Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

Chapter Two

Network Transform Representation and analysis

In this chapter we will apply our knowledge of differential equations to the analysis of

linear, passive, time-invariant networks. We will assume the students are already familiar

with Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws, and with methods for writing mesh and node

equations for AC or DC circuits as well as theorems to analyze different RLC networks.

We will therefore, consider only briefly the problem of writing mesh and node equations

when the independent variable is time t.

The problems in this chapter have the following formats: Given an excitation signal from

an energy source and the network, a specified response that is a current or voltage in the

network is to be determined. When relating these problems, we shall see that the network

is described by the differential equation, and the unknown variable 𝑥(𝑡) is the response.

To encounter these problems, we must first write the differential problems of the network

using Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws. Next, we must solve these equations for a

specified current or voltage in the network. Here it is also important to consider initial

conditions in solving the resulting differential equations.

2.1 Analysis of First and Second Order Circuits

2.1.1 Voltage – current relationships of R, L, and C Elements in Time-domain

In this section, we will discuss the voltage-current (𝑣 − 𝑖) relationships that exist for the

basic network elements. We will start our discussion with review of 𝑣 − 𝑖 relationships

for the resistor, the inductor, and capacitor.

Resistor

The resistor shown in Fig. 2.1 defines a linear proportionality relationship between 𝑣(𝑡)

and 𝑖(𝑡), namely,

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡)
1
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐺𝑣(𝑡), 𝐺 =
𝑅

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Where 𝑅 is given in ohms and 𝐺 in mhos.

Fig. 2.1: resistor

Capacitor

For the capacitor shown in Fig. 2.2a the 𝑣 − 𝑖 relationships are

𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣𝐶 (0−)
𝐶 0−
Where 𝐶 is given in farads. The initial value 𝑣𝐶 (0−) is the voltage across the capacitor just

before the switching action. It can be regarded as an independent voltage source, as

shown in Fig. 2.2b. We should point out also that 𝑣𝐶 (0 −) = 𝑣𝐶 (0+) for all excitations

except impulses and derivatives of impulses.

Fig. 2.2 (a) Capacitor. (b) Capacitor with initial voltage

The inductor in Fig. 2.3a describes a dual relationship between voltage and current when

compared to a capacitor. The 𝑣 − 𝑖 relationships are

𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

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1 𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖𝐿 (0−)
𝐿 0−
Where 𝐿 is given in henrys. The initial current 𝑖𝐿 (0−) can be regarded as an independent

current source, as shown in Fig. 2.3b. as it is true for the voltage across a capacitor, the

current through the inductor is similarly continuous for all 𝑡, except in the case of impulse

excitations.

Fig. 2.3: (a) Inductor. (b) Inductor with initial current

When the network elements are interconnected, the resulting v-I equations are

integrodifferential equations relating the excitation (voltage or current sources) to the

response (voltages and currents of the elements). The equations could be written by using

either the mesh or nodal analysis methods.

2.1.2. Differential Equations

To study the transients in electric circuits, it is necessary to be familiar with the

mathematical concept of differential equations and the solution techniques. The order of

the differential equation represents the highest derivative involved and is equal to the

number of energy storing elements. A circuit containing an inductor L or a capacitor C,

and resistors will have current and voltage variables given by linear first order

differential equation with constant coefficients when the values of R, L, and C are

constants. Circuits having two storage elements like one inductor and one capacitor are

referred to as second order circuits. Therefore, the series or parallel combination of R and

L or R and C are first order circuits and RLC in series and RLC in parallel are typical

examples of second order circuits. As the differential equation contains no partial

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derivatives, it is considered as ordinary. Hence, in this chapter we will be dealing with

linear, ordinary, differential equations (LODE) with constant coefficients.

Type I (First Order Homogeneous Differential Equations)

 General form 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) where 𝑃 is a constant

+ 𝑃𝑦(𝑡) = 0,
𝑑𝑡
 General solution 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑒 −𝑃𝑡 where K is constant

If the constant 𝐾 is evaluated, the solution is a particular solution.

Type II (First Order Non-homogeneous Differential Equations)

 General form 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)

+ 𝑃𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑄
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑃 is a constant and 𝑄 may be a function of independent variable t or a constant

 General solution 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑃𝑡 ∫ 𝑄𝑒 𝑃𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑒 −𝑃𝑡 where 𝐾 is constant

First term of the above solution is known as the particular integral; while the second is

known as the complementary function. Note that the particular integral does not contain

the arbitrary constant, and the complementary function does not depend on the forcing

function 𝑄.

If 𝑄 is constant, then
𝑒 𝑃𝑡 𝑄
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑃𝑡 . 𝑄. + 𝐾𝑒 −𝑃𝑡 = + 𝐾𝑒 −𝑃𝑡
𝑃 𝑃
Type III (Second Order Homogeneous Differential Equations)

 General form 𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)

𝐴 2
+𝐵 + 𝐶𝑦(𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 General solution 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾1 𝑒 𝑃1 𝑡 + 𝐾2 𝑒 𝑃2 𝑡

Where 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 are constants. And 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are the roots of quadratic equation
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝐴𝑃2 + 𝐵𝑃 + 𝐶 = 0, letting 𝑃 = and are given by
𝑑𝑡

−𝐵 ± √𝐵 2 − 4𝐴𝐶
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 =
2𝐴
If 𝑃1 , = 𝑃2 , roots of the quadratic equation are repeated and the general solution becomes,
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾1 𝑒 𝑃1 𝑡 + 𝐾2 . 𝑡. 𝑒 𝑃1 𝑡

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Roots complex (  j): Solution

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 (𝐶 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝐷 sin 𝛽𝑡)
Type IV (Second Order Non-homogeneous Differential Equations)

The second-order, constant coefficient, linear, inhomogeneous differential

equation is an equation of the type:

 General form 𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)

𝐴 2
+𝐵 + 𝐶𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 General solution 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑡) = 𝐾1 𝑒 𝑃1 𝑡 + 𝐾2 𝑒 𝑃2 𝑡 + 𝑦2 (𝑡)

The solution is in two parts 𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑡):

(a) part 1, 𝑦1 is the solution to the homogeneous equation and is called the

complementary function which is the solution to the homogeneous equation

(b) part 2, 𝑦2 is called the particular integral.

