4.

VECTOR ANALYSIS
Certain quantities we measure are determined by both the direction and magnitude. For
example, to describe force, we need to state not just the direction in which it acts but
also how large it is. Such quantities can be represented by arrows. When we discuss
these arrows abstractly, we think of them as directed line segments and we call them
vectors. In this chapter, we will discuss the theory of vectors in the plane as well as in
three-dimensional space.

4.1 VECTORS IN THE PLANE

We start by considering vectors in the plane.
Definition 4.1.1
Geometrıcally, a vector v is a directed line segment. If v is a directed line segment
from A to B then it can be written as v  AB. Algebraically, a vector v  ( x, y ) is an
ordered pair of real numbers. The numbers x and y are called components of v.
y
v B
A

0 x

The directed line segment joining the origin and the point A (or B ) is called a position
vector OA (or OB ).
Algebraically, a vector v  a, b is an ordered pair of real numbers. The numbers a

and b are called components of v.

Definition 4.1.2
The basic vector in the positive x  direction is the vector i determined by the directed
line segment that runs from  0, 0  to 1, 0  . The basic vector in the positive y 
direction is the vector j determined by the directed line segment from  0, 0  to  0, 1 .
y

1
j

0 i 1 x

NOTE: Any vector v  a, b in the plane can be expressed as a scalar multiple of i

plus a scalar multiple of j, i.e.
v  ai  bj

1
Definition 4.1.3
If v  ai  bj , the vectors ai and bj are the vector components of v in the directions of i and
j. The numbers a and b are the scalar components of v in the directions of i and j.

We can add (or subtract) two vectors and we can also multiply a vector by a scalar. If
v1  a1i  b1 j , v  a2i  b2 j and   is a scalar, then

 v1  v2  (a1  a2 )i  (b1  b2 ) j.

Geometrically, vector addition v1  v2 is the diagonal of the parallelogram determined by v1

and v2 . This is the Parallelogram Law of Addition.

 v1  v2  v1  (v2 )  (a1  a2 )i  (b1  b2 ) j.

  v1   a1i   b1 j

Theorem 4.1.1

Two vectors u and v are parallel if one is a scalar multiple of the other, i.e. if u   v, where
 is a scalar.

Example 4.1.1

The vectors sketched below are parallel for   1.5 :

2
Definition 4.1.4

The magnitude or length of v , denoted v , is given by

v  a 2  b2 .

The unit vector is the vector whose magnitude is 1. The zero vector is the vector v  0,0 .

NOTE: The vectors i and j are unit vectors.

Example 4.1.2

If A  2,3 , B  1,5 and C  i  3 j , find

(a) (i) A  B (ii)  A  3B  13 C (iii) the length of C

(b) sketch the vectors A  B, A  C and A  B  C.

Solutions:

(a) (i) A  B  2,3  1,5  2  1,3  5  1,8  i  8 j


(ii)  A  3B  13 C  (2i  3 j )  3(i  5 j )  13 i  3 j 
1 3 
  (2i  3 j )  (3i  15 j )    i  j
3 3 
1 3 
  5i  12 j    i  j
3 3 
16  36  3 
 i    j
5  3 

 3
2
(iii) since C  i  3 j , C  12  2
(b) y

A B C

A B AC

A C

Exercise: Sketch the vector  A  3B  13 C.

3
Theorem 4.1.2

Let u , v and w be vectors. Let  and  be scalars and denote the zero vector by 0. Then

(i) u  v  v  u
(ii) u  (v  w)  (u  v)  w

(iii) v  0  v
(iv) (   )v   v   v

(v)  v   v

(vi) u  v  u  v , triangle inequality.

Theorem 4.1.3

If A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) are points, then the vector v that corresponds to AB is

v  x2  x1 , y2  y1   x2  x1  i   y2  y1  j.

Theorem 4.1.4

If v is a non-zero vector, then a unit vector u, that has the same direction as v is

v
u .
v

Example 4.1.3

1. Given points A(2,3) and B(4,5), find the vectors v1 and v2 that corresponds to AB

and BA, respectively.

2. Find a unit vector that has the same direction as v  3i  4 j.

Solutions:

1. v1  (4  (2)i  (5  3) j  6i  2 j

v2  (2  4)i  (3  5) j  6i  2 j.

v 1 3 4
2. v  32  (4)2  5  u    3i  4 j   i  j.
v 5 5 5

4
The next example illustrates one way of applying the theory of vectors.

Example 4.1.4
1. You push a loaded supermarket cart by applying a 20 N force F that makes a 30
angle with the horizontal. Resolve F into its horizontal and vertical components.

2. You are pulling on a suitcase with a force F (pictured below) whose magnitude is
F  10 N. Find the x  and y  components of F .

Solutions:
1. We draw a vector triangle for F  ai  bj and its vector components along with the
right-angled triangle determined by their magnitudes.

| bj |
sin 30o   b  20(0.5)  10 and since the vertical component points downward,
20
b  10.
| ai |  3
cos30o  | a | 20    10 3 and since the horizontal component points to
20  2 
the right, a  10 3.
 F  10 3i 10 j.

2.

| bj | | ai |
sin 300   b  5 j and cos 300   a  5 3i
10 10

 F  5 3i  5 j.

5
 4.1.1 The Dot Product

We already have considered scalar multiplication of a vector. We now discuss one way of
multiplying two vectors.

Definition 4.1.5

Let u  a1 , b1  a1i  b1 j and v  a2 , b2  a2i  b2 j be two non-zero vectors. Then the dot

product of u and v , denoted u v, is defined by

u v  a1a2  b1b2 .

Theorem 4.1.5

For any vectors u , v, w and a scalar  ,

(i) u v  v u
(ii) (u  v) w  (u w)  (v w)
(iii) ( u ) v   (u v)
(iv) u u  0 and u u  0  u  0

(v) u  uu

Example 4.1.5

Find the dot product of the two vectors u  i  3 j and v  4i  7 j.

Solution:

u v  1(4)  3(7)  17.

Definition 1.4.6

Let u and v be two non-zero vectors. Then the angle  between u and v is defined to be the
smallest angle between the representation of u and v that have the origin as their initial points.

Theorem 4.1.6

Let u and v be two non-zero vectors. Then the angle  between u and v is given by

uv
cos   .
| u || v |

6
Proof: Let the vectors u and v be position vectors and let  be the angle between u and v as
shown in the diagram below:

vu

u v

0 x

By cosine rule, we have that

v  u | v |2  | u |2 2 | u || v | cos 
2

and using Theorem 4.1.5, we get

v  u  (v  u) (v  u)  (v  u) v   (v  u ) (u )  v v  u.v  v u  u u | v |2 2u v | u |2

2

Thus,
2u v  2 | u || v | cos  ,

from which the theorem follows.

NOTE: Since arccosine lies in [0,  ], it follows that   [0,  ].

Example 4.1.6

Find the angle between the vectors u  2i  3 j and v  7i  j.

Solution:

uv 2(7)  3(1) 11

cos      0.431455497
| u || v | 22  32 (7) 2  12 650
  arccos (0.431455497)  2.017 rad

Definition 1.4.7

Let u and v be two non-zero vectors. Then

1. u and v are parallel if the angle between them is 0 or  .


2. u and v are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if the angle between them is .
2

7
Theorem 4.1.7

Two non-zero vectors u and v are orthogonal if and only if u v  0.

