60 years and older varies As is the case with most other disorders, dementia can affect each
between 5% and 7% in most world regions (Prince et al., 2013). More specifically, individual differently, depending on factors such as the intensity and nature
prevalence estimates are approximately 1% to 2% at the age of 65 years and as of the symptoms, as well as the person’s personality before the onset of the
high as 30% by age 85 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Unfortunately, disorder. Associated mental disorders add to the bleak clinical picture, for
there is a lack of prevalence research data on dementia in South Africa. Although example the following (Regan, 2016; also see Castro & Smith, 2015):
De Jager and her co-authors (2015) refer to studies that found a prevalence
rate of between 6% and 8% in elderly South Africans, these studies are not ■ Mood disorders. About 40% of people with dementia also suffer from
representative of the nation. depression. Depression not only may be a symptom of dementia, but
Regarding gender differences, most researchers have found that women are there are also indications that it is a risk factor for dementia (i.e. the risk
at greater risk for dementia, especially at a high age. However, in some studies, to develop dementia is higher if a person has depression). The risk for
no gender differences were found. The type of dementia may also play a role. developing bipolar disorder also seems to be higher in dementia patients.
The World Health Organisation (2016) divides the main symptoms of ■ Anxiety disorders. At least one of these disorders occurs in up to about
dementia into three stages: 20% of people suffering from dementia. Chemical changes in the brain
may increase periods of anxiety attacks in the later stages of the illness.
• Early stage. The early stage of dementia is often overlooked, because the ■ Psychosis. As mentioned, this is a group of severe mental disorders where
onset is gradual. Common symptoms include contact with reality is lost. It is known popularly and legally as insanity.
– forgetfulness, which is usually the earliest warning sign; Schizophrenia is the best-known example. Hallucinations (for example,
– losing track of time; seeing or hearing things that do not exist) and delusions (false beliefs)
– becoming lost in familiar places. are the prominent symptoms. These symptoms could occur in about 50%
• Middle stage. As dementia progresses to the middle stage, the signs and of Alzheimer’s disease cases.
symptoms become clearer and more restricting. These include
– becoming more forgetful of recent events and people’s names; From the mentioned symptoms, it is clear that dementia, specifically
– becoming lost at home; Alzheimer’s disease, has a serious and extensive effect on the functioning
– having increasing difficulty with communication, especially talking and quality of life of the individual. It also explains why dementia is one of the
and following a conversation; major causes of disability and dependency among older people worldwide
– becoming less expressive and more withdrawn; (Alzheimer’s Association, 2017).
– needing help with personal care; Dementia is usually caused by the degeneration of brain cells (Janssen,
– experiencing behaviour changes, including wandering and repeated 2013). This implies the death of brain cells and a severe decline in the
questioning; effectiveness of the existing cells (Stuart-Hamilton, 2012). The symptoms of
– having difficulty performing simple tasks. dementia are explained by the fact that the part of the brain responsible
• Late stage. The late stage of dementia is one of near total dependence for cognitive functions such as thoughts, memories, language, and actions,
and inactivity. Memory disturbances are serious and the physical signs are affected. While inheriting dementia directly is rare, genes are believed to
and symptoms become more obvious. Symptoms include play some role in almost all cases of dementia (Alzheimer’s Society, 2017).
– becoming unaware of time and place; If a person has a direct family member (a parent, brother, or sister) with
– having difficulty recognising relatives and friends; dementia, that person is more likely to develop the disease. However, it is
– having an increasing need for assisted self-care such as eating, important to remember that these so-called ‘risk genes’ only increase the
bathing, and getting dressed; probability of developing a disease – it is not an accomplished fact that it
– having difficulty walking; will happen. Furthermore, it should be noted that a head injury, a stroke,
– experiencing behaviour changes that may escalate and include or a brain tumour could also cause dementia. Possibly, some environmental
aggression and restlessness. factors such as smoking, air pollution, and cognitive inactivity could also be

446 447
risk factors (Killin et al., 2016). As far as the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease are concerned, The
As mentioned above, there is no effective treatment for Alzheimer’s Merck Manual of Health and Aging (2004) provides the following overview
disease at present. Although certain medications may alleviate the symptoms, (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Parkinson’s disease Foundation,
the deterioration continues. Therefore, it is understandable why Alzheimer’s 2017). The disease begins subtly and progresses gradually. In more than
disease is sometimes called the ‘funeral without end’: Patients become 60% of people, tremors are the first symptom. In others, the first symptom
oblivious to their surroundings, bedridden, and are reduced to a vegetative is usually problems with movement or a reduced sense of smell. Parkinson’s
existence. Their resistance to disease is lowered, and death usually results disease typically causes the following main symptoms:
from pneumonia or some other infection. However, there seems to be a light
in the tunnel concerning this terrifying disease. Recent research in the USA • Tremors. This is probably the most visible symptom of Parkinson’s
has shown that people are less likely to develop dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. The tremors or shaking occur when the person is standing,
disease today than they were 20 years ago (Larson et al., 2013). Two factors sitting, or even lying still. They usually occur in one hand while the hand
may explain this decreased risk. First, people have higher educational is at rest. The tremor is called a pill-rolling tremor because the hand
levels, which confirms that active cognitive functioning may help to prevent moves as if it is rolling small objects around. The tremor decreases when
dementia. Second, there is more awareness of cardiovascular (heart and blood the hand is moving purposefully and disappears completely during
vessel) disease, which is a significant risk factor for the disease. Therefore, sleep. Emotional stress or fatigue may worsen the tremor. Eventually,
even though there is no cure for dementia, there seems to be social and the tremor may progress to the other hand, the arms, and the legs. A
lifestyle factors that can decrease the risk. tremor may also affect the jaws, tongue, forehead, and eyelids, but not
the voice. However, in some people, a tremor never develops.
6.3.4 Parkinson’s disease • Stiffness. Muscles become stiff, impairing movement. Because the small
muscles of the hands are often impaired, daily tasks (e.g. buttoning a
Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative and gradually progressive disorder shirt and tying shoelaces) become increasingly difficult. Because the
of the central nervous system. facial muscles that control expression do not move, the face becomes
It mainly affects an area of less expressive (mask-like).
the brain that is responsible • Slowed movements. Movements become slow and difficult to initiate.
for regulating movement and Walking particularly becomes difficult, especially taking the first step.
coordination (Carr, 2015). The Once started, people often shuffle, taking short steps, keeping their arms
onset of Parkinson’s disease is bent at the waist, and do not swing their arms. While walking, some
usually after age 60, affecting people have difficulty stopping or turning. Thus, mobility decreases.
about 0,5% to 1% of individuals • Difficulty maintaining balance and posture. Posture becomes stooped,
between 60 and 70 years, and and balance is difficult to maintain, leading to a tendency to fall forward
up to 3% older than 85. There or backward. Because movements are slow, people often cannot move
is an approximately 1,5 times their hands quickly enough to break a fall. During the late stages of the
higher risk of Parkinson’s disease, the person, unless assisted, can become confined to a wheelchair
disease for men than for women or even bedridden.
(Gaida, 2012). Unfortunately, no
representative research data on The tremors and movement problems of Parkinson’s disease overshadow
the prevalence of Parkinson’s the clinical picture to such an extent that mental disorders and symptoms
disease in South Africa are unfortunately sometimes are neglected or even missed. In fact, several
available (Carr, 2017). mental disorders and symptoms are associated with Parkinson’s disease
(Behrman et al, 2016; Sperling, 2015). The prevalence of major depressive

448 449
risk factors (Killin et al., 2016). As far as the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease are concerned, The
As mentioned above, there is no effective treatment for Alzheimer’s Merck Manual of Health and Aging (2004) provides the following overview
disease at present. Although certain medications may alleviate the symptoms, (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Parkinson’s disease Foundation,
the deterioration continues. Therefore, it is understandable why Alzheimer’s 2017). The disease begins subtly and progresses gradually. In more than
disease is sometimes called the ‘funeral without end’: Patients become 60% of people, tremors are the first symptom. In others, the first symptom
oblivious to their surroundings, bedridden, and are reduced to a vegetative is usually problems with movement or a reduced sense of smell. Parkinson’s
existence. Their resistance to disease is lowered, and death usually results disease typically causes the following main symptoms:
from pneumonia or some other infection. However, there seems to be a light
in the tunnel concerning this terrifying disease. Recent research in the USA • Tremors. This is probably the most visible symptom of Parkinson’s
has shown that people are less likely to develop dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. The tremors or shaking occur when the person is standing,
disease today than they were 20 years ago (Larson et al., 2013). Two factors sitting, or even lying still. They usually occur in one hand while the hand
may explain this decreased risk. First, people have higher educational is at rest. The tremor is called a pill-rolling tremor because the hand
levels, which confirms that active cognitive functioning may help to prevent moves as if it is rolling small objects around. The tremor decreases when
dementia. Second, there is more awareness of cardiovascular (heart and blood the hand is moving purposefully and disappears completely during
vessel) disease, which is a significant risk factor for the disease. Therefore, sleep. Emotional stress or fatigue may worsen the tremor. Eventually,
even though there is no cure for dementia, there seems to be social and the tremor may progress to the other hand, the arms, and the legs. A
lifestyle factors that can decrease the risk. tremor may also affect the jaws, tongue, forehead, and eyelids, but not
the voice. However, in some people, a tremor never develops.
6.3.4 Parkinson’s disease • Stiffness. Muscles become stiff, impairing movement. Because the small
muscles of the hands are often impaired, daily tasks (e.g. buttoning a
Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative and gradually progressive disorder shirt and tying shoelaces) become increasingly difficult. Because the
of the central nervous system. facial muscles that control expression do not move, the face becomes
It mainly affects an area of less expressive (mask-like).
the brain that is responsible • Slowed movements. Movements become slow and difficult to initiate.
for regulating movement and Walking particularly becomes difficult, especially taking the first step.
coordination (Carr, 2015). The Once started, people often shuffle, taking short steps, keeping their arms
onset of Parkinson’s disease is bent at the waist, and do not swing their arms. While walking, some
usually after age 60, affecting people have difficulty stopping or turning. Thus, mobility decreases.
about 0,5% to 1% of individuals • Difficulty maintaining balance and posture. Posture becomes stooped,
between 60 and 70 years, and and balance is difficult to maintain, leading to a tendency to fall forward
up to 3% older than 85. There or backward. Because movements are slow, people often cannot move
is an approximately 1,5 times their hands quickly enough to break a fall. During the late stages of the
higher risk of Parkinson’s disease, the person, unless assisted, can become confined to a wheelchair
disease for men than for women or even bedridden.
(Gaida, 2012). Unfortunately, no
representative research data on The tremors and movement problems of Parkinson’s disease overshadow
the prevalence of Parkinson’s the clinical picture to such an extent that mental disorders and symptoms
disease in South Africa are unfortunately sometimes are neglected or even missed. In fact, several
available (Carr, 2017). mental disorders and symptoms are associated with Parkinson’s disease
(Behrman et al, 2016; Sperling, 2015). The prevalence of major depressive

448 449
disorder is about 20%, although up to 40% may experience symptoms of
depression that are not severe enough to meet the criteria of major depressive
• A serious disturbance of consciousness with reduced awareness of the
environment and a diminished ability to sustain attention.
disorder. An anxiety disorder is diagnosed in up to 40% of Parkinson’s
disease patients. According to the Parkinson’s Disease Foundation (2017),
• A change in cognition, for example disorientation, memory loss
and slurred/incoherent speech. Perceptual disturbances such as
depression and anxiety can be even more disabling than the movement
hallucinations are also possible.
symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Hallucinations and delusions have been
reported in more than 50% of older adults with this disease. As many as
• The disorder develops over a relatively short period (usually hours to
days) and tends to fluctuate during the course of the day.
50% to 75% of individuals with Parkinson’s disease can develop dementia
during the late stages of the disease. However, during the early course of the
• The condition is usually temporary and reversible.

disease, the person’s cognitive functioning usually is not affected.

Because symptoms of delirium and dementia can be similar, a final
The underlying cause of Parkinson’s disease is unknown. What we
diagnosis by a professional expert is necessary. The elderly, especially
do know, is that a gradual deterioration of dopamine-producing neurons
those in a hospital setting, are particularly vulnerable to delirium (Martins
takes place in an area of the brain responsible for the ability to control and
& Fernandes, 2012; Tampi et al., 2015). For example, 30% to 50% of elderly
coordinate body movements. However, why this happens is still unclear. Many
hospitalised patients have experienced an episode of delirium. In intensive
experts believe that the disease is caused by a combination of environmental
care units, prevalence rates of up to 80% have been reported. The prevalence
variables (e.g. pesticides) and genetic factors, which may vary from person
in the community is about 1% to 2%, although it is widely accepted that this
to person. Especially genetics is currently the subject of intense research
is an underestimate (Hogg, 2008). The presence of delirium is associated
(Parkinson’s Disease Foundation, 2017). In this regard, it is interesting that
with significant morbidity and mortality. For example, the death rate within
the Parkinson’s Disease Research Group at the University of Stellenbosch
the first year could be as high as 50% (Sadock & Sadock, 2007).
discovered that the genetic causes of Parkinson’s disease (PD) in South
Delirium can have several causes (Erber, 2013; Mayo Clinic, 2015). For
African patients differ from those found in European, American, and Asian
example, various prescribed medications can cause side-effects, including
populations. This finding suggests that drug treatments developed overseas
delirium, in the elderly. Delirium can also be a result of intoxication by, or
may not be applicable here (Bardien, 2017). A variety of medications and
a withdrawal from drugs, especially alcohol. In the case of withdrawal, the
surgery can provide substantial relief from the symptoms, but the progression
condition is called delirium tremens. Delirium can also occur as a symptom
of the disease cannot be stopped (Shapiro, 2014). Depending on factors
of certain mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia.
such as the seriousness of the symptoms and the care and treatment they
In addition, serious bodily and brain infections may lead to a delirious state,
receive, patients with Parkinson’s disease can live as long as those without
while delirium is quite common in older adults after surgery. Certain illnesses
the disease. However, on average, patients with Parkinson’s disease tend to
such as diabetes and cancer are also associated with delirium.
have a somewhat shorter life span.
Although the two terms are often used as synonyms, it is important 6.3.6 Sleep disorders
not to confuse Parkinson’s disease with parkinsonism. The symptoms of
parkinsonism are similar to Parkinson’s disease, but the cause differs. In Sleep disorders (also called sleep-wake disorders) refer to a persistent
the case of parkinsonism, factors such as the use of certain medications disturbance of normal sleep patterns. Sleep disorders can have serious
or frequent exposure to toxic chemicals cause the symptoms. Therefore, and widespread effects on a person’s physical and mental health. It has
the symptoms are usually reversible if the toxins are removed (VandenBos, been associated with an increased risk for physical health problems such
2007). as hypertension, diabetes, obesity, heart disease, weakening of the immune
system, and even a shortened life expectancy. Sleep problems in older
6.3.5 Delirium adults are also associated with an increased risk of falls and difficulty with
walking, balance, and vision. Regarding mental health, increased symptoms
Delirium refers to a state of severe confusion mainly characterised by the
of depression, anxiety, general emotionality (e.g. irritability), and fatigue
following (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Mayo Clinic, 2015):
450 451
disorder is about 20%, although up to 40% may experience symptoms of
depression that are not severe enough to meet the criteria of major depressive
• A serious disturbance of consciousness with reduced awareness of the
environment and a diminished ability to sustain attention.
disorder. An anxiety disorder is diagnosed in up to 40% of Parkinson’s
disease patients. According to the Parkinson’s Disease Foundation (2017),
• A change in cognition, for example disorientation, memory loss
and slurred/incoherent speech. Perceptual disturbances such as
depression and anxiety can be even more disabling than the movement
hallucinations are also possible.
symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Hallucinations and delusions have been
reported in more than 50% of older adults with this disease. As many as
• The disorder develops over a relatively short period (usually hours to
days) and tends to fluctuate during the course of the day.
50% to 75% of individuals with Parkinson’s disease can develop dementia
during the late stages of the disease. However, during the early course of the
• The condition is usually temporary and reversible.

disease, the person’s cognitive functioning usually is not affected.

Because symptoms of delirium and dementia can be similar, a final
The underlying cause of Parkinson’s disease is unknown. What we
diagnosis by a professional expert is necessary. The elderly, especially
do know, is that a gradual deterioration of dopamine-producing neurons
those in a hospital setting, are particularly vulnerable to delirium (Martins
takes place in an area of the brain responsible for the ability to control and
& Fernandes, 2012; Tampi et al., 2015). For example, 30% to 50% of elderly
coordinate body movements. However, why this happens is still unclear. Many
hospitalised patients have experienced an episode of delirium. In intensive
experts believe that the disease is caused by a combination of environmental
care units, prevalence rates of up to 80% have been reported. The prevalence
variables (e.g. pesticides) and genetic factors, which may vary from person
in the community is about 1% to 2%, although it is widely accepted that this
to person. Especially genetics is currently the subject of intense research
is an underestimate (Hogg, 2008). The presence of delirium is associated
(Parkinson’s Disease Foundation, 2017). In this regard, it is interesting that
with significant morbidity and mortality. For example, the death rate within
the Parkinson’s Disease Research Group at the University of Stellenbosch
the first year could be as high as 50% (Sadock & Sadock, 2007).
discovered that the genetic causes of Parkinson’s disease (PD) in South
Delirium can have several causes (Erber, 2013; Mayo Clinic, 2015). For
African patients differ from those found in European, American, and Asian
example, various prescribed medications can cause side-effects, including
populations. This finding suggests that drug treatments developed overseas
delirium, in the elderly. Delirium can also be a result of intoxication by, or
may not be applicable here (Bardien, 2017). A variety of medications and
a withdrawal from drugs, especially alcohol. In the case of withdrawal, the
surgery can provide substantial relief from the symptoms, but the progression
condition is called delirium tremens. Delirium can also occur as a symptom
of the disease cannot be stopped (Shapiro, 2014). Depending on factors
of certain mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia.
such as the seriousness of the symptoms and the care and treatment they
In addition, serious bodily and brain infections may lead to a delirious state,
receive, patients with Parkinson’s disease can live as long as those without
while delirium is quite common in older adults after surgery. Certain illnesses
the disease. However, on average, patients with Parkinson’s disease tend to
such as diabetes and cancer are also associated with delirium.
have a somewhat shorter life span.
Although the two terms are often used as synonyms, it is important 6.3.6 Sleep disorders
not to confuse Parkinson’s disease with parkinsonism. The symptoms of
parkinsonism are similar to Parkinson’s disease, but the cause differs. In Sleep disorders (also called sleep-wake disorders) refer to a persistent
the case of parkinsonism, factors such as the use of certain medications disturbance of normal sleep patterns. Sleep disorders can have serious
or frequent exposure to toxic chemicals cause the symptoms. Therefore, and widespread effects on a person’s physical and mental health. It has
the symptoms are usually reversible if the toxins are removed (VandenBos, been associated with an increased risk for physical health problems such
2007). as hypertension, diabetes, obesity, heart disease, weakening of the immune
system, and even a shortened life expectancy. Sleep problems in older
6.3.5 Delirium adults are also associated with an increased risk of falls and difficulty with
walking, balance, and vision. Regarding mental health, increased symptoms
Delirium refers to a state of severe confusion mainly characterised by the
of depression, anxiety, general emotionality (e.g. irritability), and fatigue
following (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Mayo Clinic, 2015):
450 451
have been found. Cognitive deficits in attention, response times, short-term one has insomnia (Lichstein, 2017). Although these ‘complaining good
memory, and general performance level are common. It is clear that sleep sleepers’ do not meet clinical criteria for poor sleep or insomnia they
disorders can affect an individual’s quality of life significantly. The fact that can nonetheless have as high (and even higher) impairment in terms
humans spend almost 30% of their lives sleeping underlines the importance of daytime fatigue, anxiety, and depression as those suffering from true
of these disorders. clinical insomnia.
Although sleep problems occur at all ages, they tend to increase with • Sleep-disordered breathing (SDB). As the name indicates, this disorder is
age and are especially prevalent among the elderly. However, the higher characterised by abnormal breathing patterns during sleep. It has several
prevalence of sleep disorders among older adults is believed to be a variations of which sleep apnoea (complete cessation of breathing) and
consequence of the physical and mental health comorbidities of ageing, hypo-apnoea (partial cessation of breathing) are best known, although
rather than the effect of ageing itself (Rodriguez et al., 2015). Internationally, the first sign of a sleep disorder is snoring. The prevalence of SDB in
it is found that up to 50% of older adults complain of experiencing sleep older people can vary from 20% to 40% (McMillan & Morrell, 2016), and
problems. However, like in most prevalence studies, the results largely occurs more in men than in women (Won & Guilleminault, 2015). SDB
depend on the diagnostic criteria (such as the frequency and intensity of disrupts a person’s sleep pattern, which causes fatique and sleepiness
symptoms). For example, two South African studies found a relatively low during the day, and may put excessive strain on a person’s nervous
prevalence among the elderly; 9% and 10% respectively (Koyanagi et al., system and major organs.
2014; Peltzer, 2012). The reason for the relatively low occurrence is probably • Restless legs syndrome (RLS). This disorder is also known as Willis-
that in both studies, only severe/extreme cases were included. Ekbom disease. It is characterised by unpleasant sensations in the
Several types of sleep disorders exist, such as the following (McCrae et legs and an uncontrollable urge to move when at rest in an effort to
al., 2015; also see Rodriguez et al., 2015; Suzuki, 2017): relieve these feelings. These sensations are often described as itching,
tingling, burning, creeping, tugging, or like insects crawling inside the
• Insomnia. This sleep disorder (commonly known as ‘sleeplessness’) legs. Sometimes, these feelings also occur in the arms. Moving stops the
refers to the regular impairment of the ability to fall or stay asleep, unpleasant feeling for a short time. Because it usually interferes with
as well as an impairment in the quality and duration of sleep, which sleep, it also is considered a sleep disorder. However, these sensations
affects the person’s daily functioning. Insomnia is common among the can also happen during the day while a person is resting or inactive.
elderly: Prevalence as high as 40% and even 50% is reported in older The prevalence is about 5% to 15% in the elderly and the ratio is 2:1 for
people. It occurs more in older women than in older men. An interesting men and women. Indications are that the aetiology has neurological and
phenomenon in this regard is insomnia identity, the false conviction that hereditary components.

The aetiology of sleep disorders is multifactorial, varying from medical-

physiological to psychological factors such as anxiety, depression, and
various stressors (e.g. daily hassles and concerns about family). A causal
factor that is often overlooked is inappropriate prescription of medicine. A
South African study on older adults found that this problem is common
(Van Heerden et al., 2016). Sedatives (medication that induces sleep or
sleepiness) can be particularly problematic, as they may cause dependence.
(Also see substance abuse.)

6.3.7 Substance abuse

Also known as drug use disorder or drug abuse, this is a condition in which
Insomnia is common among the elderly the abuse of one or more substances leads to a significant impairment in
452 453
have been found. Cognitive deficits in attention, response times, short-term one has insomnia (Lichstein, 2017). Although these ‘complaining good
memory, and general performance level are common. It is clear that sleep sleepers’ do not meet clinical criteria for poor sleep or insomnia they
disorders can affect an individual’s quality of life significantly. The fact that can nonetheless have as high (and even higher) impairment in terms
humans spend almost 30% of their lives sleeping underlines the importance of daytime fatigue, anxiety, and depression as those suffering from true
of these disorders. clinical insomnia.
Although sleep problems occur at all ages, they tend to increase with • Sleep-disordered breathing (SDB). As the name indicates, this disorder is
age and are especially prevalent among the elderly. However, the higher characterised by abnormal breathing patterns during sleep. It has several
prevalence of sleep disorders among older adults is believed to be a variations of which sleep apnoea (complete cessation of breathing) and
consequence of the physical and mental health comorbidities of ageing, hypo-apnoea (partial cessation of breathing) are best known, although
rather than the effect of ageing itself (Rodriguez et al., 2015). Internationally, the first sign of a sleep disorder is snoring. The prevalence of SDB in
it is found that up to 50% of older adults complain of experiencing sleep older people can vary from 20% to 40% (McMillan & Morrell, 2016), and
problems. However, like in most prevalence studies, the results largely occurs more in men than in women (Won & Guilleminault, 2015). SDB
depend on the diagnostic criteria (such as the frequency and intensity of disrupts a person’s sleep pattern, which causes fatique and sleepiness
symptoms). For example, two South African studies found a relatively low during the day, and may put excessive strain on a person’s nervous
prevalence among the elderly; 9% and 10% respectively (Koyanagi et al., system and major organs.
2014; Peltzer, 2012). The reason for the relatively low occurrence is probably • Restless legs syndrome (RLS). This disorder is also known as Willis-
that in both studies, only severe/extreme cases were included. Ekbom disease. It is characterised by unpleasant sensations in the
Several types of sleep disorders exist, such as the following (McCrae et legs and an uncontrollable urge to move when at rest in an effort to
al., 2015; also see Rodriguez et al., 2015; Suzuki, 2017): relieve these feelings. These sensations are often described as itching,
tingling, burning, creeping, tugging, or like insects crawling inside the
• Insomnia. This sleep disorder (commonly known as ‘sleeplessness’) legs. Sometimes, these feelings also occur in the arms. Moving stops the
refers to the regular impairment of the ability to fall or stay asleep, unpleasant feeling for a short time. Because it usually interferes with
as well as an impairment in the quality and duration of sleep, which sleep, it also is considered a sleep disorder. However, these sensations
affects the person’s daily functioning. Insomnia is common among the can also happen during the day while a person is resting or inactive.
elderly: Prevalence as high as 40% and even 50% is reported in older The prevalence is about 5% to 15% in the elderly and the ratio is 2:1 for
people. It occurs more in older women than in older men. An interesting men and women. Indications are that the aetiology has neurological and
phenomenon in this regard is insomnia identity, the false conviction that hereditary components.

The aetiology of sleep disorders is multifactorial, varying from medical-

physiological to psychological factors such as anxiety, depression, and
various stressors (e.g. daily hassles and concerns about family). A causal
factor that is often overlooked is inappropriate prescription of medicine. A
South African study on older adults found that this problem is common
(Van Heerden et al., 2016). Sedatives (medication that induces sleep or
sleepiness) can be particularly problematic, as they may cause dependence.
(Also see substance abuse.)

6.3.7 Substance abuse

Also known as drug use disorder or drug abuse, this is a condition in which
Insomnia is common among the elderly the abuse of one or more substances leads to a significant impairment in
452 453
the individual’s functioning. As in the case of many other mental disorders older people take medication that has the potential to be abused and that
and social problems, the consequences of substance abuse have an extreme about 10% do so (see Stuart-Hamilton, 2012). As mentioned before, it was
negative effect not only on the person’s physical and mental health, but also found that inappropriate prescription of medicine for the elderly in South
on his or her family and the community. (Although the term ‘substance’ can Africa is common. (See Box 6.9 regarding alcohol and cannabis use by older
refer to any physical matter, the term in this context is limited to psychoactive adults.)
drugs: chemical substances that alter mood, perception, behaviour, and/or Older adult substance abusers can be categorised as early-onset or
consciousness.) late-onset abusers (Bogunovic, 2012). In early-onset abusers, substance
For practical purposes, the substances abused by the elderly can be abuse develops before age 65. Early-onset abusers throughout their lives
divided into three categories: have turned to substance abuse to cope with life. In these individuals, the
incidence of mental and physical problems tends to be higher than that in
– Legal substances, such as alcohol, nicotine (cigarette smoking) and their late-onset counterparts. A genetic or biological susceptibility seems
cannabis (dagga). to be present, as they often have a family history of substance abuse. It is
– Illegal substances, for example, cocaine, heroin, tik and ecstacy. estimated that early-onset substance abusers make up two thirds of the
– Medication, such as sedatives and analgesics (painkillers). elderly alcoholic population. In late-onset substance abusers, substance
abuse is often believed to develop subsequent to stressful life situations
The precise extent of substance abuse is difficult, if not impossible, to that include losses that commonly occur with ageing (e.g. death of a
determine. Because of factors such as the social stigma attached to it and partner, changes in living situation, retirement, and social isolation). These
illegality of certain drugs, people tend to deny their problem to others; in individuals typically experience fewer physical and mental health problems
many cases, also to themselves. In the case of the elderly, the problem is often than early-onset abusers.
also easier to hide. For example, as they are mostly retired, they are socially The dangers of substance abuse and the severe harm and impairment
and workwise more isolated; therefore, their problem is less conspicuous. it causes to the individual, his or her family, and the community are well
However, it is accepted widely that substance abuse in the elderly is often known. On a physical health level, the following are examples: damage to
underestimated and underdiagnosed, and the reason why it is often referred the liver, kidneys, pancreas, heart, lungs, brain, and respiratory system, while
to as ‘an invisible epidemic’. One of the consequences of this unfortunate contagious diseases from hepatitis C (contagious liver disease) to HIV and
situation is that it prevents people from getting the professional help and AIDS are quite common in drug-using communities. Chronic abuse can
support they need. also lead to impairment of the digestive processes, body temperature and
Most epidemiological research regarding substance abuse among the hormones. In fact, there is hardly a body system that is not affected. This tragic
elderly involves alcohol and smoking. International surveys estimate that reality also applies to the person’s mental health. Extensive psychological
between 1% and 15% of older adults have problems with alcohol (see Erber, dysfunction and numerous mental disorders have been reported: wide-
2013). A South African study reported that 4% of the elderly participants ranging cognitive impairment is common, while mental disorders such as
reported heavy drinking, and 3,7% binge drinking (consuming large the following are associated with substance abuse: delirium, dementia,
quantities of alcohol in a single session) (Peltzer & Phaswana-Mafuya, 2013). mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychosis, sexual dysfunction, and sleep
As far as smoking is concerned, a worldwide survey found that the overall disorders.
smoking prevalence in 17 European countries is 12% (15% in men and 9% in As mentioned earlier, the effect on the family could also be disastrous.
women) (Lugo et al., 2013). In some non-Western countries such as Malaysia The continuous stress and conflict created by the situation usually also
the prevalence for men is much higher (28%) but for women significant affect all family members severely. Consequently, several of the mental
lower (3%) (Lim et al., 2016). In South Africa, the rate for persons older than disorders mentioned, especially depression and anxiety, also occur in family
65 is 11%; the prevalence for males is four times more than that for females members. In fact, the effect it has on the (note: innocent) family members
(Reddy et al., 2015). Although the prevalence of prescription medicine in such as spouses, children, and grandchildren could indeed be viewed as
the community is unknown, an international estimation is that about 25% of unfathomable – especially as it tends to have a ripple effect that also affects

454 455
the individual’s functioning. As in the case of many other mental disorders older people take medication that has the potential to be abused and that
and social problems, the consequences of substance abuse have an extreme about 10% do so (see Stuart-Hamilton, 2012). As mentioned before, it was
negative effect not only on the person’s physical and mental health, but also found that inappropriate prescription of medicine for the elderly in South
on his or her family and the community. (Although the term ‘substance’ can Africa is common. (See Box 6.9 regarding alcohol and cannabis use by older
refer to any physical matter, the term in this context is limited to psychoactive adults.)
drugs: chemical substances that alter mood, perception, behaviour, and/or Older adult substance abusers can be categorised as early-onset or
consciousness.) late-onset abusers (Bogunovic, 2012). In early-onset abusers, substance
For practical purposes, the substances abused by the elderly can be abuse develops before age 65. Early-onset abusers throughout their lives
divided into three categories: have turned to substance abuse to cope with life. In these individuals, the
incidence of mental and physical problems tends to be higher than that in
– Legal substances, such as alcohol, nicotine (cigarette smoking) and their late-onset counterparts. A genetic or biological susceptibility seems
cannabis (dagga). to be present, as they often have a family history of substance abuse. It is
– Illegal substances, for example, cocaine, heroin, tik and ecstacy. estimated that early-onset substance abusers make up two thirds of the
– Medication, such as sedatives and analgesics (painkillers). elderly alcoholic population. In late-onset substance abusers, substance
abuse is often believed to develop subsequent to stressful life situations
The precise extent of substance abuse is difficult, if not impossible, to that include losses that commonly occur with ageing (e.g. death of a
determine. Because of factors such as the social stigma attached to it and partner, changes in living situation, retirement, and social isolation). These
illegality of certain drugs, people tend to deny their problem to others; in individuals typically experience fewer physical and mental health problems
many cases, also to themselves. In the case of the elderly, the problem is often than early-onset abusers.
also easier to hide. For example, as they are mostly retired, they are socially The dangers of substance abuse and the severe harm and impairment
and workwise more isolated; therefore, their problem is less conspicuous. it causes to the individual, his or her family, and the community are well
However, it is accepted widely that substance abuse in the elderly is often known. On a physical health level, the following are examples: damage to
underestimated and underdiagnosed, and the reason why it is often referred the liver, kidneys, pancreas, heart, lungs, brain, and respiratory system, while
to as ‘an invisible epidemic’. One of the consequences of this unfortunate contagious diseases from hepatitis C (contagious liver disease) to HIV and
situation is that it prevents people from getting the professional help and AIDS are quite common in drug-using communities. Chronic abuse can
support they need. also lead to impairment of the digestive processes, body temperature and
Most epidemiological research regarding substance abuse among the hormones. In fact, there is hardly a body system that is not affected. This tragic
elderly involves alcohol and smoking. International surveys estimate that reality also applies to the person’s mental health. Extensive psychological
between 1% and 15% of older adults have problems with alcohol (see Erber, dysfunction and numerous mental disorders have been reported: wide-
2013). A South African study reported that 4% of the elderly participants ranging cognitive impairment is common, while mental disorders such as
reported heavy drinking, and 3,7% binge drinking (consuming large the following are associated with substance abuse: delirium, dementia,
quantities of alcohol in a single session) (Peltzer & Phaswana-Mafuya, 2013). mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychosis, sexual dysfunction, and sleep
As far as smoking is concerned, a worldwide survey found that the overall disorders.
smoking prevalence in 17 European countries is 12% (15% in men and 9% in As mentioned earlier, the effect on the family could also be disastrous.
women) (Lugo et al., 2013). In some non-Western countries such as Malaysia The continuous stress and conflict created by the situation usually also
the prevalence for men is much higher (28%) but for women significant affect all family members severely. Consequently, several of the mental
lower (3%) (Lim et al., 2016). In South Africa, the rate for persons older than disorders mentioned, especially depression and anxiety, also occur in family
65 is 11%; the prevalence for males is four times more than that for females members. In fact, the effect it has on the (note: innocent) family members
(Reddy et al., 2015). Although the prevalence of prescription medicine in such as spouses, children, and grandchildren could indeed be viewed as
the community is unknown, an international estimation is that about 25% of unfathomable – especially as it tends to have a ripple effect that also affects

