FOURTH EDITION Roger Muncaster un ov cS = 3 & 6 e ° a o Si© R. Muncaster 1981, 1985, 1989, 1993 ‘The right of Roger Muncaster to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, Allrights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any ‘means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details for such licences (for reprographic reprodiuc- tion) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE. First published in 1981 Second edition 1985, ‘Third edition 1989 Fourth edition 1993 Published by: ‘Nelson Thornes Lid Delta Place 27 Bath Road Cheltenham GL53 7TH United Kingdom 04 05 7 10 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 07487 1584 3 (Flexi-cover students’ edition) ISBN 07487 (Hard-cover library edition) Related titles by the same author: A-Level Physice: Nuclear Physics and Fundamental Particles ISBN 07487 1805 2 ‘AcLevel Physics: Relativity and Quantum Physics ISBN 07487 17994 ‘A-Level Physics: Medical Physics ISBN 07487 2324 2 AcLevel Physics: Astrophysics and Cosmology ISBN 07487 2865 1 “The cover photograph shows polarized light through the injection area of a polycarbonate moulding. ‘The photograph is hy courtesy ofthe Paul Brierley Photo Library, Harlow, Essex. “Typeset by Tech-Set, Gateshead, Tyne & Wear. Printed & Bound in Croatia by ZrinskiContents L_Vectors 2. Marion 3._ Torque 4. Equilibrium, Centre of Mass, Centre of Gravity 5._Work, Energy, Power 6._Circular Motion and Rotation 7._Simple Harmonic Motion 8. Gravitation and Gravity Questions on Section A SECTION B_ STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER, Eseautetcw 9. Solids and Liquids 142 10. Fluids at Rest 160 11. Elasticity 181 12_Fluid Flow: 194 Questions on Section B 208 SECTION C_THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 13._Thermometry and Calorimetry 228 14 Gases 249 15._Vapours 218 16. Thermodynamics 283 12_Heat Transfer 302 Questions on Section C 320 SECTION D GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 18. Refraction 350 19 Lenses 361 20. Mirrors 325 21. Optical Instruments 385 22. Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light 408 Questions on Section D 410 23._Basic Properties of Waves daz 24, Huygens’ Construction 427 25. Interference of Light Waves 436 26. Diffraction of Light Waves 450 27. Polarization of Light Waves 465 28. Electromagnetic Waves. Optical Spectra 472 29._Forced Vibrations and Resonance 477 30._Beats 481 31, Stationary (Standing) Waves 485 32, Waves in Strings 48933._Waves in Pipes 494 34___Musical Notes and Sound 1011S 35._‘The Doppler Effect 506 jons on Section E 314 SECTION F_ ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 36. Charge, Current, Potential Difference and Power 534 37. The Wheatstone Bridge 556 38. The Porentiometer 39. Electrostatics 570 40. Capacitors 589 41 tic Effects of Electric Currents oul 42. Electromagnetic Induction 645 43. Alternating Currents 674 44 Rectification nt 45. Magnetic Materials 698 46. Electrolysis 705 Questions on Section F 708 SECTIONG MODERN PHYSICS 47, The Photoelectric Effect, Wave-Particle Duality 752 48._ The Structure of the Atom, Energy Levels 762 49. X-1 773 50__The Blectron 7G ‘SL_The Nucleus 1.097 52. Radioactivity 802 53. Nuclear Stability. Fission and Fusion 822 54. Detectors of Radiation 831 35._Semiconductors and Electronics —___837 Questions on Section G 876 APPENDICES Appendix 1. SI Units 914 Appendix 2. Dimensions and Dimensional Methods 916 Appendix 3. Relevant Mathematics 919 Appendix 4. Values of Selected Physical Constants 927 Answers to Questions 930 Mme 9840Preface “This books intended to cover the NEAB, London, and AEB A-level syllabuses in Physics. It will also be found to cover the bulk of all the other syllabuses for A-level Physics, including those used overseas. Students following BTEC National courses involving Physics should also find the book useful, as should those university students who are studying Physics as a subsidiary subject. SI units are used throughout. ‘The aim has been to produce a book which is not so long that students are unlikely to read it. On the other hand, the book is not a set of ‘revision notes’ and it has been my intention to explain every topic thoroughly. It is hoped that the explanations are such that all students will understand them; at the same time, the content is intended to be such that the book will provide a proper basis for those students who are going on to study Physics at degree level. ‘The book has been arranged in seven main sections (A to G). Though there is no need toread the sections in the order in which they are presented, on the whole it is, advisable to keep to the chapter sequence within any one section. Practical details are given of those experiments which students are required to describe at length in examinations. The book contains many worked examples. Chapters 9, 11 and 55 were extended for the second edition of the book; a chapter on thermodynamics was added at the same time. Sections on pressure, density, Archimedes’ principle, reflection at plane surfaces, defects of vision, magnetic domains, U-values and impulse were added for the third edition. The treatments of various other topics were also revised and the number of experimental investigations was increased. Since the advent of the GCSE examination and double science, students starting A-level courses tend to have less knowledge of Physics than they did previously. In the light of this, I have needed to make further additions to the book. ‘The number of worked examples has been greatly increased. Many of these are easier than was previously considered necessary. Questions have been added at relevant points in the text so that students can obtain an immediate test of their understanding of a topic. ‘Consolidation’ sections have been added at the ends of selected Chapters. These are designed to stress key points and, in some cases, to present an overview of a topicin a manner which would not be possible in the main text. Definitions and fundamental points are now highlighted — either by the use of screening or bold type. At the end of each of the seven sections of the book there are questions, most of which are taken from past A-level papers. Over two hundred of these have been. added for the fourth edition of the book. A new edition gives me the opportunity to thank all those people who have suggested ways in which the book might be improved. I am particularly grateful to Jeni Davies for undertaking the laborious task of assisting with proof-reading, and for the invaluable suggestions she has made throughout the preparation of thisFinally, I express my gratitude to the following examinations boards for permission to use questions from their past examination papers: Associated Examining Board [AEB] University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (C], reproduced by permission of University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, Overseas Examinations [C(O)] Northern Ireland Examinations Board (1) Northern Examinations and Assessment Board (formerly the Joint Matriculation Board) {J} Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examinations Board (0 & C} University of Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations [0] Southern Universities’ Joint Board [S} University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (formerly the University of London School Examinations Board) (L] Welsh Joint Education Committee (W]. Where only part of the original question has been used, this is indicated by an asterisk in the acknowledgement to the board concerned thus (L*). R. MUNCASTER HelmshoreSECTION A MECHANICS1 VECTORS 1.1 VECTORS AND SCALARS Table 1.1 Examples of vectors and Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction; scalar quantities have magnitude only. Examples of each type of quantity are given in Table 1.1 ‘Sealars Vectors Distance Displacement Speed Velocity Mass Force (weight) Energy (work) | Acceleration Volume Momentum Charge ‘Torque ‘Vectors can be represented by a line drawn in a particular direction. The length of the line represents the magnitude of the vector; the direction of the line represents the direction of the vector. In print, vector quantities are indicated by using bold type (c.g. F) or by using an arrow (e.g. F). The same symbol without the use of cither bold type or an arrow (¢.g. F) represents the magnitude of the vector. ‘Two vector quantities are equal only if they have the same magnitude and direction. 