Example 4.1.7

1. Show that the vectors u  2i  3 j and v  4i  6 j are parallel.

2. Show that the vectors u  2i  4 j and v  4i  3 j are orthogonal.

Solutions:

1. Using Definition 4.1.7, we have that

uv 2(4)  (3)(6) 26

cos      1     .
| u || v | 2  (3) (4)  6
2 2 2 2
13 52

We can also use Theorem 4.1.1 and notice that u  2v. Hence, u and v are parallel.
2. Using Theorem 4.1.7 (or Definition 4.1.7), we get

u v  3(4)  (4)(3)  0

Hence, u and v are orthogonal.

Suppose u and v are two non-zero vectors shown in the diagram below:

y u

z w

v Projvu

0 x

We define a vector determined by dropping a perpendicular from u onto line ow and doing
this will require the application of the following theorem:

Theorem 4.1.8

Let v be a non-zero vector. Then for any other vector u, the vector

 (u v) 
z  u   2 v
 |v| 

is orthogonal to v.
8
Proof:

  (u v)  
z v  u    
 u v  v v   u v   u v  | v |2  0.
2  
v v u v
  |v|   | v |2 | v |2

Thus, by Theorem 4.1.7, z and v are orthogonal.

Definition 4.1.8

Let u and v be two non-zero vectors. Then

1. the projection of u onto v , denoted Proj v u, is defined by

uv uv
Proj v u  v 2v
vv |v|

2. the component of u in the direction v , denoted Compvu, is given by

uv
Compv u  | u | cos  ,
|v|

where  is the angle between u and v.

Example 4.1.8

Given that u  2,3 and v  1,5 , find

(a) Proj v u (b) Compvu .

Solutions:

uv 2(1)  3(5) 1 1 5
(a) Proj v u  v 1,5  1,5  i  j.
|v|2
1 5
2 2
2 2 2

uv 13
(b) Compvu  
|v| 26

9
 4.1.2 Vector Functions, Vector Differentiation and Parametric Equations

Recall that a vector v in the plane can be written as v  ai  bj. Suppose that a and b are

replaced by functions f1 (t ) and f 2 (t ), respectively. In such a case, we have a vector function.

Definition 4.1.9

Let f1 (t ) and f 2 (t ) be functions of the real variable t . Then for all values of t for which f1 (t )

and f 2 (t ) are defined, we define the vector-valued function

F (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j. (4.1)

The domain of F is the intersection of the domains of f1 and f 2 .

Example 4.1.9

1
Find the domain of the vector function F (t )    i 
t 
 
t  1 j.

Solutions:

1
Since the domain of f1 (t )  is {t : t  0, t  } and the domain of f 2 (t )  t  1 is
t
{t : t  1, t  }, the domain of F (t ) is {t : t  0 and t  1, t  }.

Definition 4.1.10

Let the interval [ a, b] be the domain of the vector function F . Then the set of points ( x, y ) is
called a plane curve, where

x  f1 (t ) and y  f 2 (t ) for a  t  b (4.2)

are continuous functions in [a, b]. The equations (4.2) are called parametric equations for the
curve. The variable t is called a parameter for the curve. When we give parametric equations
and a parameter interval for a curve in the plane, we say that we have parametrised the curve.
The equations and interval constitute a parametrisation of the curve.

Example 4.1.10
Describe the curves given by the following vector functions:
1 t
(a) F (t )  i j, t  1 (b) F (t )  cos t i  sin t j , 0  t  2
t 1 t 1

(c) F (   3cos   i   4sin   j, 0    2 .

10
Solutions:

1 t
(a) Let x  f1 (t )  and y  f 2 (t )  . Then
t 1 t 1

t
y  yt  y  t
t 1

 t ( y  1)   y
y
t 
y 1
1 1
x  
t 1 y
1
y 1
 x 2  ( y  1).

1
Thus, the curve is a parabola and since t  1 and x  , it follows that x  0. The sketch
t 1
of the curve is
y

0 x

(b) Let x  cos t , y  sin t . Using the identity cos 2 t  sin 2 t  1, we have that x 2  y 2  1,

which is a circle centred at the origin with radius 1.

y
1

1 0 1 x

1

11
 x y
(c) Let x  3cos  , y  4sin   cos   and sin   . Using the identity
3 4

x2 y 2
cos 2   sin 2   1    1,
9 16
which is the equation of an ellipse.
y

3 3 x

4

Example 4.1.11

1. Find a set of parametric equations that represents the graph of y  1  x 2 using the slope

dy
m at the point ( x, y ).
dx

2. Find the parametric equations for the right-hand branch of the hyperbola x 2  y 2  1.

Solutions:

dy m
1. y  1  x 2   2 x  m and so x   . Thus,
dx 2
2
 m m2
y  1     1 .
 2 4
m m2
x   , y  1  ,   m  
2 4
y

12
2. For the hyperbola x 2  y 2  1, we think of one trigonometric identity that can help in

parametrising. Since sec2   tan 2   1, letting

 
x  sec and y  tan  ,   
2 2
gives us the required parametric equations.
y

0 1 x

4.1.3 Differentiation and Integration of a Vector Function

We now consider derivatives of vector-valued functions and how these are applied to unit
tangent and unit normal vectors, arc length, velocity and acceleration of a moving body.

Definition 4.1.11

Let F (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j. Let t0 be any real number,  or  . If lim f1 (t ) and lim f 2 (t )

t t0 t t0

both exist, then we define

  
lim F (t )  lim f1 (t ) i  lim f 2 (t ) j.
t t0 t t0 t t0 
Definition 4.1.12

F is continuous at t0 if the component functions f1 and f 2 are continuous at t 0 . Thus,

(i) F is defined at t0

(ii) lim F (t )
t  t0

(iii) lim F (t )  F (t0 ).

t t0

13
Definition 4.1.13

Let F be defined at t . Then F is differentiable at t if

F (t  t )  F (t )
lim
t  0 t

exists and is finite. The vector function F  defined by

dF F (t  t )  F (t )
F (t )   (4.3)
dt t

is called the derivative of F , and the domain of F  is the set of all t such that the limit in (4.3)
exists.

Theorem 4.1.9

If F (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j, then at any value of t for which f1 (t ) and f 2 (t ) exist,

F (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j.

Proof:

F (t )  lim
 f1 (t  t )i  f 2 (t  t ) j    f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j 
t  0 t

 lim
 f1 (t  t )i  f1 (t )i    f 2 (t  t ) j  f 2 (t ) j 
t  0 t

 lim
 f1 (t  t )  f1 (t ) i  lim  f 2 (t  t )  f 2 (t ) j
t  0 t t  0 t
 f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j

We can apply Theorem 4.1.9 to derive higher derivatives as the next definition shows:

Definition 4.1.14

If F  is differentiable at t , we define the second derivative of F to be the derivative of F ,

that is,

F (t )   F   .

Example 4.1.12

Given that F (t )  (cos t )i   e2t  j, find F  and F.