The general form assumed for the particular integral depends upon the form of

the right-hand side of the inhomogeneous equation. The following table can be

used as a guide:
𝑓(𝑡) Trial solution (𝑦(𝑡))
𝑘 𝐶
𝑘𝑡 𝐶𝑡 + 𝐷
𝑎𝑡 𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑘 𝐶𝑡 𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝐷𝑡 + 𝐸
𝑘 sin 𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 cos 𝑡 𝐶 sin 𝑡 + 𝐷 cos 𝑡
𝑘 sinh 𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 cosh 𝑡 𝐶 sinh 𝑡 + 𝐷 cosh 𝑡
𝑒 𝑘𝑡 𝐶𝑒 𝑘𝑡
2.1.3. Initial and Final Conditions in Circuits

We need initial conditions to evaluate the arbitrary constants in the general solution of

differential equations. The number of initial conditions required is equal to the order of

the differential equations for a unique solution.

Procedure to Evaluate the Initial Conditions

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The first step in determining the initial conditions is to draw the equivalent circuit at 𝑡 =

0+ based on the element given in Table 2.1. The next step is to evaluate the initial values

of the voltages and current of all the branches. After that, the derivatives at 𝑡 = 0+ are

evaluated. Initial values of current and voltage may be found directly from a study of the

network schematic. For each element in the network, we must determine just what will

happen when the switching action takes place. From this analysis, a new schematic of an

equivalent network for 𝑡 = 0+ may be constructed according to these rules:

 Replace all inductors with open circuits or with current generators having the

value of current flowing at 𝑡 = 0+ .

 Replace all capacitors with short circuits or with voltage sources having the value
𝑞0
𝑉0 = if there is an initial charge, 𝑞0 .
𝐶

 Resistors are left in the network without change.

Table 2.1: The equivalent circuit for the three parameters (R, L, & C) at 𝑡 = 0+ and 𝑡 = ∞.

Element with initial conditions Equivalent circuit at 𝑡 = 0+ Equivalent circuit at 𝑡 = ∞

OC- open circuit SC- short circuit

2.1.4. Various Responses

Transient response: (Transient means short lived)

The values of voltages and current during the transient period are known as the transient

responses. It is also defined as the part of the total time response that goes to zero as time

becomes large. It depends upon the network elements alone and independent of the

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forcing function. The complementary function is the solution of the differential equation

with forcing function set to zero and hence, the complementary function represents the

source-free response or simply free response or natural response or transient response.

Steady State Response:

The value of voltage and current after the transient has died out are known as the steady-

state response. It is also defined as the part of the total time response which remains after

the transient has passed. It depends on both the network elements and forcing function.

The particular integral represents the forced response or steady state response. It satisfies

the different equation but not the initial condition.

Note: The complete or total response of a network is the sum of the transient

response and the steady state response or the sum of the natural and forced

response.

Zero Input Response:

The values of voltage and current that result from initial conditions when the excitation

or forcing function is zero are known as zero input response.

Zero State Response:

The value of voltage and current for an excitation which is applied when all initial

conditions are zero are known as zero state response. Such a network is also said to be at

rest or initially relaxed.

Step and Impulse Response

Given a network with zero initial energy, we are required to solve for a specified response

(current or voltage) due to a given excitation function 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝛿(𝑡), which either can be a

current or a voltage source. If the excitation is a step of voltage, the physical analogy is

that of a switch closing at time 𝑡 = 0, which connects a 1v battery to a circuit. The physical

analogy of an impulse excitation is that of a very short (compared to the time constants

of the circuit) pulse with large amplitude. By definition the integral of impulse response

is step response.
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Fig. 2.3:

Considering the circuit of Fig. 2.3, the differential equation of the circuit becomes;
1 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝐶 0−
Assuming, 𝑣𝐶 (0− ) = 0 and substituting 𝑥 ′ (𝑡) for 𝑖(𝑡) in the above equation;
1
𝛿(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑥 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡)
𝐶
The characteristic equation becomes,
1
𝐻(𝑃) = 𝑅𝑃 +
𝐶
1
With initial condition (0+ ) = 𝑅 , and solving this characteristic equation results in,

1 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑅
so that,
1 1 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
𝑖(𝑡) = [𝛿(𝑡) − 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡)]
𝑅 𝑅𝐶
We thus arrive at the current impulse response 𝑖(𝑡) as the result of an impulse voltage

excitation. In the process we have also obtained the step response 𝑥(𝑡) since by definition

the derivative of the step response is the impulse response. This result can also be checked

by replacing the impulse excitation in Fig.2.3 by a step excitation of voltage.