1.2 DISPLACEMENT The displacement of a body may be defined as being the length and direction of the imaginary line joining it to some reference point. Displacement is therefore a vector; the magnitude of the displacement is equal to the distance from the reference point. Suppose a body moves from O to ¥ along the path OXY (Fig. 1.1). When the body is at Y its displacement from O is the vector, OY. The magnitude of the displacement is simply the length of OY. This is quite clearly less than the path length OXY, illustrating that the magnitude of the displacement of a body is not necessarily equal to the distance the body has actually moved. 2VECTORS 5 Fig. 1.5 8 © ‘The parallelogram rule ‘Thus, in Fig. 1.5, OA+0OB = OC Subtraction ‘This can be achieved by adding a vector of the same magnitude as that being subtracted but which acts in the opposite direction. For example OA-OB = OA+BO OA- OB = BC+BO ie. OA-OB = BA EXAMPLE 1.1 A force of 3 N acts at 90° to a force of 4 N. Find the magnitude and direction of their resultant, R. Solution Fig. 1.6 Diagram for Example 1.1 Refer to Fig. 1.6. By Pythagoras R= P44 = 25 R=5N Also tng= 2 2°. 6 = tan! (4) = 37 ‘The resultant is therefore a force of 5 N acting at 37° to the 4 N force and at 53° to the 3N force.6 ‘SECTION A: MECHANICS EXAMPLE 1.2 232) Ga EET SE A force of 3N acts at 60° to a force of 5N. Find the magnitude and direction of their resultant, R. Solution Fig. 1.7 Diagram for Example 1.2 Refer to Fig. 1.7. Applying the cosine rule (Appendix 3.7) to A ABC gives Re = 3 +3? ~ 25:3 cos 120° 25+9+15 = 49 . R=7N Applying the sine rule (Appendix 3.7) to A ABC gives R33 Your calculator will give sin 120° ~ sin @ you sin~' 0.3712 as 21.8" Bat in gona in 120° 3sin 120° sin an (180 ~ sing = 288120" _ 3880120" _ 9.5719 and therefore 158.2° is also a possibility. “ @ = sin“! 0.3712 = 21.8° or 180° ~ 21.8" = 158.2 Itis obvious from the diagram that 0 must be acute and therefore the required value is 21.8", The resultant is therefore a force of 7 N acting at 21.8° tothe 5 N force and at 38.2° to the 3N force. EXAMPLE 1.3 © SEMI LL LOLOL EON eT, A particle which is moving due east at 4 m s~! changes direction and starts to move due south at 3 m s-', Find the change in velocity. Solution ‘The change in velocity is the ‘new’ velocity minus the ‘old’ velocity, just as a change in temperature, for example, would be the ‘new’ temperature minus the ‘old’ temperature. Therefore Change in velocity = 3ms°' (S)—4ms"! (E) = 3ms'(S)+4ms' (W) ‘The change in velocity is therefore the vector R of Fig. 1.8.VECTORS Fig. 18 Diagram for Example 1.3 ie. Change in velocity = 5 m s ams at 37° S of W. Alternatively, we can say that the velocity has increased by 5m.s~' in the direction 37° Sof W. ‘The parallelogram rule can also be used to obtain the resultant of more than two vectors. For example, suppose that the resultant of three vectors is required. The procedure is to use the rule to find the resultant of any two of them, and then to use it again to add this to the remaining vector. QUESTIONS 1A =~ 1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of each of the following pairs of forces. (a) 7N at 90° to 24N, (b) 20N at 60° to 30N, (©) 40N at 110° to 50N, (a) 60N at 150° to 20N. 2. Find the resultant ofa displacement of 30 m due east followed by a displacement of 70m due south. Find: (a) the increase in speed, (b) the increase in velocity when a body moving south at 20ms°' changes direction and moves north at 30ms*. Find the magnitude and direction of the increase in velocity when a body which has been moving due S at 6.0ms* changes direction and moves NW at 8.0ms°'. 1.6 COMPONENTS OF VECTORS It follows from the parallelogram rule that any vector can be treated as if itis the sum of a pair of vectors. There is an infinite number of these pairs and three are shown in Fig. 1.9. A perpendicular pair such as P and Qs the most useful. Fig. 1.9 Components of a vector R- Psa RRQ, Re P+ a,8 SECTION A: MECHANICS Consider a vector, F, resolved into two perpendicular vectors of magnitudes AB and AD (Fig. 1.10). From simple trigonometry, AB = F cos and AD = F sin 0, and therefore F can be resolved into two perpendicular vectors (called the perpendicular components of F) of magnitudes F'sin 0 and F cos 0 (Fig. 1.11). Fig. 1.10 o c Resolving a vector into 1 ‘two perpendicular i components | 1 ' ' Fig. 1.11 Fine F ‘The perpendicular components of a vector Feos EXAMPLE 1.4 Soo EE Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of a force of 50 N which is acting at 40° to the horizontal. Solution Fig. 1.12 Diagram for Example 1.4 Refer to Fig. 1.12. Horizontal component = 50 cos 40° = 38N. Vertical component = 50 sin 40° = 32N EXAMPLE 1.5 S000 EEE A body of weight 100N rests on a plane which is inclined at 30° to the horizontal. Calculate the components of the weight parallel and perpendicular to the plane.VECTORS 9 Solution won, © Refer to Fig. 1.13. Component parallel to plane = 100 sin 30° = 50.0N Component perpendicular to plane = 100 cos 30° = 86.6N EXAMPLE 1.6 Find the resultant of the system of forces shown in Fig. 1.14. Fig. 1.14 Diagram for Example 1.6 Solution ‘Total upward force = 40.0+ 60.0 cos 70° — 50.0 sin 30° = 35.52N ‘Total force to right = 80.0 — 60.0 sin 70° — 50.0 cos 30° = —19.68N ‘The minus sign implies that the horizontal force is to the left. The resultant, R, is as shown in Fig. 1.15. Fig. 1.15 Diagram for Example 1.6 3552N 19.682 SECTION A: MECHANICS The SI unit of force (the newton) is defined in such a way that k = 1 provided that the rate of change of momentum isalso expressed in the relevant SI unit (kgms~*), in which case F= (me) (2.1) If the mass is constant, equation [2.1] becomes du Fe a ie. Fsma (2.2) where a = the acceleration that results from the application of the force. Equations (2.1] and (2.2] are the forms in which Newton’s second law is normally used, but it should be remembered that they are valid only if a consistent set of units is used, and that equation [2.2] applies only in the case of a constant mass. Equation [2.2] is used to define the newton. Thus: ‘The newton (N) is that force which produces an acceleration of Ims ? when it acts on a mass of 1 kg. The experimental investigation of F = ma is dealt with in section 2.15. Newton’s Third Law Ifa body A exerts a force on a body B, then B exerts an equal and oppositely directed force on A. This law is often misinterpreted as meaning that the two forces cancel each other out because they are of equal strength and act in opposite directions. There is, in fact, no possibility of this, because the two forces each act on different bodies. ‘Thus, if a man pushes on a large stationary crate, the crate pushes back on the man_ with a force of exactly the same size. Whether or not the crate starts to move, has nothing to do with the force that it exerts on the man. In accordance with Newton's second law, the crate will start to move if the force exerted by the man is greater than any forces which are acting on the crate in such a way as to resist its motion (e.g. friction between the crate and the ground). The third law implies that forces always occur in pairs ~ some examples are given below. (The Earth exerts a gravitational force of attraction on the Moon; the Moon exerts a force of the same size on the Earth. (i) A rocket moves forward as a result of the push exerted on it by the exhaust ‘gases which the rocket has pushed out. (iii) When a man jumps off the ground it is because he has pushed down on the Earth and the Earth, in accordance with Newton’s third law, has pushed up on him. It should not be overlooked that the other result of this is that the Earth moves down,‘MOTION 13 (iv) Ifacaris accelerating forward, itis because its tyres are pushing backward on the road and the road is pushing forward on the tyres. Note that if the car is moving forward and slowing down, the tyres push forward and the road pushes backward. 