14
Solutions:

F (t )  (cos t )i   e 2t  j  F (t )  ( sin t )i   2e 2t  j

 F (t )  ( cos t )i   4e 2t  j

Theorem 4.1.10

Let F and G be vector functions that are differentiable in an interval I . Let the scalar h be
differentiable in I ,  be a scalar and v be a constant vector. Then

d dF dG
(i)  F  G     F   G
dt dt dt
d dF
(ii)  F is differentiable and  F      F 
dt dt
d dF
(iii) v F is differentiable and v F   v  v F
dt dt
d dF dh
(iv) hF is differentiable and  hF   h  F  hF   hF
dt dt dt
d dG dF
(v) F G is differentiable and F G  F  G  F G  F  G
dt dt dt

Definition 4.1.15

Let F (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j and suppose that the component functions f1 and f 2 have

antiderivatives. Then

(i) the antiderivative, or indefinite integral, of F is defined by

 F (t ) dt    f (t ) dt  i    f
1 2 
(t ) dt j  C ,

where C is a constant vector of integration

(ii) if f1 and f 2 are integrable over the interval  a, b  , then the definite integral of F is

defined by

 a
b
F (t ) dt   a
b
 
f1 (t ) dt i 
b

a 
f 2 (t ) dt j.

Example 4.1.13


If F (t )   cos t  i   sin t  j, evaluate (a)  F (t ) dt 

2
(b) F (t ) dt.
0

15
Solutions:

(a)  F (t ) dt    cos t dt  i    sin t dt  j  (sin t ) i  (cos t ) j  C , where C  c1i  c2 j is a

constant vector.

F (t ) dt    cos t dt  i    sin t dt  j  i  j
  


2 2 2
(b)
0  0   0 

If F (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j is a vector function representing a curve in the plane, then F (t ) is a

tangent to the curve F at the point ( f1 (t ), f 2 (t )). The vector that is orthogonal to this tangent
vector will be the normal. We now define unit tangent and normal vectors.

Definition 4.1.16

Let F (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j. Then, the unit tangent vector, denoted T (t ), is given by

F (t )
T (t ) 
F (t )

   
2 2
where F (t )  f1 (t )  f 2 (t ) for any t such that F (t )  0.

Example 4.1.14


Let F (t )  cos t i  sin t j. Find the unit tangent vector at t  .
4
Solution:

F (t )   sin t i  cos t j  F (t )    sin t    cos t   1.

2 2

F (t )  sin t i  cos t j

T (t )     sin t i  cos t j.
F (t ) 1


At t  ,
4

1 1
T   sin  4  i  cos  4  j   i j.
2 2

16
Theorem 4.1.11

Let F (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j be a differentiable vector function such that

 f  (t )    f  (t ) 
2 2
F (t )  1 2 is a constant. Then F F   0.

Proof:

Suppose that F (t )  C , a constant. Then

F F  f12  f 22  F  C 2
2

So

d d
 F F  = (C 2 )  0.
dt dt

But by part (v) of Theorem 4.1.10

d
 F F   F F   F  F  2F F   0  F F   0.
dt

Exercise: Show that if F (t )  cos t i  sin t j , then F F   0 .

Theorem 4.1.11 implies that if T (t ) is a unit tangent vector, then T T   0 and by Theorem
4.1.7, this implies that T (t ) is orthogonal to T (t ) .

Definition 4.1.17

Let F (t ) be a vector function for a curve in the plane and T (t ), be a unit tangent vector to the
curve at t . Then, the unit normal vector to the curve, denoted N (t ), is given by

T (t )
N (t )  ,
T (t )

whenever T (t )  0.

Example 4.1.15


Calculate a unit normal vector to the curve F (t )  cos t i  sin t j at t  .
4

17
Solution:

F (t )
Since T (t )    sin t i  cos t j , we have that T (t )   cos t i  sin t j
F (t )


 T (t )    cos t     sin t   1 so that at t 
2 2
,
4

T (t ) 1 1
N ,   cos  4  i  sin  4  j   i j.
T (t ) 2 2

Recall that the length of the arc of a curve given parametrically as in (4.2) is given by

 f1 (t )    f 2 (t ) 
t1
s
2 2
dt.
t0

There is a more concise way to write the formula above using vector notation. Let the curve be

given by (4.1). Then F (t )  f1 (t ) i  f 2 (t ) j and

ds
F (t )   f1 (t )    f 2 (t )  
2 2

dt

t1
 s   F (t ) dt
t0

Example 4.1.16

Calculate the length of the arc of the curve F (t )  t 2i  t 3 j between t  0 and t  3.

Solution:

F (t )  t 2i  t 3 j  F (t )  2t i  3t 2 j F (t )  (2t ) 2  (3t 2 ) 2  t 4  9t 2 . Thus,

3
3 3
85 2  8
1
 4  9t 2  
3 3
s F (t ) dt   t 4  9t dt  2 2

0 0 27 0 27

18
Suppose that an object is moving in the plane. Then we can describe its motion parametrically
by the vector function (4.1). In this context, F is called the position vector of the object.

Definition 4.1.18
If F  and F  exist, then

(i) v(t )  F (t )  f1 (t ) i  f 2 (t ) j

is called the velocity vector of the moving object at time t ,

d
(ii) a(t )  v(t )  F (t )  f1 (t ) i  f 2 (t ) j
dt

is called the acceleration vector of the moving object.

The magnitude of the velocity vector, v(t ) , is the speed of a moving object while the
magnitude of the acceleration vector, a(t ) , is the acceleration scalar.

Example 4.1.17
A particle is moving along a circle with the position vector F (t )  3  cos 2t  i  3  sin 3t  j.

Calculate velocity, speed, acceleration and acceleration scalar when t  .
6
Solutions:
F (t )  3  cos 2t  i  3  sin 2t  j  v(t )  6  sin 2t  i  6  cos 2t  j
Speed  v(t )  (6sin 2t ) 2  (6 cos 2t ) 2  6 m / s.
a(t )  12(cos 2t )i  12(sin 2t ) j
Acceleration scalar  a(t )  ( 12 cos 2t ) 2  ( 12sin 2t ) 2  12 m / s 2 .


When t  ,
6

v( 6 )  6  sin 2( 6 )  i  6  cos 2( 6 )  j  3 3 i  3 j
a( 6 )  12(cos 2( 6 ))i  12(sin 2( 6 )) j  6i  6 3 j.

19
We now discuss the motion of an object in a vertical plane. In this case, we assume that the
only force acting on an object is the force of gravity, g  9.81 m / s 2 , which is directed vertically
downward. Thus, the acceleration vector is given by

a(t )   g j ,

from which we get

v(t )   gt j  C.

If we let the constant vector C be the initial velocity v0 when t  0, then

v(t )   gt j  v0 .

(4.4)

Thus, the position vector is

1
F (t )   gt 2 j  v0t  F0 , (4.5)
2

where F0 is another initial position vector at t  0.

Example 4.1.18

A cannon whose muzzle is tilted upward at an angle of 30o shoots a ball at an initial velocity
of 600 m / s.

(a) Find the position vector at time t  0.

(b) How much time does the ball spend in the air?
(c) How far does the cannonball travel?
(d) What is the speed of the ball at the time of impact with the earth? Assume that
the mouth of the cannon is at ground level and ignore air resistance.