454 455
 next generations. Therefore, it is understandable why substance abuse has
Box 6.9 Alcohol and cannabis use by older adult been called a family disease, not an individual disease.
• Alcohol. In addition to the physical and mental health problems related to
The effect of substance abuse on the South African community is equally
substance abuse, older adults who use alcohol should be made aware of the following devastating. For example, alcohol alone plays a role in about 50% of all crimes
(National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2017; NIHSeniorHealth, 2015): and about 50% of all fatal car accidents. (See Box 6.10 for the criteria for
– Sensitivity to health effects of alcohol may increase with age, and an older person alcohol intake.) Once again, the effect on innocent victims is immeasurable.
can thus develop problems with alcohol even though his or her drinking habits have
not changed. As people age, there is a decrease in the amount of water in the body; The tangible financial cost of alcohol harm to the South African economy
therefore, when older adults drink, there is less water in their bodies to dilute the is about R40 billion (R40 000 000 000 000) per year (Matzopoulos et
alcohol that is consumed. This causes older adults to have a higher blood alcohol al., 2014). Concerning another legalised drug, nicotine (tobacco), note the
concentration (BAC) than younger people have after consuming an equal amount of
following: According to a recent worldwide study, smoking was found to be
alcohol. This means that older adults may experience the effects of alcohol, such as slurred
speech and lack of coordination, more readily than when they were younger. It puts older the second leading risk factor for early death and disability (Global Burden
adults at higher risks for falls, car crashes, and other unintentional injuries that may of Diseases, Injuries and Risk Factors Study, 2017). International expert John
result from drinking. Britton (2017, p. 1) describes smoking as a “global health disaster”.
– Drinking too much alcohol can not only cause health problems, but also can
aggravate some existing health conditions. These conditions include diabetes, high
blood pressure, heart failure, liver problems, cognitive disorders such as memory
impairment, and mood and anxiety disorders. Box 6.10 Criteria for alcohol intake
– Many older adults take medicines, including prescription drugs, over-the- counter In South Africa, the legal limit is a blood alcohol content of 0.05g per 100ml. According
(non-prescription) drugs, and herbal remedies. Drinking alcohol can cause certain to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), 2015,
medicines not to work properly and other medicines to become more dangerous or criteria for the different levels of alcohol intake are the following:
even deadly. Mixing alcohol and some medicines, particularly sedatives, can cause
sleepiness, confusion, or lack of coordination, which may lead to accidents and injuries. • Moderate Drinking: up to 1 drink per day for women and up to 2 drinks per day
Other side-effects include nausea, vomiting, headaches, and other more serious health for men.
problems. Medications that can interact badly with alcohol include medicine for pain, • Binge Drinking: 5 or more alcoholic drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day
cold, and allergy symptoms, sleeping problems, depression, and anxiety. Because in the past 30 days. It produces blood alcohol concentration levels of greater
medications stay in the body for at least several hours, the person can still experience than 0.08g per 100ml. This usually occurs after 4 drinks for women and 5 drinks
negative symptoms if he or she drinks alcohol hours after taking the medicine. for men over a 2-hour period.
• Cannabis. This drug, also known as dagga in South Africa, was the most widely • Heavy Drinking: SAMHSA defines heavy drinking as drinking 5 or more drinks on
illicit drug abused in our country until it was legalised for private and personal use by the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days.
the Constitutional Court in September 2018. In fact, South Africa is believed to be one
of the largest producers of dagga in the world (Swanepoel et al., 2016). Due to its illegal
status until recently, its use for medicinal purposes (e.g. for the relief of pain) and the
customary use of dagga by some cultural and subcultural groups, the prevalence of its
use by South African elderly is an open question. In countries such as the USA, the use Considering that these statistics refer to only two legalised drugs, it
of cannabis (marijuana in the USA) by the elderly is increasing (Kaskie, et al., 2017). becomes understandable why the internationally respected World Health
The safety of dagga use is a controversial topic, often characterised by Organization (2017) states that the effect of substance abuse poses a major
contradictory research results (Hall, 2014; Stoner, 2016; Volkow et al., 2014). According
threat to the health, social and economic fabric of families, communities,
to Weich (2017), the reasons for the mixed research results include the fact that there
are differences in the potency of the cannabis used in the various studies, and that and nations. In this regard, it is essential to point out the inconsistency in our
diverse research methods were used. What risks are associated with dagga? country (and most other countries) as far as substance abuse is concerned.
Since dagga is usually smoked, lung problems such as chronic bronchitis and While the use of many substances is illegal, other equally and even more
emphysema may be caused by the toxic agents. Heart attacks and strokes may also
occur. Dagga has a negative interaction with several widely used medications, affecting
dangerous substances such as alcohol and tobacco are legalised and have
blood pressure and blood sugar levels. As in the case of alcohol and other drugs, even become the norm in many circles. In fact, the present authors (Louw
resulting confusion or lack of coordination may lead to accidents and injuries. Mental & Louw, 2014) have always believed that even if all illegal drugs should
disorders such as anxiety disorders, depression and even psychotic symptoms have disappear overnight, we would still remain with the larger part of the drug
been reported. To what extent cognitive dysfunction caused by chronic dagga use
has a long-term effect, especially on older adults, is still being debated. abuse problem – alcohol and tobacco. Next to their mentioned dangers, it

456 457
 next generations. Therefore, it is understandable why substance abuse has
Box 6.9 Alcohol and cannabis use by older adult been called a family disease, not an individual disease.
• Alcohol. In addition to the physical and mental health problems related to
The effect of substance abuse on the South African community is equally
substance abuse, older adults who use alcohol should be made aware of the following devastating. For example, alcohol alone plays a role in about 50% of all crimes
(National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2017; NIHSeniorHealth, 2015): and about 50% of all fatal car accidents. (See Box 6.10 for the criteria for
– Sensitivity to health effects of alcohol may increase with age, and an older person alcohol intake.) Once again, the effect on innocent victims is immeasurable.
can thus develop problems with alcohol even though his or her drinking habits have
not changed. As people age, there is a decrease in the amount of water in the body; The tangible financial cost of alcohol harm to the South African economy
therefore, when older adults drink, there is less water in their bodies to dilute the is about R40 billion (R40 000 000 000 000) per year (Matzopoulos et
alcohol that is consumed. This causes older adults to have a higher blood alcohol al., 2014). Concerning another legalised drug, nicotine (tobacco), note the
concentration (BAC) than younger people have after consuming an equal amount of
following: According to a recent worldwide study, smoking was found to be
alcohol. This means that older adults may experience the effects of alcohol, such as slurred
speech and lack of coordination, more readily than when they were younger. It puts older the second leading risk factor for early death and disability (Global Burden
adults at higher risks for falls, car crashes, and other unintentional injuries that may of Diseases, Injuries and Risk Factors Study, 2017). International expert John
result from drinking. Britton (2017, p. 1) describes smoking as a “global health disaster”.
– Drinking too much alcohol can not only cause health problems, but also can
aggravate some existing health conditions. These conditions include diabetes, high
blood pressure, heart failure, liver problems, cognitive disorders such as memory
impairment, and mood and anxiety disorders. Box 6.10 Criteria for alcohol intake
– Many older adults take medicines, including prescription drugs, over-the- counter In South Africa, the legal limit is a blood alcohol content of 0.05g per 100ml. According
(non-prescription) drugs, and herbal remedies. Drinking alcohol can cause certain to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), 2015,
medicines not to work properly and other medicines to become more dangerous or criteria for the different levels of alcohol intake are the following:
even deadly. Mixing alcohol and some medicines, particularly sedatives, can cause
sleepiness, confusion, or lack of coordination, which may lead to accidents and injuries. • Moderate Drinking: up to 1 drink per day for women and up to 2 drinks per day
Other side-effects include nausea, vomiting, headaches, and other more serious health for men.
problems. Medications that can interact badly with alcohol include medicine for pain, • Binge Drinking: 5 or more alcoholic drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day
cold, and allergy symptoms, sleeping problems, depression, and anxiety. Because in the past 30 days. It produces blood alcohol concentration levels of greater
medications stay in the body for at least several hours, the person can still experience than 0.08g per 100ml. This usually occurs after 4 drinks for women and 5 drinks
negative symptoms if he or she drinks alcohol hours after taking the medicine. for men over a 2-hour period.
• Cannabis. This drug, also known as dagga in South Africa, was the most widely • Heavy Drinking: SAMHSA defines heavy drinking as drinking 5 or more drinks on
illicit drug abused in our country until it was legalised for private and personal use by the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days.
the Constitutional Court in September 2018. In fact, South Africa is believed to be one
of the largest producers of dagga in the world (Swanepoel et al., 2016). Due to its illegal
status until recently, its use for medicinal purposes (e.g. for the relief of pain) and the
customary use of dagga by some cultural and subcultural groups, the prevalence of its
use by South African elderly is an open question. In countries such as the USA, the use Considering that these statistics refer to only two legalised drugs, it
of cannabis (marijuana in the USA) by the elderly is increasing (Kaskie, et al., 2017). becomes understandable why the internationally respected World Health
The safety of dagga use is a controversial topic, often characterised by Organization (2017) states that the effect of substance abuse poses a major
contradictory research results (Hall, 2014; Stoner, 2016; Volkow et al., 2014). According
threat to the health, social and economic fabric of families, communities,
to Weich (2017), the reasons for the mixed research results include the fact that there
are differences in the potency of the cannabis used in the various studies, and that and nations. In this regard, it is essential to point out the inconsistency in our
diverse research methods were used. What risks are associated with dagga? country (and most other countries) as far as substance abuse is concerned.
Since dagga is usually smoked, lung problems such as chronic bronchitis and While the use of many substances is illegal, other equally and even more
emphysema may be caused by the toxic agents. Heart attacks and strokes may also
occur. Dagga has a negative interaction with several widely used medications, affecting
dangerous substances such as alcohol and tobacco are legalised and have
blood pressure and blood sugar levels. As in the case of alcohol and other drugs, even become the norm in many circles. In fact, the present authors (Louw
resulting confusion or lack of coordination may lead to accidents and injuries. Mental & Louw, 2014) have always believed that even if all illegal drugs should
disorders such as anxiety disorders, depression and even psychotic symptoms have disappear overnight, we would still remain with the larger part of the drug
been reported. To what extent cognitive dysfunction caused by chronic dagga use
has a long-term effect, especially on older adults, is still being debated. abuse problem – alcohol and tobacco. Next to their mentioned dangers, it

456 457
is important to know that nicotine and alcohol are as addictive as the more 6.4 AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE ON MENTAL
notorious substances such as heroin and cocaine. Global estimates show
that current tobacco use is 10 times more widespread than current illegal
DISORDERS
drug use. Alcohol abuse has an annual prevalence rate of about eight times
higher than that of illicit drug use (UNODC, 2013). As mentioned at the beginning of our discussion on mental health, the
afore-mentioned discussion of mental disorders is based on internationally
6.3.8 Hypochondriasis accepted classifications and diagnostic criteria, such as the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
This disorder (also referred to as health anxiety or illness anxiety) is commonly Mental Disorders (DSM). Without this relative uniformity, it would have a
known as hypochondria. The primary characteristic of hypochondria is diagnostic and thus therapeutic disaster where each country, area, and even
excessive and unrealistic fear of having a serious disease, based on the professional would have had different criteria to diagnose and to treat. As
person’s misinterpretation of bodily symptoms. For example, a common mentioned earlier, in South Africa, the ICD is the official diagnostic guide,
headache is easily self-diagnosed as cancer or having a brain tumour, while a although the DSM is often used for research and training purposes.
stomach pain is interpreted as an ulcer or cancer. The same misinterpretation However, as also mentioned, factors such as culture could have a
applies to symptoms including other aches and pains, as well as coughs dramatic influence on the diagnoses and treatment of mental disorders. This
and body temperature. This fear is especially true as far as the traditional sections of a culture are concerned.
persists, regardless of appro- This is also the situation in South Africa, where the ICD and DSM are unheard
priate medical evaluation and of in various traditional and remote cultures. Therefore, it is understandable
assurance. However, the patient that an own nosology (classification of diseases) and terminology have
never seems satisfied and been created. Amafufunyana is an example (Du Plessis & Visser, 2012; Louw
continues to be preoccupied & Edwards, 1998). This is a serious disorder occurring among especially the
with his or her symptoms. isiZulu- and isiXhosa-speaking South Africans. African traditional healers
This regularly leads to visits to believe that people with this disorder have been invaded and possessed
various medical professionals. It by evil spirits because of witchcraft. Symptoms include hearing voices from
is important to realise that the their stomach area. These voices speak in a different language and the
person with hypochondria is tone is upsetting. The person is agitated, and violent behaviour is common.
not trying to mislead. He or she Epigraph on a hypochondriac’s tombstone
Attempted suicide occurs frequently. The symptoms indicate that the person
experiences the symptoms as is out of touch with reality, an important reason why the condition is said to
real and an un-deniable serious threat to his or her health. be similar to the international concept of schizophrenia, where a break with
Although hypochondria is often viewed as a ‘disorder of the elderly’, reality is a primary symptom. (See Table 6.1 for examples of isiXhosa terms
this is not quite true. Prevalence rates for the elderly vary between about for explaining mental health conditions.)
3% and 10%, and in the general population between 1% and 5% (see El- What is the situation in South Africa regarding the role of the sangoma
Gabalawy et al., 2013). While several studies have found that hypochondria (a Zulu term widely used to refer to a traditional healer) in diagnosing
occurs more in women, others could find no gender differences in older and treating mental disorders, especially also among the black elderly?
people. The comorbidity regarding other mental disorders could be as high Unfortunately, there are several misconceptions in this regard. Probably the
as about 50%, with anxiety and depression the most common. best-known example is the general belief that up to 80% of all people in
Africa and also South Africa seek help from traditional healers. This figure
is even quoted in reports, articles, books, scientific articles, and the news
media. However, this figure has been disputed strongly in recent years. First,
most authors make use of outdated and often unreliable sources. Second,
several of these studies have been conducted in rural and remote areas
458 459
is important to know that nicotine and alcohol are as addictive as the more 6.4 AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE ON MENTAL
notorious substances such as heroin and cocaine. Global estimates show
that current tobacco use is 10 times more widespread than current illegal
DISORDERS
drug use. Alcohol abuse has an annual prevalence rate of about eight times
higher than that of illicit drug use (UNODC, 2013). As mentioned at the beginning of our discussion on mental health, the
afore-mentioned discussion of mental disorders is based on internationally
6.3.8 Hypochondriasis accepted classifications and diagnostic criteria, such as the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
This disorder (also referred to as health anxiety or illness anxiety) is commonly Mental Disorders (DSM). Without this relative uniformity, it would have a
known as hypochondria. The primary characteristic of hypochondria is diagnostic and thus therapeutic disaster where each country, area, and even
excessive and unrealistic fear of having a serious disease, based on the professional would have had different criteria to diagnose and to treat. As
person’s misinterpretation of bodily symptoms. For example, a common mentioned earlier, in South Africa, the ICD is the official diagnostic guide,
headache is easily self-diagnosed as cancer or having a brain tumour, while a although the DSM is often used for research and training purposes.
stomach pain is interpreted as an ulcer or cancer. The same misinterpretation However, as also mentioned, factors such as culture could have a
applies to symptoms including other aches and pains, as well as coughs dramatic influence on the diagnoses and treatment of mental disorders. This
and body temperature. This fear is especially true as far as the traditional sections of a culture are concerned.
persists, regardless of appro- This is also the situation in South Africa, where the ICD and DSM are unheard
priate medical evaluation and of in various traditional and remote cultures. Therefore, it is understandable
assurance. However, the patient that an own nosology (classification of diseases) and terminology have
never seems satisfied and been created. Amafufunyana is an example (Du Plessis & Visser, 2012; Louw
continues to be preoccupied & Edwards, 1998). This is a serious disorder occurring among especially the
with his or her symptoms. isiZulu- and isiXhosa-speaking South Africans. African traditional healers
This regularly leads to visits to believe that people with this disorder have been invaded and possessed
various medical professionals. It by evil spirits because of witchcraft. Symptoms include hearing voices from
is important to realise that the their stomach area. These voices speak in a different language and the
person with hypochondria is tone is upsetting. The person is agitated, and violent behaviour is common.
not trying to mislead. He or she Epigraph on a hypochondriac’s tombstone
Attempted suicide occurs frequently. The symptoms indicate that the person
experiences the symptoms as is out of touch with reality, an important reason why the condition is said to
real and an un-deniable serious threat to his or her health. be similar to the international concept of schizophrenia, where a break with
Although hypochondria is often viewed as a ‘disorder of the elderly’, reality is a primary symptom. (See Table 6.1 for examples of isiXhosa terms
this is not quite true. Prevalence rates for the elderly vary between about for explaining mental health conditions.)
3% and 10%, and in the general population between 1% and 5% (see El- What is the situation in South Africa regarding the role of the sangoma
Gabalawy et al., 2013). While several studies have found that hypochondria (a Zulu term widely used to refer to a traditional healer) in diagnosing
occurs more in women, others could find no gender differences in older and treating mental disorders, especially also among the black elderly?
people. The comorbidity regarding other mental disorders could be as high Unfortunately, there are several misconceptions in this regard. Probably the
as about 50%, with anxiety and depression the most common. best-known example is the general belief that up to 80% of all people in
Africa and also South Africa seek help from traditional healers. This figure
is even quoted in reports, articles, books, scientific articles, and the news
media. However, this figure has been disputed strongly in recent years. First,
most authors make use of outdated and often unreliable sources. Second,
several of these studies have been conducted in rural and remote areas
458 459
Table 6.1: IsiXhosa terms for explaining mental health conditions means that these imposters had not
isiXhosa Approximate English translation received the traditional calling from
Ndine iinerves; Ixhala; Feelings of distress, anxiety, tension the ancestors and did not undergo
Ukuba nexhala the customary training. The question
Phambana; Insane/psychotic whether traditional healing should be
Ucambamane incorporated in the South African health
Ukuphazamiseka Disturbance of the mind (disruption of its order) system and if so, in which way, will not
ngengqondo; Ukugula
be solved easily.
ngengqondo
Inkenkqe Emotional upheaval; could indicate a call to become a healer
Uyacinga kakhulu Thinking too much
Idliso Bewitchment by poisoning
Amafufunyane Idiom for distress; phenomenon or experience of being be-
witched; spirits speaking from the abdomen
Ukuthakatha Malevolent witchcraft
Ingqondo ziyamshiya The ‘mind has gone away’ (to interact with spirits)
A sangoma
Indiki Possession by alien spirits, who as a result of not receiving a
proper burial, occupy the bodies of living people
Duncan et al., 2011
REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. Are the elderly more prone to the development of mental disorders than other age
where other health services are not always available. groups are? May there be some disorders to which the elderly may be more
According to a national survey by Statistics South Africa (2015), only vulnerable? How should this be seen in perspective with relation to the other age
groups?
0,5% of respondents said that they would first go to a traditional healer.
2. Which factors may lead to the underreporting and therefore undertreatment of
This is in sharp contrast with the general belief. It is interesting, though, that mental disorders in the elderly?
almost 60% of those who did visit a traditional healer were very satisfied with
3. What is the aetiology of mental disorders? Which additional factors in the lives of
the service they had received. This figure is the same for respondents who older people may add to the causes of mental health problems?
visited a public hospital or public clinic. (The levels of satisfaction for private 4. Discuss the factors that should be considered regarding the diagnosis of mental
hospitals and clinics were 87% and 80% respectively.) It is noteworthy that disorders. What is Peter Kinderman, former president of the British Psychological
in some African communities, people tend to access the services of Western Society’s, criticism of the diagnosis of a mental disorder? What alternatives does he
suggest?
and traditional healers simultaneously for the same symptoms, based on
the cultural conception that an illness is both physical and spiritual (Shai & 5. What are the ‘warning signs’ of a possible mental disorder? Describe the onset of
mental disorders in old age.
Sodi, 2015).
6. Discuss in detail the most common mental disorders among older adults: (1) Mood
The role of traditional healers in the health care system has been disorders; (2) Anxiety disorders; (3) Dementia; (4) Parkinson’s disease; (5) Delirium;
debated for many decades. (Before 1994, the practice of traditional healing (6) Sleep disorders; (7) Substance abuse; (8) Hypochondriasis.
and use of traditional medicine were illegal in South Africa.) On the one 7. Discuss worrying in adulthood.
hand, some people believe that traditional healers still have an important 8. Discuss alcohol and cannabis use by older adults.
role to play in some traditional communities. On the other hand, traditional 9. Discuss an African perspective on mental health disorders.
healers are viewed as ‘witchdoctors’ with no scientific training and who do
10. Discuss the role of the traditional healer in the diagnosing and treatment of mental
more harm than good. Unfortunately, the situation is aggravated by the health disorders, and their role in the health care system.
fact that many charlatan traditional healers have entered the field. This

460 461
Table 6.1: IsiXhosa terms for explaining mental health conditions means that these imposters had not
isiXhosa Approximate English translation received the traditional calling from
Ndine iinerves; Ixhala; Feelings of distress, anxiety, tension the ancestors and did not undergo
Ukuba nexhala the customary training. The question
Phambana; Insane/psychotic whether traditional healing should be
Ucambamane incorporated in the South African health
Ukuphazamiseka Disturbance of the mind (disruption of its order) system and if so, in which way, will not
ngengqondo; Ukugula
be solved easily.
ngengqondo
Inkenkqe Emotional upheaval; could indicate a call to become a healer
Uyacinga kakhulu Thinking too much
Idliso Bewitchment by poisoning
Amafufunyane Idiom for distress; phenomenon or experience of being be-
witched; spirits speaking from the abdomen
Ukuthakatha Malevolent witchcraft
Ingqondo ziyamshiya The ‘mind has gone away’ (to interact with spirits)
A sangoma
Indiki Possession by alien spirits, who as a result of not receiving a
proper burial, occupy the bodies of living people
Duncan et al., 2011
REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. Are the elderly more prone to the development of mental disorders than other age
where other health services are not always available. groups are? May there be some disorders to which the elderly may be more
According to a national survey by Statistics South Africa (2015), only vulnerable? How should this be seen in perspective with relation to the other age
groups?
0,5% of respondents said that they would first go to a traditional healer.
2. Which factors may lead to the underreporting and therefore undertreatment of
This is in sharp contrast with the general belief. It is interesting, though, that mental disorders in the elderly?
almost 60% of those who did visit a traditional healer were very satisfied with
3. What is the aetiology of mental disorders? Which additional factors in the lives of
the service they had received. This figure is the same for respondents who older people may add to the causes of mental health problems?
visited a public hospital or public clinic. (The levels of satisfaction for private 4. Discuss the factors that should be considered regarding the diagnosis of mental
hospitals and clinics were 87% and 80% respectively.) It is noteworthy that disorders. What is Peter Kinderman, former president of the British Psychological
in some African communities, people tend to access the services of Western Society’s, criticism of the diagnosis of a mental disorder? What alternatives does he
suggest?
and traditional healers simultaneously for the same symptoms, based on
the cultural conception that an illness is both physical and spiritual (Shai & 5. What are the ‘warning signs’ of a possible mental disorder? Describe the onset of
mental disorders in old age.
Sodi, 2015).
6. Discuss in detail the most common mental disorders among older adults: (1) Mood
The role of traditional healers in the health care system has been disorders; (2) Anxiety disorders; (3) Dementia; (4) Parkinson’s disease; (5) Delirium;
debated for many decades. (Before 1994, the practice of traditional healing (6) Sleep disorders; (7) Substance abuse; (8) Hypochondriasis.
and use of traditional medicine were illegal in South Africa.) On the one 7. Discuss worrying in adulthood.
hand, some people believe that traditional healers still have an important 8. Discuss alcohol and cannabis use by older adults.
role to play in some traditional communities. On the other hand, traditional 9. Discuss an African perspective on mental health disorders.
healers are viewed as ‘witchdoctors’ with no scientific training and who do
10. Discuss the role of the traditional healer in the diagnosing and treatment of mental
more harm than good. Unfortunately, the situation is aggravated by the health disorders, and their role in the health care system.
fact that many charlatan traditional healers have entered the field. This

460 461
462
As long as I can, I will look at this world for both of us. As long as I can,
I will laugh with the birds, I will sing with the flowers,
I will pray to the stars, for both of us.
Sascha
7
Death and Grief
463
462
As long as I can, I will look at this world for both of us. As long as I can,
I will laugh with the birds, I will sing with the flowers,
I will pray to the stars, for both of us.
Sascha
7
Death and Grief
463
 There are far, far better things ahead than any we leave behind. experience with me. Over the course of the year, Rose became a campus
C.S. Lewis icon and she easily made friends wherever she went. She loved to dress
up and she blossomed in the attention bestowed upon her from the other
Death is not the greatest loss in life. The greatest loss is what dies
inside us while we live. Norman Cousins students. She was living it up.
At the end of the semester, we invited Rose to speak at our football
The idea is to die as young as late as possible. Ashley Montagu banquet. I’ll never forget what she taught us. She was introduced and
Life asked death: ‘Why do people love me but hate you?’ Death stepped up to the podium. As she began to deliver her prepared speech,
responded: ‘Because you are a beautiful falsehood and I am a painful she dropped her three-by-five cards on the floor. Frustrated and a little
truth.” Anonymous embarrassed, she leaned into the microphone and simply said, “I’m sorry
I’m so jittery. I gave up beer to go on a diet and this whiskey is killing me!
I don’t mind dying. I just don’t want to be there when it happens. I’ll never get my speech back in order so let me just tell you what I know.”
Woody Allen As we laughed, she cleared her throat and began, “We do not stop
playing because we are old; we grow old because we stop playing. There
A stockbroker urged me to buy a stock that would triple its value every
are only four secrets to staying young, being happy and achieving success.
year. I told him, ‘’At my age, I don’t even buy green bananas.”
Claude Pepper You have to laugh and find humour every day. You’ve got to have a dream.
When you lose your dreams, you die.
We have so many people walking around who are dead and don’t even
7.1 INTRODUCTION know it! There is a huge difference between growing older and growing up.
If you are nineteen years old and lie in bed for one full year and don’t
This is not only the last chapter in the book but it is also about the last
do one productive thing, you will turn twenty years old. If I am eighty-seven
chapter of our lives. Before we start with our discussion on the interesting
years old and stay in bed for a year and never do anything I will turn eighty-
topic of death and bereavement, first read the following story about an
eight. Anybody can grow older. That doesn’t take any talent or ability. The
87-year-old woman called Rose (Monsieur, 2007):
idea is to grow up by always finding opportunity in change. Have no regrets.
The elderly usually don’t have regrets for what we did, but rather for things
On the first day of university, our professor introduced himself and
we did not do. The only people who fear death are those with regrets.”
challenged us to get to know someone we didn’t already know. I stood up
She concluded her speech by courageously singing ‘The Rose’. She
to look around when a gentle hand touched my shoulder.
challenged each of us to study the lyrics and live them out in our daily lives.
I turned round to find a wrinkled, little old lady beaming up at me with
At the end of the year, Rose finished the college degree she had begun
a smile that lit up her entire being. She said, “Hi handsome. My name is
all those years go. One week after graduation, Rose died peacefully in her
Rose. I’m eighty-seven years old. Can I give you a hug?” I laughed and
sleep.
enthusiastically responded, “Of course you may!”, and she gave me a giant
squeeze. “Why are you in college at such a young, innocent age?” I asked.
The story above most probably evoked a variety of emotions in you,
She jokingly replied, “I’m here to meet a rich husband, get married, and
such as gladness that Rose could finally achieve her goal, but perhaps
have a couple of kids...” “No seriously,” I asked. I was curious about what
especially, a feeling of sadness that she had to die.
may have motivated her to be taking on this challenge at her age. “I always
There is hardly a concept that touches the core of one’s existence more
dreamed of having a university education and now I’m getting one!” she
than death does, probably because it is both a phenomenon beyond our
told me.
comprehension, and an imminent inevitability that will affect all of us.
After class, we walked to the student union building and shared a
However, the topic is mostly suppressed and hardly discussed, especially
chocolate milkshake. We became instant friends. Every day for the next
as far as one’s own death is concerned.
three months, we would leave class together and talk nonstop. I was always
In this chapter, we shall explore the phenomenon of death, specifically
mesmerised listening to this ‘time machine’ as she shared her wisdom and
464 465
 There are far, far better things ahead than any we leave behind. experience with me. Over the course of the year, Rose became a campus
C.S. Lewis icon and she easily made friends wherever she went. She loved to dress
up and she blossomed in the attention bestowed upon her from the other
Death is not the greatest loss in life. The greatest loss is what dies
inside us while we live. Norman Cousins students. She was living it up.
At the end of the semester, we invited Rose to speak at our football
The idea is to die as young as late as possible. Ashley Montagu banquet. I’ll never forget what she taught us. She was introduced and
Life asked death: ‘Why do people love me but hate you?’ Death stepped up to the podium. As she began to deliver her prepared speech,
responded: ‘Because you are a beautiful falsehood and I am a painful she dropped her three-by-five cards on the floor. Frustrated and a little
truth.” Anonymous embarrassed, she leaned into the microphone and simply said, “I’m sorry
I’m so jittery. I gave up beer to go on a diet and this whiskey is killing me!
I don’t mind dying. I just don’t want to be there when it happens. I’ll never get my speech back in order so let me just tell you what I know.”
Woody Allen As we laughed, she cleared her throat and began, “We do not stop
playing because we are old; we grow old because we stop playing. There
A stockbroker urged me to buy a stock that would triple its value every
are only four secrets to staying young, being happy and achieving success.
year. I told him, ‘’At my age, I don’t even buy green bananas.”
Claude Pepper You have to laugh and find humour every day. You’ve got to have a dream.
When you lose your dreams, you die.
We have so many people walking around who are dead and don’t even
7.1 INTRODUCTION know it! There is a huge difference between growing older and growing up.
If you are nineteen years old and lie in bed for one full year and don’t
This is not only the last chapter in the book but it is also about the last
do one productive thing, you will turn twenty years old. If I am eighty-seven
chapter of our lives. Before we start with our discussion on the interesting
years old and stay in bed for a year and never do anything I will turn eighty-
topic of death and bereavement, first read the following story about an
eight. Anybody can grow older. That doesn’t take any talent or ability. The
87-year-old woman called Rose (Monsieur, 2007):
idea is to grow up by always finding opportunity in change. Have no regrets.
The elderly usually don’t have regrets for what we did, but rather for things
On the first day of university, our professor introduced himself and
we did not do. The only people who fear death are those with regrets.”
challenged us to get to know someone we didn’t already know. I stood up
She concluded her speech by courageously singing ‘The Rose’. She
to look around when a gentle hand touched my shoulder.
challenged each of us to study the lyrics and live them out in our daily lives.
I turned round to find a wrinkled, little old lady beaming up at me with
At the end of the year, Rose finished the college degree she had begun
a smile that lit up her entire being. She said, “Hi handsome. My name is
all those years go. One week after graduation, Rose died peacefully in her
Rose. I’m eighty-seven years old. Can I give you a hug?” I laughed and
sleep.
enthusiastically responded, “Of course you may!”, and she gave me a giant
squeeze. “Why are you in college at such a young, innocent age?” I asked.
The story above most probably evoked a variety of emotions in you,
She jokingly replied, “I’m here to meet a rich husband, get married, and
such as gladness that Rose could finally achieve her goal, but perhaps
have a couple of kids...” “No seriously,” I asked. I was curious about what
especially, a feeling of sadness that she had to die.
may have motivated her to be taking on this challenge at her age. “I always
There is hardly a concept that touches the core of one’s existence more
dreamed of having a university education and now I’m getting one!” she
than death does, probably because it is both a phenomenon beyond our
told me.
comprehension, and an imminent inevitability that will affect all of us.
After class, we walked to the student union building and shared a
However, the topic is mostly suppressed and hardly discussed, especially
chocolate milkshake. We became instant friends. Every day for the next
as far as one’s own death is concerned.
three months, we would leave class together and talk nonstop. I was always
In this chapter, we shall explore the phenomenon of death, specifically
mesmerised listening to this ‘time machine’ as she shared her wisdom and
464 465
pertaining to what it entails and the effect thereof on the individual, family, feeling of great spiritual peace, seeing landscapes that are breathtakingly
friends, and the community. beautiful, finding themselves outside their bodies, and meeting spirits of
family members or friends who have died previously (see Box 7.1 in this
7.2 WHAT IS DEATH? regard.)

Death is the end of life, the irreversible cessation of all vital functions of
Box 7.1 Near Death Experience
a person or organism. The scientific study of the medical, psychological,
social, legal, and other related aspects of death is called thanatology. A near death experience (NDE) is an unusual and profound psychological episode
experienced by a person who is either clinically dead, near death, or in a situation where
When does life end? In many circles, this question may be regarded as
death is expected. It is usually characterised by a sense of blissful peace, well-being,
unwarranted. The question may elicit answers such as “A person is dead and painlessness – a feeling of floating out of one’s body and observing it from above;
when he or she stops breathing” or even “A person is dead when a medical moving through a tunnel into a bright light; receiving knowledge and insight about the
doctor says he or she is dead”. These viewpoints are understandable when meaning of life and the universe; meeting people who are deceased (e.g. significant
others and religious figures such as Jesus, Mohammed, and angels); and a reluctance
considering that very few people have ever seen a dead person or a person to return to one’s body. However, negative experiences such as torture by demons and
dying. Largely, their knowledge is based on what they see on TV or in the other creatures have also been recounted. Although higher NDE prevalence is reported,
movies where death is portrayed very naively and is out of touch with reality. an expert from Oxford University, Michael Marsh (2016), provides a global figure of less
In essence, the question is extremely complicated and has led to than 1%.
NDE is clouded by controversy. One the one hand, believers view these
countless debates without producing an answer that is accepted 100% by
experiences as evidence for the existence of an afterlife, that ‘Heaven is for real’
everybody. One of the main reasons for this is that the stance of medical (title of a book on NDE by Burpo & Vincent, 2011). On the other hand, there is much
science has been clouded significantly and determined by other factors criticism from researcherscriticism from researchers and other scientists. In this regard,
such as politics, ethics, the law, and human rights. This means that a person Shermer (2013) states that people turn to supernatural explanations when the mind
may be legally dead in one country but not in another. This is even true suffers a vacuum of explanation. According to Shermer, NDE is proof of hallucination,
not heaven, nor the supernatural. Several medical researchers have also been able to
regarding the situation in the different states in the USA (Lemouse, 2017). reproduce or explain NDE symptoms (e.g. Borjigin, 2013; Lake, 2017; Li et al., 2015). For
The situation becomes especially complex in situations where it is literally example, stimulating specific parts of the brain, certain chemicals, and the reduction
a matter of life and death, such as when one party is about to benefit, but of oxygen can produce NDE symptoms. Another theory is that, close to death, people
enter a type of REM sleep, the type of sleep closest associated with normal dreams.
there is the possibility that another party could be harmed. For example,
In other words, NDE is just a form of dreaming (Nelson, 2010). Furthermore, it is also
in the case of organ donations, the life of a recipient could be saved if the possible that a person may appear dead to our senses or our scientific equipment, but
organ is transplanted within a few hours before the tissue of the organ may still be perceiving or be capable of conscious thought (Carroll, 2014).
become damaged. On the other hand, the family of the donor would want It is clear that it will take much more research to reach a conclusion on NDE. At
the same time we should also keep Nelson’s (2010; adapted) recommendation in mind:
an absolute guarantee that there is no hope for their loved one anymore and Unusual experiences and parapsychological phenomena should also be judged by the
that he or she is in fact dead. degree and extent of their effect on individuals – not only by what causes them.
In this regard, it is important to distinguish between clinical death and
brain death:

• Clinical death refers to the few minutes after which all external signs
of life such as consciousness, heartbeat, breathing, reflexes, and brain
function are absent, but the metabolic processes of the body’s tissues
are continuing. In certain situations, it is possible to restore all the body’s
functions and bring the person back to life. Presumably during clinical
death, some people report so-called near-death experiences, such as Moving through a tunnel into a bright light is one of the most reported experiences
during NDE
moving down a long, dark tunnel towards a bright light at the end, a

466 467
pertaining to what it entails and the effect thereof on the individual, family, feeling of great spiritual peace, seeing landscapes that are breathtakingly
friends, and the community. beautiful, finding themselves outside their bodies, and meeting spirits of
family members or friends who have died previously (see Box 7.1 in this
7.2 WHAT IS DEATH? regard.)