2.2 MASS AND WEIGHT ‘The weight of a body is the force acting on its mass due to the gravitational attraction of the Earth.* In accordance with Newton’s second law, a body acquires an acceleration whenever there is a net force acting on it. The acceleration that results from the effect of gravity (i.e. that results from its weight) is known as the acceleration due to gravity, g. By equation [2.2], the weight of a body of mass mis given by (2.3) ‘The force exerted by gravity is such that, at any given point in a gravitational field (and therefore at any given point on the Earth’s surface), the acceleration due to gravity is the same for all bodies, no matter what their masses (see Chapter 8). It follows that two bodies dropped from the same point above the surface of the Earth reach the ground at the same time even if their masses are different. (Note that this statement ignores the effect of air resistance; when the viscous drag of the air is significant, for example if one of the bodies is a feather or is falling by parachute, itis not even approximately true.) The acceleration due to gravity varies slightly from place to place on the Earth’s surface, but it is normally sufficiently accurate to use a value of 9.8ms~? everywhere. Thus, from equation [2.3] the weight (in newrons) of a body which has a mass m (in kg) is given by Weight = mx 9.8 Another unit, the kilogram force (kgf), is often used as a measure of weight. Itis defined such that a mass of 1 kg has a weight of I kf. This is not an SI unit and must not be used in any equation where it is not possible to use it on both sides of the equation. Ifin doubt, itis best to convert kilograms force to newtons by making. use of Lkgf = 98N Summary of Differences between Mass and Weight (i) Themassofabody is a measure of ts resistance to acceleration (i. itis a measure of the inertia of the body). The weight of a body is the force ‘exerted on its mass by gravity. Gi) In ST units mass is measured in kilograms, weight is measured in newtons. Gil) The mass ofabodyis the same everywhere. The weight ofa body on the surface of the Earth has a slight dependence on where it is, and would have considerably different values at other places in the Universe. *The weight ofa body on the Moons the force exerted om its mass by the gravitational attraction ofthe ‘Moon.“ EXAMPLE 2.1 Fig. 21 Diagram for Example 2.1 SECTION A: MECHANICS TORRID Lai. > Cathie lees Pa: Diels 2 ORE A body of mass 7.0 kg rests on the floor of a lift. Calculate the force, R, exerted on the body by the floor when the lift: (a) has an upward acceleration of 2.0ms"*, (b) has a downward acceleration of 3.0m s~?, (c) is moving down with a constant velocity. (Assume g = 10ms"?.) Solution a ® a f= : Jem ' ern 70N 70N 70N @ wo) © (a) Refer to Fig. 2.1(a) (When using F = ma the direction of F must be the same as that of a. The body has an upward acceleration and therefore we require the resultant upward force.) By Newton’s second law (equation [2.2]) R=70 = 70x20 an ? pwd force spar acceleration R-70= 14 ie R= 84N (b) Refer to Fig. 2.1(b) (The acceleration is downward and therefore we require the resultant downward force.) By equation [2.2]. W-R =70%30 Sound fore omar sce W-R=21 ie R= 49N (©) Refer to Fig. 2.1(c). There is no acceleration and therefore, by equation [2.2], no resultant force, in which case R= 70N (By Newton’s third law, R is equal and opposite to the force exerted by the body on the floor of the lift. It follows that if the body were resting on a bathroom scale rather than directly on the floor of the lift, the scale would register its weight as 84N, 49N and 70N in situations (a), (b) and (c) respectively. Thus the body appears heavier than it actually is when it has an upward acceleration and lighter when it has a downward acceleration. In case (©), where it has no acceleration, it appears neither heavy nor light. Gi) ‘These results do not depend on the direction in which the lift is moving. For example in (a) the lift has an upward directed acceleration and therefore may ‘be moving up with increasing speed or moving down with decreasing speed.Fig. 22 Diagram for Example 2.2 A body of mass 5.0 kg is pulled up a smooth plane inclined at 30 to the horizontal by a force of 40N acting parallel to the plane. Calculate the acceleration of the body and the force exerted on it by the plane. (Assume g = 10ms 7.) Solution The diagram shows the acceleration of the body and ‘ithe forens acting on ft Refer to Fig. 2.2. The plane is smooth and therefore the only force it exerts on the body is the normal reaction R. Let the acceleration of the body be a. Consider the motion parallel to the plane. The weight has a component of 50sin 30” acting parallel to the plane (downwards) and therefore by Newton's second law (equation [2.2}) 40-50sin30> = S50xa $050 sin 30, avira aclltion ee —— 40-25 = 5.0a ic. a = 3.0ms* Note that the resultant force and the acceleration are in the same direction —up the plane. Consider the motion perpendicular to the plane. ‘The weight has a component of 50.cos 30” perpendicular to the plane and in the opposite direction to R. There is no acceleration perpendicular to the plane and therefore no resultant force, in which case R = 50cos30° ie. R = 43N EXAMPLE 2.3 A train is moving along a straight horizontal track. A pendulum suspended from. the roof of one of the carriages of the train is inclined at 4” to the vertical, Calculate the acceleration of the train. (Assume g = 10ms *.) Solution ‘Suppose that the mass of the pendulum bob is m. The forces acting on the bob are its weight, mg, which acts vertically downwards and the tension, 7; in the string. (Fig. 2.3.)6 Fig. 23 Diagram for Example 2.3 SECTION A: MECHANICS Pendulum bob of mass m being ‘ccalerated tothe fight | m9 Consider the horizontal motion. The pendulum bob is at rest with respect to the train and therefore it too has a horizontal acceleration, a (to the right). The horizontal component of the tension is Tsin 4° and therefore by equation [2.2] T sin 4 = ma (2.4) Consider the vertical motion. There is no vertical component of acceleration and therefore T cos 4° = mg (2.5) Dividing equation [2.4] by equation [2.5] gives tan 4° = a/g a=gtn4 ie. a= 070ms? EXAMPLE 2.4 S286 Sili cs AO ERO AT RIE Fig. 24 ‘The horizontal force(s!: {a) on the whole system (b) on A, (c) on B ‘Two blocks, A of mass m and B of mass 3m, are side by side and in contact with each other. They are pushed along a smooth floor under the action of a constant force F applied to A. Find: (a) the acceleration of the blocks, (b) the force exerted on Bby A. Solution se +. — . of | fee (a) Let the acceleration of the blocks be a. Consider the motion of the whole system (Fig. 2.4(a)). By Newton's second law (equation [2.2]) Ff ~ 4m (©) Let the force on B due to A be P, By Newton’s third law there will be an ‘equal and opposite force on A (Fig. 2.4(b) and (c)). Applying Newton's second law to the motion of B gives F=(m+3m)ja_ ie. aMOTION Solution (a) Every second 2kg of sand acquire a horizontal velocity of 3ms', and therefore the rate of increase of horizontal momentum = 2 x 3 = 6N. By Newton's second law, force = rate of change of momentum, and therefore the extra force required to maintain the speed of the belt = 6N. (b) In one second the force moves 3m, and therefore (by equation [5.1] or (5.7]) the rate at which the force is working = 6 x 3 = 18W. (©) Kinetic energy = 4 me? (see section 5.3), and therefore the rate at which the kinetic energy of the sand is increasing = } x 2 x 3* = 9W. A finite time elapses before the sand acquires the speed of the belt. During this period the belt is slipping past the sand and therefore work has to be done to ‘overcome friction between the sand and the belt. The rate at which workis done by the force is equal to the rate