Solution:

If we place the mouth of the cannon in such a way that it coincides with the origin, then we can
take F0  0i  0 j. We first resolve the initial velocity into its components, i.e. v0  ai  bj.

v0
0 x

20
 | bj | | ai |
(a) sin 30o   b  300 and cos 30o   a  300 3
600 600

 v0  300 3 i  300 j

Using (4.4), we get

1
2
   1 
F (t )   gt 2 j  300 3 i  300 j t  0  300 3 t   300t  gt 2  j
 2 

(b) We have to determine the time when the ball will hit the ground. This happens when the
vertical component of F (t ) is zero, that is, when

1  1  600
300t  gt 2  0  t  300   gt  t   61.2 s
2  2  g
(c) The total distance the ball travels is
600

s   | v(t ) | dt , where v(t )   gt j  v0  300 3 i   300  gt  j

g

300 3    300  gt  dt
600 2
 s
g 2
0

300 3
Using hyperbolic substitution, we let 300  gt  300 3 sinh   dt   cosh  d
g

 300 3 
  270000   300  gt  dt  300 3  1  sinh 2     cosh  d   270000  cosh 2  d
2
g
 g 

 270000   300  gt  dt   135000   12 sinh 2   c

2
g

  135000
g   12 .2sinh  cosh    c
  135000
g   sinh  1  sinh 2   c. 
300  gt
Since 300  gt  300 3 sinh  , it follows that sinh   so that
300 3

 270000   300  gt  dt   135000

2
g 
  sinh  1  sinh 2   c 
 1  300  gt   300  gt   300  gt 2 
  135000
g  sinh    1  270000 c
  300 3   300 3  
600

 1  300  gt   300  gt   300  gt 2 

g

 s   135000
g  sinh  
   1  270000   33467.14159 m
  300 3   300 3  0

21
4.2 VECTORS IN SPACE
We have developed the theory of vectors and vector-valued functions in the plane. In
this section, we extend that theory to vectors and vector-valued functions in three-
dimensional space.
The three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is made up of three mutually
perpendicular axes x, y  and z  axes. Thus, the three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system comprises of the xy  plane, the xz  plane and the yz  plane.
z

xz  plane yz  plane

x xy  plane y

The Cartesian coordinates  x, y, z  of a point P in space are the numbers at which

the planes through P perpendicular to the axes cut the axes. Points on the x  axis
have y  and z  coordinates equal to zero. That is, they have coordinates of the form
 x,0,0  . Similarly, points on the y  axis have coordinates of the form  0, y,0  .
Points on the z  axis have coordinates of the form  0, 0, z  . Thus, to plot a point
(2,3,5), we first locate the point (2,3, 0) on the xy  plane and then move 5 units up
on the z  plane

Theorem 4.2.1

If P(a1 , b1 , c1 ) and Q(a2 , b2 , c2 ) are points in space, then the vector v that corresponds

to PQ is

v  a2  a1 , b2  b1 , c2  c1   a2  a1  i  b2  b1  j   c2  c1  k .

22
Definition 4.2.1

The vectors represented by the directed line segments from the origin to the points
1, 0, 0  ,  0,1, 0  , and  0, 0,1 are the basic vectors. We denote them by i, j and k . The

position vector r  OP from the origin to the point P  x, y, z  is

r  OP  xi  yj  zk

Theorem 4.2.2
Let P(a1 , b1 , c1 ) and Q(a2 , b2 , c2 ) be two points in space. Then the distance between P and
Q is given by

| PQ |  (a2  a1 )2  (b2  b1 )2  (c2  c1 ) 2

Example 4.2.1
Plot the points P (3, 1, 6) and Q(2,3,5) on the same three-dimensional Cartesian system
and find the length of PQ .

Solutions:
(0, 1, 6) z

P (3, 1, 6) (0, 0, 6) (2,0,5)

(3, 0, 6) (0, 0,5) Q(2,3,5)

(0, 1, 0) (2,0,0) (0,3,5)

(3, 1, 0) (0, 0, 0)

(3, 0, 0) (2,3,0)

(0,3, 0)

x y

 PQ  3  (2)  (1  3)2  (6  5)2  42

2

23
Definitions of operations involving vectors in space such us vector addition, scalar
multiplication, projection of a vector onto another vector, component of a vector in the
direction of another vector, dot product and angle between two vectors are the same as those
for vectors in the plane.

Example 4.2.2

Given that u  2, 3, 4 , v  3i  j  2k and   2, find

(a) u  v (b) u v (c) ( u  v) v (d) Projvu (e) Compvu

(f) the angle between u and v (g) a unit vector that has the same direction of u .

Solutions:

(a) u  v  (2  3)i  (3  1) j  (4  2)k  i  2 j  6k

(b) u v  2(3)  (3)(1)  (4)(2)  1

(c) ( u  v) v   2(2)  (3)  i   2(3)  1 j   2(4)  2  k   3i  j  2k 

 1(3)  (5)(1)  (10)(2)  12

uv 1 1 3 1 1
2 
(d) Projvu  v 3i  j  2k     3i  j  2k   i  j k
|v|2
(3)  1  (2)
2 2
14 14 14 7

uv 1
(e) Compvu  
|v| 14

uv 1 1
(f) cos        1.62 rad
| u || v | 22  (3)2  (4)2 14 29 14

(g) Since | u | 29, a unit vector that has the same direction of u is

u 1 2 3 4
  2i  3 j  4k   i j k
|u| 29 29 29 29

24
If we define  to be the angle between v and the positive x  axis,  the angle between v
and the positive y  axis and  the angle between v and the positive z  axis, then the angles
 ,  and  are called the direction angles. They are given by
x0 y z
cos   , cos   0 , cos   0 ,
|v| |v| |v|

where v  x0i  y0 j  z0 k .

Example 4.2.3

Find the direction angles of v  i  2 j  3k.

Solution:

 2    3
2 2
| v | 12   6

1 2 1 3 1
 cos   , cos    , cos   
6 6 3 6 2

Definition 4.2.2
1. Two non-zero vectors u and v in space are parallel if
(i) v   u, for some constant  .
(ii) the angle between them is 0 and  .
2. Two non-zero vectors u and v in space are orthogonal if
(i) u v  0

(ii) the angle between them is .
2

Definition 4.2.3
Let A  a1i  b1 j  c1k and B  a2i  b2 j  c2 k be vectors in space. The cross product of A and
B , denoted A  B, is a vector orthogonal to both A and B is defined by

i j k
A  B  a1 b1 c1 .
a2 b2 c2

By properties of determinants, Definition 4.2.3 implies that

B  A    A B

25
Note that i  i  j  j  k  k  0, i  j  k , i  k   j , j  k  i .

Example 4.2.4
Find A  B if A  2i  j  6k and B  3i  5 j  k .

Solution:

i j k
1 6 2 6 2 1
A B  2 1 6  i j k
5 1 3 1 3 5
3 5 1
 (1  30)i  (2  18) j  (10  3)k
 31i  20 j  7 k .

Theorem 4.2.3

Let A, B and C be vectors in space. Let 0 be the zero vector 0  (0, 0, 0) and  be a scalar.
Then

(i) A  B  ( B  A)

(ii) A  0  0  0  A
(iii)  A  B   ( A  B)
(iv) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  ( A  C )
(v) ( A  B) C  A ( B  C ) Triple scalar product
(vi) A ( A  B)  B ( A  A)  0

Theorem 4.2.4

If  is the angle between two non-zero vectors A and B in space, then

A  B | A || B | sin  .