1. Find the current 𝑖(𝑡) for the network in Fig. 2.4, when the voltage source is 𝑒(𝑡) =

2𝑒 −0.5𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) and 𝑉𝐶 (0− ) = 0.

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Fig. 2.4

2. For the R-C network in Fig. 2.5 with excitation given by 𝑖𝑔 (𝑡) = (𝐼0 sin 𝜔0 𝑡)𝑢(𝑡),

find the voltage 𝑣(𝑡) across the capacitor: it is given that 𝑣(0− ) = 𝑣𝐶 (0− ).

Fig. 2.5

3. The circuit shown in Fig. 2.6, is in the steady state with the switch S closed. The

switch is opened at 𝑡 = 0. Determine 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) in the circuit.

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Fig. 2.6

4. In the network of Fig. 2.7, the switch S is thrown from position 1 to position 2 at 𝑡 =

0. Find 𝑖1 (𝑡) and 𝑖2 (𝑡) after the switch position changes.

Fig. 2.7

5. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, capacitor C has an initial voltage 𝑉𝐶 = 10𝑣 and at

the same instant, current through inductor L is zero. The switch K is closed at

time 𝑡 = 0. Find out the expression for the voltage 𝑣(𝑡) across the inductor L using

differential equation formulation.

Fig. 2.8

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2.2 Network Functions

As we have discussed in Chapter one, the word port has special meaning. It is a pair of

terminals in which the current into one terminal is equal to the current out of the other.

The port at which the input/excitation is given is called driving point or input port. The

port at which output is taken is called output port. If the network has only driving port,

it is called one-port network and if the network has input and output ports, then it is

called two-port network. In Fig. 2.9, a general two-port network and a standard

convention adopted in the designation of voltages and currents are shown. It is also

discussed that a one port network is completely specified when a voltage-current

relationship at the terminals of the port is given. The four variables (𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝑉1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2) of

the two-port network, taken two at a time, results in six set of equations that describe the

two-port network. These equations are called network functions.

A network function is defined as the ratio of the zero-state response to the input, where

both the response and the input expressed in Laplace domain, i.e.

𝑅(𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) =
𝐸(𝑠)

where 𝑠 the Laplace variable is the complex frequency variable 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔. Two sets of

network functions can be defined:

1. Driving point functions

2. Transfer functions.

These are defined and illustrated by using the network shown in Fig. 2.9.

Fig. 2.9: Network used to define network functions

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1. Deriving-point functions

If the excitation and the response are measured at the same set of terminals (terminal 1-

1’, or 2-2’), the network function is called driving point function. There are two driving

point functions: impedance and admittance.

𝑉1 (𝑠)
𝑍𝑑𝑝 = (Deriving point impedance)
𝐼1 (𝑠)
𝐼1 (𝑠)
𝑌𝑑𝑝 = (Deriving point admittance)
𝑉1 (𝑠)
Because of the similarity of impedance and admittance, these two quantities are assigned

one name “Immitance” (a combination of impedance and admittance). From the two

relations, we can observe that the reciprocal of a driving point function is another driving

point function.

2. Transfer function

If the excitation and response are measured at different sets of terminals, then the

corresponding network function is called a transfer function. In two port network, this

transfer function is the ratio of output quantity to input quantity. On the other hand the

ratio of input quantity to the output quantity is termed as inverse transfer function.

V2 (s) (Transfer impedance) V1 (s) Inverse transfer impedance

Z21 (s) = Z12 (s) =
I1 (s) I2 (s)
I2 (s) (Transfer admittance) I1 (s) Inverse transfer admittance
Y21 (s) = Y12 (s) =
V1 (s) V2 (s)
V2 (s) (Transfer voltage ratio) V1 (s) Inverse transfer voltage ratio
G21 (s) = G12 (s) =
V1 (s) V2 (s)
I2 (s) (Transfer current ratio) I1 (s) Inverse transfer current ratio
α21 (s) = α12 (s) =
I1 (s) I2 (s)
It can be observed from the definition of DP and transfer functions that for an impedance

function, excitation is a current source and response a voltage, and for an admittance

function excitation a voltage source and response a current. For simple networks DP

function can be obtained by inspection.

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Exercises

1. Find the impedance and admittance for some simple networks containing,

A. Series B. Parallel

i) 𝑅−𝐿 i) 𝑅−𝐿

ii) 𝑅−𝐶 ii) 𝑅−𝐶

iii) 𝐿 − 𝐶 iii) 𝐿 − 𝐶

iv) 𝑅 − 𝐿 − 𝐶 iv) 𝑅 − 𝐿 − 𝐶

2. Find the deriving-point impedance and admittance functions for the following

network

2.3. Important definitions and mathematical representations

2.3.1. Poles and zeros of rational function (Laplace domain)

We have seen that network functions are rational functions of 𝑠, and the generalized

network function can be written as:

𝑁(𝑠) 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛

𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝐷(𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑚

By factorizing each polynomial, the above function can be written as:

𝑁(𝑠) 𝑎0 (𝑠 − 𝑧1 )(𝑠 − 𝑧2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑛 )
𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝐷(𝑠) 𝑏0 (𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚 )

Where 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 … 𝑧𝑛 are 𝑛 roots of the polynomial 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 . . . 𝑝𝑚 are 𝑚 roots of the

polynomial 𝐷(𝑠). The roots of polynomial 𝑁(𝑠) are called zeros whereas the roots of the

polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) are called poles. In complex frequency domain, a zero is denoted by a

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small circle and a pole by a cross. From the above equation, 𝐻(𝑠) becomes zero when s is

equal to any of the zeros and 𝐻(𝑠) becomes infinite when s is equal to any of the poles.