Death is the end of life, the irreversible cessation of all vital functions of
Box 7.1 Near Death Experience
a person or organism. The scientific study of the medical, psychological,
social, legal, and other related aspects of death is called thanatology. A near death experience (NDE) is an unusual and profound psychological episode
experienced by a person who is either clinically dead, near death, or in a situation where
When does life end? In many circles, this question may be regarded as
death is expected. It is usually characterised by a sense of blissful peace, well-being,
unwarranted. The question may elicit answers such as “A person is dead and painlessness – a feeling of floating out of one’s body and observing it from above;
when he or she stops breathing” or even “A person is dead when a medical moving through a tunnel into a bright light; receiving knowledge and insight about the
doctor says he or she is dead”. These viewpoints are understandable when meaning of life and the universe; meeting people who are deceased (e.g. significant
others and religious figures such as Jesus, Mohammed, and angels); and a reluctance
considering that very few people have ever seen a dead person or a person to return to one’s body. However, negative experiences such as torture by demons and
dying. Largely, their knowledge is based on what they see on TV or in the other creatures have also been recounted. Although higher NDE prevalence is reported,
movies where death is portrayed very naively and is out of touch with reality. an expert from Oxford University, Michael Marsh (2016), provides a global figure of less
In essence, the question is extremely complicated and has led to than 1%.
NDE is clouded by controversy. One the one hand, believers view these
countless debates without producing an answer that is accepted 100% by
experiences as evidence for the existence of an afterlife, that ‘Heaven is for real’
everybody. One of the main reasons for this is that the stance of medical (title of a book on NDE by Burpo & Vincent, 2011). On the other hand, there is much
science has been clouded significantly and determined by other factors criticism from researcherscriticism from researchers and other scientists. In this regard,
such as politics, ethics, the law, and human rights. This means that a person Shermer (2013) states that people turn to supernatural explanations when the mind
may be legally dead in one country but not in another. This is even true suffers a vacuum of explanation. According to Shermer, NDE is proof of hallucination,
not heaven, nor the supernatural. Several medical researchers have also been able to
regarding the situation in the different states in the USA (Lemouse, 2017). reproduce or explain NDE symptoms (e.g. Borjigin, 2013; Lake, 2017; Li et al., 2015). For
The situation becomes especially complex in situations where it is literally example, stimulating specific parts of the brain, certain chemicals, and the reduction
a matter of life and death, such as when one party is about to benefit, but of oxygen can produce NDE symptoms. Another theory is that, close to death, people
enter a type of REM sleep, the type of sleep closest associated with normal dreams.
there is the possibility that another party could be harmed. For example,
In other words, NDE is just a form of dreaming (Nelson, 2010). Furthermore, it is also
in the case of organ donations, the life of a recipient could be saved if the possible that a person may appear dead to our senses or our scientific equipment, but
organ is transplanted within a few hours before the tissue of the organ may still be perceiving or be capable of conscious thought (Carroll, 2014).
become damaged. On the other hand, the family of the donor would want It is clear that it will take much more research to reach a conclusion on NDE. At
the same time we should also keep Nelson’s (2010; adapted) recommendation in mind:
an absolute guarantee that there is no hope for their loved one anymore and Unusual experiences and parapsychological phenomena should also be judged by the
that he or she is in fact dead. degree and extent of their effect on individuals – not only by what causes them.
In this regard, it is important to distinguish between clinical death and
brain death:

• Clinical death refers to the few minutes after which all external signs
of life such as consciousness, heartbeat, breathing, reflexes, and brain
function are absent, but the metabolic processes of the body’s tissues
are continuing. In certain situations, it is possible to restore all the body’s
functions and bring the person back to life. Presumably during clinical
death, some people report so-called near-death experiences, such as Moving through a tunnel into a bright light is one of the most reported experiences
during NDE
moving down a long, dark tunnel towards a bright light at the end, a

466 467
• Brain death usually is defined as the irreversible cessation of all the transplant of organs. More specifically: When are organs removed from
the body to be transplanted into another patient? The procedure is performed
functions of the entire brain, including the brainstem. This means there
is a complete absence of the heartbeat, respiratory functions, blood after total brain death has occurred, and before tissue deterioration sets in.
circulation, electrical activity, and digestive functions. In such case, the It goes without saying that the organs must be undamaged; therefore, time
patient is regarded as 100% dead (Thomson, 2015). In the case of brain is of the utmost importance. Somewhat different criteria for the maximum
death, the higher brain centres (cerebral cortex) die somewhat earlier time lapse between death declaration and organ transplantation are given in
than the lower brain centres (the brain stem). (The cerebral cortex, the literature. According to Thomson (2017), a surgeon at the Transplant Unit
the outer layer of the brain, controls conscious experience, including at the University of Cape Town, the following guidelines are used in South
memory, learning, planning, emotion, and thought. The brainstem is an Africa: about 4 hours to transplant a heart, 12 hours for a liver transplant,
area located at the base of the brain above the spinal cord. It maintains and 24 hours to transplant a kidney.
basic life support functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood Most medical doctors are of the opinion that both the higher and lower
pressure.) Therefore, although the higher brain centres are dead, the brain centres should have stopped functioning to meet the criteria of brain
person can still breathe and has a heartbeat. However, if the higher brain death. However, other experts argue that the criteria for brain death should
centres have been deprived of oxygen for more than 5 to 10 minutes, the include only the death of the higher brain centres (Santrock, 2015). They
individual will either never recover his or her mental and motor abilities, argue that the functions that are generally associated with being human
or recover them only with severe impairment (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). (see above for examples) are located in the higher brain centres. Therefore,
With or without the aid of a ventilator and other life support systems, when these functions are lost, the individual as a human being is no longer
such individuals can remain in a vegetative or comatose state for years. alive. However, technically, this means that the organs of such a person could
(The longest coma recorded in medical history was 42 years, after which be removed for transplant purposes before basic life support systems have
the patient died. The longest coma from which a person awoke was 19 stopped, which may cause a moral and ethical dilemma.
years.)

An interesting question resulting from this definition of death concerns REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. From the perspective of your specific culture or religion, when may a person be
considered dead? How does this correspond with the definition given in this
textbook? Do you agree with this definition?
2. What is clinical death? How does this differ from brain death?
3. What may the ethical dilemmas be regarding the transplant of an organ and the
death of a donor?
4. Discuss the issue of near death experience (NDE).

7.3 DEATH ANXIETY

Death anxiety refers to a person’s anxiety or fear of death and dying.

Death anxiety usually refers to a person’s fear of his or her own death or
dying process, but it could also include anxiety about of the death of other
significant persons such as family members.
Organ transplantation brought a new dimension to the definition of death

468 469
• Brain death usually is defined as the irreversible cessation of all the transplant of organs. More specifically: When are organs removed from
the body to be transplanted into another patient? The procedure is performed
functions of the entire brain, including the brainstem. This means there
is a complete absence of the heartbeat, respiratory functions, blood after total brain death has occurred, and before tissue deterioration sets in.
circulation, electrical activity, and digestive functions. In such case, the It goes without saying that the organs must be undamaged; therefore, time
patient is regarded as 100% dead (Thomson, 2015). In the case of brain is of the utmost importance. Somewhat different criteria for the maximum
death, the higher brain centres (cerebral cortex) die somewhat earlier time lapse between death declaration and organ transplantation are given in
than the lower brain centres (the brain stem). (The cerebral cortex, the literature. According to Thomson (2017), a surgeon at the Transplant Unit
the outer layer of the brain, controls conscious experience, including at the University of Cape Town, the following guidelines are used in South
memory, learning, planning, emotion, and thought. The brainstem is an Africa: about 4 hours to transplant a heart, 12 hours for a liver transplant,
area located at the base of the brain above the spinal cord. It maintains and 24 hours to transplant a kidney.
basic life support functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood Most medical doctors are of the opinion that both the higher and lower
pressure.) Therefore, although the higher brain centres are dead, the brain centres should have stopped functioning to meet the criteria of brain
person can still breathe and has a heartbeat. However, if the higher brain death. However, other experts argue that the criteria for brain death should
centres have been deprived of oxygen for more than 5 to 10 minutes, the include only the death of the higher brain centres (Santrock, 2015). They
individual will either never recover his or her mental and motor abilities, argue that the functions that are generally associated with being human
or recover them only with severe impairment (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). (see above for examples) are located in the higher brain centres. Therefore,
With or without the aid of a ventilator and other life support systems, when these functions are lost, the individual as a human being is no longer
such individuals can remain in a vegetative or comatose state for years. alive. However, technically, this means that the organs of such a person could
(The longest coma recorded in medical history was 42 years, after which be removed for transplant purposes before basic life support systems have
the patient died. The longest coma from which a person awoke was 19 stopped, which may cause a moral and ethical dilemma.
years.)

An interesting question resulting from this definition of death concerns REVIEW THIS SECTION
1. From the perspective of your specific culture or religion, when may a person be
considered dead? How does this correspond with the definition given in this
textbook? Do you agree with this definition?
2. What is clinical death? How does this differ from brain death?
3. What may the ethical dilemmas be regarding the transplant of an organ and the
death of a donor?
4. Discuss the issue of near death experience (NDE).

7.3 DEATH ANXIETY

Death anxiety refers to a person’s anxiety or fear of death and dying.

Death anxiety usually refers to a person’s fear of his or her own death or
dying process, but it could also include anxiety about of the death of other
significant persons such as family members.
Organ transplantation brought a new dimension to the definition of death

468 469
 Fear of death and awareness of mortality have been part of human The fear that they may fall into this category evokes intense fear of death
existence, but this phenomenon has been studied extensively only relatively in many people, even those who are deeply religious. However, religion
recently. Although death often brings release from physical and emotional can also have the opposite effect in that many people find that their faith
pain and most people believe that the spirit or soul is immortal with the significantly reduces their fear of death.
result that the afterlife is without pain or sorrow, the large majority still fear • Fear of the death of others. As mentioned in the beginning, death
it intensely. There are several reasons for this (Schulz & Ewen, 1993): anxiety is not limited to one’s own demise. Many people are also afraid
that they may lose a loved one and that they therefore have to experience
• Fear of physical suffering. The fear of terminal illnesses such as cancer psychological suffering, especially loneliness. Financial and caregiving
is especially prominent. For many people, the pain and even the removal concerns also play an important role (Momtaz et al., 2015). Each of the
of parts of their bodies (e.g. limbs and breasts) that are associated with fears discussed above could also be experienced regarding the death of
these illnesses are overwhelming. Dependency and loss of control that a loved one.
are often associated with illnesses and other forms of deterioration may
also result in fear. In extreme cases, some individuals develop thanatophobia, an abnormal
• Fear of isolation and loneliness. People often act strangely and and excessive fear of death and dying that could consume one’s thinking and
unnaturally towards dying persons because they do not know how to behaviour to such an extent that it becomes difficult to engage in normal
handle the situation. This could cause the dying person to feel ‘different’. daily activities with any pleasure. Topics about death dominate thought and
Many old people may develop a fear that they will be avoided and conversations, and in extreme cases, the person even refuses to leave the
therefore will become isolated and lonely when dying. home because of this fear. Several factors determine the occurrence and
• Fear of non-being. It is alleged that human beings are the only creatures intensity of death anxiety, for example:
on earth who live with the constant awareness that they will die some
day. This knowledge of our ultimate non-being can lead to intense ■ Age. Fear of death tends to change with age. Although young adults
anxiety. avoid thinking about death, there are times (e.g. when taken ill or
• Fear of cowardice and humiliation. Many people fear that they will when seriously injured in an accident) when they are most afraid
become cowards in the face of death. The result is that a ‘fear of fear that they may die too soon – before they can live out their dreams.
itself’ can develop. During middle adulthood, the fear of dying mostly centres around the
• Fear of failing to achieve important goals. Some people define effect that their possible death might have on their family members.
the length of their lives not in terms of years, but rather in terms of International researchers agree that most people in late adulthood are
accomplishments. For example, a person may say, “I really want to write less anxious about death than individuals in middle adulthood are, with
two more books before I die”; “I would like to see that all my debt is young adults falling somewhere in between (Bjorklund, 2014). This
paid before I die”; or even “I would love to see my grandchild’s wedding trend was also found in South Africa, even in a rural context (Mudau,
before I die.” Therefore, people may fear death because it will deprive 2012). Research also suggests developmental reasons why older adults
them of achievement. tend to have less acute symptoms of depression in the face of loss, in
• Fear of the effect of death on those who outlive you. Many people fear comparison with their younger counterparts (see Carr, 2016). Compared
the financial, psychological, and emotional effect that their death may with younger adults, older adults have reduced emotional reactivity
have on their loved ones and other survivors. For example, they may be and a better ability to manage their emotional states (as discussed in
worried that their loved ones are financially or emotionally too dependent Chapter 4). Consequently, their grief reactions are shorter lived and less
on them and that they will suffer a great deal when the person on whom intense. Emotional reactivity declines in late life because of a variety
they depend dies. of factors: biological reduction in autonomic arousal, better adjustment
• Fear of punishment or of the unknown. Some religions preach that to emotional life events, adherence to cultural norms that the elderly
sinners are doomed after death and, for example, will burn in Hell forever. should not be too emotional, and shifts in the relative value of emotion

470 471
 Fear of death and awareness of mortality have been part of human The fear that they may fall into this category evokes intense fear of death
existence, but this phenomenon has been studied extensively only relatively in many people, even those who are deeply religious. However, religion
recently. Although death often brings release from physical and emotional can also have the opposite effect in that many people find that their faith
pain and most people believe that the spirit or soul is immortal with the significantly reduces their fear of death.
result that the afterlife is without pain or sorrow, the large majority still fear • Fear of the death of others. As mentioned in the beginning, death
it intensely. There are several reasons for this (Schulz & Ewen, 1993): anxiety is not limited to one’s own demise. Many people are also afraid
that they may lose a loved one and that they therefore have to experience
• Fear of physical suffering. The fear of terminal illnesses such as cancer psychological suffering, especially loneliness. Financial and caregiving
is especially prominent. For many people, the pain and even the removal concerns also play an important role (Momtaz et al., 2015). Each of the
of parts of their bodies (e.g. limbs and breasts) that are associated with fears discussed above could also be experienced regarding the death of
these illnesses are overwhelming. Dependency and loss of control that a loved one.
are often associated with illnesses and other forms of deterioration may
also result in fear. In extreme cases, some individuals develop thanatophobia, an abnormal
• Fear of isolation and loneliness. People often act strangely and and excessive fear of death and dying that could consume one’s thinking and
unnaturally towards dying persons because they do not know how to behaviour to such an extent that it becomes difficult to engage in normal
handle the situation. This could cause the dying person to feel ‘different’. daily activities with any pleasure. Topics about death dominate thought and
Many old people may develop a fear that they will be avoided and conversations, and in extreme cases, the person even refuses to leave the
therefore will become isolated and lonely when dying. home because of this fear. Several factors determine the occurrence and
• Fear of non-being. It is alleged that human beings are the only creatures intensity of death anxiety, for example:
on earth who live with the constant awareness that they will die some
day. This knowledge of our ultimate non-being can lead to intense ■ Age. Fear of death tends to change with age. Although young adults
anxiety. avoid thinking about death, there are times (e.g. when taken ill or
• Fear of cowardice and humiliation. Many people fear that they will when seriously injured in an accident) when they are most afraid
become cowards in the face of death. The result is that a ‘fear of fear that they may die too soon – before they can live out their dreams.
itself’ can develop. During middle adulthood, the fear of dying mostly centres around the
• Fear of failing to achieve important goals. Some people define effect that their possible death might have on their family members.
the length of their lives not in terms of years, but rather in terms of International researchers agree that most people in late adulthood are
accomplishments. For example, a person may say, “I really want to write less anxious about death than individuals in middle adulthood are, with
two more books before I die”; “I would like to see that all my debt is young adults falling somewhere in between (Bjorklund, 2014). This
paid before I die”; or even “I would love to see my grandchild’s wedding trend was also found in South Africa, even in a rural context (Mudau,
before I die.” Therefore, people may fear death because it will deprive 2012). Research also suggests developmental reasons why older adults
them of achievement. tend to have less acute symptoms of depression in the face of loss, in
• Fear of the effect of death on those who outlive you. Many people fear comparison with their younger counterparts (see Carr, 2016). Compared
the financial, psychological, and emotional effect that their death may with younger adults, older adults have reduced emotional reactivity
have on their loved ones and other survivors. For example, they may be and a better ability to manage their emotional states (as discussed in
worried that their loved ones are financially or emotionally too dependent Chapter 4). Consequently, their grief reactions are shorter lived and less
on them and that they will suffer a great deal when the person on whom intense. Emotional reactivity declines in late life because of a variety
they depend dies. of factors: biological reduction in autonomic arousal, better adjustment
• Fear of punishment or of the unknown. Some religions preach that to emotional life events, adherence to cultural norms that the elderly
sinners are doomed after death and, for example, will burn in Hell forever. should not be too emotional, and shifts in the relative value of emotion

470 471
 versus cognition in late life. Another reason may be that, as they lose in the world.) In other words, do the various studies investigate the
relatives and friends through the years, they gradually restructure their same concept? Furthermore, what people say (especially concerning
cognitions and emotions to accept their own mortality (Papalia et al., ‘sensitive’ areas such as religion) and what their behaviour reflects are
2007). In addition, older adults are believed to possess wisdom, which often contradictory. Nonetheless, interesting research has been done in
may help to minimise loss-related distress; they may respond to adverse this field. For example, in a study of individuals in their late adulthood, it
life events with more composure and acceptance. It is interesting that was found that people who were not religious did not experience much
children of older people not only have higher death anxiety than their death anxiety, because they did not believe in an afterlife; thus, there
parents do, but also believe that their parents have a higher death is nothing to be afraid of. People who reported that they were deeply
anxiety than they really do (Sinoff, 2017). religious also did not have high death anxiety, believing that they were
As discussed in Chapter 4, Erik Erikson asserted that people going to Heaven where there is “no sorrow or pain”. The group with
progress through a series of life crises as they age. People who have the highest level of death anxiety were the moderately religious. They
coped successfully with all the previous crises attain ego integrity and believed in the existence of an afterlife, but were afraid that they might
therefore approach death with greater peace of mind than those who go to Hell (Wink & Scott, 2005).
do not achieve ego integrity. Therefore, according to Erikson’s theory, ■ Personality characteristics. It seems clear that certain personality
people with high ego integrity should have lower death anxiety. characteristics influence people’s fear of death. First, high self-esteem
■ Gender. Fear of death seems to be linked to gender. Several researchers may act as a buffer (protector) against death anxiety (Buzzanga et al.,
have found that women from various cultures show higher levels of 2013). This does not mean that individuals with relatively high self-esteem
death anxiety than men do (Drinkwater, 2016; Saini et al., 2016). Possible do not experience fear; rather, they have the belief and self-confidence
explanations for this occurrence are the following: (1) Women in general that they would be able to cope with the death situation once it arrives
have higher anxiety levels than men do (Remes et al., 2016; Rosch, 2016). (much in the same way that two students may approach an exam: the
(2) Differences in emotional expressiveness between the two genders one apprehensive but confident; the other lacking confidence to such
may be at the root of the differences between the genders, therefore an extent that it hampers his or her functioning). Second, psychological
women tend to view death in more emotional terms, whereas men tend problems, such as anxiety and depression, may contribute to death
to perceive death more cognitively (Depaola et al., 2003). (3) Men tend anxiety. This is understandable when the intrinsic symptoms of these two
to have higher self-esteem than women do and therefore have less fear disorders are considered: a high anxiety level and a tendency to feel over-
of death (American Psychological Association, 2016: Bleidorn et al., anxious in situations that normally should not evoke such a response, and
2016). depressive symptoms causing individuals to make proverbial mountains
■ Religion. The majority of studies have been done on the relationship out of molehills. Third, research indicates that there is a link between
between religion and death anxiety, while the related concept of death anxiety and a sense of purpose – the extent to which individuals
spirituality in this regard has received relatively little attention in research. feel that they have satisfying personal goals and believe that their lives
Thus, this discussion will focus on religiosity only. However, a general view have been worthwhile (Bjorklund 2014). For example, people who have
is that the correlation between death anxiety and religion is too complex a higher sense of purpose in life have a lower fear of death. Fourth,
to provide a simple and definitive answer (Jong & Halberstadt, 2017). and related to the previous finding, there seems to be a relationship
While a number of studies indicate that religion alleviates death anxiety, between death anxiety and life regret (Tomer & Eliason, 2005). People
other studies show that religion increases anxiety (see Ellis & Wahab, who score high on past-related regret (things that the individual did,
2013; Jong & Halberstadt, 2017). There are a number of reasons for these or neglected to do in the past) and future-related regret (things the
contradictory findings. For example, there are so many religions and individual may not be able to do in the future) also show higher levels of
so many differences within one religion that it is almost impossible to fear of death. Fifth, high self-efficacy indicates that a person deals with
define religion in such a way that research results could be comparable. life confidently and is associated with general psychological well-being.
(For example, there are almost 40 000 different Christian denominations Low self-efficacy can have a negative effect on motivation, interfere with

472 473
 versus cognition in late life. Another reason may be that, as they lose in the world.) In other words, do the various studies investigate the
relatives and friends through the years, they gradually restructure their same concept? Furthermore, what people say (especially concerning
cognitions and emotions to accept their own mortality (Papalia et al., ‘sensitive’ areas such as religion) and what their behaviour reflects are
2007). In addition, older adults are believed to possess wisdom, which often contradictory. Nonetheless, interesting research has been done in
may help to minimise loss-related distress; they may respond to adverse this field. For example, in a study of individuals in their late adulthood, it
life events with more composure and acceptance. It is interesting that was found that people who were not religious did not experience much
children of older people not only have higher death anxiety than their death anxiety, because they did not believe in an afterlife; thus, there
parents do, but also believe that their parents have a higher death is nothing to be afraid of. People who reported that they were deeply
anxiety than they really do (Sinoff, 2017). religious also did not have high death anxiety, believing that they were
As discussed in Chapter 4, Erik Erikson asserted that people going to Heaven where there is “no sorrow or pain”. The group with
progress through a series of life crises as they age. People who have the highest level of death anxiety were the moderately religious. They
coped successfully with all the previous crises attain ego integrity and believed in the existence of an afterlife, but were afraid that they might
therefore approach death with greater peace of mind than those who go to Hell (Wink & Scott, 2005).
do not achieve ego integrity. Therefore, according to Erikson’s theory, ■ Personality characteristics. It seems clear that certain personality
people with high ego integrity should have lower death anxiety. characteristics influence people’s fear of death. First, high self-esteem
■ Gender. Fear of death seems to be linked to gender. Several researchers may act as a buffer (protector) against death anxiety (Buzzanga et al.,
have found that women from various cultures show higher levels of 2013). This does not mean that individuals with relatively high self-esteem
death anxiety than men do (Drinkwater, 2016; Saini et al., 2016). Possible do not experience fear; rather, they have the belief and self-confidence
explanations for this occurrence are the following: (1) Women in general that they would be able to cope with the death situation once it arrives
have higher anxiety levels than men do (Remes et al., 2016; Rosch, 2016). (much in the same way that two students may approach an exam: the
(2) Differences in emotional expressiveness between the two genders one apprehensive but confident; the other lacking confidence to such
may be at the root of the differences between the genders, therefore an extent that it hampers his or her functioning). Second, psychological
women tend to view death in more emotional terms, whereas men tend problems, such as anxiety and depression, may contribute to death
to perceive death more cognitively (Depaola et al., 2003). (3) Men tend anxiety. This is understandable when the intrinsic symptoms of these two
to have higher self-esteem than women do and therefore have less fear disorders are considered: a high anxiety level and a tendency to feel over-
of death (American Psychological Association, 2016: Bleidorn et al., anxious in situations that normally should not evoke such a response, and
2016). depressive symptoms causing individuals to make proverbial mountains
■ Religion. The majority of studies have been done on the relationship out of molehills. Third, research indicates that there is a link between
between religion and death anxiety, while the related concept of death anxiety and a sense of purpose – the extent to which individuals
spirituality in this regard has received relatively little attention in research. feel that they have satisfying personal goals and believe that their lives
Thus, this discussion will focus on religiosity only. However, a general view have been worthwhile (Bjorklund 2014). For example, people who have
is that the correlation between death anxiety and religion is too complex a higher sense of purpose in life have a lower fear of death. Fourth,
to provide a simple and definitive answer (Jong & Halberstadt, 2017). and related to the previous finding, there seems to be a relationship
While a number of studies indicate that religion alleviates death anxiety, between death anxiety and life regret (Tomer & Eliason, 2005). People
other studies show that religion increases anxiety (see Ellis & Wahab, who score high on past-related regret (things that the individual did,
2013; Jong & Halberstadt, 2017). There are a number of reasons for these or neglected to do in the past) and future-related regret (things the
contradictory findings. For example, there are so many religions and individual may not be able to do in the future) also show higher levels of
so many differences within one religion that it is almost impossible to fear of death. Fifth, high self-efficacy indicates that a person deals with
define religion in such a way that research results could be comparable. life confidently and is associated with general psychological well-being.
(For example, there are almost 40 000 different Christian denominations Low self-efficacy can have a negative effect on motivation, interfere with

472 473
 cognitive abilities, and can have an adverse influence on physical health.
It is understandable that there is a relationship between low self-efficacy
• Denial. The first typical reaction to the possibility of one’s own death is
to deny it. For example, the person may say, “This is not possible. This
and a high death anxiety (Shokri & Akbari, 2016).
can’t be happening to me. There must be a mistake somewhere.” Such
denial serves as a buffer against a reality the individual cannot accept
Findings such as the above emphasise the fact that people who are
yet.
content and feel that they have succeeded in their goals cope with life – and
death – with greater calmness and less fear. Largely, adults deal with aspects
• Anger. The individual realises that death is approaching and often
expresses anger: “Why me? Many other people smoke, but don’t get
surrounding death in the same way they have dealt with other life changes
lung cancer.” The anger may be directed at other people – close relatives,
and dilemmas up to then.
the hospital staff, and even God – who are blamed for the individual’s
condition.
REVIEW THIS SECTION • Bargaining. During this stage, individuals try to negotiate, for example
with God, in an attempt to postpone their death. For example, they will
1. What is death anxiety? How does this differ from thanatophobia?
promise to live better lives if their lives are saved or if they can live a
2. What are the reasons why many people may experience death anxiety? while longer.
3. Discuss the factors that may determine the intensity of death anxiety. • Depression. When the dying person can no longer deny the illness, the
anger is replaced by a powerful feeling of loss, which may cause severe
depression. The person may withdraw and cry easily. According to
Kübler-Ross, people should not try to cheer up the patient. The person
7.4 STAGES OF DYING should be given the opportunity to work through the nearing death.

The person who has possibly made the greatest contribution to our
• Acceptance. The final stage of acceptance occurs when the person has
had adequate time and help in working through the previous stages.
understanding of the process of death and the needs of the dying person is
By this time, he or she has come to terms with the fact that death is
Elizabeth Kübler-Ross (1969). She believed that understanding death is the
inevitable. During this stage, the person may appear relatively without
key to personal growth and the realisation of human potential. She wrote:
feeling. People who are at this stage give the impression that they are
waiting quietly.
It is the denial of death that is partially responsible for (people) living
empty, purposeless lives; for when you live as if you’ll live forever, it
According to Kübler-Ross (1978) these
becomes too easy to postpone the things you know that you must do. In
stages do not always occur in the same
contrast, when you fully understand that each day you awaken could be
sequence. They often overlap, and not all
the last you have, you take the time that day to grow, to become aware of
individuals necessarily experience all the
who you really are, to reach out to other human beings. For only when we
stages. Kübler-Ross attempts to humanise
understand the real meaning of death to human existence will we have
dying by focusing on the needs and feelings
the courage to become what we are destined to be (pp. 164-165).
of the dying person. She encourages both
the patient and the family to express even
Kübler-Ross made us think about death. She also opened the door for
the most negative feelings, such as anger and
researchers to explore this mystifying and unfamiliar field. Kübler-Ross
depression, and to help them to view these as
spent many hours talking to the seriously ill and dying, and this led her to
necessary for the process of catharsis (release
formulate various stages in the process of dying. Although these stages are
of tension). This openness of communication
widely known as stages of dying, they actually refer to the various stages of Elizabeth Kübler-Ross
often comes as a relief to the dying patient.
reactions that individuals go through after learning of their impending death.

474 475
 cognitive abilities, and can have an adverse influence on physical health.
It is understandable that there is a relationship between low self-efficacy
• Denial. The first typical reaction to the possibility of one’s own death is
to deny it. For example, the person may say, “This is not possible. This
and a high death anxiety (Shokri & Akbari, 2016).
can’t be happening to me. There must be a mistake somewhere.” Such
denial serves as a buffer against a reality the individual cannot accept
Findings such as the above emphasise the fact that people who are
yet.
content and feel that they have succeeded in their goals cope with life – and
death – with greater calmness and less fear. Largely, adults deal with aspects
• Anger. The individual realises that death is approaching and often
expresses anger: “Why me? Many other people smoke, but don’t get
surrounding death in the same way they have dealt with other life changes
lung cancer.” The anger may be directed at other people – close relatives,
and dilemmas up to then.
the hospital staff, and even God – who are blamed for the individual’s
condition.
REVIEW THIS SECTION • Bargaining. During this stage, individuals try to negotiate, for example
with God, in an attempt to postpone their death. For example, they will
1. What is death anxiety? How does this differ from thanatophobia?
promise to live better lives if their lives are saved or if they can live a
2. What are the reasons why many people may experience death anxiety? while longer.
3. Discuss the factors that may determine the intensity of death anxiety. • Depression. When the dying person can no longer deny the illness, the
anger is replaced by a powerful feeling of loss, which may cause severe
depression. The person may withdraw and cry easily. According to
Kübler-Ross, people should not try to cheer up the patient. The person
7.4 STAGES OF DYING should be given the opportunity to work through the nearing death.

The person who has possibly made the greatest contribution to our
• Acceptance. The final stage of acceptance occurs when the person has
had adequate time and help in working through the previous stages.
understanding of the process of death and the needs of the dying person is
By this time, he or she has come to terms with the fact that death is
Elizabeth Kübler-Ross (1969). She believed that understanding death is the
inevitable. During this stage, the person may appear relatively without
key to personal growth and the realisation of human potential. She wrote:
feeling. People who are at this stage give the impression that they are
waiting quietly.
It is the denial of death that is partially responsible for (people) living
empty, purposeless lives; for when you live as if you’ll live forever, it
According to Kübler-Ross (1978) these
becomes too easy to postpone the things you know that you must do. In
stages do not always occur in the same
contrast, when you fully understand that each day you awaken could be
sequence. They often overlap, and not all
the last you have, you take the time that day to grow, to become aware of
individuals necessarily experience all the
who you really are, to reach out to other human beings. For only when we
stages. Kübler-Ross attempts to humanise
understand the real meaning of death to human existence will we have
dying by focusing on the needs and feelings
the courage to become what we are destined to be (pp. 164-165).
of the dying person. She encourages both
the patient and the family to express even
Kübler-Ross made us think about death. She also opened the door for
the most negative feelings, such as anger and
researchers to explore this mystifying and unfamiliar field. Kübler-Ross
depression, and to help them to view these as
spent many hours talking to the seriously ill and dying, and this led her to
necessary for the process of catharsis (release
formulate various stages in the process of dying. Although these stages are
of tension). This openness of communication
widely known as stages of dying, they actually refer to the various stages of Elizabeth Kübler-Ross
often comes as a relief to the dying patient.
reactions that individuals go through after learning of their impending death.

474 475
 Although it is accepted widely that Kübler-Ross’s stage theory of dying persons and their families. However, much more research is needed
dying has made an important contribution to our knowledge of death and before the final word on this interesting topic can be spoken.
dying, her theory has not been without criticism. Hall (2014, p. 2) states
that stage theories have “a certain seductive appeal – they bring a sense of
conceptual order to a complex process and offer the emotional promised
REVIEW THIS SECTION
land of ‘recovery’ and ‘closure’. However, they are incapable of capturing the
complexity, diversity, and idiosyncratic quality of the grieving experience. 1. Elizabeth Kübler-Ross is known for her contribution to the understanding of the
Stage models do not address the multiplicity of physical, psychological, process of death. What is her main assumption regarding death? What is her main
criticism regarding how people live their lives? How should people live their daily
social, and spiritual needs experienced by bereaved people, their families, lives, according to her?
and intimate networks.” More specifically, criticisms against her theory
2. Mary is 65 years old. She has been diagnosed with cancer. She has made lists of her
include the following (Jennings et al., 2017; Kastenbaum, 2011; Stroebe, et possessions, allocating what goes to her three children, and what has to be donated
al, 2017): to charity. She has drawn up a programme to be followed at her funeral, even
indicating the hymns that should be sung. According to Kübler-Ross, in which stage
of death may Mary be? What may Mary’s reactions have been in the other stages of
■ Individual and other differences do not receive the attention it deserves:
death suggested by Kübler-Ross?
– Just as people differ in their experience of life, so do they differ in
3. What criticisms have been lodged against Kübler-Ross’ model of the stages of
their experience of death. The aforementioned characteristics that death?
play a role in death anxiety (age, gender, religion, and personality)
can also be applied to the dying process.
– The experience of death is not the same for the victim of an accident,
a person with terminal cancer, a suicide, or someone who is dying of 7.5 THE RIGHT TO DIE
a heart attack.
– Cultural factors can have a significant influence on which stages of Consider the following South African court cases:
dying are experienced. Kübler-Ross did her research in a Western
and basically Christian culture, where the experience of death may • S v Hartmann 1975(3) SA 532 (C). The accused, a medical practitioner,
be different from that of many non-Western cultures. Especially in a was charged with the murder of his father, aged 87, who for many
country such as South Africa with its diversity of cultures and years had been suffering from cancer. The patient was very emaciated
subcultures, research in this regard could be informative. (skeletal due to severe weight loss), incontinent (could not control bowel
– The immediate environment of people can have a significant effect and bladder) and was on pain-killing drugs. There was no longer any
on their coping with death. A supportive and positive milieu could question of a cure. The accused was very close to his father and found
lead to a different experience of the dying process than an his father’s suffering unbearable. He injected him with a lethal narcotic
unsupportive and negative setting would. shortly before he would have died, in all likelihood. However, the accused
■ So much conflicting viewpoints and data exist that it is an open question was convicted of murder with extenuating circumstances, and received
whether it is justified to use the term ‘stages’, as it implies a set order a one-year suspended sentence (i.e. he did not go to jail but had to
of conditions. meet certain conditions for a year, especially that he would not commit a
■ It is well known that the methodology (interviews) that was used by similar offence). He was also suspended temporarily by the then Medical
Kübler-Ross could be subjective; that is, that another researcher could and Dental Council (the current Health Professions Council of South
have come to different conclusions. Africa).
• S v Nkwanyana [2002] JOL 10119 (W). The deceased was suffering from
Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that Kübler-Ross has made a significant anorexia nervosa and major depression. She confided to the accused that
contribution to our understanding of the quality of life and well-being of she found her emotional problems unbearable and that she consequently

476 477
 Although it is accepted widely that Kübler-Ross’s stage theory of dying persons and their families. However, much more research is needed
dying has made an important contribution to our knowledge of death and before the final word on this interesting topic can be spoken.
dying, her theory has not been without criticism. Hall (2014, p. 2) states
that stage theories have “a certain seductive appeal – they bring a sense of
conceptual order to a complex process and offer the emotional promised
REVIEW THIS SECTION
land of ‘recovery’ and ‘closure’. However, they are incapable of capturing the
complexity, diversity, and idiosyncratic quality of the grieving experience. 1. Elizabeth Kübler-Ross is known for her contribution to the understanding of the
Stage models do not address the multiplicity of physical, psychological, process of death. What is her main assumption regarding death? What is her main
criticism regarding how people live their lives? How should people live their daily
social, and spiritual needs experienced by bereaved people, their families, lives, according to her?
and intimate networks.” More specifically, criticisms against her theory
2. Mary is 65 years old. She has been diagnosed with cancer. She has made lists of her
include the following (Jennings et al., 2017; Kastenbaum, 2011; Stroebe, et possessions, allocating what goes to her three children, and what has to be donated
al, 2017): to charity. She has drawn up a programme to be followed at her funeral, even
indicating the hymns that should be sung. According to Kübler-Ross, in which stage
of death may Mary be? What may Mary’s reactions have been in the other stages of
■ Individual and other differences do not receive the attention it deserves:
death suggested by Kübler-Ross?
– Just as people differ in their experience of life, so do they differ in
3. What criticisms have been lodged against Kübler-Ross’ model of the stages of
their experience of death. The aforementioned characteristics that death?
play a role in death anxiety (age, gender, religion, and personality)
can also be applied to the dying process.
– The experience of death is not the same for the victim of an accident,
a person with terminal cancer, a suicide, or someone who is dying of 7.5 THE RIGHT TO DIE
a heart attack.
– Cultural factors can have a significant influence on which stages of Consider the following South African court cases:
dying are experienced. Kübler-Ross did her research in a Western
and basically Christian culture, where the experience of death may • S v Hartmann 1975(3) SA 532 (C). The accused, a medical practitioner,
be different from that of many non-Western cultures. Especially in a was charged with the murder of his father, aged 87, who for many
country such as South Africa with its diversity of cultures and years had been suffering from cancer. The patient was very emaciated
subcultures, research in this regard could be informative. (skeletal due to severe weight loss), incontinent (could not control bowel
– The immediate environment of people can have a significant effect and bladder) and was on pain-killing drugs. There was no longer any
on their coping with death. A supportive and positive milieu could question of a cure. The accused was very close to his father and found
lead to a different experience of the dying process than an his father’s suffering unbearable. He injected him with a lethal narcotic
unsupportive and negative setting would. shortly before he would have died, in all likelihood. However, the accused
■ So much conflicting viewpoints and data exist that it is an open question was convicted of murder with extenuating circumstances, and received
whether it is justified to use the term ‘stages’, as it implies a set order a one-year suspended sentence (i.e. he did not go to jail but had to
of conditions. meet certain conditions for a year, especially that he would not commit a
■ It is well known that the methodology (interviews) that was used by similar offence). He was also suspended temporarily by the then Medical
Kübler-Ross could be subjective; that is, that another researcher could and Dental Council (the current Health Professions Council of South
have come to different conclusions. Africa).
• S v Nkwanyana [2002] JOL 10119 (W). The deceased was suffering from
Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that Kübler-Ross has made a significant anorexia nervosa and major depression. She confided to the accused that
contribution to our understanding of the quality of life and well-being of she found her emotional problems unbearable and that she consequently

476 477
 wanted to die. She informed him that, previously on various occasions, In a personal communication with one of the present authors of this
she had attempted to take her life, but each time she had failed dismally book (Dap Louw) in 2017, Davison responded as follows to the question “If
and survived. She also told him that she had been admitted to hospitals you could turn back the clock, would you do it again?”: “Do I regret helping
(at times for long periods), but without any success. She then asked my mother to die? No, if I had not answered her desperate pleas for help, and
the accused to assist her in planning her death. At first, the accused, left her suffering for more days or weeks, I would certainly have regretted
realising the profound consequences and wrongfulness of such a pact, that for the rest of my life.”
refused, although he stated to the court that he was deeply sorry for her After serving his sentence, Davison returned to South Africa and to his
and it hurt him infinitely to see her undergoing such torture and untold wife and two small children. He still holds his position as professor. He is
misery. However, because of her suffering, he later succumbed and also president of the World Federation of the Right to Die Societies and the
bought an illegal gun in the township. After they had prayed together, he founder of Dignity South Africa, which wants to help overturn the country’s
shot her in the head once, killing her. He was found guilty of murder with prohibition of assisted suicide. The campaign received support in May 2015,
extenuating circumstances and received a five-year prison sentence that when the High Court in Pretoria granted a 65-year-old, cancer-suffering,
was suspended for five years. and terminally ill advocate the right to end his life with the help of a doctor.
• The Sean Davison case. In 2006, Sean Davison, a Cape Town university Ironically, he died two hours before the order was granted. However, the
professor in DNA Forensics, gave his mother (an 85-year-old former South African government appealed the decision and the Supreme Court of
psychiatrist living in New Zealand) an overdose of morphine on her Appeal set aside the order of the High Court of Pretoria.
request. “I’ve had enough, this is not life,” his mother, had repeatedly In September 2018 Davison was arrested in Cape Town in connection
told her four adult children from her sickbed. She had signed a living will with the 2013 death of 43-year-old medical doctor Anrich Burger‚ who was
requesting no antibiotics, no resuscitation, and no attempts to make her left a quadriplegic after an accident in 2005. When this book went to press
eat (see Box 7.2). Cancer had spread to her lungs, liver, and brain. She he was awaiting trial.
had lost the ability to read or move her limbs, and had got to the point
where she was not able to end her own life. “My mother was rotting in
her own bed, and that was very difficult to see,” Davison said. “I held
the glass to her lips and gently poured the liquid into her mouth. She
looked at me with a gentle smile. I said, ‘It is not how you planned it. It
is not what I planned. This is an event that will live long after you die.’
There was great relief after she had drunk it. I then sat at her bedside and
spoke about my earliest childhood memories. She loved hearing that. It
took about an hour before she lost the ability to talk and fell asleep. I too
had a nap for an hour. When I awoke, she was gone…”
A doctor certified her death as natural causes. There was no suspicion
at all. Davison kept a diary that he later published in the form of a book.
Then he received an unexpected e-mail from his sister, a medical doctor
who specialised in gerontology: “I will be informing the police that you
murdered our mother.” An unknown person sent a draft of the book
Davison wanted to publish to the police. This led to his arrest by New
Zealand authorities in 2010. During the trial, he received death threats
but also much support. (Women at the Court wore T-shirts reading:
Every mum should have a Sean.) He was sentenced to five months of Prof. Sean Davison and his late mother, dr. Patricia Ferguson

house arrest in New Zealand.