26
Proof:

i j k
A  B  a1 b1 c1  (b1c2  b2c1 )i  (a1c2  a2c1 ) j  (a1b2  a2b1 )k
a2 b2 c2

 A  B  (b1c2  b2 c1 ) 2  (a1c2  a2 c1 ) 2  (a1b2  a2b1 ) 2

2

 b12 c2 2  2b1b2 c1c2  b2 2 c12  a12c2 2  2a1a2c1c2  a2 2c12  a12b2 2  2a1a2b1b2  a2 2b12
  a12 a2 2  a12 a2 2   a12b2 2  a12c2 2  a2 2b12   b12b2 2  b12b2 2   b12c2 2  a2 2c12  b2 2c12
  c12 c2 2  c12 c2 2   2a1a2b1b2  2a1a2 c1c2  2b1b2 c1c2
 a12 a2 2  a12b2 2  a12c2 2  a2 2b12  b12b2 2  b12c2 2  a2 2c12  b2 2c12  c12c2 2
 a12 a2 2  2a1a2b1b2  b12b2 2  c12c2 2  2a1a2c1c2  2b1b2c1c2
  a12 a2 2  a12b2 2  a12c2 2    a2 2b12  b12b2 2  b12c2 2    a2 2c12  b2 2c12  c12 c2 2 
  a12 a2 2  a1a2b1b2  a1a2 c1c2    a1a2b1b2  b12b2 2  b1b2 c1c2    a1a2 c1c2  b1b2 c1c2  c12c2 2 
 a12  a2 2  b2 2  c2 2   b12  a2 2  b2 2  c2 2   c12  a2 2  b2 2  c2 2 
 a1a2  a1a2  b1b2  c1c2   b1b2  a1a2  b1b2  c1c2   c1c2  a1a2  b1b2  c1c2 
  a12  b12  c12   a2 2  b2 2  c2 2    a1a2  b1b2  c1c2 
2

| A |2 | B |2 ( A B) 2

AB
Also, cos   implies that  A B  | A |2 | B |2 cos2  so that
2

| A || B |

A  B | A |2 | B |2  | A |2 | B |2 cos 2  | A |2 | B |2 1  cos 2   | A |2 | B |2 sin 2  ,

2

 A  B | A || B | sin  .

Corollary 4.2.1
Two vectors A and B are parallel if and only if A B  0.
There is an interesting geometric interpretation of Theorem 4.2.4. If we think of A and B as
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then
Area of Parallelogram | A || B | sin  | A  B |

B h | B | sin 

 A

27
Example 4.2.5

1. Find the area of a parallelogram with consecutive vertices at P(1,3, 2), Q(2,1, 4) and
R(3,1, 6).

2. Find the area of the triangle determined by A(4, 1, 6), B(6, 4, 7) and C (1, 2, 2).

Solutions:

1. z
R

Q 

h  QP sin 

S
x P y

A( PQRS )  QR QP sin   QR  QP

QR  5i  2k
QP  i  2 j  6k
i j k
QR  QP  5 0 2  4i  32 j  10k
1 2 6
 A( PQRS )  42  (32) 2  (10) 2  1140 units 2

2. z
Q

h  PR sin 

P R

x y

1 1
A( PQR)  RQ PR sin   RQ  PR
2 2
RQ  5i  6 j  5k and PR  3i  5 j  k

28
 i j k
RQ  PR  5 6 5  31i  20 j  7 k
3 5 1
RQ  PR  (31) 2  (20) 2  7 2  1410
1 1
A( PQR)  RQ  PR  1410 units 2 .
2 2

Recall from Theorem 4.2.3 that the triple scalar product is given by ( A  B) C  A ( B  C ). The
triple scalar product can be evaluated as a determinant and can be used to find the volume of
the parallelepiped (parallelogram-sided box).

Thus, the volume (V ) of a parallelepiped with vectors A, B and C as adjacent edges is

given by

V  ( A  B) C .

If A  a1i  b1 j  c1k , B  a2i  b2 j  c2k and C  a3i  b3 j  c3k , it can be shown that

a1 b1 c1
( A  B) C  a2 b2 c2 .
a3 b3 c3

Example 4.2.6

Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by A  i  2 j  k , B  2i  3k and

C  7 j  4k .

Solution:

1 2 1
0 3 2 3 2 0
( A  B) C  2 0 3  2   23
7 4 0 4 0 7
0 7 4
 V  ( A  B) C | 23 | 23.

29
4.2.1 Lines in Space

A straight line L in space is completely determined by two points on the line or a point on
the line and the direction vector.

Suppose that we have two points P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and Q( x1 , y1 , z1 ) on a line. Then any scalar

multiple of the vector v  PQ  ( x1  x0 )i  ( y1  y0 ) j  ( z1  z0 )k is parallel to L. Now, let

R ( x, y, z ) be another point on the line.

P Q

x y

PR  tv, for some real number t. But OR  OP  PR  OP  tv. Equivalently,

x, y, z  x0 , y0 , z0  t ( x1  x0 ),( y1  y0 ),( z1  z0 ) (4.6)

Equation (4.6) is called the vector equation of the line L. If we write out the components of
equation (4.6), we obtain

xi  yj  z k  x0 i  y0 j  z0k  t ( x1  x0 ) i  ( y1  y0 ) j  ( z1  z0 ) k 

x  x0  t ( x1  x0 )
 y  y0  t ( y1  y0 ) (4.7)
z  z0  t ( z1  z0 )

Equations (4.7) are called the parametric equations of the line L. Letting a  x1  x0 ,

b  y1  y0 and c  z1  z0 we get the symmetric equations

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
  .
a b c

30
Example 4.2.7
Find a vector equation, parametric equations and symmetric equations of the line L described
as follows:
1. L passes through the points P (2, 1, 6) and Q(3,1, 2)

2. L passes through the point (1, 2, 4) is parallel to the vector v  1,1, 1

3. L passes through the points P(2,3, 2) and Q (2, 1, 2)
4. L passes through the points (2, 1,1) and the direction vector is perpendicular to the
x 1 y z  
lines L1 :   and L2 : x  2  3t , y  1  4t , z  t.
3 4 2

Solutions:

1. We first find the vector v  PQ  (3  2)i  (1  1) j  (2  6)k  i  2 j  8k.

We can now use any point on the line and v to find the equation of L. Using P , we
get the vector equation

x, y, z  2, 1,6  t 1, 2, 8 , for some real number t .

The parametric equations are

x  2  t , y  1  2t , z  6  8t

and

x  2 y 1 z  6
 
1 2 8

are the symmetric equations.

2. Using the given point (1, 2, 4) and v , we get the vector equation

x, y, z  1, 2, 4  t 1,1, 1 , for some real number t .

The parametric and symmetric equations are

x  1  t , y  2  t , z  4  t

and

x  2 y 1 z  6
  ,
1 2 8

respectively.

31
 3. v  PQ  (2  2)i  (3 1) j  (2  2)k  4 j. Thus,

x, y, z  2,3, 2  t 0, 4,0 , for some real number t ,

is the vector equation, x  2  t (0)  2, y  3  4t , z  2  t (0)  2

and x  2, y  3  4t , z  2 are the parametric and symmetric equations respectively.

4. The direction vectors of L1 and L2 are

v1  3i  4 j  2k and v2  3i  4 j  k

respectively. The cross product of v1 and v2 gives a vector v perpendicular to both v1

and v2 .

i j k
v  v1  v2  3 4 2  12i  3 j  24k .
3 4 1

Thus, x, y, z  2, 1,1  t 12,3, 24 , for some real number t is the vector equation,

x  2  12t , y  1  3t , 1  24t are the parametric equations and

x  2 y 1 z 1
 
12 3 24
are the symmetric equations.