at which itis doing work against friction plus the rate at which it is doing work to increase the kinetic energy of the sand ~ hence the difference between (b) and (c). (Note. The rate at which work is done against friction is equal to the rate at which work is done to increase the kinetic energy of the sand no matter what the speed of the belt and no matter what the rate at which sand is falling onto the belt.) QUESTIONS 2B 1. Wateris squirting horizontally at 4.0m s from a burst pipe at a rate of 3.0kgs"', ‘The water strikes a vertical wall at right angles and runs down it without rebounding. Calculate the force the water exerts on the wall. 2. A machine gun fires 300 bullets per minute horizontally with a velocity of 500 ms '. Find the force needed to prevent the gun moving back- wards ifthe mass ofeach bullet is 8.0 x 10°*kg. 3. Coal is falling onto a conveyor belt at a rate of 540 tonnes every hour. The belt is moving horizontally at 2.0ms"'. Find the extra force required to maintain the speed of the belt. (1 tonne = 1000 kg.) 4. The rotating blades of a hovering helicopter sweep out an area of radius 4.0m imparting a downward velocity of 12ms~ to the air dis- placed. Find the mass of the helicopter. (g = 10ms %, density of air = 1.3kgm °.) Find the force exerted on each square metre ofa wall which is at right angles to a wind blowing at 20ms°'. Assume that the air does not rebound. Wensity of air = 1.3kgm °.) Hailstones with an average mass of 4.0¢ fall vertically and strike a flat roof at 12ms-'. Ina period of 5.0 minutes six thousand hailstones fall on each square metre of roof and rebound vertically at 3.0ms°'. Calculate the force on the roof if it has an area of 30m*. ‘The speed of rotation of the blades of the helicopter in question 4 is increased so that the air now has a downward velocity of 13ms-'. Find the (upward) acceleration ofthehelicopter. 2.3 THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR UNIFORM ACCELERATION Equations [2.6]-[2.9] describe the motion of bodies which are moving with constant (uniform) acceleration.SECTION A: MECHANICS v =utat (2.6) v? = uw? +2as [2.7] s =u+tar (2.8) s =4Huro R29} where u = the velocity when t= 0, v= the velocity at time ¢, a= the constant acceleration, 5 = the distance from the starting point at time 1, (this is not necessarily the distance moved). When using these equations it is necessary to bear in mind that u,v, @ and s are vectors. If, say, the positive direction is taken to be up, then: (i) the velocity of a body which is moving down is negative, Gi) points below the starting point have negative values of s, ii) downward directed accelerations are negative. (An acceleration produces retardation whenever it acts in the opposite direction to the velocity, irrespective of whether the acceleration itself is being taken to be positive or negative. Gi) ‘The equations of motion can be deduced from the definitions of velocity and acceleration and therefore do not introduce any new ideas; equation (2.8), however, highlights the important result that when a body moves from rest sxe. Gii) For a body moving at constant velocity a = 0 and equations [2.6] and [2.7] reduce to » = u. Substituting for u in equation [2.8] (with a = 0) or in equation (2.9] gives (ER) arconstant velocity Derivation of the Equations of Motion for Uniform Acceleration ‘Suppose that a body is moving with constant acceleration a and that in a time interval rts velocity increases from u to v and its displacement increases from 0 to 5. Then, since Acceleration = Rate of change of velocity ie 0 = utar (2.6) ‘The average velocity is + (u + 0) and therefore, since Displacement = Average velocity x time s=Hutoyr (2.9)2 Eliminating 1 between equations (2.6) and [2.9] leads to equation (2.7], and eliminating v between any two of the three equations that have now been derived leads to equation (2.8). EXAMPLE 2.8 ose fs A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20m s-!. Calculate: (a) the maximum height reached, () the total time for which the ball is in the air. (Assume g = 10ms~*.) (a) We shall take the upward direction to be positive. In the notation of this Solution section: u = 20ms! v= 0 a = ~10ms sah From equation [2.7] OF = 207+2(— ie. hk = 20m &) u = 20ms* @ = -10ms> ter s=0 From equation (2.8] o= ie ot = 0 oF ‘The required solution (the velocity with which the ball leaves the thrower’s hand) (at the maximum height) 2 (the minus sign is necessary because ‘up’ has been taken to be positive) (where h is the maximum height) 10)h 2 (where 1 is the time the ball is in the air) (since the ball is back on the ground) 20¢+4(-10)2 t=4s is ¢= 4s. The other solution, ¢ = 0, refers to the fact that the height of the ball was also zero when it was first projected. QUESTIONS 2C SET EOE ESE ER Take g = 10ms-? where necessary. 4. A particle is moving in a straight line with a constant acceleration of 6.0m s~*, Asit passes a point, A, its speed is 20m s~'. What is its speed 108 after passing A? 2. Aparticle which is moving in a straight line with a velocity of 15 ms" accelerates uniformly for 3.08, increasing its velocity to 45ms"'. What distance does it travel whilst accelerating?2 A car starts to accelerate at a constant rate of 0.80ms™*, It covers 400 m whilst accelerating in the next 20s. What was the speed of the car when it started to accelerate? A body of mass 3.0 kg, initially at rest, moves along a smooth horizontal surface under the effect of a horizontal force of 12N. (a) Find the acceleration of the body. (b) Find the speed of the body after 5.0. Acar moving at 30m 'isbroughtto rest witha constant retardation of 3.6m s-*, How far does it travel whilst coming to rest? A stone is dropped from the top ofa cliff which is 80m high. How long does it take to reach the bottom of the cliff? A particle is projected vertically upwards at 30m". Calculate: (a) how long ittakes toreach its maximum height, (b) the two times at which itis 40 m above the point of projection, (¢) the two times at which it is moving at 15ms ', 10. n. 2.4 MOTION UNDER GRAVITY SECTION &: MECHANICS A stone is fired vertically upwards from a catapult and lands 5.05 later. What was the initial velocity of the stone? For how long was the stone at a height of 20m or more? Ahot-air balloon is 21 m above the ground and is rising at 8.0ms"' when a sandbag is dropped from it. How long does it take the sandbag to reach the ground? A stone is thrown vertically upwards at 10m"! from a bridge which is 15m above a river. (a) What is the speed of the stone as it hits the river? (b) With what speed would it hit the river if it were thrown downwards at 10ms"'? A bullet of mass 8.00 x 10-*kg moving at 320ms°! penetrates a target to a depth of 16.0mm before coming to rest. Find the resistance offered by the target, assuming it to be uniform. Fig. 25 To show the motion of two bodies projected horizontally under gravity A body thatis projected at an angle to the vertical moves along a curved (parabolic) path. In order to solve problems involving motion of this type, we consider the horizontal and vertical components of the motion separately. ‘This is justified because the horizontal motion has no effect on the vertical motion and vice versa. ‘To appreciate this, consider two bodies, A and B, projected horizontally off the edge ofa table, and suppose that the velocity with which A is projected is greater than that of B (Fig. 2.5). Both A and B reach the ground at the same time even. though their velocities of projection were different. This is because, initially, neither body had any vertical component of velocity (they were projected horizontally). The downward motions of both A and B are due to the effect of gravity, and this accelerates each at the same rate (9.8 m s-?). Since they both start from rest (in terms of the vertical motion) and travel the same vertical distance, they reach the ground at the same time. In the absence of air resistance, each body retains its original horizontal component of velocity for the whole of its motion. ‘The horizontal distance travelled by A is