478 479
 wanted to die. She informed him that, previously on various occasions, In a personal communication with one of the present authors of this
she had attempted to take her life, but each time she had failed dismally book (Dap Louw) in 2017, Davison responded as follows to the question “If
and survived. She also told him that she had been admitted to hospitals you could turn back the clock, would you do it again?”: “Do I regret helping
(at times for long periods), but without any success. She then asked my mother to die? No, if I had not answered her desperate pleas for help, and
the accused to assist her in planning her death. At first, the accused, left her suffering for more days or weeks, I would certainly have regretted
realising the profound consequences and wrongfulness of such a pact, that for the rest of my life.”
refused, although he stated to the court that he was deeply sorry for her After serving his sentence, Davison returned to South Africa and to his
and it hurt him infinitely to see her undergoing such torture and untold wife and two small children. He still holds his position as professor. He is
misery. However, because of her suffering, he later succumbed and also president of the World Federation of the Right to Die Societies and the
bought an illegal gun in the township. After they had prayed together, he founder of Dignity South Africa, which wants to help overturn the country’s
shot her in the head once, killing her. He was found guilty of murder with prohibition of assisted suicide. The campaign received support in May 2015,
extenuating circumstances and received a five-year prison sentence that when the High Court in Pretoria granted a 65-year-old, cancer-suffering,
was suspended for five years. and terminally ill advocate the right to end his life with the help of a doctor.
• The Sean Davison case. In 2006, Sean Davison, a Cape Town university Ironically, he died two hours before the order was granted. However, the
professor in DNA Forensics, gave his mother (an 85-year-old former South African government appealed the decision and the Supreme Court of
psychiatrist living in New Zealand) an overdose of morphine on her Appeal set aside the order of the High Court of Pretoria.
request. “I’ve had enough, this is not life,” his mother, had repeatedly In September 2018 Davison was arrested in Cape Town in connection
told her four adult children from her sickbed. She had signed a living will with the 2013 death of 43-year-old medical doctor Anrich Burger‚ who was
requesting no antibiotics, no resuscitation, and no attempts to make her left a quadriplegic after an accident in 2005. When this book went to press
eat (see Box 7.2). Cancer had spread to her lungs, liver, and brain. She he was awaiting trial.
had lost the ability to read or move her limbs, and had got to the point
where she was not able to end her own life. “My mother was rotting in
her own bed, and that was very difficult to see,” Davison said. “I held
the glass to her lips and gently poured the liquid into her mouth. She
looked at me with a gentle smile. I said, ‘It is not how you planned it. It
is not what I planned. This is an event that will live long after you die.’
There was great relief after she had drunk it. I then sat at her bedside and
spoke about my earliest childhood memories. She loved hearing that. It
took about an hour before she lost the ability to talk and fell asleep. I too
had a nap for an hour. When I awoke, she was gone…”
A doctor certified her death as natural causes. There was no suspicion
at all. Davison kept a diary that he later published in the form of a book.
Then he received an unexpected e-mail from his sister, a medical doctor
who specialised in gerontology: “I will be informing the police that you
murdered our mother.” An unknown person sent a draft of the book
Davison wanted to publish to the police. This led to his arrest by New
Zealand authorities in 2010. During the trial, he received death threats
but also much support. (Women at the Court wore T-shirts reading:
Every mum should have a Sean.) He was sentenced to five months of Prof. Sean Davison and his late mother, dr. Patricia Ferguson

house arrest in New Zealand.

478 479
 Box 7.2 Living will of Prof Sean Davison’s late mother, Box 7.2 Living will of Prof Sean Davison’s late mother,
Dr. Patricia Ferguson Dr. Patricia Ferguson (continued)

480 481
 Box 7.2 Living will of Prof Sean Davison’s late mother, Box 7.2 Living will of Prof Sean Davison’s late mother,
Dr. Patricia Ferguson Dr. Patricia Ferguson (continued)

480 481
 To what extent should the process of intentionally and painlessly ending Euthanasia is also classified as active or passive euthanasia. Active
a life in order to relieve intractable pain and suffering – a practice known as euthanasia takes place when there is a deliberate act to end a person’s
euthanasia – be allowed? It is understandable that this controversial question life, for example, by giving the person a lethal injection. Passive euthanasia
has been asked since the earliest times and that the use of euthanasia occurs when a person is allowed to die by withholding medical and other
(Greek for ‘good death’) has been known for centuries. Even Sigmund Freud aids or facilities from the person.
at the age of 83 years requested his physician to administer a lethal dose of Several events in the last few decades have caused new interest in the
morphine, a wish that the physician honoured (Shapiro, 1978). At that stage, debate on euthanasia. For example, in the late 1980s, Dr Jack Kevorkian, a
Freud had been suffering from cancer of the jaw for 16 years, a situation physician in the USA, officially started offering his professional help to assist
that could apparently be attributed to his smoking of cigars. In the end, his Alzheimer’s and other terminal patients to die as painlessly and with as
jaw had been removed almost entirely and was replaced with an awkward much dignity as possible. His so-called ‘death machines’ that automatically
synthetic jaw. Consequently, Freud experienced intense pain (Edmundson, release a lethal drug when the patient pushes
2007). a button have elicited worldwide criticism. He
was prosecuted in several states in the USA
and served eight years in prison after being
found guilty of murder. However, Kevorkian
has also received support from millions of
people. Another important occurrence that
placed a new focus on euthanasia was when
the Netherlands in 2002 became the first
country to legalise voluntary active euthanasia
officially. The Netherlands was followed by
other countries such as Belgium, Luxembourg,
Dr Jack Kevorkian
Columbia, Switzerland, Canada, and Japan, as (also called “Dr Death”)
well as a few states in the USA.
Nevertheless, in all countries the preconditions are that euthanasia
should be conducted according to strict guidelines. For example:
Euthanasia has been a controversial concept for centuries

• The patient must have been in the doctor’s care already for some period.
Two main classifications of euthanasia have been identified. Voluntary • The patient must be terminally ill with no hope of recovery, and the
euthanasia occurs at the request of the person who wants to die. Examples suffering is unbearable.
are asking for professional help with dying or requesting that any medical • The patient must have made repeated, deliberate, and voluntary requests,
treatment or assistance (e.g. life support machines) to be stopped. Non- which she or he has discussed thoroughly with the doctor.
voluntary euthanasia is conducted when the person’s condition is such (e.g. • The patient selects the time and place, but can cancel his or her decision
in a coma) that it is impossible to obtain consent. In cases like these, the at any time.
person could have expressed the wish to die in a living will. Non-voluntary • The doctor must discuss the case with colleague(s) to ensure that the
euthanasia should not be confused with involuntary euthanasia where the necessary criteria have been met.
person’s life is ended without having given explicit permission or expressed
a wish to die. A mother who ends the life of her severely mentally and The procedure usually consists of the patient being administered a lethal
physically disabled child is an example. In most countries, including South narcotic intravenously. The patient goes to sleep and then dies (allegedly
Africa, the mother will most probably be charged with murder. painlessly) during sleep.

482 483
 To what extent should the process of intentionally and painlessly ending Euthanasia is also classified as active or passive euthanasia. Active
a life in order to relieve intractable pain and suffering – a practice known as euthanasia takes place when there is a deliberate act to end a person’s
euthanasia – be allowed? It is understandable that this controversial question life, for example, by giving the person a lethal injection. Passive euthanasia
has been asked since the earliest times and that the use of euthanasia occurs when a person is allowed to die by withholding medical and other
(Greek for ‘good death’) has been known for centuries. Even Sigmund Freud aids or facilities from the person.
at the age of 83 years requested his physician to administer a lethal dose of Several events in the last few decades have caused new interest in the
morphine, a wish that the physician honoured (Shapiro, 1978). At that stage, debate on euthanasia. For example, in the late 1980s, Dr Jack Kevorkian, a
Freud had been suffering from cancer of the jaw for 16 years, a situation physician in the USA, officially started offering his professional help to assist
that could apparently be attributed to his smoking of cigars. In the end, his Alzheimer’s and other terminal patients to die as painlessly and with as
jaw had been removed almost entirely and was replaced with an awkward much dignity as possible. His so-called ‘death machines’ that automatically
synthetic jaw. Consequently, Freud experienced intense pain (Edmundson, release a lethal drug when the patient pushes
2007). a button have elicited worldwide criticism. He
was prosecuted in several states in the USA
and served eight years in prison after being
found guilty of murder. However, Kevorkian
has also received support from millions of
people. Another important occurrence that
placed a new focus on euthanasia was when
the Netherlands in 2002 became the first
country to legalise voluntary active euthanasia
officially. The Netherlands was followed by
other countries such as Belgium, Luxembourg,
Dr Jack Kevorkian
Columbia, Switzerland, Canada, and Japan, as (also called “Dr Death”)
well as a few states in the USA.
Nevertheless, in all countries the preconditions are that euthanasia
should be conducted according to strict guidelines. For example:
Euthanasia has been a controversial concept for centuries

• The patient must have been in the doctor’s care already for some period.
Two main classifications of euthanasia have been identified. Voluntary • The patient must be terminally ill with no hope of recovery, and the
euthanasia occurs at the request of the person who wants to die. Examples suffering is unbearable.
are asking for professional help with dying or requesting that any medical • The patient must have made repeated, deliberate, and voluntary requests,
treatment or assistance (e.g. life support machines) to be stopped. Non- which she or he has discussed thoroughly with the doctor.
voluntary euthanasia is conducted when the person’s condition is such (e.g. • The patient selects the time and place, but can cancel his or her decision
in a coma) that it is impossible to obtain consent. In cases like these, the at any time.
person could have expressed the wish to die in a living will. Non-voluntary • The doctor must discuss the case with colleague(s) to ensure that the
euthanasia should not be confused with involuntary euthanasia where the necessary criteria have been met.
person’s life is ended without having given explicit permission or expressed
a wish to die. A mother who ends the life of her severely mentally and The procedure usually consists of the patient being administered a lethal
physically disabled child is an example. In most countries, including South narcotic intravenously. The patient goes to sleep and then dies (allegedly
Africa, the mother will most probably be charged with murder. painlessly) during sleep.

482 483
 As mentioned, euthanasia is a highly controversial concept – and much Table 7.1 South Africans’ attitude towards euthanasia
more complex than the average person believes. For example, imagine you Gender Age
Scale Total
find yourself in the following situation: You are a witness to a car accident. One Male Female 16-29 30-49 50+
of the cars bursts into flames and you can see that there is a man trapped inside Never 22,7 23,2 22,2 21,3 23,7 23,3
the car. However, the flames and heat are such that it is impossible to rescue justifiable
him. It is clear that the man is suffering excruciating pain. He is screaming 2 10,0 9,4 10,5 9,9 8,1 12,8
and begging you to please kill him. You carry a gun for self-protection. What 3 8,1 8,2 8,0 7,5 8,0 9,0
will you do? This case is based on an incident that took place in South Africa 4 7,9 8,2 7,6 8,3 8,1 7,2
in 1991. A medical doctor was trapped inside a burning car and bystanders
5 11,0 10,4 11,6 13,0 10,8 8,2
could not get him out. When the doctor’s body was engulfed in flames and
6 10,6 11,4 9,8 9,9 11,9 9,6
he started jerking, one person borrowed a gun from another bystander and
7 8,4 7,3 9,4 6,7 9,5 9,4
shot the unconscious doctor through his head. Ironically, no bullet wound
8 6,8 6,7 6,8 6,5 7,6 5,9
or bullet was found afterwards (one reason could be that the evidence was
destroyed in the fire). However, the shooter afterwards said that he was a 9 6,2 6,8 5,5 6,9 5,3 6,2
relatively good shot and so close when he pulled the trigger that he could Always 4,7 4,2 5,1 6,1 3,8 3,6
justifiable
not have missed.
Although the case referred to above could be regarded as extreme, Don’t 3,8 4,1 3,6 3,9 3,1 4,8
know
similar situations (although less dramatic) are common; for example, when
Total (3,531) (1,707) (1,824) (1,360) (1,303) (868)
an elderly person with cancer who experiences unbearable pain pleads with
her doctor and/or family to assist her to die. World Values Survey – South Africa 2013

What is the attitude of South Africans towards euthanasia? One of the

interesting findings in this regard is that there seems to be no significant The results in Table 7.1 indicate that gender and age do not necessarily
difference between the attitudes of people from different ethnic groups influence attitudes towards euthanasia significantly. However, an important
in South Africa. The researcher (Nortje, 2013, p. 79) gives the following finding is that, when compared with the results of a 1996 survey, it is clear
clarification for this somewhat unexpected finding: “The social reality that the attitude towards voluntary active euthanasia is in the process of
in South Africa is such that few Africans are untouched by the pressures changing: in 1996 almost 50% of South Africans regarded euthanasia as
and demands caused by a shift away from traditional beliefs, values, social ‘never justifiable’, while in 2013, the percentage was just more than 20%
structures, customs, and the influences of acculturation. Urbanisation and (World Values Survey, 1996; World Values Survey, 2013). These figures are
industrialisation have had a profound impact on family life amongst the similar to those reported in most countries in the Western World. These
different ethnic groups. Furthermore, the transformation process in South attitudes also seem to manifest in practice in countries where euthanasia is
Africa has led to the amalgamation of cultures, resulting in the loss of cultural allowed. For example, from 2003 to 2013, the number of reported cases of
identity and uniqueness.” This important explanation – that differences euthanasia in Belgium increased about eight times (Dierickz et al., 2016). In
between cultures in South Africa are becoming less significant – should the Netherlands, euthanasia cases increased with 75% between 2010 and
always be kept in mind. Table 7.1 provides some additional information on 2015 (Stärcke, 2016). Since the Netherlands also allow euthanasia in cases of
South Africans’ attitude towards euthanasia. (The results are presented on ‘unbearable psychiatric suffering’, it is noteworthy that cases for this reason
a sliding scale from 1-10, with Never Justifiable presented as 1 and Always also increased dramatically. However, the numbers were still relatively low
Justifiable as 10.) (from two in 2010 to 56 in 2015).
To opponents of euthanasia, this increase in euthanasia cases in Belgium
and the Netherlands is regarded as evidence for the ‘slippery slope’
argument. According to the slippery slope argument, if a ‘morally wrong’

484 485
 As mentioned, euthanasia is a highly controversial concept – and much Table 7.1 South Africans’ attitude towards euthanasia
more complex than the average person believes. For example, imagine you Gender Age
Scale Total
find yourself in the following situation: You are a witness to a car accident. One Male Female 16-29 30-49 50+
of the cars bursts into flames and you can see that there is a man trapped inside Never 22,7 23,2 22,2 21,3 23,7 23,3
the car. However, the flames and heat are such that it is impossible to rescue justifiable
him. It is clear that the man is suffering excruciating pain. He is screaming 2 10,0 9,4 10,5 9,9 8,1 12,8
and begging you to please kill him. You carry a gun for self-protection. What 3 8,1 8,2 8,0 7,5 8,0 9,0
will you do? This case is based on an incident that took place in South Africa 4 7,9 8,2 7,6 8,3 8,1 7,2
in 1991. A medical doctor was trapped inside a burning car and bystanders
5 11,0 10,4 11,6 13,0 10,8 8,2
could not get him out. When the doctor’s body was engulfed in flames and
6 10,6 11,4 9,8 9,9 11,9 9,6
he started jerking, one person borrowed a gun from another bystander and
7 8,4 7,3 9,4 6,7 9,5 9,4
shot the unconscious doctor through his head. Ironically, no bullet wound
8 6,8 6,7 6,8 6,5 7,6 5,9
or bullet was found afterwards (one reason could be that the evidence was
destroyed in the fire). However, the shooter afterwards said that he was a 9 6,2 6,8 5,5 6,9 5,3 6,2
relatively good shot and so close when he pulled the trigger that he could Always 4,7 4,2 5,1 6,1 3,8 3,6
justifiable
not have missed.
Although the case referred to above could be regarded as extreme, Don’t 3,8 4,1 3,6 3,9 3,1 4,8
know
similar situations (although less dramatic) are common; for example, when
Total (3,531) (1,707) (1,824) (1,360) (1,303) (868)
an elderly person with cancer who experiences unbearable pain pleads with
her doctor and/or family to assist her to die. World Values Survey – South Africa 2013

What is the attitude of South Africans towards euthanasia? One of the

interesting findings in this regard is that there seems to be no significant The results in Table 7.1 indicate that gender and age do not necessarily
difference between the attitudes of people from different ethnic groups influence attitudes towards euthanasia significantly. However, an important
in South Africa. The researcher (Nortje, 2013, p. 79) gives the following finding is that, when compared with the results of a 1996 survey, it is clear
clarification for this somewhat unexpected finding: “The social reality that the attitude towards voluntary active euthanasia is in the process of
in South Africa is such that few Africans are untouched by the pressures changing: in 1996 almost 50% of South Africans regarded euthanasia as
and demands caused by a shift away from traditional beliefs, values, social ‘never justifiable’, while in 2013, the percentage was just more than 20%
structures, customs, and the influences of acculturation. Urbanisation and (World Values Survey, 1996; World Values Survey, 2013). These figures are
industrialisation have had a profound impact on family life amongst the similar to those reported in most countries in the Western World. These
different ethnic groups. Furthermore, the transformation process in South attitudes also seem to manifest in practice in countries where euthanasia is
Africa has led to the amalgamation of cultures, resulting in the loss of cultural allowed. For example, from 2003 to 2013, the number of reported cases of
identity and uniqueness.” This important explanation – that differences euthanasia in Belgium increased about eight times (Dierickz et al., 2016). In
between cultures in South Africa are becoming less significant – should the Netherlands, euthanasia cases increased with 75% between 2010 and
always be kept in mind. Table 7.1 provides some additional information on 2015 (Stärcke, 2016). Since the Netherlands also allow euthanasia in cases of
South Africans’ attitude towards euthanasia. (The results are presented on ‘unbearable psychiatric suffering’, it is noteworthy that cases for this reason
a sliding scale from 1-10, with Never Justifiable presented as 1 and Always also increased dramatically. However, the numbers were still relatively low
Justifiable as 10.) (from two in 2010 to 56 in 2015).
To opponents of euthanasia, this increase in euthanasia cases in Belgium
and the Netherlands is regarded as evidence for the ‘slippery slope’
argument. According to the slippery slope argument, if a ‘morally wrong’

484 485
practice is employed, it will inevitably lead (‘down the slippery slope’) to an was found that they were mostly in favour of euthanasia (Boshoff, 2007).
abuse of the practice that cannot be stopped; for example, that people with However, the South African Medical Association (2015), representing the
disabilities could be euthanised against their will (like in Nazi Germany). majority of medical doctors in South Africa, does not support euthanasia
However, supporters of euthanasia have counterarguments, for example but rather palliative care. Palliative care is a specialised multidisciplinary
that the mentioned increase is very small and does not occur everywhere. approach that focuses on care for people with serious illness. The goal is to
They also argue that an increase in euthanasia cases is ‘normal’ after the improve quality of life for both the patient and the family.
‘gates to euthanasia have been opened’ and that the number of euthanasia Whatever the arguments and counterarguments, the fact remains
cases will reach a saturation point. that at the time of writing this book (2018), euthanasia remains illegal in
Arguments for and against euthanasia are countless and loaded with South Africa. However, it is believed widely that legislation in this regard
intense emotion that often defeats logic. For every argument, there is will eventually change; whether it will be in the near future remains to be
a counterargument. For example, on the one hand, most religions are seen. However, it is noteworthy that in South Africa, patients have the right
opposed to euthanasia. A basic viewpoint in Christianity (the largest religion to refuse treatment. For example, a person who has cancer may choose
in the world and in South Africa) is that God created life and only God can whether he or she wants to undergo chemo or radiation therapy.
terminate life. “Birth and death are part of the life processes which God has Although there is a tendency to accept passive euthanasia in the case
created, so we should respect them” (Institute of Catholic Bioethics, 2011). of terminally ill patients who suffer unbearable pain, there are still many
Thus, to kill an innocent person is a sin. On the other hand, high-ranking unanswered questions in this regard. For example, does the family of a
officials of various religions are supporters of euthanasia. The well-known terminally ill and comatose patient have the right to override the decision of
South African religious leader and Nobel Prize winner Desmond Tutu stated, the physician to continue keeping the patient alive? In addition, as we know
“I believe in the sanctity of life. I know that we will all die and that death that people frequently change their minds, what is the situation if a patient
is a part of life. Terminally ill people have control over their lives, so why changes his or her mind, but is unable to communicate that change?
should they be refused control over their deaths? Why are so many instead A similar question that is asked often is whether a terminally ill person
forced to endure terrible pain and suffering against their wishes?” (https:// is always really able to make logical and meaningful decisions cognitively
www.youtube.com/watch?v=lsgeBb990ho). Along the same line, most and judiciously. To solve this problem, the so-called living will was created.
religions feel very strongly that medical professionals ‘must not play God’, to This document is compiled while the person is still cognitively, emotionally,
which the pro-euthanasians reply, “But doctors do that every day by saving and judicially sound, and its aim is to inform the person’s family, physician,
people’s lives who would have died had they (the doctors) not interfered. lawyer, and all others concerned of his or her wishes, should a situation arise
Are they not interfering with God’s plan?” where euthanasia is a possibility. Box 7.3 provides an example of such a
What is the attitude of medical professionals with regard to euthanasia? document.
Surveys in this regard should be interpreted with caution. Because of Although a South African Voluntary Euthanasia Society (the acronym is
reasons such as fear of public opinion and the fact that euthanasia is illegal ironically SAVES) that promotes the concept of the living will was founded
in countries such as South Africa, many professionals may be cautious to already in 1974, there is at present no law in South Africa regarding the
reveal their attitudes or experiences, even though anonymity is promised. validity or enforcement of such a will. This means that the wish of the patient
However, it is generally accepted that both active and passive euthanasia is not legally binding and that the patient’s doctor and/or family may refuse
are used worldwide, whether it is legalised or not, and to a much greater to adhere to the wishes expressed in his or her living will. However, The
extent that many people would want to believe. For example, in a survey South African Law Reform Commission completed the Report on Euthanasia
conducted by the Medical Association of South Africa, it was found that 58% and the Artificial Preservation of Life in 1998. It was handed to the Minister of
of doctors had been involved in passive euthanasia, 12% had been involved Health who (at the time of publication of this book in 2018) has yet to bring
in active euthanasia, and 9% had been involved in some sort of physician- the report before Parliament. Therefore, it could be expected that Parliament
assisted suicide for terminally ill patients (Southern Africa Report, 1996). at some stage in the future will have to make a decision concerning this
In a study involving more than 200 medical doctors from the Free State, it controversial aspect.

486 487
practice is employed, it will inevitably lead (‘down the slippery slope’) to an was found that they were mostly in favour of euthanasia (Boshoff, 2007).
abuse of the practice that cannot be stopped; for example, that people with However, the South African Medical Association (2015), representing the
disabilities could be euthanised against their will (like in Nazi Germany). majority of medical doctors in South Africa, does not support euthanasia
However, supporters of euthanasia have counterarguments, for example but rather palliative care. Palliative care is a specialised multidisciplinary
that the mentioned increase is very small and does not occur everywhere. approach that focuses on care for people with serious illness. The goal is to
They also argue that an increase in euthanasia cases is ‘normal’ after the improve quality of life for both the patient and the family.
‘gates to euthanasia have been opened’ and that the number of euthanasia Whatever the arguments and counterarguments, the fact remains
cases will reach a saturation point. that at the time of writing this book (2018), euthanasia remains illegal in
Arguments for and against euthanasia are countless and loaded with South Africa. However, it is believed widely that legislation in this regard
intense emotion that often defeats logic. For every argument, there is will eventually change; whether it will be in the near future remains to be
a counterargument. For example, on the one hand, most religions are seen. However, it is noteworthy that in South Africa, patients have the right
opposed to euthanasia. A basic viewpoint in Christianity (the largest religion to refuse treatment. For example, a person who has cancer may choose
in the world and in South Africa) is that God created life and only God can whether he or she wants to undergo chemo or radiation therapy.
terminate life. “Birth and death are part of the life processes which God has Although there is a tendency to accept passive euthanasia in the case
created, so we should respect them” (Institute of Catholic Bioethics, 2011). of terminally ill patients who suffer unbearable pain, there are still many
Thus, to kill an innocent person is a sin. On the other hand, high-ranking unanswered questions in this regard. For example, does the family of a
officials of various religions are supporters of euthanasia. The well-known terminally ill and comatose patient have the right to override the decision of
South African religious leader and Nobel Prize winner Desmond Tutu stated, the physician to continue keeping the patient alive? In addition, as we know
“I believe in the sanctity of life. I know that we will all die and that death that people frequently change their minds, what is the situation if a patient
is a part of life. Terminally ill people have control over their lives, so why changes his or her mind, but is unable to communicate that change?
should they be refused control over their deaths? Why are so many instead A similar question that is asked often is whether a terminally ill person
forced to endure terrible pain and suffering against their wishes?” (https:// is always really able to make logical and meaningful decisions cognitively
www.youtube.com/watch?v=lsgeBb990ho). Along the same line, most and judiciously. To solve this problem, the so-called living will was created.
religions feel very strongly that medical professionals ‘must not play God’, to This document is compiled while the person is still cognitively, emotionally,
which the pro-euthanasians reply, “But doctors do that every day by saving and judicially sound, and its aim is to inform the person’s family, physician,
people’s lives who would have died had they (the doctors) not interfered. lawyer, and all others concerned of his or her wishes, should a situation arise
Are they not interfering with God’s plan?” where euthanasia is a possibility. Box 7.3 provides an example of such a
What is the attitude of medical professionals with regard to euthanasia? document.
Surveys in this regard should be interpreted with caution. Because of Although a South African Voluntary Euthanasia Society (the acronym is
reasons such as fear of public opinion and the fact that euthanasia is illegal ironically SAVES) that promotes the concept of the living will was founded
in countries such as South Africa, many professionals may be cautious to already in 1974, there is at present no law in South Africa regarding the
reveal their attitudes or experiences, even though anonymity is promised. validity or enforcement of such a will. This means that the wish of the patient
However, it is generally accepted that both active and passive euthanasia is not legally binding and that the patient’s doctor and/or family may refuse
are used worldwide, whether it is legalised or not, and to a much greater to adhere to the wishes expressed in his or her living will. However, The
extent that many people would want to believe. For example, in a survey South African Law Reform Commission completed the Report on Euthanasia
conducted by the Medical Association of South Africa, it was found that 58% and the Artificial Preservation of Life in 1998. It was handed to the Minister of
of doctors had been involved in passive euthanasia, 12% had been involved Health who (at the time of publication of this book in 2018) has yet to bring
in active euthanasia, and 9% had been involved in some sort of physician- the report before Parliament. Therefore, it could be expected that Parliament
assisted suicide for terminally ill patients (Southern Africa Report, 1996). at some stage in the future will have to make a decision concerning this
In a study involving more than 200 medical doctors from the Free State, it controversial aspect.

486 487
 Box 7.3 Example of a Living Will REVIEW THIS SECTION
TO MY FAMILY AND MY PHYSICIAN:
This is a Living Will of me (name and identity number of testator) 1. Consider the cases presented in this section. Do you think that the accused in the
…………………………………………... .................…………………………………….....................…, presently various cases acted correctly or wrongfully? Give reasons for your opinions.
domiciled and resident at (specify) ………….............………………………………………………….…, 2. Define the following concepts: (1) Euthanasia; (2) Voluntary euthanasia; (3) Non-
being of sound mind and after careful consideration, I make the following declaration: voluntary euthanasia; (4) Involuntary euthanasia; (5) Active euthanasia; (6) Passive
euthanasia; (7) Palliative care.
1. Non-revocation
3. Several countries have legalised euthanasia. What are the preconditions for this?
This Living Will does not revoke any previous Will made by me.
What procedure is usually followed?
2. Interpretation 4. Discuss the different attitudes and beliefs in favour of and against euthanasia.
In this living Will:
5. How widespread is the use of euthanasia by the medical profession? What is the
2.1 ‘doctors’ means any one or more of the medical practitioners who may have been
view of the South African Medical Association in this regard?
or may be called upon to examine me and to give a prognosis of my medical
condition; 6. Do you agree with the tendency to accept passive euthanasia in the case of terminally
2.2 ‘systems’ means any mechanical or artificial life support systems or the use of ill patients, who suffer unbearable pain? What counterarguments or questions may
drugs. come to mind in this regard?
7. What is a living will? Do you think that such a document should be legalised in
3. Incapability of decisions South Africa? Give reasons for your answer.
Should I no longer be capable of making decisions for my own future and should
my physical and/or mental condition deteriorate to such an extent that there is no
reasonable prospect of my recovery from physical illness or impairment, which is
expected to cause me severe distress or to render me incapable of rational existence,
I request that:
3.1 I be allowed to die. I further request that no systems be used in order to keep me
7.6 GRIEF, BEREAVEMENT, AND MOURNING
alive in circumstances where, but for the use of such systems, I would have died;
3.2 I be given whatever quantity of drugs that may be required to keep me free from Loss and the resulting grief are fundamental to human life. Owing to new
pain or distress, even if the moment of death is hastened. research during the last few decades, the field of grief has undergone a
4. Exemption
transformational change in terms of how the human experience of loss is
It is my express wish that my doctors or members of my family who carry out my understood (Hall, 2014). ‘Grief’, ‘bereavement’, and ‘mourning’ are terms
aforegoing requests be fully exonerated and exempt from all blame or liability arising that are often used as synonyms. However, there is a distinction between
from their use of or their failure to use or their decision to terminate the use of any the three concepts:
systems.
Grief is defined as the normal emotional reaction to a significant loss.
SIGNED by me at (place) …………………………....……… on (date) ………….................……, in the Although grief is used generally to refer to the death of a loved one, in
presence of the undersigned witnesses, all being present at the same time. psychology, it also refers to emotional losses such as divorce, breakup of
a relationship, or even a job loss. In this chapter, grief will be used to refer
AS WITNESSES:
to the emotional reaction to the death of a loved one. Bereavement is the
1 .............…………………………………… period after a loss during which grief is experienced. Mourning is the process
of adapting to the changes created by the loss. It is often described as the
2.............…………………………………… .............……………………………………
(Signatures of witnesses) (Signature of testator)
outward expression of grief. While grief is more internal, mourning is more
external. Mourning is also influenced by cultural customs, rituals, and the
rules of society for coping with loss. (See Box 7.4).
Based on South African Registry of Wills and Testaments (2013).

488 489
 Box 7.3 Example of a Living Will REVIEW THIS SECTION
TO MY FAMILY AND MY PHYSICIAN:
This is a Living Will of me (name and identity number of testator) 1. Consider the cases presented in this section. Do you think that the accused in the
…………………………………………... .................…………………………………….....................…, presently various cases acted correctly or wrongfully? Give reasons for your opinions.
domiciled and resident at (specify) ………….............………………………………………………….…, 2. Define the following concepts: (1) Euthanasia; (2) Voluntary euthanasia; (3) Non-
being of sound mind and after careful consideration, I make the following declaration: voluntary euthanasia; (4) Involuntary euthanasia; (5) Active euthanasia; (6) Passive
euthanasia; (7) Palliative care.
1. Non-revocation
3. Several countries have legalised euthanasia. What are the preconditions for this?
This Living Will does not revoke any previous Will made by me.
What procedure is usually followed?
2. Interpretation 4. Discuss the different attitudes and beliefs in favour of and against euthanasia.
In this living Will:
5. How widespread is the use of euthanasia by the medical profession? What is the
2.1 ‘doctors’ means any one or more of the medical practitioners who may have been
view of the South African Medical Association in this regard?
or may be called upon to examine me and to give a prognosis of my medical
condition; 6. Do you agree with the tendency to accept passive euthanasia in the case of terminally
2.2 ‘systems’ means any mechanical or artificial life support systems or the use of ill patients, who suffer unbearable pain? What counterarguments or questions may
drugs. come to mind in this regard?
7. What is a living will? Do you think that such a document should be legalised in
3. Incapability of decisions South Africa? Give reasons for your answer.
Should I no longer be capable of making decisions for my own future and should
my physical and/or mental condition deteriorate to such an extent that there is no
reasonable prospect of my recovery from physical illness or impairment, which is
expected to cause me severe distress or to render me incapable of rational existence,
I request that:
3.1 I be allowed to die. I further request that no systems be used in order to keep me
7.6 GRIEF, BEREAVEMENT, AND MOURNING
alive in circumstances where, but for the use of such systems, I would have died;
3.2 I be given whatever quantity of drugs that may be required to keep me free from Loss and the resulting grief are fundamental to human life. Owing to new
pain or distress, even if the moment of death is hastened. research during the last few decades, the field of grief has undergone a
4. Exemption
transformational change in terms of how the human experience of loss is
It is my express wish that my doctors or members of my family who carry out my understood (Hall, 2014). ‘Grief’, ‘bereavement’, and ‘mourning’ are terms
aforegoing requests be fully exonerated and exempt from all blame or liability arising that are often used as synonyms. However, there is a distinction between
from their use of or their failure to use or their decision to terminate the use of any the three concepts:
systems.
Grief is defined as the normal emotional reaction to a significant loss.
SIGNED by me at (place) …………………………....……… on (date) ………….................……, in the Although grief is used generally to refer to the death of a loved one, in
presence of the undersigned witnesses, all being present at the same time. psychology, it also refers to emotional losses such as divorce, breakup of
a relationship, or even a job loss. In this chapter, grief will be used to refer
AS WITNESSES:
to the emotional reaction to the death of a loved one. Bereavement is the
1 .............…………………………………… period after a loss during which grief is experienced. Mourning is the process
of adapting to the changes created by the loss. It is often described as the
2.............…………………………………… .............……………………………………
(Signatures of witnesses) (Signature of testator)
outward expression of grief. While grief is more internal, mourning is more
external. Mourning is also influenced by cultural customs, rituals, and the
rules of society for coping with loss. (See Box 7.4).
Based on South African Registry of Wills and Testaments (2013).