Intersection of lines in space

Given two lines in space, there are four possibilities for their intersection:

1. The lines are distinct and intersect at exactly one point.

z
L1

x L2 y

32
 2. The lines are coincident.
z
L1

L2

x y

In this case, direction vectors are parallel and a point from L1 satisfies L2 .
3. The lines are parallel and distinct.
z
L1

L2
x y
4. The lines are distinct but not parallel, and they do not intersect. They are skew lines.
z
L1 L2

x y

Example 4.2.8
Determine whether the following lines in space intersect at exactly one point, are parallel,
coincide or are skew:

1. L1 : x, y, z  5,11, 2  t 1,5, 2 , L2 : x, y, z  1, 9,9  s 1,5, 2

x  2 y 1 z  3 x3 y2 z 7
2. L1 :   , L2 :  
5 1 4 4 1 6

3. L1 : x  5  s, y  4  2s, z  2  3s , L2 : x, y, z  2,0,1  t 2, 1, 1

y3 z 3 x  3 y 1 z  3
4. L1 : x  1   , L2 :  
2 3 3 6 9

33
Solutions:
1. Since the directions vectors are the same, the lines are parallel. We check whether they are

distinct or they coincide. Using (5,11, 2) from L2 , we have that

5  1 s  s  4
11  9  5s  s  4
2  9  2s  s  3.5

 (5,11, 2) from L1 does not satisfy L2 and so the lines are distinct and parallel.

2. The directions vectors v1  5i  j  4k and v2  4i  j  6k are not parallel. We try to

solve for the point of intersection. In parametric form

L1 : 2  5t , y  1  t , z  3  4t
L2 : x  3  4s, y  2  s, z  7  6s

If there is such a point of intersection, then

2  5t  3  4s  4s  5t  5 (i)
1 t  2  s  s  t  1 (ii)
3  4t  7  6s  3s  2t  2 (iii)

Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we get t  1, s  0. We check whether these values satisfy

equation (iii)
LHS : 3s  2t  3(0)  2(1)  2  RHS.

Thus, the lines intersect at exactly one point. Using either the value of t or s , we get

t  1: x  2  5(1)  3, y  1  1  2, z  3  4(1)  7.

Therefore, the point of intersection is (3, 2, 7).

3. Clearly, the direction vectors are not parallel. Thus,

5  s  2  2t  s  2t  3 (i)
4  2s  t  2s  t  4 (ii)
2  3s  1  t  3s  t  3 (iii)

Solving (ii) and (iii) gives t  6, s  1 and substituting these into equation (i), we get

LHS : s  2t  1  2(6)  13  RHS.

Thus, L1 and L2 are not parallel and do not intersect. Therefore, they are skew lines.

34
4. The direction vectors are parallel since (3, 6,9)  3(1, 2,3). We take the point (1, 3, 3)

from L1 and check whether it satisfies L2 .

2
x  3  3s  1  3  3 s  s  
3
2
y  1  6 s  3  1  6 s  s  
3
2
z  3  9 s  3  3  9 s  s   .
3
Therefore, the lines are coincident.

Let us now use dot product and cross product to calculate distance. Suppose we want to find
the distance from a point S to a line L.

If P is any point on the line, then the required distance is | PS | sin  , which implies that

PS  v
d | PS | sin   .
|v|

Suppose we want to find the distance between two skew lines.

If P1 is a point on L1 and P2 is a point on L2 , then the required distance is the shortest distance

AB. It follows that AB  Projn PP

1 2 , where n is the is any vector in the direction of AB , and

it is the cross product of direction vectors of L1 and L2 . Thus,

PP
1 2 n
AB  .
|n|

35
Example 4.2.9

1. Find the distance from the point S (1,1,5) to the line L : x  1  t , y  3  t , z  2t.

2. Find the distance between the lines L1 and L2 , where L1 passes through the points A(1, 2,1)

and B(2, 7,3), and L2 passes through the points C (2,3,5) and D (0, 6, 6).

Solutions:

1. L passes through the point P(1,3, 0) and is parallel to v  i  j  2k .

i j k
 PS  2 j  5k  PS  v  0 2 5  i  5 j  2k .
1 1 2

PS  v 12  52  22 30
d    5.
|v| 12  (1) 2  22 6

2. v1  AB  i  5 j  2k , v2  CD  2i  3 j  k

i j k
 n  v1  v2  1 5 2  i  5 j  13k
2 3 1

We now form a vector using one point from L1 and another point from L2 . We can use AD,

AC , BC or BD. Using BC  4 j  2k , we get

BC n 0()  (4)(5)  2(13) 46

d   .
|n| (1)  (5)  (13)
2 2 2
195

4.2.2 Planes in Space

A plane in space is determined by a point on the plane and a vector orthogonal to every
vector in the plane. This orthogonal vector is called a normal vector and is denoted by N.

Definition 4.2.4

Let P be a point in space and let N be a given non-zero vector. Then the set of all points Q

for which PQ and N are orthogonal constitutes a plane in space.

36
Let P  ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and N  Ai  Bj  Ck . Then if Q  ( x, y, z ), then

PQ  ( x  x0 )i  ( y  y0 ) j  ( z  z0 )k.

By definition,

PQ N  0. (4.8)

Equation (4.8) is the vector equation of the plane |P. To obtain the scalar equation, we
simplify (4.8) to get
A( x  x0 )  B( y  y0 )  C ( z  z0 )  0

or
Ax  By  Cz  D,

where D  Ax0  By0  Cz0  OP N

Definition 4.2.5
Two planes with normal vectors N1 and N 2 are

(i) parallel if their normal vectors are parallel, i.e. N1  N 2  0

(ii) perpendicular if their normal vectors are perpendicular, i.e. N1 N 2  0.

Example 4.2.10
1. Find the equation of the plane that contains the point (5, 2, 4) and has normal vector
N  i  2 j  3k .

2. Find the equation of the plane passing through P(1, 2,1), Q(2,3, 1) and R (1, 0, 4).

3. Determine the equation of the plane

(a) parallel to the xz  plane through the point (7,8,9)
(b) containing the line x, y, z  1, 2, 4  t 4,1,11 and perpendicular to
x, y, z  4,15,8  m 2,3, 1 .

Solutions:
1. Using P(5, 2, 4) and N  i  2 j  3k , we have that
1( x  5)  2( y  2)  3( z  4)  0  x  2 y  3z  13 or x  2 y  3z  13  0.

2. The vector PQ  3i  j  2k and QR  3i  3 j  5k lie on the plane and are therefore
perpendicular to
i j k
N  PQ  QR  3 1 2   i  9 j  6 k .
3 3 5

37
Using any point on the plane, say P , and N we get

( x  1)  9( y  2)  6( z  1)  0   x  9 y  6 z  23.

Check that each of the given points on this plane satisfies the equation of the plane.

3. (a) The xz  plane has normal vector perpendicular to both the x  and the z  plane. One
possible normal vector is N  j so that

0( x  7)  1( y  8)  0( z  9)  0  y  8

is the equation of the plane.

(b) The line contained in the plane passes through the point (1, 2, 4) in that plane. Since

the plane is perpendicular to the line x, y, z  4,15,8  m 2,3, 1 , the direction vector

2i  3 j  k is normal to the plane. Thus, the required equation of the plane is

2( x  1)  3( y  2)  ( z  4)  0  2 x  3 y  z  4

We now consider the distance between a point in space and a plane. Suppose we have any
point S ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) in space and a plane |P, which passes through the point P( x0 , y0 , z0 ).