When the degree of 𝑁(𝑠) is greater than the degree of 𝐷(𝑠), then 𝐻(𝑠) goes to

infinite as s goes to infinity; and hence, 𝐻(𝑠) is said to have pole at infinity.

Similarly, when the degree of 𝑁(𝑠) is less than the degree of 𝐷(𝑠), then 𝐻(𝑠) goes

to zero as s goes to infinity; and hence, 𝐻(𝑠) is said to have zero at infinity.

Poles and zeros at 𝑠 = 0 and 𝑠 = ∞ are called external critical frequencies, and

other poles and zeros are called internal critical frequencies.

𝐻(𝑠) is said to have simple poles and zeros when the poles and zeros are not

repetitive, otherwise the network function may have multiple poles and zeros.

𝐻(𝑠) can have three types of critical frequencies (poles and zeros)

 Poles and zeros at 𝒔 = 𝟎 and 𝒔 = ∞

 Poles and zeros at real frequency (𝜎). These poles and zeros have the form of

(𝑠 + 𝜎1 ) during factorization.

 Poles and zeros at complex frequency (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔). These poles and zeros have

the form of (𝑠 − 𝜎1 − 𝑗𝜔) during factorization. For network functions, these

complex poles and zeros exist in conjugates so that the product of these terms

[(𝑠 − 𝜎1 − 𝑗𝜔)(𝑠 − 𝜎1 + 𝑗𝜔)] gives the term (𝑠 2 − 2 𝜎1 𝑠 + 𝜎12 + 𝜔2 ).

 For poles and zeros on the 𝑗𝜔 – 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝜎 is zero so that the above term is reduced

to (𝑠 2 + 𝜔2 ).

Example 1

1. Find pole-zero plot for the following transfer function

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2. Find the pole-zero plot for a transfer function is given by

3𝑠(𝑠 + 4)
𝑍(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1)

2.3.2. Partial fraction expansion and residues

Consider the general network function.

𝑁(𝑠) 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛

𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝐷(𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑚

When the denominator polynomial is factorized, 𝐻(𝑠) can be written as:

𝑁(𝑠) 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛

𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝐷(𝑠) 𝑏0 (𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚 )

Partial fraction expansion is done by breaking up H(s) in to sum of smaller functions each

containing a pole. The partial fraction expansion of H(s) is given as

𝑁(𝑠) 𝐾0 𝐾1 𝐾𝑚
𝐻(𝑠) = = + +⋯+
𝐷(𝑠) 𝑠 − 𝑝0 𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚
In the case of passive network functions, degree of the numerator (𝑁(𝑠)) will not exceed

the degree of (𝐷(𝑠)) by more than one, hence the quotient polynomial will be a 1st order

or less polynomial so that 𝐻(𝑠) can be written as:

𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝐷
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐻∞ + 𝐾0 𝑠 + + + ⋯+
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝𝐷

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

𝐾𝑜 = (1/𝑠)𝑯(𝒔)|𝒔 = ∞
𝐾1 = (𝑠 − 𝑝1 )𝑯(𝒔)|𝒔 = 𝑝1
𝐾2 = (𝑠 − 𝑝2 )𝑯(𝒔)|𝒔 = 𝑝2 . . .
Where the first term is a constant and the rest are functions each of which consists of a

pole from 𝐻(𝑠). In other words, subtracting any of the functions from H(s) removes the

corresponding pole so that we say a pole is removed from H(s). The constants 𝐾𝑖 are

called residues of the poles. The term 𝐾0 𝑠 exists only if 𝐻(𝑠) has a pole at infinity.

When 𝐻(𝑠) contains 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 poles and zeros, it can be written as:

𝐾(𝑠 2 + 𝜔12 )(𝑠 2 + 𝜔32 ) … (𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝑖2 ) …

𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 𝜔22 )(𝑠 2 + 𝜔42 ) … (𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝑗2 ) …

And its partial fraction expansion will be as follows:

𝐾0 𝐾2 𝑠 𝐾4 𝑠
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑞(𝑠) + + 2 + 2 +⋯
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔2 𝑠 + 𝜔42
2

Exercise: Find partial fraction expansions of the following immitance functions.

(𝑠+2)(𝑠+3) 2(𝑠2 +1)(𝑠2 +9)
𝐴) 𝑌(𝑠) = (𝑠+1)(𝑠+3) 𝐵) 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠2 +4)

2.3.3. Necessary conditions for deriving point immittance function (with

common factors in 𝑵(𝒔) and 𝑫(𝒔) cancelled)

1. The coefficients in the polynomials 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) must be real and positive.

2. Poles and zeros must be conjugate if imaginary or complex.

3. The real part of all poles and zeros must be negative or zero, if the real part is zero,

then that pole or zero must be simple. i.e. all the roots of 𝑁(𝑠) = 0 and 𝐷(𝑠) = 0 lie

on the left half of s-plane and simple roots may lie on the imaginary or 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

4. The polynomials 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) may not have missing terms between those of

highest and lowest degrees, unless all even or all odd terms are missing.

5. The highest degree of 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) may differ by either zero or one only.

6. The lowest degree of 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) may differ by either zero or one only.

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

Example: Check whether the following functions are suitable for representing the

driving point immitance functions or not.