488 489
 Box 7.4 Bereavement in different traditional Box 7.4 Bereavement in different traditional
ethnic groups in South Africa ethnic groups in South Africa (continued)
In the Western culture, the bereaved are encouraged to cut off the connection with the • Zulu culture. The amaZulu (Zulu people) tend to focus on the rituals that form part
dead in order to begin a process of healing. On the other hand, most African cultures of the burial process in order to deal with the death of a loved one; hence, the focus
encourage the bereaved to preserve the connection between the deceased and the living. is less on dealing with the emotional aspects. The reason why traditional amaZulu
However, the different ethnic groups may handle the bereavement process differently. tend to focus on the ritual aspects is to avoid being consumed emotionally. By being
For example, in Limpopo, the Northern Sotho speakers report the use of traditional herbs involved in a variety of rituals, there is more of a chance to move the attention away
in managing the pain of grief and bereavement. A particular herb is used to ease the pain avoid transferring from difficulties associated in dealing with the death of a loved
of grief by causing the affected individual to forget the painful memories associated with one. When the people come back from the graveside, they are expected to wash
the deceased (Makgahlela & Sodi, 2017). The following is a short summary indicating the their hands to avoid transferring the pollution of death around. After this process, a
differences and similarities among the Tswana, Xhosa and Zulu ethnic groups: meal is offered for the bereaved and those present to support the bereaved. In some
• Tswana culture. During bereavement, on the day of the funeral, the traditional cases, a goat or cow may be slaughtered, which is done in honour of the deceased’s
Tswana people slaughter an ox, called mogage, at sunrise. The meat of the ox is life. After the burial of their loved one, the amaZulu are expected to shave their
consumed without any salt. This is to indicate that there is no pleasure in consuming heads; if not entirely, a small section of their hair is cut off. After the hair-cutting
the meat, as the family is in mourning. During mourning, the mourners are required ritual, it is burnt along with clothing items that belonged to the deceased. This is
to adorn themselves with a grass necklace and shave their heads. A special value is practised to purify the mourners from the contamination of death. During the period
attached to the shaving hair ritual: that of cleansing in order for one to be purified of bereavement, the widow is not allowed to travel outside her home for a specified
from the spirits and darkness associated with death, as well as the removal of bad period in accordance with the family’s requirements. The reason why the widow is
luck and fear. It is also believed that they will reach a state of wholeness whereby restricted to stay in her house is to avoid spreading misfortunes associated with
they will be able to move on with life and be able to function within their families death. After a few months of mourning (as set out by the family), an elder uncle
and within the broader community after the period of mourning has passed. The facilitates the process of cleansing. This is done by giving the widow cleansing herbs
length of the mourning phase does not exceed a year. After this period has passed, to purify herself, as well as the bereaved and the possessions of the deceased.
an uncle of the family (malome) facilitates the cleansing ceremony. Cleansing herbs • Similarities and differences in the bereavement practices of the three ethnic
are applied on the mourners. The uncle is also in charge of giving the mourners new groups: All three ethnic groups share in the belief of the existence of life after death;
clothing items, food, and drink. hence, they all believe in the connection between the living and the deceased.
• Xhosa culture. Within the first twelve months of mourning, the bereaved Xhosa Before the burial, the Xhosa and the Zulu partake in the ritual of slaughtering a
individuals are required to go through certain cultural customs arranged for cow and a goat. This is contrary to the Tswana people, who partake in the ritual of
bereavement. An example is that the bereaved individuals are expected to shave slaughtering a sheep, as it is considered a symbol of tranquillity. A few days after the
their heads to indicate their mourning of their loved one. One of the rituals that are burial in all three ethnic groups, members of the community who could not attend
performed is that of umkhapho (to accompany), which involves the slaughtering of the funeral are urged to visit the bereaved and offer words of encouragement. In
a cow in the morning. The goal of this ritual is to escort (ukukhapha) the departed general, the three ethnic groups seem not to differ much in their bereavement
to the place of their forefathers; more specifically, to assist in making a smooth processes. All the cultural groups seem to view the bereavement process similarly;
transition to the place of the forefathers but also to allow for a smooth transition consisting mainly of rituals conducted during this period. In addition, what seems to
when the deceased comes back later. In most cases, the male group conducts this be central in their bereavement process is the involvement of family members and
procedure. The aim of the umkhapho is to maintain the connection between the community members. In all three ethnic groups, the mourning period ends after a
departed and the living so that the departed are able to come back later. At some year (for children the period is three months) whereby the family members of the
stage, a cow or goat may be slaughtered. The mourning period may continue until deceased all partake in the ritual of burning the clothes of the deceased. In all three
the umbuyiso ritual is completed. This ritual involves the slaughtering of a cow in ethnic groups, there is limited freedom of movement whereby the bereaved are not
the afternoon. Umbuyiso can be defined as returning the spirit of the deceased back allowed to go to certain areas during certain times; for example, they are not allowed
home. This process may take place a year after the deceased has passed on. When to party or visit friends. In all three ethnic groups, there is an expectation for the
considering the rituals of the umkhapho and umbuyiso, the traditional Xhosa are bereaved to wear mourning attire, which is black in most contexts.
able to keep the connection with the deceased and they are able to move on with
their lives.

About 40 years ago, two British psychiatrists, Bowlby and Parkes (1970),
• Numbness. This phase is characterised by dull emotions, while feelings
of unreality, confusion, and disbelief are prominent, together with an
described four phases and patterns of grieving that are still widely used
inability to comprehend the loss fully. This is evident in the form of
(Parkes, 2010. Also see Corr & Corr, 2012; Sigelman & Rider, 2009):
expressions such as “I don’t believe it”, “It can’t be happening”, and “It
490 491
 Box 7.4 Bereavement in different traditional Box 7.4 Bereavement in different traditional
ethnic groups in South Africa ethnic groups in South Africa (continued)
In the Western culture, the bereaved are encouraged to cut off the connection with the • Zulu culture. The amaZulu (Zulu people) tend to focus on the rituals that form part
dead in order to begin a process of healing. On the other hand, most African cultures of the burial process in order to deal with the death of a loved one; hence, the focus
encourage the bereaved to preserve the connection between the deceased and the living. is less on dealing with the emotional aspects. The reason why traditional amaZulu
However, the different ethnic groups may handle the bereavement process differently. tend to focus on the ritual aspects is to avoid being consumed emotionally. By being
For example, in Limpopo, the Northern Sotho speakers report the use of traditional herbs involved in a variety of rituals, there is more of a chance to move the attention away
in managing the pain of grief and bereavement. A particular herb is used to ease the pain avoid transferring from difficulties associated in dealing with the death of a loved
of grief by causing the affected individual to forget the painful memories associated with one. When the people come back from the graveside, they are expected to wash
the deceased (Makgahlela & Sodi, 2017). The following is a short summary indicating the their hands to avoid transferring the pollution of death around. After this process, a
differences and similarities among the Tswana, Xhosa and Zulu ethnic groups: meal is offered for the bereaved and those present to support the bereaved. In some
• Tswana culture. During bereavement, on the day of the funeral, the traditional cases, a goat or cow may be slaughtered, which is done in honour of the deceased’s
Tswana people slaughter an ox, called mogage, at sunrise. The meat of the ox is life. After the burial of their loved one, the amaZulu are expected to shave their
consumed without any salt. This is to indicate that there is no pleasure in consuming heads; if not entirely, a small section of their hair is cut off. After the hair-cutting
the meat, as the family is in mourning. During mourning, the mourners are required ritual, it is burnt along with clothing items that belonged to the deceased. This is
to adorn themselves with a grass necklace and shave their heads. A special value is practised to purify the mourners from the contamination of death. During the period
attached to the shaving hair ritual: that of cleansing in order for one to be purified of bereavement, the widow is not allowed to travel outside her home for a specified
from the spirits and darkness associated with death, as well as the removal of bad period in accordance with the family’s requirements. The reason why the widow is
luck and fear. It is also believed that they will reach a state of wholeness whereby restricted to stay in her house is to avoid spreading misfortunes associated with
they will be able to move on with life and be able to function within their families death. After a few months of mourning (as set out by the family), an elder uncle
and within the broader community after the period of mourning has passed. The facilitates the process of cleansing. This is done by giving the widow cleansing herbs
length of the mourning phase does not exceed a year. After this period has passed, to purify herself, as well as the bereaved and the possessions of the deceased.
an uncle of the family (malome) facilitates the cleansing ceremony. Cleansing herbs • Similarities and differences in the bereavement practices of the three ethnic
are applied on the mourners. The uncle is also in charge of giving the mourners new groups: All three ethnic groups share in the belief of the existence of life after death;
clothing items, food, and drink. hence, they all believe in the connection between the living and the deceased.
• Xhosa culture. Within the first twelve months of mourning, the bereaved Xhosa Before the burial, the Xhosa and the Zulu partake in the ritual of slaughtering a
individuals are required to go through certain cultural customs arranged for cow and a goat. This is contrary to the Tswana people, who partake in the ritual of
bereavement. An example is that the bereaved individuals are expected to shave slaughtering a sheep, as it is considered a symbol of tranquillity. A few days after the
their heads to indicate their mourning of their loved one. One of the rituals that are burial in all three ethnic groups, members of the community who could not attend
performed is that of umkhapho (to accompany), which involves the slaughtering of the funeral are urged to visit the bereaved and offer words of encouragement. In
a cow in the morning. The goal of this ritual is to escort (ukukhapha) the departed general, the three ethnic groups seem not to differ much in their bereavement
to the place of their forefathers; more specifically, to assist in making a smooth processes. All the cultural groups seem to view the bereavement process similarly;
transition to the place of the forefathers but also to allow for a smooth transition consisting mainly of rituals conducted during this period. In addition, what seems to
when the deceased comes back later. In most cases, the male group conducts this be central in their bereavement process is the involvement of family members and
procedure. The aim of the umkhapho is to maintain the connection between the community members. In all three ethnic groups, the mourning period ends after a
departed and the living so that the departed are able to come back later. At some year (for children the period is three months) whereby the family members of the
stage, a cow or goat may be slaughtered. The mourning period may continue until deceased all partake in the ritual of burning the clothes of the deceased. In all three
the umbuyiso ritual is completed. This ritual involves the slaughtering of a cow in ethnic groups, there is limited freedom of movement whereby the bereaved are not
the afternoon. Umbuyiso can be defined as returning the spirit of the deceased back allowed to go to certain areas during certain times; for example, they are not allowed
home. This process may take place a year after the deceased has passed on. When to party or visit friends. In all three ethnic groups, there is an expectation for the
considering the rituals of the umkhapho and umbuyiso, the traditional Xhosa are bereaved to wear mourning attire, which is black in most contexts.
able to keep the connection with the deceased and they are able to move on with
their lives.

About 40 years ago, two British psychiatrists, Bowlby and Parkes (1970),
• Numbness. This phase is characterised by dull emotions, while feelings
of unreality, confusion, and disbelief are prominent, together with an
described four phases and patterns of grieving that are still widely used
inability to comprehend the loss fully. This is evident in the form of
(Parkes, 2010. Also see Corr & Corr, 2012; Sigelman & Rider, 2009):
expressions such as “I don’t believe it”, “It can’t be happening”, and “It
490 491
 feels like a dream.” The individual appears to act automatically, almost
resembling a robot. This phase usually occurs during the first few hours
or days after the person has been informed of the death of a loved one
and usually does not last longer than a month.
• Yearning. As the symptoms of the numbness phase decrease, another
manifestation of grief becomes evident: a preoccupation with thoughts
of the deceased and an intense yearning for the loved one. In many
cases, denial occurs and the person may even ‘see’ or ‘hear’ the deceased
for fleeting moments. The yearning may be so intense that suicide is
considered as a way to be united with the deceased again. People may
withdraw and prefer to be left alone. Questions about the ‘why’ of the John Bowlby Collin Murray Parkes
death are prominent, and a resulting anger is aimed at almost everyone:
God, doctors for not saving the dying person, and even at the deceased Although these phases provide useful guidelines, it should be kept in
for dying and leaving the person behind alone. There are bouts of mind that they not only remain broad patterns, but that they also overlap.
uncontrollable crying, while the person feels restless and experiences Equally important: Every person is unique and will act differently, depending
problems with concentration and with sleep. Guilt feelings are a familiar on his or her personality, coping style, relationship with the deceased, past
characteristic; for example, the person may feel guilty for not having experiences, and cultural and religious background. In fact, in some cases,
shown her or his love more or for not having spoilt the deceased more. the death of a specific person can even have a positive effect; for example,
Panic about the future is common. Physical symptoms such as headache, some widows describe the death of the oppressive and abusive husbands as
backache, stiff neck, trembling, nausea, and abdominal discomfort could liberating, an event that opened the door to a new life (Elison & McConigle,
be present. This phase usually lasts for about one to two years. 2013). This is often called relief grief.
• Disorganisation and despair. The fact that the loved one is dead and will Longitudinal research has identified three dominant patterns of
never return now begins to become a reality. Therefore, depression is a bereavement (Balk, 2016; Bonanno, 2009):
very common consequence. The person’s despair is such that his or her
life becomes ‘disorganised’; for example, he or she may often neglect ■ First, many people recover relatively quickly (within a few weeks) from
household duties, physical appearance, and nutritional needs. Symptoms the death of a loved one or friend. This does not mean that the death
such as anger, guilt feelings, and withdrawal often continue, but as time does not matter to the griever, but rather that the individual has a
passes, the intensity of these symptoms decreases, although it could resilience to adversity with the result that the death does not shatter his
return on certain meaningful dates such as birthdays and anniversaries. or her world.
This phase usually begins after about six months to a year. Second, approximately 40% of persons find it difficult to adjust to the
•
■
Reorganisation. During this phase, the person begins to accept the loss. death, but within 18 to 24 months, their well-being begins to improve
There is a realisation that a new life must be constructed without the and they more readily re-engage in relationships with others and the
loved one. Therefore, the focus is more on the living than on the dead. external world.
Energy is regained, and the aforementioned neglected household duties, ■ Third, about 10% of bereaved persons experience symptoms that not
physical appearance, and nutritional needs return to normal. There is an only are much more intense than normal grief, but also last longer.
increased sense of self-confidence, and social activities and interaction Such persons usually need professional help. Different terms are used
with friends increase. The possibility of new relationships is considered. to describe this form of pathological grief: complicated grief disorder,
This last phase may begin toward the end of the first year or as late as prolonged grief disorder, or persistent complex bereavement disorder.
three to five years after the death of the loved one. The criterion is that it must cause significant impairment in social,
occupational, and other important areas of functioning. The symptoms
492 493
 feels like a dream.” The individual appears to act automatically, almost
resembling a robot. This phase usually occurs during the first few hours
or days after the person has been informed of the death of a loved one
and usually does not last longer than a month.
• Yearning. As the symptoms of the numbness phase decrease, another
manifestation of grief becomes evident: a preoccupation with thoughts
of the deceased and an intense yearning for the loved one. In many
cases, denial occurs and the person may even ‘see’ or ‘hear’ the deceased
for fleeting moments. The yearning may be so intense that suicide is
considered as a way to be united with the deceased again. People may
withdraw and prefer to be left alone. Questions about the ‘why’ of the John Bowlby Collin Murray Parkes
death are prominent, and a resulting anger is aimed at almost everyone:
God, doctors for not saving the dying person, and even at the deceased Although these phases provide useful guidelines, it should be kept in
for dying and leaving the person behind alone. There are bouts of mind that they not only remain broad patterns, but that they also overlap.
uncontrollable crying, while the person feels restless and experiences Equally important: Every person is unique and will act differently, depending
problems with concentration and with sleep. Guilt feelings are a familiar on his or her personality, coping style, relationship with the deceased, past
characteristic; for example, the person may feel guilty for not having experiences, and cultural and religious background. In fact, in some cases,
shown her or his love more or for not having spoilt the deceased more. the death of a specific person can even have a positive effect; for example,
Panic about the future is common. Physical symptoms such as headache, some widows describe the death of the oppressive and abusive husbands as
backache, stiff neck, trembling, nausea, and abdominal discomfort could liberating, an event that opened the door to a new life (Elison & McConigle,
be present. This phase usually lasts for about one to two years. 2013). This is often called relief grief.
• Disorganisation and despair. The fact that the loved one is dead and will Longitudinal research has identified three dominant patterns of
never return now begins to become a reality. Therefore, depression is a bereavement (Balk, 2016; Bonanno, 2009):
very common consequence. The person’s despair is such that his or her
life becomes ‘disorganised’; for example, he or she may often neglect ■ First, many people recover relatively quickly (within a few weeks) from
household duties, physical appearance, and nutritional needs. Symptoms the death of a loved one or friend. This does not mean that the death
such as anger, guilt feelings, and withdrawal often continue, but as time does not matter to the griever, but rather that the individual has a
passes, the intensity of these symptoms decreases, although it could resilience to adversity with the result that the death does not shatter his
return on certain meaningful dates such as birthdays and anniversaries. or her world.
This phase usually begins after about six months to a year. Second, approximately 40% of persons find it difficult to adjust to the
•
■
Reorganisation. During this phase, the person begins to accept the loss. death, but within 18 to 24 months, their well-being begins to improve
There is a realisation that a new life must be constructed without the and they more readily re-engage in relationships with others and the
loved one. Therefore, the focus is more on the living than on the dead. external world.
Energy is regained, and the aforementioned neglected household duties, ■ Third, about 10% of bereaved persons experience symptoms that not
physical appearance, and nutritional needs return to normal. There is an only are much more intense than normal grief, but also last longer.
increased sense of self-confidence, and social activities and interaction Such persons usually need professional help. Different terms are used
with friends increase. The possibility of new relationships is considered. to describe this form of pathological grief: complicated grief disorder,
This last phase may begin toward the end of the first year or as late as prolonged grief disorder, or persistent complex bereavement disorder.
three to five years after the death of the loved one. The criterion is that it must cause significant impairment in social,
occupational, and other important areas of functioning. The symptoms
492 493
 must also last for a prolonged period (at least six months). Several 7.7 SPECIFIC LOSSES
risk factors may contribute to the development of pathological grief,
for example: a very close or highly dependent relationship with the
The intensity and manifestation of grief can be influenced significantly by
deceased; a sudden, unexpected, and violent death; a lack of support
the meaningfulness and importance of the role the deceased played in the
from family, friends, or colleagues; the co-occurrence with other stressors
person’s life. For example, a child, a parent, or a spouse/partner may elicit
(e.g. unemployment or divorce); traumatic childhood experiences (e.g.
different reactions.
abuse or neglect); a history of a mental disorder, especially depression
and anxiety; and personality characteristics, especially lack of resilience
7.7.1 The loss of a child
and adjustability.
“When a child dies, the very ground on which we depend for stability heaves
However, there are also cases where and quakes, and the rightness and orderliness of our existence are destroyed.
bereavement has positive outcomes Nothing in life prepares us ... (for this kind of loss). No coping skills we
(Foos & Clark, 2008). For example, have learned. Parents who lose children are thrown into chaos. The loss of
some individuals may undergo an a child is shattering, unique among losses.” This quotation from Bernstein
intense religious/spiritual experience (1996, p. 3) articulates the effect that a child’s death usually has on parents.
and develop a new perspective on life Therefore, it is understandable that many parents never succeed in coming
and their personal existence. There to terms with the death of their child. Much rather, they learn to live with it.
is often a new appreciation of things The child’s death can also have a major effect on many other spheres of life
and people around them. Others may (see Papalia & Martorell, 2014). If a marriage is strong, the couple may draw
emerge from the experience with closer together in an attempt to support each other. However, if the marriage
greater self-confidence and mental does not have a sound foundation, the loss can weaken and even destroy the
strength: they realise that if they are marriage. Parents, especially mothers, who have lost a child have a higher
able to survive this great loss, they can The loss of a loved one is a most traumatic risk of being hospitalised for a mental disorder, especially depression. The
also survive other traumas in the future. experience. Photo: Jaco Marais.
trauma of having lost a child may even hasten a parent’s death. Parents who
have lost their child unexpectedly (e.g. in a car accident) tend to grieve more
than those whose child died of an illness and therefore expected the death
REVIEW THIS SECTION and had time to prepare for it. Parents with other children experience less
1. Define the following concepts: (1) Grief (2) Bereavement (3) Mourning (4) Relief
grief than parents who have lost an only child do.
grief (5) Pathological grief An important psychological phenomenon associated with child death
2. Describe the phases of grief. Do all people go through the same phases? Give a is feelings of guilt that are often expressed by such parents. These guilt
reason for your answer. feelings can be realistic or unrealistic and are based on the person’s role
3. John, 70, has just lost his wife. He is experiencing intense depression, anxiety and as a parent or protector, or on something that he or she should have done
anger over the death of his beloved wife. His children are concerned that he may or has not done. Such guilt feelings may play a role in individuals getting
never be able to recover, and that he will eventually die. What will you say to them?
‘stuck’ or ‘trapped’ in their grief, which makes productive mourning difficult
4. Discuss the dominant patterns of bereavement. and delays the healing process. Various types of guilt reactions of grieving
5. Which risk factors may contribute to pathological grief? parents have been described (Cook & Oltjenbruns, 1998; Miles & Demi, 1984.
6. What positive outcomes may bereavement have? Also see Zetumer et al., 2016):
7. Discuss the bereavement practices of the Tswana, Xhosa and Zulu ethnic groups in
South Africa. How do these practices differ from your own ethnic, cultural or
religious group?
• Death causation guilt refers to the belief that the child’s death was in
some way caused by the parent. For example, in a case where a child
494 495
 must also last for a prolonged period (at least six months). Several 7.7 SPECIFIC LOSSES
risk factors may contribute to the development of pathological grief,
for example: a very close or highly dependent relationship with the
The intensity and manifestation of grief can be influenced significantly by
deceased; a sudden, unexpected, and violent death; a lack of support
the meaningfulness and importance of the role the deceased played in the
from family, friends, or colleagues; the co-occurrence with other stressors
person’s life. For example, a child, a parent, or a spouse/partner may elicit
(e.g. unemployment or divorce); traumatic childhood experiences (e.g.
different reactions.
abuse or neglect); a history of a mental disorder, especially depression
and anxiety; and personality characteristics, especially lack of resilience
7.7.1 The loss of a child
and adjustability.
“When a child dies, the very ground on which we depend for stability heaves
However, there are also cases where and quakes, and the rightness and orderliness of our existence are destroyed.
bereavement has positive outcomes Nothing in life prepares us ... (for this kind of loss). No coping skills we
(Foos & Clark, 2008). For example, have learned. Parents who lose children are thrown into chaos. The loss of
some individuals may undergo an a child is shattering, unique among losses.” This quotation from Bernstein
intense religious/spiritual experience (1996, p. 3) articulates the effect that a child’s death usually has on parents.
and develop a new perspective on life Therefore, it is understandable that many parents never succeed in coming
and their personal existence. There to terms with the death of their child. Much rather, they learn to live with it.
is often a new appreciation of things The child’s death can also have a major effect on many other spheres of life
and people around them. Others may (see Papalia & Martorell, 2014). If a marriage is strong, the couple may draw
emerge from the experience with closer together in an attempt to support each other. However, if the marriage
greater self-confidence and mental does not have a sound foundation, the loss can weaken and even destroy the
strength: they realise that if they are marriage. Parents, especially mothers, who have lost a child have a higher
able to survive this great loss, they can The loss of a loved one is a most traumatic risk of being hospitalised for a mental disorder, especially depression. The
also survive other traumas in the future. experience. Photo: Jaco Marais.
trauma of having lost a child may even hasten a parent’s death. Parents who
have lost their child unexpectedly (e.g. in a car accident) tend to grieve more
than those whose child died of an illness and therefore expected the death
REVIEW THIS SECTION and had time to prepare for it. Parents with other children experience less
1. Define the following concepts: (1) Grief (2) Bereavement (3) Mourning (4) Relief
grief than parents who have lost an only child do.
grief (5) Pathological grief An important psychological phenomenon associated with child death
2. Describe the phases of grief. Do all people go through the same phases? Give a is feelings of guilt that are often expressed by such parents. These guilt
reason for your answer. feelings can be realistic or unrealistic and are based on the person’s role
3. John, 70, has just lost his wife. He is experiencing intense depression, anxiety and as a parent or protector, or on something that he or she should have done
anger over the death of his beloved wife. His children are concerned that he may or has not done. Such guilt feelings may play a role in individuals getting
never be able to recover, and that he will eventually die. What will you say to them?
‘stuck’ or ‘trapped’ in their grief, which makes productive mourning difficult
4. Discuss the dominant patterns of bereavement. and delays the healing process. Various types of guilt reactions of grieving
5. Which risk factors may contribute to pathological grief? parents have been described (Cook & Oltjenbruns, 1998; Miles & Demi, 1984.
6. What positive outcomes may bereavement have? Also see Zetumer et al., 2016):
7. Discuss the bereavement practices of the Tswana, Xhosa and Zulu ethnic groups in
South Africa. How do these practices differ from your own ethnic, cultural or
religious group?
• Death causation guilt refers to the belief that the child’s death was in
some way caused by the parent. For example, in a case where a child
494 495
 dies from a disease, the parent believes that he or she failed to notice their identity as a parent (see Carr, 2016).
early symptoms that could have saved the child’s life, or if a child drowns, It seems that grandparents experience similar patterns of grief when a
that she or he should never have allowed the child to swim on his or her grandchild dies (Foos & Clark, 2008). The most prominent reactions are the
own. blunting of emotions and feelings of guilt, as described above. There is also
• Relationship guilt is parents’ belief that they have failed in their parental a strong need to stay in touch with their own child, the parent of the lost
role; for example, that they did not protect the child in a way that was grandchild. Cook and Oltjenbruns (1998) state that the grief experienced by
expected of a parent, or did not always treat the child fairly. grandparents is usually threefold: They grieve for their beloved grandchild,
• Moral guilt is the parent’s conviction that the child’s death is a punishment they grieve for their own beloved son or daughter, and they grieve for
or retribution for some sin or wrongdoing of the parent; for example, not themselves.
being religious enough or dishonest in business deals.
• Survival guilt is when a parent feels guilty that he or she has survived. 7.7.2 The loss of a spouse or life partner
They believe that the death of a child is against the natural order of life
and that according to this order, parents should die before their children. As mentioned in Chapters 5 and 6, the death of a spouse or life partner is
• Grief guilt develops when the grieving parents do not feel or exhibit one of the most traumatic events in a person’s life. This is understandable:
the ‘proper’ emotions or behaviour usually expected by society in such The marital relationship reflects a psychosocial, emotional, physical, sexual,
situations. and economic interdependence over many years. In addition, the death of
• Recovery guilt is related to grief guilt: It occurs when the parent begins a spouse or life partner happens mostly during late adulthood when the
to recover from the grief and begins to enjoy life again. The guilt centres person is often at his or her most vulnerable.
on the feeling that by not continuing to grieve, they are violating a
societal norm and disappointing the deceased.

The death of a spouse or life partner is one of the most traumatic events
in a person’s life

Three patterns of grief have been identified in adults of 60 years and

older who lost their spouses (Ott et al., 2007): common, resilient, and
chronic grief. People who experience common grief show high levels of
grief and depressive symptoms that usually decrease over time. Resilient
The loss of a child is devastating grief is characterised by the lowest levels of grief and depression, and the
highest quality of life. Resilient grievers do not differ from other grievers
Relatively little research has been done on older adults’ adjustment to regarding relationship quality, but they are more likely to use religion or
the death of an adult child, although the reactions are similar to those found other internal factors as a coping mechanism (Smoski et al., 2015). Chronic
earlier in life. One way for older parents to adjust to the death of an adult grief is characterised by the highest levels of grief and depression, the
child is to maintain strong ties with their grandchild/grandchildren who are lowest self-esteem, the highest marital dependency, and more sudden
the offspring of their deceased son or daughter. In doing so, they maintain deaths. The majority of people in the chronic cluster may meet the criteria
of complicated grief.
496 497
 dies from a disease, the parent believes that he or she failed to notice their identity as a parent (see Carr, 2016).
early symptoms that could have saved the child’s life, or if a child drowns, It seems that grandparents experience similar patterns of grief when a
that she or he should never have allowed the child to swim on his or her grandchild dies (Foos & Clark, 2008). The most prominent reactions are the
own. blunting of emotions and feelings of guilt, as described above. There is also
• Relationship guilt is parents’ belief that they have failed in their parental a strong need to stay in touch with their own child, the parent of the lost
role; for example, that they did not protect the child in a way that was grandchild. Cook and Oltjenbruns (1998) state that the grief experienced by
expected of a parent, or did not always treat the child fairly. grandparents is usually threefold: They grieve for their beloved grandchild,
• Moral guilt is the parent’s conviction that the child’s death is a punishment they grieve for their own beloved son or daughter, and they grieve for
or retribution for some sin or wrongdoing of the parent; for example, not themselves.
being religious enough or dishonest in business deals.
• Survival guilt is when a parent feels guilty that he or she has survived. 7.7.2 The loss of a spouse or life partner
They believe that the death of a child is against the natural order of life
and that according to this order, parents should die before their children. As mentioned in Chapters 5 and 6, the death of a spouse or life partner is
• Grief guilt develops when the grieving parents do not feel or exhibit one of the most traumatic events in a person’s life. This is understandable:
the ‘proper’ emotions or behaviour usually expected by society in such The marital relationship reflects a psychosocial, emotional, physical, sexual,
situations. and economic interdependence over many years. In addition, the death of
• Recovery guilt is related to grief guilt: It occurs when the parent begins a spouse or life partner happens mostly during late adulthood when the
to recover from the grief and begins to enjoy life again. The guilt centres person is often at his or her most vulnerable.
on the feeling that by not continuing to grieve, they are violating a
societal norm and disappointing the deceased.

The death of a spouse or life partner is one of the most traumatic events
in a person’s life

Three patterns of grief have been identified in adults of 60 years and

older who lost their spouses (Ott et al., 2007): common, resilient, and
chronic grief. People who experience common grief show high levels of
grief and depressive symptoms that usually decrease over time. Resilient
The loss of a child is devastating grief is characterised by the lowest levels of grief and depression, and the
highest quality of life. Resilient grievers do not differ from other grievers
Relatively little research has been done on older adults’ adjustment to regarding relationship quality, but they are more likely to use religion or
the death of an adult child, although the reactions are similar to those found other internal factors as a coping mechanism (Smoski et al., 2015). Chronic
earlier in life. One way for older parents to adjust to the death of an adult grief is characterised by the highest levels of grief and depression, the
child is to maintain strong ties with their grandchild/grandchildren who are lowest self-esteem, the highest marital dependency, and more sudden
the offspring of their deceased son or daughter. In doing so, they maintain deaths. The majority of people in the chronic cluster may meet the criteria
of complicated grief.
496 497
 Two reactions to the loss of a spouse or partner that have been studied
widely are depression and anxiety (Foos & Clark, 2008). As far as depression Box 7.5 Death and stress
is concerned, it seems that after two months following the death of a spouse, Death was walking toward a city one morning, and a man asked, “What are you going
about 25% of widows and widowers show serious symptoms of depression. to do?” “I’m going to take 100 people,” Death replied.
“That’s horrible!” the man said.
Although the incidence of depression decreases with time, significant
“That’s the way it is,” Death said, “that’s what I do.”
symptoms still exist after two years after the loss. People who are the most The man hurried to warn everyone he could about Death’s plan.
likely to experience depression are young widows and widowers, as well as As evening fell, he met Death again. “You told me you were going to take 100 people,”
those who have a history of depression. Anxiety also occurs more frequently the man said. “Why did 1,000 die?”
“I kept my word,” Death responded. “I only took 100 people. Worry took the others.”
among young widows and widowers. A loss of income, as is most often the
case with widows, increases the possibility of anxiety. No significant decline
in anxiety levels of both genders may be noted during the first seven months
after the loss. 7.7.3 The loss of an elderly parent
Men usually experience more emotional difficulty and adjustment
problems to everyday life without their partner (Erber, 2013). Additionally, Regardless of the life phase in which children find themselves – childhood
in the event of terminal illness, men more likely than women seem to begin or adulthood – the death of a parent remains very traumatic and requires its
grieving and experiencing depressive symptoms long before the death of own unique adjustments. After all, the death of a parent signifies the end of
their spouses (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). the oldest and longest relationship the individual has ever had.
The mortality rate increases in the surviving spouse after the death of a Just like older adults’ adjustment to the death of an adult child has not
partner (Carey et al., 2014; Newman & Newman, 2014). In fact, this finding received the research attention it deserves, the adjustment to the loss of an
has been confirmed in men and women of all ages all over the world. This elderly parent is a neglected research area. However, research in this regard
increase could vary between 15% and in some cases even 90% (Subramanian has revealed the following (e.g. Carr, 2016; Hayslip, 2015; Hoyer & Roodin,
et al., 2008). The high-risk period is usually the first 12 months after the loss, 2009; Middleton et al., 1998):
with the first three months the most critical period (Moon et al., 2013). Most
studies found that the risk is higher for men than for women. Although various • An estimated 45% of adult children experience physical reactions to the
causal factors have been associated with this phenomenon, especially two death of a parent, and roughly 10% to 15% report a decline in general
factors are prominent: stress and social support (Foos & Clark, 2008). The health.
negative effect of stress on the body and the physical health of a person are • Symptoms of anxiety and depression often occur immediately after the
well known and widely accepted. In fact, many deaths can be traced back death; however, they rarely persist in the longer term. After six months,
to a stressful lifestyle. Therefore, it is understandable that stress is regarded there is generally a significant decline in these emotional reactions to
as an important factor in deaths in these circumstances (see Box 7.5). In this death.
scenario, social support comprises two factors. First, the partner’s love and • Adults who recently lost a parent have significantly more frequent
emotional support are no longer available. As interaction with friends and alcohol use and more depressive symptoms than their peers without a
even family decreases (the person often wants to be left alone), support for parental loss.
him or her also diminishes. Second, without the caring support and ‘watchful • The effects are largest for those who had positive relationships with
eye’ of a partner, many survivors (especially men) fall victim to self-neglect; their late parent.
for example, they do not take their medication, exercise regularly, or keep • Grief symptoms are linked to the nature of the death: Some studies
doctor’s appointments, or they tend to drink and smoke more. Research has suggest that sudden deaths or deaths for which the adult child feels
indicated that among elderly people, even hospitalisation of a partner is partly responsible are particularly likely to trigger symptoms of distress.
associated with an increased risk of death (Christakis & Allison, 2006). Other studies suggest that the toll of parental death is more severe when
the second parent dies.
• Some research suggests that sibling relationships may grow closer upon
498 499
 Two reactions to the loss of a spouse or partner that have been studied
widely are depression and anxiety (Foos & Clark, 2008). As far as depression Box 7.5 Death and stress
is concerned, it seems that after two months following the death of a spouse, Death was walking toward a city one morning, and a man asked, “What are you going
about 25% of widows and widowers show serious symptoms of depression. to do?” “I’m going to take 100 people,” Death replied.
“That’s horrible!” the man said.
Although the incidence of depression decreases with time, significant
“That’s the way it is,” Death said, “that’s what I do.”
symptoms still exist after two years after the loss. People who are the most The man hurried to warn everyone he could about Death’s plan.
likely to experience depression are young widows and widowers, as well as As evening fell, he met Death again. “You told me you were going to take 100 people,”
those who have a history of depression. Anxiety also occurs more frequently the man said. “Why did 1,000 die?”
“I kept my word,” Death responded. “I only took 100 people. Worry took the others.”
among young widows and widowers. A loss of income, as is most often the
case with widows, increases the possibility of anxiety. No significant decline
in anxiety levels of both genders may be noted during the first seven months
after the loss. 7.7.3 The loss of an elderly parent
Men usually experience more emotional difficulty and adjustment
problems to everyday life without their partner (Erber, 2013). Additionally, Regardless of the life phase in which children find themselves – childhood
in the event of terminal illness, men more likely than women seem to begin or adulthood – the death of a parent remains very traumatic and requires its
grieving and experiencing depressive symptoms long before the death of own unique adjustments. After all, the death of a parent signifies the end of
their spouses (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). the oldest and longest relationship the individual has ever had.
The mortality rate increases in the surviving spouse after the death of a Just like older adults’ adjustment to the death of an adult child has not
partner (Carey et al., 2014; Newman & Newman, 2014). In fact, this finding received the research attention it deserves, the adjustment to the loss of an
has been confirmed in men and women of all ages all over the world. This elderly parent is a neglected research area. However, research in this regard
increase could vary between 15% and in some cases even 90% (Subramanian has revealed the following (e.g. Carr, 2016; Hayslip, 2015; Hoyer & Roodin,
et al., 2008). The high-risk period is usually the first 12 months after the loss, 2009; Middleton et al., 1998):
with the first three months the most critical period (Moon et al., 2013). Most
studies found that the risk is higher for men than for women. Although various • An estimated 45% of adult children experience physical reactions to the
causal factors have been associated with this phenomenon, especially two death of a parent, and roughly 10% to 15% report a decline in general
factors are prominent: stress and social support (Foos & Clark, 2008). The health.
negative effect of stress on the body and the physical health of a person are • Symptoms of anxiety and depression often occur immediately after the
well known and widely accepted. In fact, many deaths can be traced back death; however, they rarely persist in the longer term. After six months,
to a stressful lifestyle. Therefore, it is understandable that stress is regarded there is generally a significant decline in these emotional reactions to
as an important factor in deaths in these circumstances (see Box 7.5). In this death.
scenario, social support comprises two factors. First, the partner’s love and • Adults who recently lost a parent have significantly more frequent
emotional support are no longer available. As interaction with friends and alcohol use and more depressive symptoms than their peers without a
even family decreases (the person often wants to be left alone), support for parental loss.
him or her also diminishes. Second, without the caring support and ‘watchful • The effects are largest for those who had positive relationships with
eye’ of a partner, many survivors (especially men) fall victim to self-neglect; their late parent.
for example, they do not take their medication, exercise regularly, or keep • Grief symptoms are linked to the nature of the death: Some studies
doctor’s appointments, or they tend to drink and smoke more. Research has suggest that sudden deaths or deaths for which the adult child feels
indicated that among elderly people, even hospitalisation of a partner is partly responsible are particularly likely to trigger symptoms of distress.
associated with an increased risk of death (Christakis & Allison, 2006). Other studies suggest that the toll of parental death is more severe when
the second parent dies.
• Some research suggests that sibling relationships may grow closer upon
498 499
 the death of a second parent, as the surviving children must develop The child is now suddenly the next generation, which is a strong reminder
new rituals and practices to make up for those previously upheld by their that he or she is next in the line of mortality.
parents, such as family meals or celebrations. However, as we have emphasised several times in this book – every
• Women seem to have more difficulty adjusting to the loss of a parent individual is unique; therefore, a specific person’s reaction is very difficult,
and demonstrate a more intense grief response. The same applies to and often impossible, to predict. Psychology can provide us only with broad
those who are single or separated. guidelines that usually are based on averages. There are no set rules or
• It seems that the death of an elderly parent is less traumatic than the formulas regarding the exact nature or intensity of a person’s reaction to
death of a younger parent, just as the death of a parent or spouse is the loss of a loved one (Erber, 2013).
less stressful than the death of a child. One of the main reasons why the We end this chapter and this book with a poem that was written by
death of an older parent is less traumatic is that older children have time Henry Scott-Holland in 1918. The poem has a unique perspective: It is written
to prepare themselves for the death: They see their parents becoming from ‘beyond the grave’ to ensure those left behind that “all is well”. We
older, more frail, and sickly, and discuss the possibility of their passing hope it will serve as some consolation and comfort to those who have lost a
away with family and friends. loved one or significant other.