therefore greater than that travelled by B.orion QUESTIONS 2D 25 1. A particle is projected with a speed of 25 ms“! at 64.8 cm and the pencil hits the floor a horizontal 30° above the horizontal. Find: (a) the time distance of 32.4em from the edge of the desk. taken to reach the highest pointof the trajectory, ‘What was the speed of the pencil as it left the (b) the magnitude and direction of the velocity desk? after 2.05. . A particle is projected from level ground in such 2. Aparticle is projected with a velocity of 30m s * a way that its horizontal and vertical compo- at an angle of 40° above a horizontal plane. nents of velocity are 20ms°' and 10ms"! Find: (a) the time for which the particle isin the respectively. Find: (a) the maximum height of tir, (b) the horizontal distance it travels. the particle, (b) its horizontal distance from the 3. A pebble is thrown from the top of a cliff at a point of projection when it returns to the speed of 10ms-' and at 30° above the ground, (c) the magnitude and direction of its horizontal. It hits the sea below the cliff 6.08 velocity on landing, later. Find: (a) the height of the cliff, the distance fou the base of the cif at whic the An secoplane moving horizontally et 150 ms” pebble falls into the sea, releases a bomb at a height of 500m. The bomb hits the intended target. Whatwas the horizontal 4. Apencilis accidentally knocked off the edge of a distance of the aeroplane from the target when (horizontal) desk top. The height of the desk is the bomb was released? 2.6 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE Graphs can be used to represent the motion of a body which is moving in a straight line. (The motion must be in a straight line because there is no means of representing more than two directions, e.g. forwards and backwards, ona graph.) ‘The method is particularly useful when the body under consideration has a non- uniform acceleration, for the equations of motion (section 2.3) do not apply in such cases and even calculus methods are of no use if the acceleration varies with time in such a way that it cannot be expressed mathematically. Displacement-Time Graphs By definition, velocity is rate of change of displacement and therefore the slope of a graph of displacement against time represents velocity. Suppose that the displacement-time graph shown in Fig. 2.7 refers to the motion of a shunting ‘engine. Bearing in mind that the slope of the graph represents velocity, we can make the following analysis of the motion of the engine: DisplacementFig. 28 To show that the area under a velocity-time graph represents distance SECTION A: MECHANICS ACA Stationary A-B Accelerating (slope increasing) B-C Moving with constant velocity (slope constant) C-D__Decelerating (slope decreasing) D-E Stationary E-F Accelerating and moving back towards the starting point F-G Moving with constant velocity AtG Momentarily at the starting point G-H__ Moving away from the starting point with constant velocity in the opposite direction to the original direction HI Decelerating Atl Momentarily stationary T-J Accelerating and moving back towards the starting point F-K__ Decelerati ‘AtK Stationary at the starting point. Atthe end of the period under consideration the engine is back at its starting point and therefore has zero displacement; the distance it has travelled, however, is 25, +28. Velocity-Time Graphs By definition, acceleration is rate of change of velocity and therefore the slope ofa graph of velocity against time represents acceleration. The area under such a graph represents distance. We shall illustrate this by referring to the velocity-time graph in Fig. 2.8. Velocity For a body which is moving with constant velocity, distance moved = velocity x time. It follows that if the velocity had the constant value of v during the time interval 5r, the distance moved would be vr. This is the area of the shaded strip, and therefore if the velocity varied with time according to the stepped line, the total distance moved in the interval from f; to r would be the sum of the areas of the strips. By considering narrower and narrower strips we can make the stepped line follow the actual curve more and more closely. In the limit of infinitesimally narrow strips the sum of the areas of the strips is exactly equal to the area under the curve between 1; and 1, ie. the area under the curve between ¢, and t; represents the distance moved in the interval from f, to f;. ‘Suppose that a body moves in the manner represented by the velocity-time graph in 2.9. Bearing in mind that the slope of the graph represents acceleration, we can make the following analysis of the motion of the body:‘MOTION Fig. 29 A velocity-time graph 2 Velocity A-B Moves from rest with a constant acceleration B-C Velocity still increasing, acceleration decreasing C-D Moving with constant velocity D-E _Decelerating at a constant rate. Comes to rest E-F Stationary F-G Moving in the opposite direction to the original direction. Acceleration constant G-H_ Constant velocity H-I_ Decelerating at a constant rate. Comes to rest, Total distance moved = A, +Az. Net distance moved (i.e. magnitude of displacement = A, ~ Ax. 2.7 THE CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM Fig. 2.10 Collision of two bodies ‘Suppose that two bodies, A and B, are involved in a collision (Fig. 2.10) and that there are no external forces acting. The force on A duc to B, Fa, is, by Newton's third law, equal (in magnitude) to the force on B due to A, Fy. Therefore, by Newton’s second law, each body experiences the same rate of change of momentum. Each force obviously acts for the same length of time as the other (i.e, for the duration of the collision), and therefore since the only forces that are acting are the internal forces F, and Fy, the magnitudes of the changes of OO momentum of the two bodies will be the same. The changes in momentum, however, are oppositely directed and therefore the total change in momentum is zero. The result can be extended to any number of bodies in any situation where the bodies interact only with themselves, i.c. where there are no external forces. It is known as the principle of conservation of linear momentum and can be stated a ‘The total linear momentum of a system of interacting (e.g. colliding) bodies, on which no external forces are acting, remains constant. ‘The experimental investigation of the conservation of linear momentum is dealt with in section 2.14.‘MOTION 29 1,8kgms~ in the opposite direction to that of the bullet. If the recoil velocity of the gun is 0, then 0.500 = 18 ie. 0 = 3.6ms! QUESTIONS 2E 1. A body of mass 6 kg moving at 8m"! collides with a stationary body of mass 10kg and sticks to it. Find the speed of the composite body immediately after the impact. 2. A bullet of mass m is fired horizontally from a gun of mass M. Find the recoil velocity of the gun if the velocity of the bullet is v. 3. A flat truck of mass 400kg is moving freely along a horizontal track at 3.0ms-'. A man moving at right angles to the track jumps on to the truck causing its speed to decrease by 0.50ms°', What is the mass of the man? 2.8 ELASTIC COLLISIONS 4. A kitten of mass 0.60kg leaps at 30° to the horizontal out of a toy truck of mass 1.2kg ‘causing it to move over horizontal ground at 4.0ms ', At what speed did the kitten leap? 5. A particle of mass 5m moving with speed v explodes and splits into two pieces with masses of 2m and 3m, The lighter piece continues to move in the original direction with speed 50 relative to the heavier piece. What is the actual speed of the lighter piece? ‘Whenever two bodies collide, their total momentum is conserved unless there are external forces acting on them. The total kinetic energy (see section 5.3), however, usually decreases, since the impact converts some of it to heat and/or sound and/or permanently distorts the bodies leaving them with an increased amount of potential energy. A collision in which some kinetic energy is lost is known as an inelastic collision. A completely inelastic collision is one in which the bodies stick together on impact. A collision is elastic if there is no loss of kinetic energy. 