Then, the distance between S and |P, is the length of W , i.e.

PS N A( x1  x0 )  B( y1  y0 )  C ( z1  z0 )
d  ProjN PS  
|N| A2  B 2  C 2
Ax1  By1  Cz1   Ax0  By0  Cz0 

A2  B 2  C 2
Ax1  By1  Cz1  D
 ,
A2  B 2  C 2
where D  Ax0  By0  Cz0 .

38
Example 4.2.11

Find the distance between the plane 2 x  y  3z  6 and the point (3,5, 7).

Solution:

Ax1  By1  Cz1  D

d
A2  B 2  C 2
2(3)  1(5)  3(7)  6

22  (1) 2  32
26
 .
14

Intersection of Lines and Planes in Space

Given a line and plane in space, there are three possibilities for their intersection:

1. The line and the plane intersect at only one point.

2. The line lies on the plane.

3. The line is parallel to the plane implying that the line and the plane do not intersect.

In this case, we can find the distance between the line and the plane. This can be found by
choosing any point on the line and then use the formula for finding the distance between a point
and a plane.

39
Example 4.2.12

1. Discuss the intersection of the following planes and lines:

(a) |P: 9 x  13 y  2 z  29

x 5 y 5 z 2
L:  
2 5 3

(b) |P: x  3 y  4 z  10

L : x  4  6t
y  7  2t
z  1  3t

(c) |P: 4 x  y  11z  1

L : x, y, z  2, 4,1  t 3,1, 1

2. Find the distance between any line and plane that are parallel from question 1.

Solutions:

1. (a) From the equation of L , we have that x  5  2t , y  5  5t , z  2  3t implying that

9  5  2t   13  5  5t   2  2  3t   29
 45  18t  65  65t  4  6t  29
 53t  53
 t  1

Therefore, the line and the plane intersects at the point

x  5  2t  5  2(1)  3
y  5  5t  5  5(1)  0
z  2  3t  2  3(1)  1

(b) x  3 y  4 z  10  4  6t  3  7  2t   4 1  3t   10

 4  6t  21  6t  4  12t  10
 0t  31

Since there is no value of t that make the above equation true, the line and the plane do not
intersect. In fact, N v  1(6)  3(2)  4(3)  0 implying that the line and the plane are parallel.

40
(c) 4 x  y  11z  1  4(2  3t )  (4  t )  11(1  t )  1

 8  12t  4  t  11  11t  1
 0t  0.

Since the equation above is true for all values of t , the line lies on the plane. Also note that

N v  4(3)  1(1)  11(1)  0.

2. Only part (b) has a line and plane that are parallel. The point (4, 7,1) lie on the line and

N  1,3, 4

Ax1  By1  Cz1  D

d
A2  B 2  C 2
1(4)  3(7)  4(1)  10

12  32  (4) 2
31
 .
26

Intersection of Two Planes in Space

Given two planes in space, their normal can tell whether they are parallel or they intersect.
Usually, there are three possible geometric models for the intersection of planes in space.

1. If two distinct planes intersect, the solution is the set of points that lie on the line of
intersection.

2. If the planes are coincident, then every point on the plane is a solution.
3. If the planes are parallel, then there is no solution.

Example 4.2.13
Describe how the planes in each pair intersect:

(1) |P1: 2 x  y  z  1  0, |P2 : x  y  z  6  0

(2) |P1: 2 x  6 y  4 z  7  0, |P2 : 3x  9 y  6 z  2  0

(3) |P1: x  y  2 z  2  0, |P2 : 2 x  2 y  4 z  4  0

41
Solutions:

(1) Using their normals N1  2i  j  k and N 2  i  j  k , we observe that the planes are not
parallel. Using elimination method, we get

2 x  y  z  1  0

x  y  x  6  0
x  2 y   0  x  2 y  5.

Let y  t. Then x  2t  5  z  1  t  2(5  2t )  11  3t

 The intersection of |P1 and |P2 is the line

x  5 y  0 z  11
L:  
2 1 3

(2) 2 x  6 y  4 z  7  0 3

3x  9 y  6 z  2  0  2

 6 x  18 y  12 z  21  0

6 x  18 y  12 z  4  0
 17  0

 There is no solution and so the planes are distinct and parallel.

Also, observe that N1  2i  6 j  4k , N 2  3i  9 j  6k  N 2  32 N1

 |P1 and |P2 are parallel.

(3) Clearly, |P2  2|P1 and

2 x  y  2 x  2  0

 2x  2 y  4x  4  0
00

 The planes |P1 and |P2 are coincident.

42
4.2.3 Vector-Valued Functions

We extend the theory of vector-valued function in the plane to the three-dimensional case.

Definition 4.2.6

Let f1 , f 2 and f 3 be functions of the real variable t defined on D, a subset of . We define

a vector-valued function, R of a real variable t by

R(t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f 3 (t )k .

More generally, a vector function or vector-valued function on a domain set D is a rule that
assigns a vector in space to each element in D. If f1 , f 2 and f 3 are continuous functions over

D, then as t varies over D, the set of points traced out by R is called a curve in space.

Example 4.2.14
Sketch the curve

R(t )  (cos t )i  (sin t ) j  tk

for all values of t .

Solution:

The parametric equations for R are

x  cos t , y  sin t , z  t

In the xy  plane, we have that x 2  y 2  1. Since z  t increases as t increases, the curve is a

spiral that climbs up the side of the circular cylinder x 2  y 2  1.

Each time t increases by 2 , the curve completes one turn around the cylinder. This curve is
called a helix.
43
Definition 4.2.7

If R(t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f3 (t )k , and if lim f1 (t ), lim f 2 (t ) and lim f3 (t ) exist, then

t t0 t t0 t t0

  
lim R(t )  lim f1 (t ) i  lim f3 (t ) j  lim f3 (t ) k
t t0 t t0 t t0   t t0 
Definition 4.2.8

If R(t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f3 (t )k , then

d
dt
 R(t )   R(t )  lim
t 
0
f1 ( t t )  f1 ( t )
t  
i  lim
t  0
f 2 ( t t )  f 2 ( t )
t  j   lim
t  0
f3 ( t t )  f3 ( t )
t k
 f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f 3 (t )k

Example 4.2.15

1. Find lim R (t ) if R(t )  (cos t )i  (sin t ) j  tk .

t 4

d
2. Given that R(t )  (sin t cos t )i  (cos 2 t ) j  (sin t )k ,  R(t )  .
dt

Solutions:


1. lim R(t )   lim (cos t )  i  lim (sin t )  j   lim t  k 
2 2
i j  k.
t 4  4
t    4 t    4  t  2 2 4

 R(t )   R(t )   cos 2 t  sin 2 t  i   2sin t cos t  j  (cos t )k

d
2.
dt

Definition 4.2.9

Suppose that R has a continuous derivative in the interval [t0 , b] and suppose that for every
t in [t0 , b],
t

t0
R( ) d

exists, then the arc length of the curve R(t ) in the interval [t0 , t1 ] is given by
t1
s   R( ) d ,
t0

where t0  t  t1.

44
Theorem 4.2.5

Let R have a continuous derivative and let T (t ) and s (t ) denote the unit tangent vector and
arc length respectively.