LIFE UNBROKEN

Death is nothing at all

I have only slipped into the next room.

I am I, and you are you:

Whatever we were to each other, that we still are.

Call me by my old familiar name;

Speak to me in the easy way you always used.
Put no difference into your tone;
Wear no air of solemnity or sorrow; Laugh as we always
laughed
The death of an elderly parent remains very traumatic at the little jokes we enjoyed together.

In sum, while little is known about older adults’ adjustment to elderly Play, smile, think of me, pray for me. Let my name be ever
the household word that it always was.
parents’ deaths, the literature generally concludes that effects are short-
Let it be spoken without affect; without the ghost of a shadow
lived, although the early weeks and months are marked by profound sadness on it.
and identity shifts, which are particularly acute when a second parent dies
and the surviving child/children must assume the identity as the most senior Life means all that it ever meant. It is the same as it ever was.
member of their family line. There is absolutely unbroken continuity.
To many adult children, the death of a parent also has symbolic meaning,
What is this death but negligible accident? Why should I be
especially when both parents are deceased. Apart from the loss of security
out of mind because I am out of sight?
and support, it also means the relinquishing (giving-up) of the ‘inner child’
within them (Cook & Oltjenburns, 1998; Moss & Moss, 1983). One’s life as I am waiting for you,
somebody‘s child is forever gone and one now ‘stands alone’ to face the for an interval, somewhere, very near. Just around the corner.
onslaughts of life. At the same time, the ‘buffer against death’ is removed: All is well.

500 501
 the death of a second parent, as the surviving children must develop The child is now suddenly the next generation, which is a strong reminder
new rituals and practices to make up for those previously upheld by their that he or she is next in the line of mortality.
parents, such as family meals or celebrations. However, as we have emphasised several times in this book – every
• Women seem to have more difficulty adjusting to the loss of a parent individual is unique; therefore, a specific person’s reaction is very difficult,
and demonstrate a more intense grief response. The same applies to and often impossible, to predict. Psychology can provide us only with broad
those who are single or separated. guidelines that usually are based on averages. There are no set rules or
• It seems that the death of an elderly parent is less traumatic than the formulas regarding the exact nature or intensity of a person’s reaction to
death of a younger parent, just as the death of a parent or spouse is the loss of a loved one (Erber, 2013).
less stressful than the death of a child. One of the main reasons why the We end this chapter and this book with a poem that was written by
death of an older parent is less traumatic is that older children have time Henry Scott-Holland in 1918. The poem has a unique perspective: It is written
to prepare themselves for the death: They see their parents becoming from ‘beyond the grave’ to ensure those left behind that “all is well”. We
older, more frail, and sickly, and discuss the possibility of their passing hope it will serve as some consolation and comfort to those who have lost a
away with family and friends. loved one or significant other.

LIFE UNBROKEN

Death is nothing at all

I have only slipped into the next room.

I am I, and you are you:

Whatever we were to each other, that we still are.

Call me by my old familiar name;

Speak to me in the easy way you always used.
Put no difference into your tone;
Wear no air of solemnity or sorrow; Laugh as we always
laughed
The death of an elderly parent remains very traumatic at the little jokes we enjoyed together.

In sum, while little is known about older adults’ adjustment to elderly Play, smile, think of me, pray for me. Let my name be ever
the household word that it always was.
parents’ deaths, the literature generally concludes that effects are short-
Let it be spoken without affect; without the ghost of a shadow
lived, although the early weeks and months are marked by profound sadness on it.
and identity shifts, which are particularly acute when a second parent dies
and the surviving child/children must assume the identity as the most senior Life means all that it ever meant. It is the same as it ever was.
member of their family line. There is absolutely unbroken continuity.
To many adult children, the death of a parent also has symbolic meaning,
What is this death but negligible accident? Why should I be
especially when both parents are deceased. Apart from the loss of security
out of mind because I am out of sight?
and support, it also means the relinquishing (giving-up) of the ‘inner child’
within them (Cook & Oltjenburns, 1998; Moss & Moss, 1983). One’s life as I am waiting for you,
somebody‘s child is forever gone and one now ‘stands alone’ to face the for an interval, somewhere, very near. Just around the corner.
onslaughts of life. At the same time, the ‘buffer against death’ is removed: All is well.

500 501
 REVIEW THIS SECTION

1. Why may the loss of a child be especially difficult for parents?

2. Discuss the types of guilt reactions such parents may experience.
3. How may the loss of a spouse or life partner affect an individual?
4. Describe the following patterns of grief experienced after the death of a spouse or
partner:
– Common grief
– Resilient grief
– Chronic grief
5. Discuss the effects of the loss of an older parent on the adult child.
6. Do all people experience the same reactions to specific losses? Give reasons for
your answer.

CONCLUSION

In this book we have provided you with a glimpse of life’s journey throughout
adulthood. As you have seen, this journey is both interesting and challenging,
with many mountains to climb, valleys to cross, and rivers to swim. We hope
you have enjoyed this exploration with us, as much as we have.

Good luck with your own journey!

Dap and Anet Louw

502 503
 REVIEW THIS SECTION

1. Why may the loss of a child be especially difficult for parents?

2. Discuss the types of guilt reactions such parents may experience.
3. How may the loss of a spouse or life partner affect an individual?
4. Describe the following patterns of grief experienced after the death of a spouse or
partner:
– Common grief
– Resilient grief
– Chronic grief
5. Discuss the effects of the loss of an older parent on the adult child.
6. Do all people experience the same reactions to specific losses? Give reasons for
your answer.

CONCLUSION

In this book we have provided you with a glimpse of life’s journey throughout
adulthood. As you have seen, this journey is both interesting and challenging,
with many mountains to climb, valleys to cross, and rivers to swim. We hope
you have enjoyed this exploration with us, as much as we have.

Good luck with your own journey!

Dap and Anet Louw

502 503
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 REFERENCES Allik, J., Realo, A., & McCrae, R. R. (2013). Universality of the Five-Factor Model of personality. In P. T.
Costa, & T. Widiger (Eds.), Personality disorders and the Five-Factor Model of personality (pp. 61-74).
100 People.org. (2016). 100 People: a world portrait. Retrieved June 6, 2018, from http://www.100people. Washington, D.C,: American Psychological Association.
org/statistics_100stats.php?section=statistics Alloway, T., Horton, J., Alloway, R., & Dawson, C. (2013). The impact of technology and social networking on
Abanyam, N. L., Sambe, N., & Avanger, M. Y. (2013). A sociological analysis of the impact of premarital and working memory. Computers & Education, 63, 10-16.
marital counselling in preventing the global trend of divorce. American International Journal of Research Allwood, C. M. (2012). The distinction between qualitative and quantitative research methods is problematic.
in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 5(1), 130-136. Quality & Quantity, 46, 1417-1429.
Academy of Science of South Africa. (2015). Diversity in human sexuality: implications for policy in Africa. Almeida, D. M. (2005). Resilience and vulnerability to daily stressors assessed via diary methods. Current
Pretoria: Academy of Science of South Africa. Directions in Psychological Science, 14(2), 64-68.
Acierno, R., Hernandez-Tejada, M. A., Anetzberger, G. J., Loew, D., & Muzzy, W. (2017, August 24). The Almeida, D., & Horn, M. (2004). Is daily life more stressful during middle adulthood? In O. Brim, C. Ryff, & R.
national elder mistreatment study: an eight-year longitudinal study of outcomes. Journal of Elder Abuse Kessler (Eds.), How healthy are we? A national study of well-being at midlife. Chicago: The University of
& Neglect. Chicago Press.
Adams, B. G., Van de Vijver, F. J., & De Bruin, G. P. (2012). Identity in South Africa: examining self-descriptions Aluodi, E., & Njuguna, A. (2017). Effect of psychological factors on retirement preparedness among
across ethnic groups. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36, 377-388. employees in the insurance sector in Kenya. European Journal of Business and Management, 9(24), 1-8.
Adams, K. B. (2013, September 12). Looking at wisdom from mid-life. Retrieved February 16, 2018, from Alves, E. R., Costa, A. M., Bezerra, S. M., Nakano, A. M., Cavalcanti, A. M., & Dias, M. D. (2015). Climacteric:
Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mid-life-what-crisis/201309/looking- intensity of symptoms and sexual performance. Texto & Contexto - Enfermagem, 24(1), 64-71. Retrieved
wisdom-mid-life from https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0104-07072015000590014
Adeagbo, O. (2016). ‘Love beyond colour’: the formation of interracial gay men’s intimate relationships in Alwin, D. F., Thomas, J. R., & Wray, L. A. (2016). Cognitive development and the life course: growth, stability
post-apartheid South Africa. National Identities, 18(3), 1-24. and decline. In M. J. Shanahan, J. T. Mortimer, & M. K. Johnson, Handbook of the life course. Handbooks
Adeagbo, O. A. (2015). Gay men, intimacy and family life: exploring interracial same-sex unions in of Sociology and Social Research (Vol. II, pp. 451-488). Springer.
Johannesburg. D.Litt. et Phil. (Sociology). [Unpublished]. University of Johannesburg. Retrieved February Alzheimer’s Association. (2017). What Is Alzheimer’s? Retrieved April 17, 2017, from http://www.alz.org/
26, 2018, from https://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za alzheimers_disease_what_is_alzheimers.asp
Afshin, A. E. (2017). Health effects of overweight and obesity in 195 countries. The New England Journal of Alzheimer’s Society. (2017). Genetics of dementia. Retrieved April 20, 2017, from https://www.alzheimers.
Medicine, 377(1), 13-27. org.uk/info/20010/risk_factors_and_prevention/117/genetics_of_dementia
Ahmed, L. A., & Ryan, J. M. (2016). Same-sex marriage. In N. A. Naples, The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia of Amabile, T. (1983). The social psychology of creativity: a componential conceptualisation. Journal of
gender and sexuality studies. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Personality and Social Psychology, 45(2), 997-1013.
Ainsworth, M. (1973). The development of infant-mother attachment. In B. Caldwell, & H. Ricciuti (Eds.), American Anthropological Association. (2016). Race. Are we so different? Retrieved June 8, 2018, from http://
Review of child development research (Vol. III). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. www.understandingrace.org/home.html
Aizpurua, A., & Koutstaal, W. (2016). Intelligence, fluid. In S. Whitbourne (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Adulthood American College of Pediatricians. (2015, March). Cohabitation: effects of cohabitation on the men and
and Aging (Vol. II, pp. 656-660). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell. women involved. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.acpeds.org/the-college-speaks/
Alastalo, H., Räikkönen, K., Osmond, C., Barker, D., Heinonen, K., Kajantie, E., & Eriksson, J. (2013). Early life position-statements/societal-issues/cohabitation-part-1-of-2
stress and blood pressure levels in late adulthood. Journal of Human Hypertension, 27, 90-94. American Lung Association. (2017). Lung capacity and aging. Retrieved February 09, 2017, from How lungs
Aldwin, C., & Igarashi, H. (2015). Successful, optimal, and resilient aging: a psychosocial perspective. In P. work: http://www.lung.org/lung-health-and-diseases/how-lungs-work/lung-capacity-and-aging.html
Lichtenberg, & B. Mast, APA Handbook of clinical geropsychology (pp. 331-359). Washington: American American Psychiatric Association staff. (2017, August 3). Working too much: hard worker or workaholic?
Psychological Association. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from American Psychiatric Association: https://www.psychiatry.org/news-
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Amoateng, A. Y., & Kalule-Sabiti, I. (2014). Social context factors and attitudes toward interracial relationships VI. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 18(3), 208-213.
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Amoateng, A. Y., & Richter, L. (2004). The state of families in South Africa. In D. John, A. Habib, & R. Southall 1-29.
(Eds.), State of the Nation: South Africa 2003-2004. Pretoria: HSRC Press. Badgett, M. L., & Mallory, C. (2014, December). New data from marriage licenses for same-sex couples.
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Andreas, S. , Schulz, H., Volkert, J., Dehoust, M., Sehner, S., Suling, A., . . . Wittchen, H. (2017). Prevalence Personality and Social Psychology, 112(2), 329-355.
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Cannon, M. L. (2015). What is aging? Disease-a-Month, 61, 454-459. Charles, S. T., & Robinette, J. W. (2015). Emotion and emotion regulation. In The APA Handbook of Clinical
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and solutions (pp. 271-294). Santa Barbara, California: Praeger. Chen, N. (2017, July 31). Friendship is important to older adults. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from
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Carr, J. (2017, April 18). Parkinson’s disease. (D. Louw, Interviewer) being. Educational Gerontology, 28(9), 731-744.
Carr, N. (2011). The shallows: what the internet is doing to our brains. W.W. Norton & Company. Chen, Y., & Persson, A. (2010). Internet use among young and older adults: relation to psychological well‐
Carrasco, M. Á., Holgado‐Tello, F. P., & RodrÍguez Serrano, M. Á. (2015). Intraparental inconsistency: being. Educational Gerontology, 28(9), 731-744.
the influence of parenting behaviors on aggression and depression in children. Family Relations, Chen, Y., Lee, B. D., & Kirk, R. M. (2013). Internet use among older adults: constraints and opportunities.
64(December), 621-634. Engaging Older Adults with Modern Technology: Internet Use and Information Access Needs: Internet
Carrol, R. T. (2014). Near-death experience (NDE). Retrieved July 16, 2017, from The Sceptic’s Dictionary: Use and Information Access Needs, 124.
http://www.skepdic.com/nde.html Cheng, C. (2009). Dialectical thinking and coping flexibility: a multimethod approach. Journal of Personality,
Carroll, J. (2007). Sexuality now (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. 77, 471-494.
Carstensen, L. (1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: support for socioemotional selectivity Chenia, M. & Hofmyer. (2018). Rethinking retirement – when must employees retire? Retrieved April 17,
theory. Psychology and Aging, 7, 331-338. 2018, from The South African Labour Guide: https://www.labourguide.co.za/most-recent/2040-
Carstensen, L. L. (2006). The influence of a sense of time on human development. Science, 312, 1913-1915. rethinking-retirement-when-must-employees-retire
Carstensen, L. L., Turan, B., Scheibe, S., R. N., Ersner-Hershfield, H., Samanez-Larkin, G. R., & Brooks, K. Cherry, K. (2017). What is a self-schema? Retrieved May 21, 2018, from VeryWellMind: https:/www.
P. (2011). Emotional experience improves with age: evidence based on over 10 years of experience verywellmind.com
sampling. Psychology and Aging, 26, 21-33. Cherry, K. (2017, December 14). Why parenting styles matter when raising children. Retrieved January 25,
Carstensen, L., Gross, J., & Fung, H. (1997). The social context of emotional experience. Annual Review of 2018, from VeryWell: https://www.verywell.com/parenting-styles-2795072
Gerontology and Geriatrics, 17, 331. Chibanda, D., Benjamin, L., Weiss, H. A., & Abas, M. (2014). Mental, neurological, and substance use
Caspi, A., Herbener, E., & Oxer, D. (1992). Shared experiences and the similarities of personalities. A disorders in people living with HIV/AIDS in low-and middle-income countries. JAIDS Journal of Acquired
longitudinal study of married couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 281-291. Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 67, S54-S67.
Cassidy, J., Jones, J. D., & Shaver, P. R. (2013). Contributions of attachment theory and research: a framework Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2015). Impact of adoption on adoptive parents. Retrieved February 3,
for future research, translation, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4pt2), 1415-1434. 2018, from Child Welfare Information Gateway: https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/impact-
Castro, M., & Smith, G. (2015). Mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. In P. Lichternberg, & B. parent/
Mast (Eds.), APA Handbook of Clinical Geropsychology(Vol. II, pp. 173-207). Washington, DC: American Children’s Act 38 of 2005. Government Gazette, Volume 492, Cape Town, June 2006.
Psychological Association. Chimere-Dan, D. (2015). What is happening to the family in South Africa? Resilience and change in the
Cattell, R. (1971). Abilities: their structure, growth and action. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. context of social transformation. Pretoria: HSRC Seminar Series.
Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallised intelligence: a critical experiment. Journal of Educational Chisletta, P., & Lecerf, T. (2016). Intelligence, Crystallised. In S. Whitbourne (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of
Psychology, 54(1), 1-22. Adulthood and Aging (Vol. II, pp. 652-656). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell.
Cavanaugh, J. C., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2015). Adult Development and Aging (7th ed.). Cengage. Chopik, W. J. (2017). Associations among relational values, support, health, and well‐being across the adult
Cavanaugh, J. C., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2018). Adult development and aging (8th ed.). Cengage. lifespan. Personal Relationships, 24(2), 408-422.
Cavanaugh, J., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2006). Adult development and aging (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Chopik, W., Edelstein, R. S., & Fraley, R. C. (2013). From the cradle to the grave: age differences in attachment
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Center for Arizona Policy. (2014, January). Harms of divorce. Retrieved June 6, 2018, from Center for Arizona Chrisler, J. C., Barney, A., & Palatino, B. (2016). Ageism can be hazardous to women’s health: ageism, sexism,
Policy: http://www.azpolicypages.com/marriage-family/harms-of-divorce/ and stereotypes of older women in the healthcare system. Journal of Social Issues, 72(1), 86-104.
Center for Mental Health Services. (2003). Anti‐stigma: do you know the facts? Retrieved June 8, 2018, from Christakis, N., & Allison, P. (2006). Mortality after the hospitalization of a spouse. New England Journal of
MHMatters: https://mental‐health‐matters.com/anti‐stigma‐do‐you‐know‐the‐facts/ Medicine, 354(7), 719-30.
Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. (2013). Substance abuse treatment and family therapy. Treatment Church, C. (2017, April 13). Same-sex couples and opposite-sex couples: more alike than different? Retrieved
Improvement Protocol Series (Tip 39). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services January 1, 2018, from UF/IFAS Extension SMARTCouples: http://smartcouples.ifas.ufl.edu/married/
Administration. communicating-with-your-partner/same-sex-couples-and-opposite-sex-couples-more/
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (NL). (2016, March 30). Vrouwenparen vaker uit elkaar dan mannenparen. Cicirelli, V. (1980). Relationship of family background variables to locus of control in the elderly. Journal of
Retrieved September 18, 2017, from https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2016/13/vrouwenparen-vaker- Gerontology, 35, 108-114.
uit-elkaar-dan-mannenparen Ciorba, A., Bianchini, C., Pelucchi, S., & Pastore, A. (2012). The impact of hearing loss on the quality of life of
Chaladze, G. (2016). Heterosexual male carriers could explain persistence of homosexuality in men: elderly adults. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 7, 159-163.
individual-based simulations of an X-linked inheritance model. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(7), 1705- Clark, A. E., & Georgellis, Y. (2013). Back to baseline in Britain: adaptation in the British household panel
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Clayton, V., & Birren, J. (1980). The development of wisdom across the life‐span: a re-examination of an Cross, S. (2016). Self-Construal. In Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. Retrieved May 26,
ancient topic. In P. B. Baltes, & O. C. Brim (Eds.), Life‐span development and behaviour (Vol. III, pp. 103- 2018, from http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199828340/obo-
135). New York, NY, USA: Academic Press. 9780199828340-0051.xml
Cockcroft, K. (2015). The role of working memory in childhood education: five questions and answers. South Crouch, S. R., Waters, E., McNair, R., Power, J., & Davis, E. (2014). Parent-reported measures of child health
African Journal of Childhood Education, 5(1), 1-21. and wellbeing in same-sex parent families: a cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 635.
Cocodia, E. (2014). Cultural perceptions of human intelligence. Journal of Intelligence, 2, 180-196. Crowell, J., Fraley, R., & Shaver, P. (1999). Measurement of individual differences in adolescent and adult
Coetzee, M., & Schreuder, D. (2016). Personnel psychology: an applied perspective (2nd ed.). Cape Town: attachment. In J. Cassidy, & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: theory, research and clinical
Oxford, SA. applications. New York: Guilford.
Cole, S. W. (2013). Social regulation of human gene expression: mechanisms and implications for public Crowther, M., Parker, M., Achenbaum, W., Larimore, W., & Koenig, H. (2002). Rowe and Kahn’s Model of
health. American Journal of Public Health, 103, 1142-1450. Successful Aging revisited: positive spirituality - the forgotten factor. The Gerontologist, 42(5), 613-620.
Coleman, P., Schröder-Butterfill, & Spreadbury, J. (2016). Religion, spirituality and aging. In V. Bengtson, Cully, J., & Stanley, M. (2008). Assessment and treatment of anxiety in later life. In K. Laidlaw, & B. Knight
Handbook of Theories of Aging. (Eds.), Handbook of emotional disorders in later life: assessment and treatment. New York: Oxford
Collins English Dictionary. (2018). Glasgow: HarperCollins. University Press.
Connidis, I. (2005). Sibling ties across time: the middle and later years. In M. Johnson (Ed.), The Cambridge Da Costa, J. P., Vitorina, R., Silva, G. M., Vogel, C., Duarte, A. C., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2016). A synopsis on aging
Handbook of Age and Ageing. New York: Cambridge University Press. - theories, mechanism and future prospects. Aging Research Reviews, 29, 90-112.
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Cook, A., & Oltjenbruns, K. (1998). Dying and grieving: life span and family perspectives (2nd ed.). Fort Journal of Social Issues, 71(4), 772-787.
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Ward (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 61-88. look-like
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Mediate.com: https://www.mediate.com/articles/psych.cfm Boston, MA: Springer.
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Corrie, L. (2003). Attachment in the stepfamily: a social work perspective. Dissertation presented for the 48(5), 35-41.
Degree of Philosophy in Social Work at the University of Stellenbosch. Stellenbosch: University of Davids, E. L. (2017, July 4). Single vs two-parent families: A Western Cape study of well-being. Retrieved
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VandenBos (Eds.), The adult years: Continuity and change. Washington, DC: American Psychological De Beer, L. T., Rothmann, S., & Pienaar, J. (2016). Job insecurity, career opportunities, discrimination and
Association. turnover intention in post-apartheid South Africa: examples of informative hypothesis testing. The
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(4), 427-439.
(NEOFFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. De Jager, C., Joska, J., Hoffman, M., Borochowitz, K., & Combrinck, M. (2015). Dementia in rural South Africa:
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. (1994). Stability and change in personality from adolescence through adulthood. a pressing need for epidemiological studies. South African Medical Journal, 105(3), 189-190.
In C. Halverson, G. Kohnstamme, & R. Martin (Eds.), The developing structure of temperament and De Lange, M., Dronkers, J., & Wolbers, M. H. (2014). Single-parent family forms and children’s educational
personality from infancy to adulthood. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. performance in a comparative perspective: effects of school’s share of single-parent families. School
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (2010). Bridging the gap with the five‐factor model. Personality Disorders: Theory, Effectiveness and School Improvement, 25(3), 329-350.
Research, and Treatment, 1(2), 127-130. De Longis, A. (2014). Daily Hassles Scale. In A. C. Michalos (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Life and Well‐Being Research
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Consensus and controversy (pp. 75-84). Routledge. De Visser, R., Badcock, P., Simpson, J., Gruclich, A., Smith, A., Richters, J., & Rissel, C. (2014). Attitudes toward
Covey, T. J., Shucard, J. L., Benedict, R. H., Weinstock-Guttman, B., & Shucard, D. W. (2018). Improved sex and relationships: the Second Australian Study of Health and Relationships. Sexual Health, 11, 397-
cognitive performance and event-related potential changes following working memory training in 405.
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1-15. https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2013-04-09-my-big-fat-gay-zulu-wedding/#.WpTxF8m6Lx8
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psychology review, 26(2), 197-223. mediates the association between sexual activity and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology
Cox, K., & McAdams, D. P. (2014). Meaning making during high and low point life story episodes predicts Bulletin, 1-13.
emotion regulation two years later: how the past informs the future. Journal of Research in Personality, DeFrain, J., & Asay, S. (2007). Strong families around the world: strength-based research and perspectives.
50, 66-70. New York & London: Hayworth Press / Taylor & Francis.
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for clinical practice. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 41(2), 160-172. friends who break them. Rowman & Littlefield.
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2017, from www.birminghamdivorcelaw.com/drug-or-alcohol-addiction-as-grounds-for-divorce-in- requirements for the degree of Masters of Business Administration, 7 November.
alabama Freeman, A. T., Santini, Z. I., Tyrovolas, S., Rummel‐Kluge, C., Haro, J. M., & Koyanagi, A. (2016). Negative
Fadjukoff, P., Kokko, K., & Pulkinnen, L. (2010). Changing economic conditions and identity formation in perceptions of ageing predict the onset and persistence of depression and anxiety: findings from a
adulthood. European Psychologist, 15, 293-303. prospective analysis of the Irish longitudinal study on ageing (TILDA). Journal of Affective Disorders, 199,
Fadjukoff, P., Pulkinnen, L., & Kokko, K. (2016). Identity formation in adulthood: a longitudinal study from age 132-138.
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Family Law. (2017). Cohabitation and the law. Retrieved December 15, 2017, from http://www.divorcelaws. in people living with HIV/AIDS in South Africa. AIDS Care, 19(10), 1201-1209.
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Centre of Excellence in Population Ageing Research, Working Paper 2015/23 , 1-44. Retrieved April 12, measurement by self-report and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82,
2018, from http://cepar.edu.au/sites/default/files/Does_job_hopping_help_or_hinder_careers._the_ 642-662.
signaling_role_of_work_history.pdf Friderichs, T., & Hall, D. (2005). Postmenopausal symptoms in a group of rural Xhosa women. South African
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Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society (2nd ed.). New Goldin, C., & Mitchell, J. (2016). The new lifecycle of women’s empowerment. NBER Working Paper No.
York: Worth. 22913. Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved April 19, 2018, from http://www.
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policies: a comparison of 12 European countries. Journal of European Social Policy, 25(4), 431-449. Family Forms. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved April 8, 2018, from https://thepsychologist.bps.
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2015. The Lancet. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30819-X 16, 2017, from PairedLife: https://pairedlife.com/relationships/The-Pros-and-Cons-of-Living-Together-
Geerligs, L., Saliasi, E., Maurits, N. M., Renken, R. J., & Lorist, M. M. (2014). Brain mechanisms underlying the Before-Marriage
effect of selective attention. Neuroimage, 1(91), 52-62. Goodrich, W., & Pelser, A. (2014). The greying of a rainbow nation: Policy responses to the implications of
Geffen, L. (2014). Sexual function and ageing. South African Medical Journal, 104(6), 450-452. population ageing in South Africa. African Population Studies, 28(2), 648-660. Retrieved from http://aps.
George, L. (2006). Perceived quality of life. In R. Binstock, & L. George, Handbook of Aging and the Social journals.ac.za/pub/article/view/522
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Louw (Eds.), Human development (2nd ed.). Pretoria: Kagiso. Gottman Institute. (2017). The positive perspective: more on the 5:1 ratio. Retrieved September 20, 2017,
Gere, J., Almeida, D., & Martire, L. (2016). The effects of lack of joint goal planning on divorce over 10 years. from https://www.gottman.com/blog/the-positive-perspective-more-on-the-51-ratio/
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process of black South Africans. Unpublished manuscript, University of the Witwatersrand, development and violence prevention. Policy Brief 77, April, 1-8.
Johannesburg, South Africa. Gounden, N. (2016). Parental involvement in single-parent/guardian and two-parent/guardian school-learner
Gerrand, P. A. & Nathane-Taulela, M. (2015). Developing a culturally relevant adoption model in South households, in Durban, South Africa. Dissertation. M. Ed. (Adult Education). Pretoria: University of South
Africa: The way forward. International Social Work, 58, 55-62. Africa. Retrieved from ttp://hdl.handle.net/10500/22616
Geschneider, G. A., Bolanowski, S. J., Hall, K. L., Hoffman, K. E. & Verrillo, R. T. (2009). The effects of aging on Government News Network. (2007). Generation Xperience. Retrieved December 16, 2007, from www.direct.
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Giacalone, D., Wendin, K., Kremer, S., Frøst, M. B., Bredie, W. L., Olsson, V., . . . Risvik, E. (2014). Health and gender, as a salient factor. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 79(1), 55-79.
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perspectives on intergenerational relationships. In M. Johnson, The Cambridge handbook of age and Reported reasons for breakdown of marriage and cohabitation in Britain: findings from the third
ageing. New York: Cambridge University Press. National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal-3). PloS ONE, 12(3), e0174129.
Gifford, B. (2016). Living to 120. Scientific American, 315, 62-69. Greeff, A. P., & Cloete, M. (2015). Family resilience factors in remarried families in South Africa and Belgium.
Gillath, O., Shaver, P., Baek, J., & Chun, D. (2008). Genetic correlates of adult attachment style. Personality Southern African Journal of Social Work and Social Development, 27(2), 187-203.
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(10), 1396-1405. Greeff, A. P., & du Toit, C. (2009). Resilience in remarried families. The American Journal of Family Therapy,
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reconciliation policies in 22 OECD countries. American Journal of Sociology, 122(3), 886-929. Academica, 39(2), 139-157.
Glaveanu, V. P. (2013). Rewriting the language of creativity: The five A’s framework. Review of General Greenberg, M. (2014). Find relief from the stress of life’s daily hassles: how to let go of the small stuff and
Psychology, 17(1), 69-81. start living. Retrieved April 8, 2017, from Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/
Glăveanu, V. P. (2013). Rewriting the language of creativity: The five A’s framework. Review of General the-mindful-self-express/201410/find-relief-the-stress-lifes-daily-hassles
Psychology, 17(1), 69-81. Greif, G. (2012, September 6). The impact of divorce on friendships with couples and individuals. Retrieved
Glenn, N. D. (1991). The recent trend in marital success in the United States. Journal of Marriage and the November 5, 2017, from Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/buddy-
Family, 53, 261-270. system/201209/the-impact-divorce-friendships-couples-and-individuals
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and Aging (pp. 402-406). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. Labouvie-Vief, G. (1990). Wisdom as integrated thought: historical and development perspectives. In R.
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Knapp, D. J. (2015). The mediating role of attachment behaviors on the relationship between family-of-origin Labouvie-Vief, G. (1997). Cognitive-emotional integration in adulthood. In K. Schaie, & M. Lawton, Annual
and couple communication: Implications for couples therapy. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics (pp. 206-237). New York: Springer.
14(1), 17-38. Labouvie-Vief, G. (2003). Dynamic integration: affect, cognition and the self in adulthood. Current Directions
Ko, H.-J., & Meija, S. H. (2014). Social possible selves, self-regulation and social goal progress in older in Psychological Science, 12, 201-205.
adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 219-227. Labouvie‐Vief, G., Grühn, D., & Struder, J. (2010). Dynamic integration of emotion and cognition: equilibrium
Koen, V., Van Eeden, C., & Rothmann, S. (2013). A model for psychosocial well-being of families in a South regulation in development and aging. In M. E. Freund (Ed.), The handbook of life‐span development (pp.
African context. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 23(1), 155-164. 79-115). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Kõlves, K., Ide, N., & De Leo, D. (2010). Suicidal ideation and behaviour in the aftermath of marital separation: Labuschagne, D. (2013). An analysis of organ transplantation in South Africa with specific reference to organ
gender differences. Journal of Affective Disorders, 120(1), 48-53. procurement. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
Kostka, T. & Jachimowicz, V. (2010). Relationship of quality of life to dispositional optimism, health locus of Labuzan‐Lopez, E. (2015). What is the difference between parenting and parenthood? Retrieved May 30,
control and self-efficacy in older subjects living in different environments. Quality of Life Research, 19, 2018, from Erika Labuzan‐Lopez Therapy: http://www.erikalabuzanlopeztherapy.com/blog%E2%80%90
351-361. psychotherapy%E2%80%90clearlake%E2%80%90houston/2015/9/1/what%E2%80%90is%E2%80%90th
Kotter-Grühn, D. (2016). The aging self. In S. K. Whitbourne (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and Aging e%E2%80%90difference%E2%80%90between%E2%80%90parenting%E2%80%90and%E2%80%90paren
(Vol. I, pp. 55-59). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. thood
Kovalenko, M., & Mortelmans, D. (2011). Career patterns in the XX century. An interplay of gender, family Lachman, M. (2002). Handbook of midlife development. New York: Wiley.
and career success. Antwerpen: CELLO, Universiteit Antwerpen. Retrieved April 20, 2018, from https:// Lachman, M. E., & Agrigoroaei, S. (2012). Low perceived control as a risk factor for episodic memory: the
www.werk.be/sites/default/files/rapporten/kovalenko-mortelmans_2011_career_patterns_in_the_xx_ mediation role of anxiety and task interference. Memory and Cognition, 40(2), 287-296.
century.pdf Lachman, M., Neupert, S., & Agrigoroaei, S. (2011). The relevance of control beliefs for health and aging. In K.
Koyanagi, A., Garin, N., Olaya, B., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., Chatterji, S., Leonardi, M., & Haro, J. (2014). Chronic W. Schaie, & S. L. Willis, Handbook of the psychology of aging (pp. 175-190). Elsevier.
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famp.12264 research and practice. Routledge.
Lavner, J., Karney, B., & Bradbury, T. (2014). Relationship problems over the early years of marriage: stability Liu, R., & Alloy, L. (2010). Stress generation in depression: a systematic review of the empirical literature and
or change? Journal of Family Psychology, 28(6), 979-985. recommendations for future study. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(5), 582-593.
Le Roux, A. (2004). ’n Kruiskulturele ondersoek na eensaamheid onder studente van die Universiteit van die Liu, X., Giffin, L., & Stine‐Morrow, E. (2016). Language comprehension. In S. Whitbourne, The Encyclopedia of
Vrystaat. Curationis, 27(2), 6-14. Adulthood and Aging (Vol. II, pp. 722-726). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell.
Le Roux, A., & Connors, J. (2001). A cross-cultural study into loneliness amongst university students. South Livingston, G. (2014). Four-in-ten couples are saying “I do,” again. Retrieved November 20, 2017, from Pew
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Le Roux, A., & De Beer, E. (1994). Eensaamheid en intimiteit by getroude studente in vroeë volwassenheid. again/
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Le, C. (2017). Interracial couples invest more in their kids. Retrieved September 10, 2017, from Asian-Nation: relationships: a gestalt field perspective. Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree
The Landscape of Asian America: http://www.asian-nation.org/headlines/2007/05/interracial-couples- of Masters of Diaconiology in the subject Play Therapy. University of South Africa.
invest-more-in-their-kids/ Lodge, A., & Umberson, D. (2016). Sexual intimacy in mid-life and late-life couples. In J. Bookwala, Couple
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LeBoutillier, N., & Barry, R. (2018). Psychological mindedness, personality and creative cognition. Creativity 116-134). Washington: American Psychological Association.
Research Journal, 30(1), 78-84. Lodi‐Smith, J., & Goodsell, C. A. (2016). Autobiographical memory. In S. Whitbourne, The Encyclopedia of
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entry/14200/1/When-Are-You-Dead.html Longino, C., & Powell, J. (2004). Embodiment and the study of aging. In V. Berdayes, L. Esposito, & J. Murphy,
Leopold, T., & Kalmijn, M. (2016). Is divorce more painful when couples have children? Evidence from long- The body in human inquiry: interdisciplinary explorations of embodiment (pp. 199-215). Cresskill, New
term panel data on multiple domains of well-being. Demography, 53, 1717-1742. Jersey: Hampton Press.
Lesch, E., & Scheffler, F. (2016). The need for research on father-daughter relationships in South Africa. In M. Lotika, A., Mabuza, L., & Okonta, H. (2013). Reasons given by hypertensive patients for concurrently using
Makiwane, M. Nduna, & N. E. Khalema, Children in South African families: lives and times (pp. 200-226). traditional and western medicine at Natalspruit Hospital in the Gauteng Province, South Africa. African
Cambridge Scholars. Journal of Primary Health Care and Family Medicine, 5(1), 1-7.
Lesch, E., Casper, R., & Van der Watt, A. S. (2016). Romantic relationships and loneliness in a group of South Louw, D. A. & Edwards, D. J. A. (1997). Psychology: an introduction for students in Southern Africa (2nd ed.).
African postgraduate students. South African Review of Sociology, 47(4), 22-39. Johannesburg: Heinemann.
Lev, A. I. (2015). Resilience in lesbian and gay couples. In K. Skerrett, & K. Fergus (Eds.), Couple resilience (pp. Louw, D. A., & Louw, A. E. (2014). Child and adolescent development (2nd ed.). Bloemfontein: Psychology
45-61). Dordrecht: Springer. Publications.
LeVay, S. (1996). Queer science: the use and abuse of research into homosexuality. Cambridge: MITPress. Louw, D. A., Eloff, I., & Swart, E. (in progress for 2017/18). Psychology for Teachers. Cape Town: Juta.
Levenson, R., Carstensen, L., & Gottman, J. (1993). Long-term marriage: age, gender and satisfaction. Louw, D. A., Louw A. E. & Kail, R. (2007). Basic concepts of child development. In D. Louw, & A. Louw, Child
Psychology and Ageing, 8, 310-315. and adolescent development. Bloemfontein: Psychology Publishers.
Levinson, D. (1978). The seasons of a man’s life. New York: Knopf. Louw, D. A., Louw, A. E., & Kail, R. (2014). Basic concepts of child and adolescent development. In D. A. Louw,
Levinson, D. (1986). A conception of adult development. American Psychologist, 41, 3-13. & A. E. Louw (Eds.), Child and adolescent development (2nd ed.). Bloemfontein: Psychology publications.
Levinson, D. (1990). The seasons of a women’s life. New York: Knopf. Louw, G. (2014). Burnout, vigour, big five personality traits and social support in a sample of police officers.
Levy, B. R. (2003). Mind matters: Cognitive and physical effects of aging self-stereotypes on the will to live. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 40(1), 1-13.
Omega (Westport), 40, 409-420. Louw, G.J., & Viviers, A. (2010). An evaluation of a psychosocial stress and coping model. South African
Levy, B., Slade, M., Kunkel, S., & Kasl, S. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(1), 1-11.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 261–270. Low, J. M., Akande, A., & Hill, C. (2005). A cross-cultural comparison of identity development: South Africa
Lewis, T., Cogburn, C., & Williams, D. (2015). Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health: scientific and the United States. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 5, 303-314.
advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11, 407-440. Lubbe, C. (2007). Mothers, fathers, or parents: same-gendered families in South Africa. South African Journal
Li, S.‐C., Lindenberger, U., & Bäckman, L. (2010). Dopaminergic modulation of cognition across the life span. of Psychology, 37(2), 260-283.