4𝑠4 +𝑠2 −3𝑠+1

i. 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑠3 +2𝑠2 +2𝑠+40 No; one coefficient is missing and one is negative.
15(𝑠3 +2𝑠2 +3𝑠+4)
ii. 𝑌(𝑠) = No; the lowest degrees of 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) differ by two.
𝑠4 +8𝑠3 +6𝑠2

𝑠2 +𝑠+2
iii. 𝑍(𝑠) = 2𝑠2 +𝑠+1, Yes; all conditions are satisfied.

2.3.4. Necessary conditions for transfer functions (with common factors in 𝑵(𝒔)

and 𝑫(𝒔) cancelled)

1. The coefficients in the polynomials 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) must be real and those for 𝐷(𝑠)

must be positive.

2. Poles and zeros must be conjugate if imaginary or complex.

3. The real part of poles must be negative or zero, if the real part is zero, then that

pole must be simple. This includes the origin.

4. The polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) may not have any missing term between that of highest and

lowest degrees, unless all even or all odd terms are missing.

5. The polynomial 𝑁(𝑠) may have terms missing, and some of the coefficients may

be negative.

6. The degree of 𝑁(𝑠) may be as small as zero independent of the degree of 𝐷(𝑠).

7. (a) For 𝐺 and 𝛼: the maximum degree of 𝑁(𝑠) is equal to the degree of 𝐷(𝑠). (b) For

𝑍 and 𝑌: the maximum degree of 𝑁(𝑠) is equal to the degree of 𝐷(𝑠) plus one.

Example: check whether the following functions are suitable in representing the transfer

functions or not.

3𝑠+2
i. 𝐺21 (𝑠) = 5𝑠3 +4𝑠2 +1, No; coefficient is missing in the polynomial 𝐷(𝑠).
2𝑠2 +5𝑠+1
ii. 𝛼21 (𝑠) = , No; the degree of 𝑁(𝑠) is greater than 𝐷(𝑠).
𝑠+7
1
iii. 𝑍21 (𝑠) = 𝑠3 +2𝑠, Yes; all conditions are satisfied.

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

2𝑠2 +5
iv. 𝐺21 (𝑠) = 3𝑠2 +9𝑠+1, Yes; all conditions are satisfied.

2.4. Time Response, Frequency Response and Bode Plotting

2.4.1. Time domain response from pole-zero plot

The time-domain response can be obtained from the pole-zero plot of a network function.

Consider network function given by

𝑁(𝑠) (𝑠 − 𝑧1 )(𝑠 − 𝑧2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑛 )
𝐻(𝑠) = =𝐾
𝐷(𝑠) (𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚 )

Where, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 are the zeros and 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑚 are the poles of the function 𝐻(𝑠).

Assume that the poles and zeros are distinct. Hence, using partial fraction expansion,

𝐻(𝑠) can be written as,

𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑚
𝐻(𝑠) = + + ⋯+
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚
Where a particular coefficient 𝐾𝑖 can be found as follows.
𝐾𝑖 = [(𝑠 − 𝑝𝑖 )𝐻(𝑠)]𝑠=𝑝𝑖 ; 𝑖 = 0,1, … , 𝑚

or (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑧1 )(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑧2 ) … (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑧𝑛 )

𝐾𝑖 = 𝐾
(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝1 )(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑖−1 )(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑖+1 ) … (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑚 )
Here, 𝑝𝑖 , 𝑧𝑛 and 𝑝𝑚 are complex numbers and factors like (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑧𝑛 ) and (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑚 ) in the

above equation which are the difference between two complex numbers are also complex

number. Hence, a complex number (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑧1 ) is the directed line from 𝑧1 to 𝑝𝑖 and the

complex number (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑧2 ) is the directed line from 𝑧2 to 𝑝𝑖 etc. Similarly, the complex

number (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝1 ) will be directed line from 𝑝1to 𝑝𝑖 , etc.as shown in Fig. 2.11.Each line is

expressed in its polar form in magnitude and phase.

Fig. 2.11:

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𝑟 𝑟 …𝑟
Therefore, 𝐾𝑖 = 𝐾 𝑅 1𝑖𝑅 2𝑖…𝑅𝑛𝑖 ∠(𝛼1𝑖 + 𝛼2𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛𝑖 ) − (𝛽1𝑖 + 𝛽2𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝛽𝑚𝑖 ). This equation
1𝑖 2𝑖 𝑚𝑖

shows that a particular coefficient 𝐾𝑖 can be obtained from

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑖
𝐾𝑖 = 𝐾
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑖
Similarly, the other constants 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 , … , 𝐾𝑖+1 , … , 𝐾𝑚 can be calculated. The time-domain

response can be obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform.

𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑚
ℎ(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [ + + ⋯+ ]
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚
This graphical method is applicable only for all non-repeated poles.

Example: Find ℎ(𝑡) using the pole-zero diagram of the function if 𝐻(𝑠) is given by,
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
𝐻(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 18)

2.4.2. Frequency Domain response from pole-zero plot

The frequency-domain response of a network function can be obtained from its pole-zero

plot. Consider network function given by

𝑁(𝑠) (𝑠 − 𝑧1 )(𝑠 − 𝑧2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑛 )
𝐻(𝑠) = =𝐾
𝐷(𝑠) (𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚 )

Where, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 are finite zeros and 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑚 are finite poles of the function 𝐻(𝑠).