2.9 NEWTON’S EXPERIMENTAL LAW OF IMPACT The relative velocity with which two bodies separate from each other, after a collision, is related to their relative velocity of approach and a constant known as, the coefficient of restitution, c, of the two bodies. The relationship is known as Newton’s experimental law of impact and can be expressed as ‘Speed of separation.= e x Speed of approach (2.12) ‘The coefficient of restitution of the two bodies is defined by equation [2.12] and depends on their elastic properties and the natures of their surfaces. ‘These same properties determine whether a collision is elastic, inelastic or completely inelastic and therefore it is possible to classify a collision according to the value of e that is associated with it (Table 2.1).2 SECTION A: MECHANICS 2.11 FORCE-TIME GRAPHS Fig. 2.13 Force-time graphs It follows from equation [2.17] that the area under a graph of force against time represents impulse (Fig. 2.13). It follows from equation [2.16] thatit also represents change in momentum. Force Area = Impulse between fond ty ‘= Change in momentum between f, and fy Force __—Arwa = (Total) impulse of the force = (Total) change in momentum roduced by the force EXAMPLE 2.13 S8e 22S IE Fig. 2.14 Diagram for Example 2.13 A body of mass 4 kg is moving at 5m s~! when it is given an impulse of 8 Ns in the direction of its motion. (a) What is the velocity of the body immediately after the impulse? (b) If the impulse acts for 0.02s, what is the average value of the force exerted on the body? Solution me! ins i tly atl kg akg fesse’ i er mon (@) Refer to Fig. 2.14. Let » = velocity of body immediately after the impulse. Impulse = Change in momentum 8 av-4x5 8 = 4-20 ie. v= 7mst (b) Let F = average force Impulse = F Ar 8=Fx002 ie, F=4x10°N‘MOTION 33 QUESTIONS 2G BERWRON USAR SEE SS RMS 1. A particle of mass 6.0kg moving at 8.0ms"' due N is subjected to an impulse of 30N s, Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the particle immediately afterwards if the direction of the impulse is: (a) due N, (b) due S. 2. Aball of mass 6.0 x 107? kg moving at 15ms“* hits a wall at right angles and bounces off along the same line at 10m s~', (a) What is the magni- tude of the impulse of the wall on the ball? (b) The ball is estimated to be in contact with the wall for 3.0 x 10 *s, what is the average force on the ball? }. A body of mass 2,0kg and which is at rest is subjected to a force of 200 N for 0.20 s followed bya force of 400.N for 0,30 s acting in the same direction. Find: (a) the total impulse on the body, (b) the final speed of the body. |. Find the final speed of the body in question 3 by using F = ma and © =u +at, 2.12 FRICTION Fig. 2.15 Investigation of frictional forces Static Friction When the surface of a body moves or tends to move over that of another, each body experiences a frictional force. The frictional forces act along the common surface, and each is in such a direction as to oppose the relative motion of the surfaces. Fig. 2.15 illustrates an arrangement which can be used to investigate frictional forces. Small masses are added, one ata time, to the scale-pan in order to increase P. Atfirst P is small and the block does not move, but as more masses are added, eventually a pointis reached at which the block starts to slide. Thisiis interpreted by supposing that for small values of P the frictional force F is equal to P but that there is a maximum frictional force which can be brought into play. This is called the limiting frictional force and its value is equal to the value of P at which the block starts to move. The way in which the frictional force depends on the normal reaction R can be investigated by placing weights on the block. The effect of the area of contact can be studied by repeating the experiment with different faces of the block in contact with the table. Wooden block resting on 8 Nonsont ane norma action) table \ ° f Paley Woon * le-pan Sliding Friction ‘The frictional force which exists berween two adjacent surfaces which are in relative motion is usually slightly less than the limiting frictional force between the surfaces and is called the sliding (or dynamic or kinetic) frictional force. This can be demonstrated by using the apparatus of Fig. 2.15 and giving the block a slight push each time a mass is added to the scale-pan. ‘The value of Pat which theFig. 2.16 Determination of the coefficient of limiting friction SECTION A: MECHANICS block continues to move with constant velocity after being pushed is the value of the sliding frictional force and is less than the force required to produce motion when the block is not pushed. The Laws of Friction ‘The results of experiments of the type described in Static Friction and Sliding Friction above are summarized in the laws of friction. () ‘The frictional force between two surfaces opposes their relative motion or attempted motion. (ii) Frictional forces are independent of the area of contact of the surfaces. (iii) For nwo surfaces which have no relative motion the limiting frictional force is directly proportional to the normal reaction. For two surfaces which have relative motion the sliding frictional force is directly proportional to the normal reaction and is approximately independent of the relative velocity of the surfaces. The Coefficients of Friction ‘The coefficient of limiting friction 1 and the coefficient of sliding friction w’ are defined by F F waz amd => where Fand F’ are the limiting and sliding frictional forces respectively and Ris the normal reaction. Both ,: and yi’ depend on the nature and the condition of the ‘surfaces which are in contact but are independent of the area of contact. For steel on steel 0.8; for Teflon on Teflon j~ 0.04. (The values given are approximate because even a mono-molecular layer of some surface impurity affects the experimental results.) If two surfaces are smooth, there is no frictional force and j= Biock on the point of sliding down a the plank ‘The coefficient of limiting friction can be determined by carrying out an experiment of the type described in Static Friction above and measuring R and the minimum value of P that produces motion. The arrangement shown in Fig. 2.16 provides an alternative method. One end of the plank is raised gradually andorion Fig. 2.17 Magnified cross-section through two surfaces in contact 35 the value of @ (the angle of friction) at which the blockis on the point of lippingis measured. When the block is about to slip = F/R, and therefore since mg sin = F and mg cos = R mg sin 0 mg cos 0 # ie = tand An Explanation of the Laws of Friction ‘On a microscopic level, even a highly polished surface has bumps and hollows. It follows that when two surfaces are put together the actual area of contact is less than the apparent area of contact (Fig. 2.17). Taare For example, it has been estimated that for steel on steel, the actual contact area can be as little as one ten-thousandth of the apparent area. The pressures at the contact points are very high, and it is thought that the molecules are pushed into such close proximity that the attractive forces between them weld the surfaces together at these points. These welds have to be broken before one surface can move over the other. Clearly, therefore, no matter in which direction the motion occurs there is a force which opposes it. This explains law (i) Ifthe apparent area of contact of a body is decreased by turning the body so that it, rests on one of its smaller faces, the number of contact points is reduced. Since the weight of the body has not altered, there is increased pressure at the contact points and this flattens the bumps so that the total contact area and the pressure return to their original values. Thus, although the apparent area of contact has been changed, the actual area of contact has not. This explains law (i). ‘The extent to which the bumps are flattened depends on the weight of the body. ‘Therefore the greater the weight, the greater the actual ara of contact, This, explains law (iii), because the weight is equal to the normal reaction. 