R(t )
(i) If R(t )  0, T (t ) 
R(t )
ds
(ii)  R(t )
dt
dR
(iii) T 
ds

Example 4.2.16
Let R(t )  (cos t )i  (sin t ) j  tk .


1. Calculate T (t ) at t  .
3
2. Find the arc length from t  0 to t  4.
Solution:

1. R(t )  ( sin t )i  (cos t ) j  k  R(t )  ( sin t ) 2  (cos t ) 2  1  2

R(t ) 1
 T (t )    (cos t )i  (sin t ) j  tk 
R(t ) 2

At t  ,
3
R(t ) 1 3 1 1
 T ( 3 )    ( sin ( 3 ))i  (cos ( 3 )) j  k    i j k.
R(t ) 2 2 2 2 2 2
t1 4
2. s   R( ) d   R( ) d
t0 0
4
 2 d
0

4 2

Definition 4.2.10

If R(t ) is the position vector of a body moving along a smooth curve in space and that R (t )
and R(t ) exist, then

(i) v(t )  R(t ) is called the velocity vector

(ii) a(t )  R(t ) is called the acceleration vector
(iii) the speed of the body is the magnitude of the velocity vector
(iv) the acceleration scalar is the magnitude of the acceleration vector.

45
Example 4.2.17
Find the velocity, acceleration, speed and acceleration scalar of an object whose position
vector is given by R(t )  (cos t )i  (sin t ) j  t 3k .

Solutions:

v(t )  R(t )  ( sin t )i  (cos t ) j  (3t 2 )k

a (t )  R(t )  (  cos t )i  (sin t ) j  (6t ) k
Speed | v | ( sin t ) 2  (cos t ) 2  (3t 2 ) 2  1  9t 4
acceleration scalar | a |  ( cos t ) 2  ( sin t ) 2  (6t ) 2  1  36t 2

Definition 4.2.11

The indefinite integral of R(t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f3 (t )k with respect to t is the set of all

antiderivatives of R (t ), denoted by  R(t ) dt. If S (t ) is any antiderivative of R (t ), then
 R(t ) dt  S (t )  C
provided that the indefinite integrals  f (t ) dt,  f (t ) dt
1 2 and  f (t ) dt exist.
3

Note: Definition 4.2.11 implies that we can also evaluate the definite integral of R(t ) from
t  a to t  b.
Example 4.2.17

dR
The velocity of an object moving in space is   cos t  i   sin t  j  k . Find the object's
dt
position as a function of t if R  2i  k when t  0.
Solution:

dR
Since   cos t  i   sin t  j  k , we have that
dt

R(t )    cos t dt  i    sin t dt  j    dt  k

  sin t  c1  i   cos t  c2  j  (t  c3 )k
 (sin t )i  (cos t ) j  tk  C ,

where C  c1i  c2 j  c3k . Using the initial vector R (0)  2i  k , we get

2i  k  (sin 0)i  (cos 0) j  0k  C  C  2i  j  k .

The object's position as a function of t is

R(t )  (sin t  2)i  (cos t  1) j  (t  1)k

46
Definition 4.2.12

If R has a continuous derivative, then the curvature of R , denoted , is given by

dT T (t )
  .
ds R(t )

In terms of velocity and acceleration vectors,

v (t )  a (t )
 3
.
v (t )

Definition 4.2.13

For any value of t for which   0, the principle unit normal vector , is defined by

1 dT 1 T (t ) T (t )
  . 
 (t ) ds  (t ) R(t ) T (t )

and it is orthogonal to T (t ).

Definition 4.2.13

The binomial vector , to the curve R is defined by

  T  .
Example 4.2.18

Given that R(t )  (a cos t )i  (a sin t ) j  (bt )k , find T ,  ,  and .

Solutions:

Using Definition 4.2.12, we get

R(t )  (a sin t )i  (a cos t ) j  bk  R(t )  ( a sin t ) 2  ( a cos t ) 2  b 2  a 2  b 2

R(t ) 1
 T (t )    (a sin t )i  (a cos t ) j  bk 
R(t ) a 2  b2
dT 1
 T (t )   (a cos t )i  (a sin t ) j  0k 
dt a 2  b2
a2 a
 T (t )  
a b
2 2
a 2  b2
T (t ) a a
  (t )    a 2  b2  2
R(t ) a 2  b2 a  b2

47
We can also Definition 4.2.13 to find  .

v(t )  R(t )  (a sin t )i  (a cos t ) j  bk and a(t )  R(t )  (a cos t )i  (a sin t ) j  0k

i j k
v(t )  a (t )  a sin t a cos t b  (ab sin t )i  (ab cos t ) j  a 2 k
a cos t a sin t 0

 v(t )  a (t )  (ab sin t ) 2  (ab cos t ) 2   a 2   a 2b 2  a 4  a a 2  b 2

2

 .
3
| v(t ) |  R(t )  a 2  b 2 | v(t ) |3  a 2  b2

v(t )  a (t ) a a 2  b2 a
  (t )    .
  a  b2
3 3 2
v(t ) a 2  b2

1
 (a cos t )i  (a sin t ) j  0k 
T (t ) a  b2
2 1
 (t )     (a cos t )i  (a sin t ) j  0k  ,
T (t ) a a
a  b2
2

i.e.  (t )  ( cos t )i  (sin t ) j  0k .

Using T (t ) and  (t ), we get

i j k
a sin t a cos t b  b sin t   b cos t   a 
 T     i   2  j k
a 2  b2 a2  b2 a2  b2  a 2  b2   a b 
2
 a b
2 2

 cos t  sin t 0

Check that T (t ) and  (t ) are orthogonal and (t ) is orthogonal to both T (t ) and  (t ).

Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration

dR dR ds ds
Recall that v   . T and differentiating both sides gives
dt ds dt dt

dv d  ds  d 2 s dT ds d 2 s ds  dT ds 
a  T   2 T  .  2T  . 
dt dt  dt  dt dt dt dt dt  ds dt 
d 2s ds  ds  1 dT
 2 T   ..  , since  
dt dt  dt   ds
2
d 2s  ds 
 T     .
 dt 
2
dt

48
 2
d 2s d  ds 
If we let aT   | v | and a       | v |2 , we have that
 dt 
2
dt dt

a  aT T  a .

aT and a are called the tangential and normal scalar components of acceleration
respectively. It follows that | a |2  a a  aT 2  a 2  a  | a |2 aT 2 . It can also be shown
that

v(t ) a(t ) v(t )  a(t )

aT  and a  . (4.9)
v(t ) v(t )

Example 4.2.19

Without finding T and , write the acceleration of

R(t )   cos t  t sin t  i   sin t  t cos t  j, t  0

in the form a  aT T  a .

Solution:

dR
v  ( sin t  t cos t  sin t )i  (cos t  t sin t  cos t ) j  (t cos t )i  (t sin t ) j
dt
d
| v |  t 2 (cos 2 t  sin 2 t )  t  aT  | v |  1.
dt
dv
a  (t sin t  cos t )i  (t cos t  sin t ) j
dt
| a |2  a a  (t sin t  cos t ) 2  (t cos t  sin t ) 2
 t 2 sin 2 t  2t sin t cos t  cos 2 t  t 2 cos 2 t  2t sin t cos t  sin 2 t
 t2 1
 a  | a |2 aT 2  t 2  1  1  t
a  aT T  a   T  t .

The same results are obtained when equations (4.9) are used.

THE END!

49