These can be simple or multiple. To calculate 𝐻(𝑠) for a specific 𝑠 = 𝑠0 as,

(𝑠0 − 𝑧1 )(𝑠0 − 𝑧2 ) … (𝑠0 − 𝑧𝑛 )
𝐻(𝑠0 ) = 𝐾
(𝑠0 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠0 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠0 − 𝑝𝑚 )
We consider the geometry as similar to the time-domain response. For example, the

geometry of the terms (𝑠0 − 𝑧1 ) is shown in Fig.2.12 in which 𝑠0 is a directed line from the

origin to 𝑠0 , and 𝑧1 is a directed line from the origin to the point 𝑧1 . Hence, the complex

numbers (𝑠0 − 𝑧1 ) is the directed line from 𝑧1 to 𝑠0, with magnitude 𝑚𝑧1 and phase 𝜃𝑧1 .

Hence, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑠0

𝐻(𝑠0 ) = 𝐾
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑠0

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Each zero line and pole line will be expressed in its polar form in magnitude and phase.

For example,

Fig.2.12

Where 𝑀 is the magnitude (length) of the line and 𝜃 is the angle (phase) measured in the

anticlockwise direction from the horizontal axis. The subscripts on 𝑀 and 𝜃 identify the

respective zero and pole lines. For the sinusoidal case we set 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔

Therefore, the magnitude of the function is given by

𝑀𝑧1 𝑀𝑧2 … 𝑀𝑧𝑛
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔0 )| =
𝑀𝑝1 𝑀𝑝2 … 𝑀𝑝𝑚

While the phase function is

𝜃(𝜔0 ) = (𝜃𝑧1 + 𝜃𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑧𝑛 ) − (𝜃𝑝1 + 𝜃𝑝2 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑝𝑚 )

A pole or zero at 𝑠 = ∞ doesn’t appear explicitly as a factor. Therefore, only finite zeros

and poles are plotted in this graphical method.

Example: Plot the poles and zeros of the following transfer function and use it to find the

magnitude and phase for 𝜔 = 0,1,3.

2𝑠
𝐻(𝑠) =
(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 8)
2.4.3. Frequency response, Angle and Magnitude of a Network function

The response given by the system when input frequency 𝜔 is changed over a certain

range is called frequency response of the system. It can be obtained by expressing the

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system function 𝐻(𝑠) in frequency domain replacing the complex variable ′𝑠′ by ′𝑗𝜔′ and

it is denoted as 𝐻(𝑗𝜔), i.e.,

𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝐻(𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗𝜔

Such a frequency domain transfer function can be expressed in the polar form as,

𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)|∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑀𝑟 ∠𝜃𝑟

Where 𝑀𝑟 −resultant magnitude which is function of 𝜔

and 𝜃𝑟 −resultant phase angle which is function of 𝜔

2.5. Bode Plotting

The scientist H.W. Bode suggested a specific method to ontain the frequency response in

which logarithmic values are used. In general, Bode plot consists of two plots:

I. Magnitude plot in which logarithmic values of 𝑀𝑟 are plotted against logarithmic

values of 𝜔.

II. Phase angle plot in which 𝜃𝑟 in degrees are plotted against logarithmic values of 𝜔.

2.5.1. Magnitude Plot

Bode suggested to express 𝑀𝑟 in decibels (dB) to plot against log10 𝜔. Such a dB value of

𝑀𝑟 can be obtained as

|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑀𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 |𝑀𝑟 |

Such dB values are obtained for various values of 𝜔 from 0 to ∞ and are plotted

against log10 𝜔. It is shown in Fig.2.13 (a).

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2.5.2. Phase Angle Plot

The ∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) or 𝜃𝑟 is obtained in degrees for various values of 𝜔 and are plotted

against log10 𝜔. The phase plot is shown in Fig.2.13 (b).

Fig.2.13

2.5.3. Standard Form of 𝑯(𝒋𝝎)

The frequency domain transfer function may be written as the ratio of polynomials as (in

time constant form)

𝐾(1 + 𝑇1 𝑗𝜔)(1 + 𝑇2 𝑗𝜔) … …

𝐻(𝑗𝜔) =
(𝑗𝜔)𝑃 (1 + 𝑇𝑎 𝑗𝜔)(1 + 𝑇𝑏 𝑗𝜔) … …

The above transfer function shows that the numerator and denominator have four basic

types of factors. They are

i. Resultant system gain 𝐾 , constant factor (when 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) is expressed in time

constant form)

ii. Poles or zeros at the origin (𝑗𝜔)±𝑃 , P = 1, 2, …

iii. Simple poles and zeros also called first order factors of the form (1 + 𝑇1 𝑗𝜔)±1

iv. Quadratic factors which cannot be factorized into real factors, of the form
±1
2𝛾 1 2
[1 + 𝑗𝜔 + 2 (𝑗𝜔) ]
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

For each factor, procedure to obtain its Bode plot can be divided into the following steps:

Step 1: Replace ′𝑠′ by ′𝑗𝜔′ to convert it to frequency domain.

Step 2: Find its magnitude as a function of ′𝜔′.

Step 3: Express the magnitude in dB by 20 log10 |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)|.

𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
Step 4: Find phase angle by using tan−1 [ ] = 𝜃 in degrees.
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡

Step 5: With required approximation, plot magnitude in dB and phase angle in degrees

against log10 𝜔 by varying 𝜔 from 0 to ∞.

1. System Gain ‘𝑲’

0
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐾, 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝐾 + 𝑗0, |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = √𝐾 2 + 0 = 𝐾. And ∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 𝐾 = 0°

Magnitude Plot: Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 𝐾 𝑑𝐵. As gain ′𝐾′ is constant, 20 log10 𝐾 is

always constant when ′𝜔′ is varied from 0 to ∞. So its magnitude plot will be straight line

parallel to X-axis.