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Lamont, E., De Klerk, W., & Malan, L. (2017). Older age South African persons’ experiences of their needs Li, Y. B. (2013). Global aging issues and policies: understanding the importance of comprehending and
with cell phone use. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 27(3), 260-266. studying the aging process. Charles C Thomas Publisher.
Landeiro F., Barrows, P., Nuttall, M. E, et al (2017). Reducing social isolation and loneliness in older people: a Lichstein, K. L. (2017). Insomnia identity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 97(October), 230-241.
systematic review protocol. BMJ Open; 7:e013778. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013778 Light, L. (2016). Long‐term memory. In S. Whitbourne, The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and Aging (pp. 823-
Lang, F. (2000). Endings and continuity of social relationships: maximizing intrinsic benefits within personal 828). Chichester, West Sussex, UK:: Wiley Blackwell.
networks when feeling near to death. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17, 155-182. Lim, K., Jasvindar, K., Cheong, S., Ho, B., Lim, H., Teh, C., . . . Ambigga, D. (2016). Prevalence of smoking and
Larson, E. B., Yaffe, K., & Langa, K. M. (2013). New insights into the dementia epidemic. New England Journal its associated factors with smoking among elderly smokers in Malaysia: findings from a nationwide
of Medicine, 369(24), 2275-2277. population-based study. Tobacco Induced Diseases, 14. doi: 10.1186/s12971-016-0073-z
Lasala, C. B., Galigao, R. P., & Boquecosa, J. F. (2013). Psychological impact of social networking sites: a Lin, I. F., Brown, S. L., Wright, M. R., & Hammersmith, A. M. (2016). Antecedents of grey divorce: a life course
psychological theory. UV Journal of Research, 7, 81-86. perspective. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 00(00), 1-10.
Lau, J. T., Wu, A. M., Gross, D. L., Cheng, K. M., & Lau, M. M. (2017). Internet addiction transitory or Lindau, S. T.; Schumm, L. P. Laumann, E. O.; Levinson, W.; O’Muircheartaigh, C. A. & Waite, L. J. (2007). A
persistent? Incidence and prospective predictors of remission of internet addiction among Chinese study of sexuality and health among older adults in the United States. The New England Journal of
secondary school students. Addictive Behaviors, 74, 55-62. Medicine, 357(8), 762-774.
Lavee, Y., & Olson, D. (1993). Seven types of marriage: empirical topology based on ENRICH. Journal of Lindh, W., Tamparo, C., Dahl, B., Morris, J., & Correa, C. (2017). Comprehensive medical assisting:
Marital and Family Therapy, 19, 325-340. administrative and clinical competencies (6th ed.). Delmar Cengage Learning.
Lavner, J. A., Karney, B. R., Williamson, H. C., & Bradbury, T. N. (2016, November 8). Bidirectional associations Lipsky, M. S., & King, M. (2015). Biological theories of aging. Disease-a-Month, 61, 460-466.
between newlyweds’ marital satisfaction and marital problems over time. Family process. doi:10.1111/ Little, C. (. (2017). Supporting social inclusion for students with autism spectrum disorders: insights from
famp.12264 research and practice. Routledge.
Lavner, J., Karney, B., & Bradbury, T. (2014). Relationship problems over the early years of marriage: stability Liu, R., & Alloy, L. (2010). Stress generation in depression: a systematic review of the empirical literature and
or change? Journal of Family Psychology, 28(6), 979-985. recommendations for future study. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(5), 582-593.
Le Roux, A. (2004). ’n Kruiskulturele ondersoek na eensaamheid onder studente van die Universiteit van die Liu, X., Giffin, L., & Stine‐Morrow, E. (2016). Language comprehension. In S. Whitbourne, The Encyclopedia of
Vrystaat. Curationis, 27(2), 6-14. Adulthood and Aging (Vol. II, pp. 722-726). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell.
Le Roux, A., & Connors, J. (2001). A cross-cultural study into loneliness amongst university students. South Livingston, G. (2014). Four-in-ten couples are saying “I do,” again. Retrieved November 20, 2017, from Pew
African Journal of Psychology, 31(2), 46-52. Research Center: http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/11/14/four-in-ten-couples-are-saying-i-do-
Le Roux, A., & De Beer, E. (1994). Eensaamheid en intimiteit by getroude studente in vroeë volwassenheid. again/
Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Sielkunde, 24, 53-61. Lloyd, J. (2010). Exploring perspectives of parents on challenges of parenting children born from interracial
Le, C. (2017). Interracial couples invest more in their kids. Retrieved September 10, 2017, from Asian-Nation: relationships: a gestalt field perspective. Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree
The Landscape of Asian America: http://www.asian-nation.org/headlines/2007/05/interracial-couples- of Masters of Diaconiology in the subject Play Therapy. University of South Africa.
invest-more-in-their-kids/ Lodge, A., & Umberson, D. (2016). Sexual intimacy in mid-life and late-life couples. In J. Bookwala, Couple
Leatt, D., & Chipkin, I. (2011). Religion and revival in post-apartheid South Africa. Focus, 39-46. relationships in the middle and later years: their nature, complexity, and role in health and illness (pp.
LeBoutillier, N., & Barry, R. (2018). Psychological mindedness, personality and creative cognition. Creativity 116-134). Washington: American Psychological Association.
Research Journal, 30(1), 78-84. Lodi‐Smith, J., & Goodsell, C. A. (2016). Autobiographical memory. In S. Whitbourne, The Encyclopedia of
Lee, S., & Oyserman, D. (2012). Possible selves theory. Education.com. Adulthood and Aging (Vol. I, pp. 108-111). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell.
Lefrançois, G. (1996). The lifespan (5th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth. Lohmann, R. C. (2014, April 26). Healthy sibling relationships. Retrieved March 19, 2018, from Psychology
LeMouse, M. (2017). When are you dead? Retrieved May 11, 2017, from http://www.healthguidance.org/ Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/teen-angst/201404/healthy-sibling-relationships
entry/14200/1/When-Are-You-Dead.html Longino, C., & Powell, J. (2004). Embodiment and the study of aging. In V. Berdayes, L. Esposito, & J. Murphy,
Leopold, T., & Kalmijn, M. (2016). Is divorce more painful when couples have children? Evidence from long- The body in human inquiry: interdisciplinary explorations of embodiment (pp. 199-215). Cresskill, New
term panel data on multiple domains of well-being. Demography, 53, 1717-1742. Jersey: Hampton Press.
Lesch, E., & Scheffler, F. (2016). The need for research on father-daughter relationships in South Africa. In M. Lotika, A., Mabuza, L., & Okonta, H. (2013). Reasons given by hypertensive patients for concurrently using
Makiwane, M. Nduna, & N. E. Khalema, Children in South African families: lives and times (pp. 200-226). traditional and western medicine at Natalspruit Hospital in the Gauteng Province, South Africa. African
Cambridge Scholars. Journal of Primary Health Care and Family Medicine, 5(1), 1-7.
Lesch, E., Casper, R., & Van der Watt, A. S. (2016). Romantic relationships and loneliness in a group of South Louw, D. A. & Edwards, D. J. A. (1997). Psychology: an introduction for students in Southern Africa (2nd ed.).
African postgraduate students. South African Review of Sociology, 47(4), 22-39. Johannesburg: Heinemann.
Lev, A. I. (2015). Resilience in lesbian and gay couples. In K. Skerrett, & K. Fergus (Eds.), Couple resilience (pp. Louw, D. A., & Louw, A. E. (2014). Child and adolescent development (2nd ed.). Bloemfontein: Psychology
45-61). Dordrecht: Springer. Publications.
LeVay, S. (1996). Queer science: the use and abuse of research into homosexuality. Cambridge: MITPress. Louw, D. A., Eloff, I., & Swart, E. (in progress for 2017/18). Psychology for Teachers. Cape Town: Juta.
Levenson, R., Carstensen, L., & Gottman, J. (1993). Long-term marriage: age, gender and satisfaction. Louw, D. A., Louw A. E. & Kail, R. (2007). Basic concepts of child development. In D. Louw, & A. Louw, Child
Psychology and Ageing, 8, 310-315. and adolescent development. Bloemfontein: Psychology Publishers.
Levinson, D. (1978). The seasons of a man’s life. New York: Knopf. Louw, D. A., Louw, A. E., & Kail, R. (2014). Basic concepts of child and adolescent development. In D. A. Louw,
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Levinson, D. (1990). The seasons of a women’s life. New York: Knopf. Louw, G. (2014). Burnout, vigour, big five personality traits and social support in a sample of police officers.
Levy, B. R. (2003). Mind matters: Cognitive and physical effects of aging self-stereotypes on the will to live. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 40(1), 1-13.
Omega (Westport), 40, 409-420. Louw, G.J., & Viviers, A. (2010). An evaluation of a psychosocial stress and coping model. South African
Levy, B., Slade, M., Kunkel, S., & Kasl, S. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(1), 1-11.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 261–270. Low, J. M., Akande, A., & Hill, C. (2005). A cross-cultural comparison of identity development: South Africa
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Li, S.‐C., Lindenberger, U., & Bäckman, L. (2010). Dopaminergic modulation of cognition across the life span. of Psychology, 37(2), 260-283.

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wpapers/2010/wp152010/wp-15-2010.pdf Watkins, N. K., & Waldron, M. (2017). Timing of remarriage among divorced and widowed parents. Journal of
Van der Merwe, M. (1996). Physiological aspects of aging. In S. Hatting, M. Van der Merwe, G. Van Rensburg, Divorce & Remarriage, 58(4), 244-262.
& M. Dreyer, Gerontology: a community health perspective. Johannesburg: International Thomson Watson, J. (2018). The migrating mind: new studies unlock impact of immigration on mental health.
Publishing. Medscape Saturday, June 9, 2018. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/87989.
Van Heerden, J. A., Burger, J. R., Gerber, J. J. (2016). Inappropriate medicine prescribing in older South Watson, R. (2013). Oxytocin: the love and trust hormone can be deceptive. Retrieved July 20, 2017, from
Africans: Aacross-sectional analysis of medicine claims data. South African Medical Journal, 106 (10), 1010- Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/love-and-gratitude/201310/oxytocin-the-
1016. love-and-trust-hormone-can-be-deceptive
Van Ijzendoorn, M., Scheungel, C., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. (1999). Disorganised attachment Webster, J. (1998). Attachment styles, reminiscence functions and happiness in young and elderly adults.
in early childhood: meta- analysis of precursors, concomitants and sequelae. Development and Journal of Aging Studies, 12, 315-330.
Psychopathology, 11, 225-249. Wechsler, D. (1958). The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence (4th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Williams
Van Solinge, H., & Henkens, K. (2008). Adjustment to satisfaction with retirement: two of a kind? Psychology & Wilkins.
and Aging, 23(2), 422-443. Weich, L. (2017, May 8). The effects of cannabis use. (D. Louw, Interviewer)
Van Wijk, C. (2013). The relationship between locus of control and the South African national political Weinberg, B. (2016). Life cycles, creative. In S. K. Whitbourne (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and Aging
environment. Psychology, 4(12), 937-939. (Vol. II, pp. 763-767). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell.
Van Zyl, M. (. (2015). A sexual politics of belonging: same-sex marriage in post-apartheid South Africa. Wellings, K., Collumbien, M., Slaymaker, E., Singh, S., Hodges, Z., D., P., & Bajos, N. (2006). Sexual behaviour in
Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences context: a global perspective. The Lancet, 368(9548), 1706-1728.
at Stellenbosch University. Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch. Westaby, J. D., Pfaff, D. L., & Redding, N. (2014). Psychology and social networks: a dynamic network theory
VandenBos, G. (2007). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. perspective. American Psychologist, 69(3), 269-284.
Vandivere, S., Malm, K., & Radel, L. (2009). Adoption USA: A chartbook based on the 2007 National Survey of Westaway, M., Olorunju, S., & Rai, L.-C. (2007). Which personal quality of life domains affect the happiness of
adoptive parents. Washington, DC: The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the older South Africans? Quality of Life Research, 16, 1425-1438.
Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. Retrieved February 3, 2018, from https://aspe.hhs.gov/ Whitbourne, S. (2008). Adult development and aging. Biopsychosocial perspectives (3rd ed.). New York: John
report/adoption-usa-chartbook-based-2007-national-survey-adoptive-parents?id=2 Wiley & Sons.
Verhaeghen, P. (2016). Working memory. In S. Whitbourne, The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and Aging (Vol. III, Whitbourne, S. K. (2010). The search for fulfilment. New York, NY: Norton.
pp. 1458-1463). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell. Whitbourne, S. K., & Whitbourne, S. B. (2014). Adult development and ageing: biophysical perspectives (5th
Verhaeghen, P., Geraerts, N., & Marcoen, A. (2000). Memory complaints, coping and well-being in old age: a ed.). Wiley.
systemic approach. The Gerontologist, 40, 540-548. Whitbourne, S., & Sliwinski, M. (2012). The Wiley‐Blackwell Handbook of Adulthood and Aging. Wiley-
Vermeulen, M. (2017, March 13). Five things to consider before shacking up – Cohabitation in South Africa. Blackwell.
Retrieved December 15, 2017, from Vermeulen Attorneys: http://www.vermeulenlaw.co.za/five-things- Whitley, E., Popham, F., & Benzeval, M. (2016). Comparison of the Rowe-Kahn Model of Successful Aging
to-consider-before-shacking-up-cohabitation-in-south-africa/ with self-rated health and life satisfaction: the West of Scotland Twenty-07 Prospective Cohort Study.
Victor, C. (2014). Are most older people really not lonely? The Gerontological Society of America, 67th Annual Gerontologist, 56(6), 1082-1092.
Scientific Meeting November 5-9 2014. Washington, DC. Whitley, E., Popham, F., & Benzeval, M. (2016). Comparison of the Rowe-Kahn Model of Successful Aging with
Vitelli, R. (2016). Loneliness Across the Lifespan. Retrieved June 8, 2018, from Psychology Today: https:// self-rated health and life satisfaction: the West of Scotland Twenty-07 Prospective Cohort Study. The
www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/media%E2%80%90spotlight/201606/loneliness%E2%80%90across Gerontologist, 56(6), 1082-1092.
%E2%80%90the%E2%80%90lifespan8 Wickremartachi, M. M. & Llelewelyn, J. G. (2006). Effects of ageing on touch. Postgraduate Medical Journal,
Vogt, L., & Laher, S. (2009). The Five Factor Model of personality and individualism/collectivism in South 82, 301-304.
Africa: an exploratory study. Psychology in Society, 37, 1-10. Wild, L. (2018). Grandparental involvement and South African adolescents’ emotional and behavioural
Volkow, N. D., Baler, R. D., Compton, W. M., & Weiss, S. R. (2014, June 5). Adverse health effects of marijuana health: a summary of research findings. Contemporary Social Science, 13, 1-14.
use. New England Journal of Medicine, 370(23), 2219-2227. Wildavsky, W. (1997, June). Sex, lies and the Kinsey Report. Reader’s Digest, pp. 41-45.
Von Bartheld, C. S. (2017). Myths and truths about the cellular composition of the human brain: A Willis, M. (2012, March 16). The myth of the traditional family. Parenting for High Potential, 1(5), 14.
review of influential concepts. Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. Willis, S. L., & Boron, J. B. (2015). Cognitive aging and training. In P. A. Lichtenberg, B. T. Mast, B. D. Carpenter,
jchemneu.2017.08.004 & J. Wetherell, APA Handbook of Clinical Geropsychology(Vol. I, pp. 195-216). Washington, DC, USA:
Von Humboldt, S., & Leal, I. (2014). Adjustment to aging in late adulthood: a systematic review. International American Psychological Association.
Journal of Gerontology, 8, 108-113. Wilmore, J., Costill, D., & Kenney, W. (2008). Physiology of sport and exercise (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human
Voyer, B. G., & Franks, B. (2016). Toward a better understanding of self-construal theory: an agency view of Kinetics.
the process of self-construal. Review of General Psychology, 101-114. Winch, G. (2016). 10 Crucial differences between worry and anxiety. Retrieved September 3, 2017, from
Vulić‐Prtorić, A., & Tkalić, R. G. (2016). Faces of social anxiety: fear of intimacy and anxiety in interpersonal Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-squeaky-wheel/201603/10-crucial-
relationships among Croatian young adults. 37th STAR CONFERENCE. differences-between-worry-and-anxiety
Waite, L. J., Browning, D., Doherty, W. J., Gallagher, M., Lue, Y., & Stanley, S. M. (2003). Does divorce make Wingfield, A., & Lash, A. (2016). Audition and language comprehension in adult aging: stability in the face of
people happy? Findings from a study of unhappy marriages. Retrieved November 5, 2017, from Institute change. In K. Schaie, & S. Willis, Handbook of the psychology of aging (8th ed., pp. 165-185). Waltham,
for American Values: http://www.americanvalues.org/search/item.php?id=13 MA, USA: Elsevier Academic Press.
Walsh, R. (2015). What is wisdom? Cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary syntheses. Review of General Wink, P., & Scott, J. (2005). Does religiousness buffer against the fear of death and dying in late adulthood?
Psychology, 19(3), 278-293. Findings from a longitudinal study. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 60, 207-214.
Wang, M. & Shi, J. (2016). Work, retirement and aging. In Handbook of the pscyhology of aging (8th ed). Wisdom. (2018). Retrieved February 16, 2018, from English Oxford living dictionaries: https://
Edited by K. Warner Schaie & Sherry L. Willis. en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/wisdom
Wang, W. (2012). The rise of intermarriage. Retrieved September 13, 2017, from Pew Research Center: Won, C., & Guilleminault, C. (2015). Gender differences in sleep disordered breathing: implications for
http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/02/16/the-rise-of-intermarriage/?src=prc-headline therapy. Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine, 9(2), 221-231.
Wasserman, D., Hoven, C. W., Wasserman, C., Wall, M., Eisenberg, R., Hadlaczky, G. … (2015). School-based Wong, J., & Mellor, D. (2014). Intimate partner violence and women’s health and wellbeing: impacts, risk

548 549
 factors and responses. Contemporary Nurse, 46(2), 170-179.
Woods, A., Velasco, C., Levitan, C., Wan, X., & Spence, C. (2015). Conducting perception research over the
INDEX
internet: a tutorial review. PeerJ, e1058.
Woods, H., & Scott, H. (2016). #Sleepyteens: Social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep A Attachment theory, 285
quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem. Journal of Adolescence, 51, 41-49. Attachment to former spouse and divorce, 328
World Health Organisation. (2016). Discrimination and negative attitudes about ageing are bad for your Absent-mindedness, 132 Attention, 112
health. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2016/ Absolutist thinking, 192 Attentional deployment, 267
discrimination-ageing-youth/en/ Abstraction vs. concreteness, 244 Attentional resources theory, 114
World Health Organization. (2014). Global status report on alcohol and health. World Health Organization. Academic domain, 243 Australian Study of Health and Relationships, 91
Retrieved October 12, 2017, from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_ Accommodation, 210 Authentic road, 262
report/msb_gsr_2014_1.pdf?ua=1 Achieving stage, 194 Authoritarian parenting style, 350
World Health Organization. (2014, August). Visual impairment and blindness. Fact Sheet N°282. Retrieved Active genotype-environment correlation, 236 Autobiographical memory, 128
February 4, 2017, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en/ Active lifestyle, 424
World Health Organization. (2015). World report on Ageing and Health. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from Activity theory, 424 B
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/186463/1/9789240694811_eng.pdf Adaptation, 188
World Health Organization. (2016). Elder abuse. Retrieved March 12, 2017, from http://www.who.int/ Adoption, 352 Baltes, Paul, 22, 171, 196
mediacentre/factsheets/fs357/en/ Adoptive parents, 352 Basic concepts. See Chapter 1
World Health Organization. (2016). HIV/AIDS. Retrieved February 13, 2017, from http://www.who.int/ Adaptive intelligence, 193 Basic tendencies and FFM, 206
mediacentre/factsheets/fs360/en/ Adultery, 321 Basic Traits Inventory (BTI), 216, 218
World Health Organization. (2016, April). Mental health and older adults. Retrieved April 11, 2017, from Adultery and divorce, 321 Behavioural genetics, 235
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs381/en/ Adulthood, 8 Belief systems and divorce, 329
World Health Organization. (2016, July 19). Number of people (all ages) living with HIV. Retrieved January 20, Affect domain, 243 Bereavement, 489
2017, from http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.22100WHO?lang=en African perspective Big Five, 206
World Health Organization. (2017). The global burden. Retrieved May 1, 2017, from Management of bereavement, 490 Biological age, 10
substance abuse: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/facts/global_burden/en/ developmental theories, 228 Biological functions of family, 343
World Health Organization. (2017). What is “active aging”? Retrieved April 8, 2017, from Ageing and life- family, 342 Biological perspectives on adult development, 204
course: http://www.who.int/ageing/active_ageing/en/ fathers, 359 Conclusions, 219
World Health Organization. (2017?). Global Health Observatory (GHO) data. Retrieved from Life expectancy: marriage, 313 Biological theories, 58
http://www.who.int/gho/mortality_burden_disease/life_tables/situation_trends/en/ mental disorders, 459 Bipolar disorder, 441
World Values Survey. (1996). World Values Survey (1995-1998) - South Africa 1996. Retrieved June 21, 2017, old age, 9 Blended families, 363
from http://euthanasiaexposed.co.za/wp-content/uploads/World-values-survey-V3_Results_South_ personality development, 227 Bowlby, John, 286, 490
Africa_1996_v_2015_04_18.pdf proverbs, 176 Brain, 64
World Values Survey. (2013). World Values Survey (2010-2014) - South-Africa 2013. Retrieved June 21, 2017, selfhood, 230 Brain death, 468
from http://euthanasiaexposed.co.za/wp-content/uploads/World-Values-Survey-WV6_Results_South- sexuality, 100 Burnout, 393
Africa_2013_v_2015_04_18.pdf wisdom, 172
Woudstra, F. H., Van de Poel-Mustafayeva, A. T., Van der Ploeg, M., De Vries, J. J., Van der Lek, R. F., & Izaks, G. Age, 9 C
J. (2014). Symptoms mimicking dementia in a 60-year-old woman with bipolar disorder: a case report. Age discrimination, 395
BMC Research Notes, 7, 381. Age of marital partners, 310 Cancer, 82
Xavier Gómez-Olivé, F., Thorogood, M., Clark, B. D., Kahn, K., & Tollman, S. M. (2010). Assessing health and Age-complexity hypothesis, 118 Cannabis, 456
well-being among older people in rural South Africa. Global Health Action, 3(1), 2126. Ageing, 11 Cardiovascular system, 76
Yang, C. L., & Hwang, M. (2014). Personality traits and simultaneous reciprocal influences between job attitudes towards, 409 Career cycle, 389
performance and job satisfaction. Chinese Management Studies, 8(1), 6-26. Ageism, 395, 410 Career plateau, 393
Yudell, M., Roberts, D., DeSalle, R., & Tishkoff, S. (2016). Taking race out of human genetics. Science, Ageless self, 11 Casual sex, 99
351(6273), 564-565. Age-related positivity effects, 267 Cataracts, 67
Zadel, A. (2018). Connections between personality traits and work experiences. International Journal of Age-sensitive abilities, 145 Cattell, Raymond, 143
Business and Systems Research, 12(1), 69-84. Agreeableness, 207 Cell phone use, 297
Zampieri, S., Pietrangelo, L., Loefler, S., Fruhman, H., Vogelauer, M., Burggraf, S., . . . Sandri, M. (2015). Ainsworth, Mary, 285 Cell-division, 60
Lifelong physical exercise delays age-associated skeletal muscle decline. Journal of Gerontology: Alcohol, 456 Central nervous system, 57
Biological Sciences, 70(2), 161-173. Alcohol abuse and divorce, 322 Change and personality traits, 210
Zaugg, M., & Lucchinetti, E. (2003). Respiratory function in the elderly. Anesthesiology Clinics of North Alienation, 420 Characteristic adaptations, 209, 271
America, 18(1), 47-58. Alzheimer’s disease, 444 Cheating, 321
Zetumer, S., Young, I., Shear, M. K., Skritskaya, N., Lebowitz, B., Simon, N., . . . Zisook, S. (2015). The impact of Analytical intelligence, 140 Child, loss of, 495
losing a child on the clinical presentation of complicated grief. Journal of affective disorders, 170, 15-21. Ancestral selfhood, 228 Childhood amnesia, 130
Zimprich, D., Allemand, M., & Lachman, M. E. (2015). Factorial structure and age-related psychometrics of Anxiety disorders, 442 Childless couples, 377
the MIDUS personality adjective items across the life span. Psychological Assessment, 24, 173-186. Aphasia, 166 Childlessness, 377
Zupanc, G. (2006). Neurogenesis and neuronal regeneration in the adult fish brain. Journal of Comparative Apraxia, 166 Children in divorce, 327, 329
Physiology, 192, 649-670. Assimilation, 210 Chronological age, 9
Zwane, C., Venter, C., Temane, M., & Chigeza, S. (2012). Black adults’ perceptions of healthy family Assortative mating theory, 284 Civil marriage, 301
functioning. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 22(1), 43-48. Attachment, 285 Civil union, 301

550 551
 factors and responses. Contemporary Nurse, 46(2), 170-179.
Woods, A., Velasco, C., Levitan, C., Wan, X., & Spence, C. (2015). Conducting perception research over the
INDEX
internet: a tutorial review. PeerJ, e1058.
Woods, H., & Scott, H. (2016). #Sleepyteens: Social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep A Attachment theory, 285
quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem. Journal of Adolescence, 51, 41-49. Attachment to former spouse and divorce, 328
World Health Organisation. (2016). Discrimination and negative attitudes about ageing are bad for your Absent-mindedness, 132 Attention, 112
health. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2016/ Absolutist thinking, 192 Attentional deployment, 267
discrimination-ageing-youth/en/ Abstraction vs. concreteness, 244 Attentional resources theory, 114
World Health Organization. (2014). Global status report on alcohol and health. World Health Organization. Academic domain, 243 Australian Study of Health and Relationships, 91
Retrieved October 12, 2017, from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_ Accommodation, 210 Authentic road, 262
report/msb_gsr_2014_1.pdf?ua=1 Achieving stage, 194 Authoritarian parenting style, 350
World Health Organization. (2014, August). Visual impairment and blindness. Fact Sheet N°282. Retrieved Active genotype-environment correlation, 236 Autobiographical memory, 128
February 4, 2017, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en/ Active lifestyle, 424
World Health Organization. (2015). World report on Ageing and Health. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from Activity theory, 424 B
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/186463/1/9789240694811_eng.pdf Adaptation, 188
World Health Organization. (2016). Elder abuse. Retrieved March 12, 2017, from http://www.who.int/ Adoption, 352 Baltes, Paul, 22, 171, 196
mediacentre/factsheets/fs357/en/ Adoptive parents, 352 Basic concepts. See Chapter 1
World Health Organization. (2016). HIV/AIDS. Retrieved February 13, 2017, from http://www.who.int/ Adaptive intelligence, 193 Basic tendencies and FFM, 206
mediacentre/factsheets/fs360/en/ Adultery, 321 Basic Traits Inventory (BTI), 216, 218
World Health Organization. (2016, April). Mental health and older adults. Retrieved April 11, 2017, from Adultery and divorce, 321 Behavioural genetics, 235
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs381/en/ Adulthood, 8 Belief systems and divorce, 329
World Health Organization. (2016, July 19). Number of people (all ages) living with HIV. Retrieved January 20, Affect domain, 243 Bereavement, 489
2017, from http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.22100WHO?lang=en African perspective Big Five, 206
World Health Organization. (2017). The global burden. Retrieved May 1, 2017, from Management of bereavement, 490 Biological age, 10
substance abuse: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/facts/global_burden/en/ developmental theories, 228 Biological functions of family, 343
World Health Organization. (2017). What is “active aging”? Retrieved April 8, 2017, from Ageing and life- family, 342 Biological perspectives on adult development, 204
course: http://www.who.int/ageing/active_ageing/en/ fathers, 359 Conclusions, 219
World Health Organization. (2017?). Global Health Observatory (GHO) data. Retrieved from Life expectancy: marriage, 313 Biological theories, 58
http://www.who.int/gho/mortality_burden_disease/life_tables/situation_trends/en/ mental disorders, 459 Bipolar disorder, 441
World Values Survey. (1996). World Values Survey (1995-1998) - South Africa 1996. Retrieved June 21, 2017, old age, 9 Blended families, 363
from http://euthanasiaexposed.co.za/wp-content/uploads/World-values-survey-V3_Results_South_ personality development, 227 Bowlby, John, 286, 490
Africa_1996_v_2015_04_18.pdf proverbs, 176 Brain, 64
World Values Survey. (2013). World Values Survey (2010-2014) - South-Africa 2013. Retrieved June 21, 2017, selfhood, 230 Brain death, 468
from http://euthanasiaexposed.co.za/wp-content/uploads/World-Values-Survey-WV6_Results_South- sexuality, 100 Burnout, 393
Africa_2013_v_2015_04_18.pdf wisdom, 172
Woudstra, F. H., Van de Poel-Mustafayeva, A. T., Van der Ploeg, M., De Vries, J. J., Van der Lek, R. F., & Izaks, G. Age, 9 C
J. (2014). Symptoms mimicking dementia in a 60-year-old woman with bipolar disorder: a case report. Age discrimination, 395
BMC Research Notes, 7, 381. Age of marital partners, 310 Cancer, 82
Xavier Gómez-Olivé, F., Thorogood, M., Clark, B. D., Kahn, K., & Tollman, S. M. (2010). Assessing health and Age-complexity hypothesis, 118 Cannabis, 456
well-being among older people in rural South Africa. Global Health Action, 3(1), 2126. Ageing, 11 Cardiovascular system, 76
Yang, C. L., & Hwang, M. (2014). Personality traits and simultaneous reciprocal influences between job attitudes towards, 409 Career cycle, 389
performance and job satisfaction. Chinese Management Studies, 8(1), 6-26. Ageism, 395, 410 Career plateau, 393
Yudell, M., Roberts, D., DeSalle, R., & Tishkoff, S. (2016). Taking race out of human genetics. Science, Ageless self, 11 Casual sex, 99
351(6273), 564-565. Age-related positivity effects, 267 Cataracts, 67
Zadel, A. (2018). Connections between personality traits and work experiences. International Journal of Age-sensitive abilities, 145 Cattell, Raymond, 143
Business and Systems Research, 12(1), 69-84. Agreeableness, 207 Cell phone use, 297
Zampieri, S., Pietrangelo, L., Loefler, S., Fruhman, H., Vogelauer, M., Burggraf, S., . . . Sandri, M. (2015). Ainsworth, Mary, 285 Cell-division, 60
Lifelong physical exercise delays age-associated skeletal muscle decline. Journal of Gerontology: Alcohol, 456 Central nervous system, 57
Biological Sciences, 70(2), 161-173. Alcohol abuse and divorce, 322 Change and personality traits, 210
Zaugg, M., & Lucchinetti, E. (2003). Respiratory function in the elderly. Anesthesiology Clinics of North Alienation, 420 Characteristic adaptations, 209, 271
America, 18(1), 47-58. Alzheimer’s disease, 444 Cheating, 321
Zetumer, S., Young, I., Shear, M. K., Skritskaya, N., Lebowitz, B., Simon, N., . . . Zisook, S. (2015). The impact of Analytical intelligence, 140 Child, loss of, 495
losing a child on the clinical presentation of complicated grief. Journal of affective disorders, 170, 15-21. Ancestral selfhood, 228 Childhood amnesia, 130
Zimprich, D., Allemand, M., & Lachman, M. E. (2015). Factorial structure and age-related psychometrics of Anxiety disorders, 442 Childless couples, 377
the MIDUS personality adjective items across the life span. Psychological Assessment, 24, 173-186. Aphasia, 166 Childlessness, 377
Zupanc, G. (2006). Neurogenesis and neuronal regeneration in the adult fish brain. Journal of Comparative Apraxia, 166 Children in divorce, 327, 329
Physiology, 192, 649-670. Assimilation, 210 Chronological age, 9
Zwane, C., Venter, C., Temane, M., & Chigeza, S. (2012). Black adults’ perceptions of healthy family Assortative mating theory, 284 Civil marriage, 301
functioning. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 22(1), 43-48. Attachment, 285 Civil union, 301