2.13 DETERMINATION OF THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY (g) BY FREE FALL ‘The apparatus is shown in Fig. 2.18. The principle of the method is to measure the time, 1, for a ball-bearing to fall from rest through a measured distance, h. ‘The circuitry is such that switching on the electronic timer automatically cuts off the current to the electromagnet and releases the ball-bearing. The bearing falls, freely until it strikes the hinged metal plate. The impact causes the plate to swing downwards, breaking the electrical connection at X and stopping the timer. The timer therefore automatically registers the time of fall. ‘Once / has been measured (with an extending rule, say) the acceleration due to gravity, g, can be calculated. It follows from 5 = ut + 4.at* (equation [2.8]) with s=h, u=0, a=g and 1=1, that g = 2h/r", hence g.(a) Vehicle on an track, (b) timing arrange- ment Fig. 220 Initial arrangement for inelastic coll ion 7 « Air trom pump Mitisecond timers © Shield to prevent ‘photodiode from being iiumnated ‘by room lighting Vehicle with ard attached allowing it to be made accurately horizontal so that the vehicles have no tendency to drift along it in either direction. A number of small (e.g. 50g) masses may be attached to the vehicles. Each vehicle can carry an opaque card of known length (e.g. 10cm) which is arranged to interrupt a beam of light falling on a photodiode. ‘The circuitry is such that each of the millisecond timers is inoperative whilst lights falling on the photodiode to which itis connected. When a light beam is broken by the leading edge of a card the associated timer switches on and remains operative for as long as the card is in the beam. The timer therefore records the time for the vehicle to travel a distance equal to the length of the card and so allows the speed to be found. Completely Inelastic Co! Refer to Fig. 2.20. A is pushed towards B, which is stationary and has no card attached. A interrupts beam X and therefore its speed (u,) before impact can be found. A pin on the front of A sticks in a small piece of plasticine on the back of B, and the vehicles then move together. The card on A interrupts beam ¥ allowing the (common) speed (¢4x) of A and B to be found.orion 9 analysing the spacings of the dots on the ticker-tape. (The dots are produced at intervals of 24s, from which the velocity, and hence the acceleration, can be calculated.) ‘The effect of doubling (or tripling) the accelerating force is investigated by using two (or three) identical threads in parallel with each other and stretched by the same amount as in the first experiment. The effect of doubling (or tripling) the mass is investigated by stacking two (or three) identical trolleys on top of each other. ‘The accelerating force is proportional to the number of threads and the mass is proportional to the number of trolleys. A graph of acceleration against (number of threads/number of trolleys) can therefore be expected to be a straight line through the origin (i.e. a x F/m) ‘The wheels of the trolleys are made from a low-density material so that very little of the accelerating force is ‘wasted’ in providing the angular acceleration of the wheels. CONSOLIDATION Newton’s first law Every body continues in a state of rest or of uniform (unaccelerated) motion in a straight line unless acted on by some external force. Newton’s second law ‘The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the external force acting on the body and takes place in the direction of the force. a F = FZ (mv) becomes F = ma for constant mass ‘The newton (N) is defined as that force which produces an acceleration of | ms"? when it acts on a mass of 1 kg. Newton's third law If A exerts a force on B, then B exerts an equal and oppositely directed force on A s =o for constant velocity v = utat e = +20 for constant acceleration s = wthar s = Hutoje Displacement-Time Graphs Gradient = velocitySECTION A: MECHANICS Velocity-Time Graphs Gradient = acceleration Area under graph = distance The principle of conservation of linear momentum ‘The total linear momentum of a system of interacting (e.g. colliding) bodies, on which no ‘external forces are acting, remains constant. An elastic collision is one in which there is no loss of kinetic energy. Law of impact Speed of separation = ¢ x Speed of approach Impulse, Impulse of constant force = F At Impulse of variable force = if Fde lo Impulse = Change in momentum (for both constant and variable forces)3 TORQUE 3.1 DEFINITION OF TORQUE Consider a force acting on a rigid body (Fig. 3.1) so as to cause it to turn about an axis which is perpendicular to the paper and passes through O. The effect of the force is determined by its turning moment, a quantity which depends not only on the size and direction of the force but also on where it acts. The turning moment (or torque) is defined by T= Fa (3.1) where T = torque (or turning moment) (N m) F = the magnitude of the force (N) d = the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the axis (m). Fig. 3.1 Rigid body Definition of torque EXAMPLE 3.1 Find the moment of the 10 N force about the axis through O and perpendicular to the paper in each of the three situations shown in Fig. 3.2. Fig. 32 @ ©) rc Di for B 34 iagram for Example ton _»o ft , __»—4 som 40m Som ‘7 40m 40m ON ON, 4aa2 SECTION A: MECHANICS Solution (a) Moment about O = 10 x 4.0 =40Nm_ (anti-clockwise) (b) Moment about O = 10 x 8.0 =80Nm_ (clockwise) (©) Refer to Fig. 3.3(a). Perpendicular distance of line of action of 10N force from O = OB = OA sin 30° = 2.0m Moment about O = 10 x 2.0 = 20.N m_ (anti-clockwise) Fig. 3.3, (a) tb) Pesaran Example 3.1(c) 4K cs gg An tm 0 40m +--3: T 40m tom ’ wn 10 sin 30° Alternative Method The 10N force has components of 10.sin 30° and 10 cos 30” perpendicular and parallel to AO respectively (Fig. 3.3(b)).. Moment about © of perpendicular component = 10 sin 30° x 4.0 =20Nm (anti-clockwise) ‘Moment about O of parallel component = 0 Total moment about © = 20N m_ (anti-clockwise) QUESTIONS 3A 1, Find the moment of the 20N force about axes perpendicular to the paper and through: (a) A, (b) B, () C, (A) D, (€) O where O is the 2. By resolving the 40N force into two suitable components, or otherwise, find its moment about an axis perpendicular to the paper and centre of the rectangle through: (a) A, (b) B, (c) C. . — s a 60m 8 20N % 40m . c 3.2 COUPLES ‘Two forces which are equal in magnitude and which are anti-parallel constitute a couple (Fig. 3.4). Notes (i) ‘There is no direction in which a couple can give rise to a resultant force, and therefore a couple can produce a turning effect only — it cannot produce translational motion.46 EXAMPLE 4.1 Fig. 4.1 Diagram for Example 4.1 EXAMPLE 4.2 SECTION A: MECHANICS Gi)_A particle is an object which has mass but which is small enough to be regarded as a point. It follows that a set of forces acting on a particle must be concurrent forces. ‘The system of forces in Fig. 4.1 is in equilibrium, Find P and Q. Solution ‘We make use of condition 1 in the horizontal and vertical directions. Refer to Fig. 4.1 Resolving horizontally: P cos 60" = Qcos 40 (4.1) Resolving vertically: P sin 60° + Qsin 40° = 20.0 [4.2] By equation (4.1) me 2008 40" = [43] = Cos 60 ie. P = 15320 Substituting for Pin equation [4.2] gives 1.532 Q sin 60° + Qsin 40° = 20.0 1970Q = 20.0 ie. = 102N ‘Substituting for Q in equation [4.3] gives P= 156N ‘We have resolved horizontally and vertically. It would have been quite reasonable to resolve perpendicular to Pand perpendicular to Q. The advantage of this is that it gives an equation for Q which does not involve P and an equation for P which does not involve Q. The main disadvantage is that itis necessary to work out the angles that the forces make with these directions and although this is trivial, it leads to a rather messy diagram. Itis by far the best method, though, when the unknown, forces are at 90° to each other. A uniform