Phase angle plot: As ∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 0° . So it doesnot affect the phase angle plot as its

contribution to phase angle plot is 0° as shown in Fig. 2.14.

Fig. 2.14: contribution by K

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2. Poles or Zeros at the Origin (𝒋𝝎)±𝑷

Let us consider for simplicity single pole at the origin,

1 1 1 1 1
𝐻(𝑠) = , 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = = , |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = =
𝑠 𝑗𝜔 0 + 𝑗𝜔 √02 + 𝜔 2 𝜔

1
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 𝜔 = −20 log10 𝜔

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜔 𝜔 = 0.1 𝜔=1 𝜔 = 10 𝜔 = 100

= −20 log10 𝜔 20 𝑑𝐵 0 𝑑𝐵 −20 𝑑𝐵 −40 𝑑𝐵
Now, 10 times change in frequency range is called 1 decade , i.e., 1 pole at the origin

reduces the |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| at the rate of −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.

So magnitude plot for 1 pole at origin is a straight line of slope −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.

Now at 𝜔 = 1, |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = 0 𝑑𝐵 this line intersects the reference 0 dB line at 𝜔 = 1.

Consider two poles at origin,

1 1 1
𝐻(𝑠) = 2
, 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 2
, |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = 2
𝑠 (𝑗𝜔) 𝜔

1
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 𝜔2 = −40 log10 𝜔

So it is a straight line of slope −40𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.

Also at 𝜔 = 1, |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = 0 𝑑𝐵 i.e., this line has slope −40𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒, intersects 0 dB line

at 𝜔 = 1.

Similarly, for P number of poles at origin,

1 1 1
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑃
, 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑃
, |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = 𝑃
𝑠 (𝑗𝜔) 𝜔

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

1
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 𝜔𝑃 = −20 × 𝑃 log10 𝜔. So this is a straight line of slope −20 ×

𝑃 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 but again intersecting with 0 dB line at 𝜔 = 1. Therefore, magnitude plot

for P poles at the origin gives family of lines passing through intersection of 𝜔 = 1 and

0 dB line having slope −20 × 𝑃 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 as shown in Fig. 2.15.

Fig. 2.15. contribution by poles at the origin

Now if there is a zero at the origin,

𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 0 + 𝑗𝜔

The magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 𝜔

This is equation of straight line whose slope is +20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒. The only change with that

of the pole is the sign of the slope, and for both cases itersection of line with 0 dB occurs

at 𝜔 = 1.

In general for P num,ber of zeros at the origin,

𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠 𝑃 , 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = (𝑗𝜔)𝑃

Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 × 𝑃 log10 𝜔, i.e., slope = +20 × P dB/decade

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

So it gives family of lines with slope as +20, +40, … . , 20 × 𝑃 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 passing through

intersection point of 𝜔 = 1 with 0 dB line as shown in Fig. 2.16.

Fig. 2.16: contribution of zeros at the origin

Phase Angle Plot: consider single pole at the origin,

1 1 1
𝐻(𝑠) = , 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = , ∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = ∠ = −∠𝑗𝜔 = −90°
𝑠 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔

This is independet of ′𝜔′. So phase angle plot of a pole at origin is line parallel to 𝑋 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
contributiong −90° to phase angle.

Similarly, for zeros, the contribution is same as that of pole, the only change is its sign. I
general, ′𝑃′ number of zerso at the origin, the total angle contribution is +90° × 𝑃 ,
irrespective of ′𝜔′. This can be shown as in Fig. 2.17.

Fig. 2.17: Angle contributions by poles and zeros at the origin

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

3. Simple poles or Zeros at the Origin (𝟏 + 𝑻 𝒋𝝎)±𝟏

First let us consider a simple pole,

1 1 1 −1
𝐻(𝑠) = (1 + 𝑇 𝑠)−1 = , 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = , |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = = [√1 + (𝜔𝑇)2 ]
1 + 𝑇𝑠 1 + 𝑇 𝑗𝜔 √1 + (𝜔𝑇)2
−1
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 [√1 + (𝜔𝑇)2 ] = −20 log10 √1 + (𝜔𝑇)2

Here instead of sketching magnitude plot exactly according to this expression we can
approximate this into two regions and can draw straight lin eapproximated magnitude
plot. The approximation is
1
i. For low frequency range 𝜔 ≪ 𝑇 i.e., 𝜔2 𝑇 2 ≪ 1 hence can be neglected.
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 √1 + (𝜔𝑇)2 = −20 log10 1 = 0
So for low frequencies it is straight line of 0 dB only. Thus the contribution
by such factor can be completely neglected for low frequency range.
1
ii. For high frequency range 𝜔 ≫ 𝑇 i.e., 𝜔2 𝑇 2 ≫ 1
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 √(𝜔𝑇)2 = −20 log10 𝜔𝑇
It is staright line of slope = −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.

But the intersection of this line with 0 dB line will give us range of high frequency and
low frequency, i.e., 0 dB line for low ′𝜔′ and line with slope −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 for high ′𝜔′
are going to intersect when,

1
− log10 𝜔𝑇 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝑇 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 =
𝑇

This frequency at which change of slope from 0 dB to −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 occurs is called

1
corner frequency denoted by 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑇.

1
Hence, asymptotic i.e., approximate magnitude plot is 0 dB line upto 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑇 and line of
1
slope −20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 when 𝜔 > 𝜔𝑐 i.e., above 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑇 as shown in Fig. 2.18.