550 551
Classic ageing curve/pattern, 144 D Emotions, 264 General ageing effect, 111
Climacteric, 85 Empty love, 283 Generalised reciprocity, 292
Clinical death, 466 Daily hassles, 423 Empty nest syndrome, 316 Generalised slowing hypothesis, 117
Cognitive abilities, 153 Dark adaptation, 67 Encompassing social relationship, 230 Generativity versus stagnation, 224
Cognitive development, 31. See Chapter 3 Davison, Sean, 478, 479 Endocrine glands, 57 Genetic programming theory, 59
Cohabitation, 334, 337 Death. See Chapter 7 Environmental demands and social interactions, 269 Genital relationship, 280
Cohort effect, 45 Death anxiety, 469 Equity theory, 283 Genotype-environment correlation, 235
Cohorts, 45 Deception, 51 Erikson, Erik, 222 Geriatric psychology, 8
Collaborative creativity, 182 Decision making, 151 Error theories, 61 Geriatrics, 8
Commitment, 257, 282 Delirium, 450 Euthanasia, 482 Gerontological psychology, 8
Communication and divorce, 319 Dementia, 444 Everyday cognition, 147 Gerontology, 8
Communication predicament model of ageing, 164 Demographic factors and divorce, 328 Evocative genotype-environment correlation, 236 Geropsychology, 8
Communication styles, 316 Dependency, 421 Executive attention, 114 Glass ceiling, 399
Communitarian ethic, 229 Dependent variable, 39 Executive stage, 194 Glaucoma, 67
Companionate love, 283 Depression, 439 Experiences and cognition, 186 Grandparenthood, 367
Compensation, 197 Determinants of development, 42 Experiential intelligence, 140 Grandparenting styles, 368
Competence domain, 243 Determinants. See Research Experimental group, 39 Grey divorce, 318
Complex interdependence, 227 Developmental changes, 43 Experimental research, 38 Grief, 489, 497. See Chapter 7
Computer use, 297 Developmental trajectory, 145 Expertise, 166 Guilt and death of child, 495
Confidentiality, 51 Diabetes mellitus, 83 Explicit memory, 126
Conscientiousness, 207 Dialectical thinking, 192 Explicit theories of wisdom, 171 H
Construction-of-situation models, 159 Differences in priorities and responsibilities, 325 Exploration, 257
Consummate love, 283 Diffusion model, 118 Extended family, 341 Hawthorne effect, 44
Contextual intelligence, 140 Dispositional traits, 271 External control, 135 Health and cognition, 184
Continuity theory, 425 Divided attention, 114 Extraversion, 207 Health and self-esteem, 251
Continuous-discontinuous debate, 28 Divorce, 317 Hearing, 68
Control group, 39 drug abuse, 323 F Height, 74
Convenience sampling, 35 Domains of development, 31 HIV/AIDS, 78, 81
Coping and personality, 209 Domestic abuse/violence, 320 Familiarity, 154 Homosexual partnerships, 307
Coping strategies, 135 Downward slope, 262 Family, 341 Hoped-for selves, 245
Correlation, 39 Drop-out effect, 44 Family lifestyles, 341 Hopelessness, 419
Corresponsive principle, 233 Drug abuse and divorce, 322 Family relationships, 341 Hormonal changes, 88
Costa, Paul, 205, 215, 219 Durex Global Sex Report, 93 Father-daughter relationships, 361 Human population, 13
Creative intelligence, 140 Dying Fatherhood, 357 ageing, 14
Creative productivity, 179, 180 stages of, 474 Fatuous love, 283 demographics, 12
Creativity, 177 Dynamic balance of opposites, 225 Feared selves, 245 growth rate, 15
Cross-cultural psychology, 46 Dynamic integration theory, 268 Filial maturity, 371 migration patterns, 16
Cross-cultural research, 46 Dysarthria, 166 Filial obligation, 371 population age 60+, 15
Cross-linking theory, 62 Dysfunctional families, 345 Finances and divorce, 324 population growth, 13
Cross-racial adoption, 354 Financial dependency, 422 S A population reduced to 100, 14
Cross-sectional design, 44 E Five-factor model 205 urbanisation, 16
Crystallised intelligence, 144 Five-factor theory, 205 world population, 13
Culturally inclusive model, 173 Early adulthood, 8 Flashbulb memories, 130 Hypertension, 83
Culture Early career period, 390 Fluid intelligence, 143 Hypochondriasis, 458
bereavement and, 491 Economic functions of family, 343 Foster parents, 352 Hypothesis, 34
defining old age and, 9 Education and self-esteem, 251 Free radical theory, 61 Hypothetic-deductive reasoning, 189
identity development, 259 Economic consequences of divorce, 327 Freud, Sigmund, 7 Hysterectomy, 99
intelligence and, 142 Effective interaction and marriage, 312 Friendships, 380
mental disorders and, 459 Effortfulness hypothesis, 160 Functional age, 10 I
personality development and, 227 Ego integrity versus despair, 224
personality levels and,, 272 Elderly abuse, 412 G Ideal selves, 245
research. See Cross-cultural research Emigration, 375 Identity, 255
stages of dying and, 476 Emotion appraisal, 267 Generalised anxiety disorder, 442 Identity accommodation, 260
wisdom and, 172 Emotion, integration with logic, 192 Gardner, Howard, 141 Identity achievement versus identity confusion, 223
Cumulative continuity principle, 232 Emotion perception, 267 Gathering information, 34 Identity assimilation, 260
Customary marriage, 301 Emotion regulation, 267, 292 Gender and self-esteem, 251 Identity balance, 260
Cyber psychology, 295 Emotional abuse and divorce, 320 Gender differences and divorce, 329 Identity development principle, 233
Cyberspace, 294 Emotional benefits, 155 Gender stereotypes, 399 Identity diffusion, 257
Emotional experience, 266 Gene-by-environment interaction, 237 Identity disequilibrium, 257

552 553
Classic ageing curve/pattern, 144 D Emotions, 264 General ageing effect, 111
Climacteric, 85 Empty love, 283 Generalised reciprocity, 292
Clinical death, 466 Daily hassles, 423 Empty nest syndrome, 316 Generalised slowing hypothesis, 117
Cognitive abilities, 153 Dark adaptation, 67 Encompassing social relationship, 230 Generativity versus stagnation, 224
Cognitive development, 31. See Chapter 3 Davison, Sean, 478, 479 Endocrine glands, 57 Genetic programming theory, 59
Cohabitation, 334, 337 Death. See Chapter 7 Environmental demands and social interactions, 269 Genital relationship, 280
Cohort effect, 45 Death anxiety, 469 Equity theory, 283 Genotype-environment correlation, 235
Cohorts, 45 Deception, 51 Erikson, Erik, 222 Geriatric psychology, 8
Collaborative creativity, 182 Decision making, 151 Error theories, 61 Geriatrics, 8
Commitment, 257, 282 Delirium, 450 Euthanasia, 482 Gerontological psychology, 8
Communication and divorce, 319 Dementia, 444 Everyday cognition, 147 Gerontology, 8
Communication predicament model of ageing, 164 Demographic factors and divorce, 328 Evocative genotype-environment correlation, 236 Geropsychology, 8
Communication styles, 316 Dependency, 421 Executive attention, 114 Glass ceiling, 399
Communitarian ethic, 229 Dependent variable, 39 Executive stage, 194 Glaucoma, 67
Companionate love, 283 Depression, 439 Experiences and cognition, 186 Grandparenthood, 367
Compensation, 197 Determinants of development, 42 Experiential intelligence, 140 Grandparenting styles, 368
Competence domain, 243 Determinants. See Research Experimental group, 39 Grey divorce, 318
Complex interdependence, 227 Developmental changes, 43 Experimental research, 38 Grief, 489, 497. See Chapter 7
Computer use, 297 Developmental trajectory, 145 Expertise, 166 Guilt and death of child, 495
Confidentiality, 51 Diabetes mellitus, 83 Explicit memory, 126
Conscientiousness, 207 Dialectical thinking, 192 Explicit theories of wisdom, 171 H
Construction-of-situation models, 159 Differences in priorities and responsibilities, 325 Exploration, 257
Consummate love, 283 Diffusion model, 118 Extended family, 341 Hawthorne effect, 44
Contextual intelligence, 140 Dispositional traits, 271 External control, 135 Health and cognition, 184
Continuity theory, 425 Divided attention, 114 Extraversion, 207 Health and self-esteem, 251
Continuous-discontinuous debate, 28 Divorce, 317 Hearing, 68
Control group, 39 drug abuse, 323 F Height, 74
Convenience sampling, 35 Domains of development, 31 HIV/AIDS, 78, 81
Coping and personality, 209 Domestic abuse/violence, 320 Familiarity, 154 Homosexual partnerships, 307
Coping strategies, 135 Downward slope, 262 Family, 341 Hoped-for selves, 245
Correlation, 39 Drop-out effect, 44 Family lifestyles, 341 Hopelessness, 419
Corresponsive principle, 233 Drug abuse and divorce, 322 Family relationships, 341 Hormonal changes, 88
Costa, Paul, 205, 215, 219 Durex Global Sex Report, 93 Father-daughter relationships, 361 Human population, 13
Creative intelligence, 140 Dying Fatherhood, 357 ageing, 14
Creative productivity, 179, 180 stages of, 474 Fatuous love, 283 demographics, 12
Creativity, 177 Dynamic balance of opposites, 225 Feared selves, 245 growth rate, 15
Cross-cultural psychology, 46 Dynamic integration theory, 268 Filial maturity, 371 migration patterns, 16
Cross-cultural research, 46 Dysarthria, 166 Filial obligation, 371 population age 60+, 15
Cross-linking theory, 62 Dysfunctional families, 345 Finances and divorce, 324 population growth, 13
Cross-racial adoption, 354 Financial dependency, 422 S A population reduced to 100, 14
Cross-sectional design, 44 E Five-factor model 205 urbanisation, 16
Crystallised intelligence, 144 Five-factor theory, 205 world population, 13
Culturally inclusive model, 173 Early adulthood, 8 Flashbulb memories, 130 Hypertension, 83
Culture Early career period, 390 Fluid intelligence, 143 Hypochondriasis, 458
bereavement and, 491 Economic functions of family, 343 Foster parents, 352 Hypothesis, 34
defining old age and, 9 Education and self-esteem, 251 Free radical theory, 61 Hypothetic-deductive reasoning, 189
identity development, 259 Economic consequences of divorce, 327 Freud, Sigmund, 7 Hysterectomy, 99
intelligence and, 142 Effective interaction and marriage, 312 Friendships, 380
mental disorders and, 459 Effortfulness hypothesis, 160 Functional age, 10 I
personality development and, 227 Ego integrity versus despair, 224
personality levels and,, 272 Elderly abuse, 412 G Ideal selves, 245
research. See Cross-cultural research Emigration, 375 Identity, 255
stages of dying and, 476 Emotion appraisal, 267 Generalised anxiety disorder, 442 Identity accommodation, 260
wisdom and, 172 Emotion, integration with logic, 192 Gardner, Howard, 141 Identity achievement versus identity confusion, 223
Cumulative continuity principle, 232 Emotion perception, 267 Gathering information, 34 Identity assimilation, 260
Customary marriage, 301 Emotion regulation, 267, 292 Gender and self-esteem, 251 Identity balance, 260
Cyber psychology, 295 Emotional abuse and divorce, 320 Gender differences and divorce, 329 Identity development principle, 233
Cyberspace, 294 Emotional benefits, 155 Gender stereotypes, 399 Identity diffusion, 257
Emotional experience, 266 Gene-by-environment interaction, 237 Identity disequilibrium, 257

552 553
Identity disorganisation, 257 Legal aspects of divorce, 318 Mixed-method research, 34 Passion, 282
Identity foreclosure, 257 Legal definition of age, 12 Mood disorders, 439 Passive genotype-environment correlation, 236
Identity in South Africa, 256 Legal maturity, 12 Mourning, 489 Pathways metaphor, 262
Identity moratorium, 257 Leisure and recreation, 401 Multilingualism and cognition, 185 Perimenopause, 85
Identity process theory, 259 LGBT, 103 Multiple intelligence, 139 Peripheral social relationships, 384
Identity status theory, 257 Life in time, 225 Multiple social enmeshments, 230 Permissive parenting style, 350
Implicit memory, 126 Life outcomes and self-esteem, 253 Multiple threshold model, 260 Personal age, 11
Implicit theories of wisdom, 170 Life partner, loss of, 497 Muscle strength, 71 Personality, 202
Importance of work, 387 Life stories, 270 Myopia, 66 Personality and affect, 209
Independence vs. interdependence, 244 Life-cycle forces, 24 Personality and coping, 209
Independent variable, 39 Lifestyle factors and cognition, 185 N Personality and culture, 272
Indirect reciprocity, 292 Lifestyle choices, 300 Personality and health, 209
Individual differences and pesonality, 211 Liking, 283 Narrative identity, 271 Personality and job achievement, 209
Individual differences and self-esteem, 250 Living will, 487 Naturalistic observation, 36 Personality and lifestyle, 209
Inefficient encoding hypothesis, 121 Lobola, 303 Nature-nurture-interactionist -reciprocity debate, 26 Personality and relationships, 209
Inefficient retrieval hypothesis, 121 Locus of control, 416 Near death experience, 467 Personality and self-esteem, 209
Infantilisation, 165 Logic, integration with emotion, 192 Neo-Piagetian approach, 191 Personality and well-being, 209
Infatuation, 283 Loneliness, 428 Neo-socioanalytic model, 231 Personality characteristics and old age, 415
Infidelity, 321 Longitudinal design, 43 Neurogenesis, 65 Personality characteristics and self-esteem, 251
Information processing, 110, 116 Long-term memory, 124 Neuro-imaging, 65 Personality development. See Chapter 4
Information seeking, 292 Love, 280 Neurological approach, attention, 115 Personality factors, 185
Informed consent, 50 Neurons, 64 Personality factors and cognition, 185
Informing participants, 51 M Neuroticism, 206 Personality factors and marriage, 209, 312
Inhibitory deficit theory, 114 Neurotransmission, 118 Personality traits, 204, 210
Initiator of divorce, 329 Major life events, 423 Niche-picking principle, 233 Person-environment interaction models, 30
Insomnia, 452 Male menopause, 88 Non-harmful procedures, 50 Personhood, 227
Intelligence, 138 Marcia, James, 257 Non-marital lifestyles, 300 Pfizer Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and
Interactionist model, 30 Marital equity and marriage, 311 Non-normative influences, 25 Behaviours, 93
Internal changes, 77 Marital lifestyles, 300 Norm, 38 Phobias, 443
Internal control, 133 Marital relationships, 309 Normative age-graded influences, 24 Phonological loop, 123
Internal organs, 76 Marital satisfaction, 313 Normative history-graded influences, 25 Physical abuse and divorce, 320
Internal working models, 286 Marriage, 300 Nsamenang, A Barne, 228 Physical appearance, 73
Internet, 48, 294 Mask of aging, 74 Nuclear family, 341 Physical changes, 64
Internet addiction, 298 Master genetic programme, 59 Physical dependency, 421
Internet addiction disorder, 298 Maturity of marital partners, 310 O Physical development. See Chapter 2
Interracial adoption, 354 Maturity principle, 232 Physical domain, 243
Interviews, 37 McCrae, Robert, 205, 212, 215, 219 Objective biography, 210 Physical health, 77
Intimacy, 279, 282 Mean level and personality traits, 210 Obsessive-compulsive disorder, 443 Physical health and divorce, 327
Intimacy versus isolation, 224, 280 Meandering way, 262 Occupational domain, 243 Physical self, 247
Ischemic heart disease, 82 Measurement effect, 44 Occupational self, 247 Piaget, Jean, 188
Mechanistic model, 30 Older Persons Act 13 of 2006, 406 Plasticity principle, 233
K Medical dependency, 421 Online dating, 296 Poignancy, 267
Meditation, 427 Online disinhibition effect, 298 Population. See Human population
Kevorkian, Jack, 483 Memory, 120 Openness, 207 Positive psychology, 18
Kinsey Reports, 91 Memory ageing, 135 Optimal ageing, 11 Possible selves, 245
Kübler-Ross, Elizabeth, 474 Memory control, 133 Optimisation, 196 Postformal thought, 191
Memory monitoring, 133 Organisation, 188 Posttraumatic stress disorder, 443
L Memory self-efficacy, 134 Organismic model, 29 Poverty, 349, 418
Menopause, 85 Practical intelligence, 140
Lack or loss of trust, 321 Mental disorders, 433 P Practice effect, 43
Language, 157 Mental health and divorce, 327 Pre-career period, 389
Language comprehension, 158 Mental health and old age, 433 Panic disorder, 443 Pre-divorce functioning, 328
Language disorders, 166 Mental health diagnosis, 436 Papernow, Patricia, 363 Presbycusis, 68
Language production, 162 Meta-analysis, 42 Paradox of ageing, 268 Presbyopia, 66
Late adulthood, 8 Metamemory, 133 Parent, loss of, 499 Primary ageing, 10
Late career period, 395 Mid-career period, 390 Parenthood and parenting, 347 Problem solving, 151
Leadership stereotypes, 399 Middle adulthood, 8 Parenting style, 349 Procedural memory, 126
Learned helplessness, 420 Midlife crisis, 226 Parkes, Colin M, 492 Programmed ageing theories, 59
Legacy-creating stage, 195 Migratory mourning, 376 Parkinson’s disease, 448 Prospective memory, 131

554 555
Identity disorganisation, 257 Legal aspects of divorce, 318 Mixed-method research, 34 Passion, 282
Identity foreclosure, 257 Legal definition of age, 12 Mood disorders, 439 Passive genotype-environment correlation, 236
Identity in South Africa, 256 Legal maturity, 12 Mourning, 489 Pathways metaphor, 262
Identity moratorium, 257 Leisure and recreation, 401 Multilingualism and cognition, 185 Perimenopause, 85
Identity process theory, 259 LGBT, 103 Multiple intelligence, 139 Peripheral social relationships, 384
Identity status theory, 257 Life in time, 225 Multiple social enmeshments, 230 Permissive parenting style, 350
Implicit memory, 126 Life outcomes and self-esteem, 253 Multiple threshold model, 260 Personal age, 11
Implicit theories of wisdom, 170 Life partner, loss of, 497 Muscle strength, 71 Personality, 202
Importance of work, 387 Life stories, 270 Myopia, 66 Personality and affect, 209
Independence vs. interdependence, 244 Life-cycle forces, 24 Personality and coping, 209
Independent variable, 39 Lifestyle factors and cognition, 185 N Personality and culture, 272
Indirect reciprocity, 292 Lifestyle choices, 300 Personality and health, 209
Individual differences and pesonality, 211 Liking, 283 Narrative identity, 271 Personality and job achievement, 209
Individual differences and self-esteem, 250 Living will, 487 Naturalistic observation, 36 Personality and lifestyle, 209
Inefficient encoding hypothesis, 121 Lobola, 303 Nature-nurture-interactionist -reciprocity debate, 26 Personality and relationships, 209
Inefficient retrieval hypothesis, 121 Locus of control, 416 Near death experience, 467 Personality and self-esteem, 209
Infantilisation, 165 Logic, integration with emotion, 192 Neo-Piagetian approach, 191 Personality and well-being, 209
Infatuation, 283 Loneliness, 428 Neo-socioanalytic model, 231 Personality characteristics and old age, 415
Infidelity, 321 Longitudinal design, 43 Neurogenesis, 65 Personality characteristics and self-esteem, 251
Information processing, 110, 116 Long-term memory, 124 Neuro-imaging, 65 Personality development. See Chapter 4
Information seeking, 292 Love, 280 Neurological approach, attention, 115 Personality factors, 185
Informed consent, 50 Neurons, 64 Personality factors and cognition, 185
Informing participants, 51 M Neuroticism, 206 Personality factors and marriage, 209, 312
Inhibitory deficit theory, 114 Neurotransmission, 118 Personality traits, 204, 210
Initiator of divorce, 329 Major life events, 423 Niche-picking principle, 233 Person-environment interaction models, 30
Insomnia, 452 Male menopause, 88 Non-harmful procedures, 50 Personhood, 227
Intelligence, 138 Marcia, James, 257 Non-marital lifestyles, 300 Pfizer Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and
Interactionist model, 30 Marital equity and marriage, 311 Non-normative influences, 25 Behaviours, 93
Internal changes, 77 Marital lifestyles, 300 Norm, 38 Phobias, 443
Internal control, 133 Marital relationships, 309 Normative age-graded influences, 24 Phonological loop, 123
Internal organs, 76 Marital satisfaction, 313 Normative history-graded influences, 25 Physical abuse and divorce, 320
Internal working models, 286 Marriage, 300 Nsamenang, A Barne, 228 Physical appearance, 73
Internet, 48, 294 Mask of aging, 74 Nuclear family, 341 Physical changes, 64
Internet addiction, 298 Master genetic programme, 59 Physical dependency, 421
Internet addiction disorder, 298 Maturity of marital partners, 310 O Physical development. See Chapter 2
Interracial adoption, 354 Maturity principle, 232 Physical domain, 243
Interviews, 37 McCrae, Robert, 205, 212, 215, 219 Objective biography, 210 Physical health, 77
Intimacy, 279, 282 Mean level and personality traits, 210 Obsessive-compulsive disorder, 443 Physical health and divorce, 327
Intimacy versus isolation, 224, 280 Meandering way, 262 Occupational domain, 243 Physical self, 247
Ischemic heart disease, 82 Measurement effect, 44 Occupational self, 247 Piaget, Jean, 188
Mechanistic model, 30 Older Persons Act 13 of 2006, 406 Plasticity principle, 233
K Medical dependency, 421 Online dating, 296 Poignancy, 267
Meditation, 427 Online disinhibition effect, 298 Population. See Human population
Kevorkian, Jack, 483 Memory, 120 Openness, 207 Positive psychology, 18
Kinsey Reports, 91 Memory ageing, 135 Optimal ageing, 11 Possible selves, 245
Kübler-Ross, Elizabeth, 474 Memory control, 133 Optimisation, 196 Postformal thought, 191
Memory monitoring, 133 Organisation, 188 Posttraumatic stress disorder, 443
L Memory self-efficacy, 134 Organismic model, 29 Poverty, 349, 418
Menopause, 85 Practical intelligence, 140
Lack or loss of trust, 321 Mental disorders, 433 P Practice effect, 43
Language, 157 Mental health and divorce, 327 Pre-career period, 389
Language comprehension, 158 Mental health and old age, 433 Panic disorder, 443 Pre-divorce functioning, 328
Language disorders, 166 Mental health diagnosis, 436 Papernow, Patricia, 363 Presbycusis, 68
Language production, 162 Meta-analysis, 42 Paradox of ageing, 268 Presbyopia, 66
Late adulthood, 8 Metamemory, 133 Parent, loss of, 499 Primary ageing, 10
Late career period, 395 Mid-career period, 390 Parenthood and parenting, 347 Problem solving, 151
Leadership stereotypes, 399 Middle adulthood, 8 Parenting style, 349 Procedural memory, 126
Learned helplessness, 420 Midlife crisis, 226 Parkes, Colin M, 492 Programmed ageing theories, 59
Legacy-creating stage, 195 Migratory mourning, 376 Parkinson’s disease, 448 Prospective memory, 131

554 555
Prospective method, 43 Same-sex parenting, 362 Socio-economic conditions, 418 Universality-context specific debate, 28
Proverbs and African wisdom, 176 Sandwich generation, 372 Socio-economic status and self-esteem, 251 Upswing hypothesis of marital satisfaction, 313
Psychological age, 10 Shaie, K Warner, 145, 196 Socio-emotional selectivity theory, 268, 292
Psychological dependency, 421 Secondary ageing, 10 Sociogenomics, 238 V
Psychological forces, 24 Selection, 196 Solidarity-conflict model, 372
Psychological functions of family, 343 Selective attention, 113 South African Personality Inventory (SAPI), Validity, 37
Psychological stages of divorce, 330 Selective attrition, 44 216, 217, 219 Variable, 38
Psychological tests, 37 Selective optimisation with compensation model, Spiritual selfhood, 228 Vision, 66
Psychologically healthy family, 344 196, 268, 286 Spirituality, 425 Visual dysfunctions, 67, 68
Psychosocial development, 222 Self-concept, 242 Spouse, loss of, 497 Vital involvement, 225
Self-construal, 244 Stability and self-esteem, 252
Q Self-efficacy, 417 Stability of variance and personality traits, 211 W
Self-esteem, 248 Stamina, 73
Qualitative research, 33 Self-fulfilling prophecy, 418 Standardisation, 37 Wear and tear theory, 61
Quality of life, 432 Selfhood, 229 Stepfamilies, 363 Weight, 74
Quality of life and South African elderly, 432 Self-reports, 37 Stepfamily cycle, 363 Well-being, 18
Quantitative research, 33 Self-schemas, 242 Step-parenting, 363 Well-being and divorce, 327
Questionnaires, 37 Self-stereotypes, 411 Sternberg, Robert, 140, 282 Whitbourne, Susan, 260
Semantic and episodic memory, 127 Story comprehension, 161 Widowhood, 333
R Senses, 57, 66 Straight and narrow pathway, 262 Willis, Sherry L, 194
Sensory input, 111 Stratified sampling, 35 Wisdom, 169
Race, importance of, 306 Sensory register, 112 Strength and vulnerability integration model, 268 Women’s career cycle, 399
Random sampling, 35 Sentence processing, 159 Stressful life experiences and self-esteem, 251 Word recognition, 159
Rank order and personality traits, 210 Sequential design, 46 Stroke, 82 Work and leisure, 386
Reaction speed, 71 Sexual behaviour patterns, 97 Structured observation, 36 Work engagement, 392
Reciprocity, 27 Sexual intimacy and marriage, 312 Subordination of individual identity, 230 Work status and self-esteem, 251
Reconstituted families, 363 Sexual orientation, 101, 102 Substages of adulthood, 8 Workaholism, 391
Recreation, 401 Sexuality, 89. See Chapter 2 Substance abuse, 453 Working memory, 122
Regressive identities, 257 Short-term memory, 124 Successful ageing, 407. See Chapter 6 World population, 14
Reintegrative stage, 195 Sibling relationships, 378 Successful marriage, 310 Worrying, 445
Relationships and self-esteem, 251 Sight, 66 Surrogate parents, 356
Relativistic thinking, 192 Similarity and marriage, 311 Sustained attention, 113
Reliability, 37 Singlehood, 337 Swan song phenomenon, 182
Religion, 425 Single-parent families, 373 Switching attention, 113
Religious marriage, 301 Situation selection, 267 Systematic observation of behaviour, 36
Remarriage, 331 Skipped generation, 370
reminiscence peak, 130 Sleep apnoea, 453 T
Remote memory, 128 Sleep disorders, 451
Reorganisational stage, 195 Sleep-disordered breathing, 453 Tacit intelligence, 140
Representativeness, 36 Smell, 69 Taste, 69
Research designs, 38 Social age, 10 Telomerase, 60
Research ethics, 50 Social anxiety disorder, 443 Telomeres, 60
Research question, 34 Social capital theory, 293 Temporal self, 247
Respiratory system, 76 Social convoy model, 290 Tertiary ageing, 11
Responsible stage, 194 Social dependency, 422 Thanatophobia, 471
Retirement, 395 Social development, 31. See Chapter 5 Touch, 70
Retrospective memory, 131 Social domain, 243 Toxic femininity, 401
Rhythms of collective life, 230 Social exchange theory, 291 Traits. See Personality traits
Right to die, 477 Social functions of family, 343 Transactional approach, 240
Rigidification, 257 Social genomics, 238 Transactional approaches and personality, 235
Rites of passage, 227 Social investment principle, 233 Transracial adoption, 354
Role continuity principle, 233 Social involvement and divorce, 328 Triangular theory of love, 281
Romantic love, 283 Social networks, 288 Triumphant trail, 262
Rowe-Kahn model, 407 Social relationships and divorce, 328 Tuberculosis (TB), 83
Social selfhood, 228
S Social support and divorce, 328 U
Social-genomic model, 238
SA Population reduced to 100, 14 Sociocultural forces, 24 Ubuntu, 228
Same-sex marriage, 307 Sociodemographic factors and cognition, 184 Uninvolved, 350

556 557
Prospective method, 43 Same-sex parenting, 362 Socio-economic conditions, 418 Universality-context specific debate, 28
Proverbs and African wisdom, 176 Sandwich generation, 372 Socio-economic status and self-esteem, 251 Upswing hypothesis of marital satisfaction, 313
Psychological age, 10 Shaie, K Warner, 145, 196 Socio-emotional selectivity theory, 268, 292
Psychological dependency, 421 Secondary ageing, 10 Sociogenomics, 238 V
Psychological forces, 24 Selection, 196 Solidarity-conflict model, 372
Psychological functions of family, 343 Selective attention, 113 South African Personality Inventory (SAPI), Validity, 37
Psychological stages of divorce, 330 Selective attrition, 44 216, 217, 219 Variable, 38
Psychological tests, 37 Selective optimisation with compensation model, Spiritual selfhood, 228 Vision, 66
Psychologically healthy family, 344 196, 268, 286 Spirituality, 425 Visual dysfunctions, 67, 68
Psychosocial development, 222 Self-concept, 242 Spouse, loss of, 497 Vital involvement, 225
Self-construal, 244 Stability and self-esteem, 252
Q Self-efficacy, 417 Stability of variance and personality traits, 211 W
Self-esteem, 248 Stamina, 73
Qualitative research, 33 Self-fulfilling prophecy, 418 Standardisation, 37 Wear and tear theory, 61
Quality of life, 432 Selfhood, 229 Stepfamilies, 363 Weight, 74
Quality of life and South African elderly, 432 Self-reports, 37 Stepfamily cycle, 363 Well-being, 18
Quantitative research, 33 Self-schemas, 242 Step-parenting, 363 Well-being and divorce, 327
Questionnaires, 37 Self-stereotypes, 411 Sternberg, Robert, 140, 282 Whitbourne, Susan, 260
Semantic and episodic memory, 127 Story comprehension, 161 Widowhood, 333
R Senses, 57, 66 Straight and narrow pathway, 262 Willis, Sherry L, 194
Sensory input, 111 Stratified sampling, 35 Wisdom, 169
Race, importance of, 306 Sensory register, 112 Strength and vulnerability integration model, 268 Women’s career cycle, 399
Random sampling, 35 Sentence processing, 159 Stressful life experiences and self-esteem, 251 Word recognition, 159
Rank order and personality traits, 210 Sequential design, 46 Stroke, 82 Work and leisure, 386
Reaction speed, 71 Sexual behaviour patterns, 97 Structured observation, 36 Work engagement, 392
Reciprocity, 27 Sexual intimacy and marriage, 312 Subordination of individual identity, 230 Work status and self-esteem, 251
Reconstituted families, 363 Sexual orientation, 101, 102 Substages of adulthood, 8 Workaholism, 391
Recreation, 401 Sexuality, 89. See Chapter 2 Substance abuse, 453 Working memory, 122
Regressive identities, 257 Short-term memory, 124 Successful ageing, 407. See Chapter 6 World population, 14
Reintegrative stage, 195 Sibling relationships, 378 Successful marriage, 310 Worrying, 445
Relationships and self-esteem, 251 Sight, 66 Surrogate parents, 356
Relativistic thinking, 192 Similarity and marriage, 311 Sustained attention, 113
Reliability, 37 Singlehood, 337 Swan song phenomenon, 182
Religion, 425 Single-parent families, 373 Switching attention, 113
Religious marriage, 301 Situation selection, 267 Systematic observation of behaviour, 36
Remarriage, 331 Skipped generation, 370
reminiscence peak, 130 Sleep apnoea, 453 T
Remote memory, 128 Sleep disorders, 451
Reorganisational stage, 195 Sleep-disordered breathing, 453 Tacit intelligence, 140
Representativeness, 36 Smell, 69 Taste, 69
Research designs, 38 Social age, 10 Telomerase, 60
Research ethics, 50 Social anxiety disorder, 443 Telomeres, 60
Research question, 34 Social capital theory, 293 Temporal self, 247
Respiratory system, 76 Social convoy model, 290 Tertiary ageing, 11
Responsible stage, 194 Social dependency, 422 Thanatophobia, 471
Retirement, 395 Social development, 31. See Chapter 5 Touch, 70
Retrospective memory, 131 Social domain, 243 Toxic femininity, 401
Rhythms of collective life, 230 Social exchange theory, 291 Traits. See Personality traits
Right to die, 477 Social functions of family, 343 Transactional approach, 240
Rigidification, 257 Social genomics, 238 Transactional approaches and personality, 235
Rites of passage, 227 Social investment principle, 233 Transracial adoption, 354
Role continuity principle, 233 Social involvement and divorce, 328 Triangular theory of love, 281
Romantic love, 283 Social networks, 288 Triumphant trail, 262
Rowe-Kahn model, 407 Social relationships and divorce, 328 Tuberculosis (TB), 83
Social selfhood, 228
S Social support and divorce, 328 U
Social-genomic model, 238
SA Population reduced to 100, 14 Sociocultural forces, 24 Ubuntu, 228
Same-sex marriage, 307 Sociodemographic factors and cognition, 184 Uninvolved, 350

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Dap Louw is an extraordinary professor in the Department of Psychology at the University
of the Free State. He holds master’s degrees and doctorates in both Psychology and
Criminology. He studied and lectured in the USA. He is the editor and author of several
textbooks that are widely prescribed at Southern African universities. He has published
more than 100 articles in accredited national and international scientific journals.

Anet Louw completed her PhD in Child Psychology. She was an associate professor
in the Department of Psychology at the University of the Free State and is currently a
research fellow. She coordinated the PhD Programme in Child Psychology, as well as
the Child Practice Programme in the Master’s Course in Professional Psychology for
several years. She is the author, co-author, and editor of several publications in the field
of human development. She also lectured in developmental psychology in the USA.

https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424468