plank AB which is 6m long and has a weight of 300N is supported horizontally by two vertical ropes at A and B. A weight of 150 N rests on the plank at C where AC = 2m. Find the tension in each rope.EQUILIBRIUM, CENTRE OF MASS, CENTRE OF GRAVITY 7 Solution ‘The plank is uniform and therefore its weight acts at its mid-point, G, say. Let the tensions in the ropes at A and B be T, and Ty respectively. Refer to Fig. 4.2. Fig. 42 t te Diagram for Example 4.2 2m Tm am 150N ‘The planks in equilibrium and therefore the clockwise moment about any pointis equal to the anti-clockwise moment about the same point. (Condition 2.) ‘Taking moments about A gives Ty x 6 = 1502+ 300% 3 67, = 1200 ic. Ty = 200N Resolving vertically gives Ty + Tx = 150+ 300 . Ty +200 = 450 ike. Ty = 250N Notes (i) As an alternative to resolving vertically, we could have taken moments about Btofind 7, Gi) _Itis usually good policy to tke moments about points where unknown forces are acting because this reduces the number of unknowns in each of the resulting equations. EXAMPLE 4.3 Auniform ladder which is 5 m long and has a mass of 20 kg leans with its upper end. against a smooth vertical wall and its lower end on rough ground. The bottom of the ladder is 3 m from the wall. Calculate the frictional force between the ladder and the ground. (g = 10ms *.) Solution Referto Fig. 4.3. The ladderis uniform and therefore its weight, 20 x 10 = 200 N, acts at its mid-point G, a distance of 1.5m from the wall. The wall is smooth and therefore the only force acting at the top of the ladder is the normal reaction R. By Pythagoras the point A at which the ladder makes contact with the wall is 4 mabove the ground. The forces acting at the bottom of the ladder are the normal reaction S and the frictional force F. Ifthe ladder were to slip, its bottom end would move to the right; it follows that F acts to the left as shown.48 SECTION A: MECHANICS Fig. 43 Diagram for Example 4.3 ‘The ladder is in equilibrium and therefore there can be no resultant force in any direction, In particular there is no resultant vertical force, in which case S = 200N (4.4) Because the ladder is in equilibrium the total torque about any point is zero. In particular, the total (net) torque about A is zero and therefore (F x 4) + (200 15) = Sx3 Le. AF +300 = 3S ‘Therefore by equation [4.4] 4F +300 = 600 ie F=75N Note The reason that we have chosen to consider the torque about A, rather than some other point, is that this automatically excludes R~ a force in which we have no interest. The reader is advised to convince himself that considering the torque about G and/or B and making use of the fact that F = R also gives F = 75 N. Points to Bear in Mind when Attempting Questions 4A (@ Draw a clear diagram showing all the forces acting on the particle (or body) whose equilibrium is being considered. () Draw diagrams in which the angles look something like the angles they represent. There is no need to use a protractor, but an angle of 30°, say, should look more like 30° than 45° oF 60°. © A smooth surface can exert a force only at right angles to itself — the normal reaction. ()_ The tension is the same in each section of a light string which passes over a smooth pulley or a smooth peg, or which passes through a smooth hole or a smooth ring. (©) There is no point in resolving in more than two directions. (f) Tris often an advantage to resolve perpendicular to an unknown force. (@) Itis often an advantage to take moments about points where unknown forces are acting.EQUILIBRIUM, CENTRE OF MASS, CENTRE OF GRAVITY QUESTIONS 4A 1. Solve the problem in Example 4.1 by resolving perpendicular to Pand/or Q. 2. Two forces, P and Q, act NW and NE respectively. They are in equilibrium with a force of 50.0N acting due S and a force of 20.0N acting due E. Find Pand Q. 3. A particle whose weight is 50.0N is suspended by a light string which is at 35° to the vertical under the action of a horizontal force F. Find: (q) the tension in the string, (b) F. 4. A particle of weight Wrests on a smooth plane which is inclined at 40° to the horizontal. The particle is prevented from slipping by a force of 50.0N acting parallel to the plane and up a line of greatest slope. Calculate: (a) W, (b) the reaction due to the plane. 5. Two light strings are perpendicular to each other and support a particle of weight 100N. ‘The tension in one of the strings is 40.0N. Calculate the angle this string makes with the vertical and the tension in the other string. 6. A uniform pole AB of weight 5Wand length 8a is suspended horizontally by two vertical strings attached to itat C and D where AC = DB = a. ry A body of weight 91” hangs from the pole at E where ED = 2a. Calculate the tension in each string . ABisa uniform rod of length 1.4 m. Itis pivoted at C, where AC = 0.5m, and rests in horizontal equilibrium when weights of 16N and 8N are applied at A and B respectively. Calculate: (@) the weight of the rod, (6) the magnitude of the reaction at the pivot. |. Auniform rod AB of length 4a and weight Wis smoothly hinged at its upper end, A. The rod is held at 30° to the horizontal by a string which is at 90° to the rod and attached to it at C where AC = 3a, Find: (a) the tension in the string, (®) the vertical component of the reaction at A, (©) the horizontal component of the reaction at A. ). A sphere of weight 40 N and radius 30cm rests against a smooth vertical wall. ‘The sphere is supported in this position by a string of length 20.cm attached to a point on the sphere and to a point on the wall. Find: (a) the tension in the string, (b) the reaction due to the wall. (If you require a hint, turn to the answer.) 4.2 THE TRIANGLE OF FORCES ‘Suppose that a body is in equilibrium under the action of three non-parallel coplanar forces, P, Q, and R (Fig. 4.4). In order to satisfy condition (i) (p. 44), each force must be equal and opposite to the resultant of the other two. The system therefore reduces to one in which there are only two equal and opposite forces, (R and R’, say, where R'is the resultant of Pand Q). Furthermore, these two forces (Rand R’) must be in line with each other, otherwise there would be a couple acting on the system and condition (ii) would not be satisfied. It follows that P, Q and R must be concurrent. Fig. 44 Rigid body Body acted on by three forces " Bearing in mind that R’ is the resultant of Pand Q and that R = —R’, leads to Figs. 4.5(a), (b) and (c). It follows from Fig. 4.5 that:82 SECTION A: MECHANICS 4.6 CENTRE OF GRAVITY ‘The centre of gravity ofa body is the single point at which the entire weight of the body can be considered to act. In uniform gravitational fields (such as that of the Earth on a small body) the centre of gravity coincides with the centre of mass. Since the weight of a body acts at its centre of gravity, a freely suspended body hangs in such a way that its centre of gravity is vertically below the pivot. This is the basis of the usual experimental determination of the position of the centre of gravity of a body (Fig. 4.9). Centres of gravity (and therefore centres of mass) can also be located by calculation (Examples 4.4 to 4.7). First vertica! " Fig. Determination of centre of gravity First Centre of gravity Second - atintersection pivot EXAMPLE 4.4 Calculate the position of the centre of gravity of a body which comprises two small spheres whose centres are connected by a straight rod of length L. The masses of the spheres are m, and m2. The mass of the rod is very small and may be ignored. Solution By symmetry, the centre of gravity of the system is ata point on the line joining the centres of gravity of two spheres. Since the centre of gravity of each sphere is at its centre, the centre of gravity of the whole system is at a point such as G (Fig. 4.10). Fig. 4.10 fee ope Diagram for Example 4.4 t : : ¢ Sphere of Sonere of one moss, The centre of gravity of a body is the point at which its weight acts, and therefore if the body were to be pivoted at its centre of gravity, there would be no gravitational torque about that point. Therefore,