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

Fig. 2.18: Contribution by simple pole

Similarly for a simple zero,

𝐻(𝑠) = (1 + 𝑇𝑠), 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 1 + 𝑇𝑗𝜔, |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = √1 + (𝜔𝑇)2

Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 √1 + (𝜔𝑇)2

1
Therefore, tha magnitude plot for a simple zero is a straight line of 0 dB upto 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑇 and
𝑑𝐵
then straight lines of slope +20 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 for all frequencies more than corner frequency 𝜔𝑐 =
1
as shown in Fig.2.2x5.
𝑇

Fig. 2.19: Contribution by simple zero

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

Phase Angle Plot: For a simple pole,

𝜔𝑇
𝐻(𝑠) = (1 + 𝑇𝑠)−1 , 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = (1 + 𝑇𝑗𝜔)−1 , ∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 0 − tan−1 = − tan−1 𝜔𝑇
1

While for a simple zero,

𝐻(𝑠) = (1 + 𝑇𝑠), 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = (1 + 𝑇𝑗𝜔), ∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = + tan−1 𝜔𝑇

So the shape remains the same. Only sign of the angles changes from negative to positive
when factor changes from pole to zero. Such plot is to be drawn by actually calculating
angles for different friequencies. So make a table as shown below:

𝜔 ± tan−1 𝜔𝑇(+𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, −𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒)

1 ±5.71°
0.1𝜔𝑐 =
10𝑇
1 ±26.6°
0.5𝜔𝑐 =
2𝑇
1 ±45°
𝜔𝑐 =
𝑇
2 ±63.4°
2𝜔𝑐 =
𝑇
10 ±84.3°
10𝜔𝑐 =
𝑇
This can be shown in Fig. 2.20.

Fig. 2.20: Angle contribution by a simple pole and zero

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

4. Quadratic Factors :

Generally, we have the quadratic factor in the denominator of transfer function, i.e.,
the transfer function of the form,

1 𝜔𝑛2 1
𝐻(𝑠) = = , 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) =
2𝛾 𝑠 2 𝑠 2 + 2𝛾𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝜔 𝑗𝜔 2
1+𝜔 𝑠+ 2 1 + 𝑗2𝛾 𝜔 + (𝜔 )
𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔 is variable and 𝜔𝑛 is constant.

1 1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 2 , |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| =
𝜔 𝜔 2
1 − (𝜔 ) + 𝑗2𝛾 𝜔 2 2
𝑛 𝑛 √[1 − ( 𝜔 ) ] + 4𝛾 2 ( 𝜔 )
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝜔 2 2 𝜔 2
Mgnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 √[1 − (𝜔 ) ] + 4𝛾 2 (𝜔 )
𝑛 𝑛

𝜔 2
i. For low frequency, 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔𝑛 , (𝜔 ) ≪ 1, hence nwglected.
𝑛

Mgnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 1 = 0.

Thus similar to simple pole, quadratic poles are also negligible till its corner
frequency occurs.
𝜔 2 𝜔 4
ii. For high frequency, 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝑛 , 4𝛾 2 (𝜔 ) ≪ (𝜔 ) as 𝛾 is very low.
𝑛 𝑛

𝜔 2 2 𝜔
Mgnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 [(𝜔 ) ] = −40 log10 𝜔 = −40 log10 𝜔 + 40 log10 𝜔𝑛
𝑛 𝑛

This is equation of straight line of slope −40 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒

Hence, in general, magnitude plot for quadratic poles is 0dB line till corner frequency and
then a straight line of slope −40 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒. To find the corner frequency 𝜔𝑐 ,
𝜔 𝜔
−40 log10 = 0, = 1, 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝑐 = 𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

So 𝜔𝑛 is the corner frequency for quadratic poles. The magnitude plot for the above
transfer function is shown in Fig. 2.21.

Phase angle Plot: for the guadratic pole,

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

2𝛾 𝜔⁄𝜔𝑛
∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 [ ]
1 − (𝜔⁄𝜔𝑛 )2

The phase angle table for 𝛾 = 0.3 is shown below

Fig. 2.21: Contribution by guadratic pole

2 × 0.3 𝜔⁄𝜔𝑛
∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝜃 = − tan−1 [ ]
1 − (𝜔⁄𝜔𝑛 )2

𝜔⁄𝜔𝑛 𝜃
0.1 −3.46°
0.5 −21.8°
1 −90°
𝜔
So at 𝜔 = 1 i.e., 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑐 = 𝜔𝑛 it contributes −90° and hence must aproache to −180° as
𝑛
𝜔 𝜔
→ ∞. But according to above formula when𝜔 > 1, 𝜃 becomes positive, in such cases
𝜔𝑛 𝑛

the angle contribution is obtained by subtracting 180° from the positive 𝜃. This happens
because, behaviour of tan−1 function for the complex quantities with real part negative
or imaginary part negative cannot be identified on calculator. Hence phase angle table
becomes

𝜔⁄𝜔𝑛 𝜃
0.1 −3.46°
0.5 −21.8°
1 −90°
2 +21.8° − 180° = −158.2°

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

4 +10.09 − 180° = −170.9°

10 +3.46 − 180° = −176.5°
⋮ ⋮
∞ −180°
Note: for quadratic zeros, sign of the angle should be made positive. The above
discussion is aplicable only when the roots of the quadratic factor are complex conjugate
to each other. If roots are real, factorize it and consider its two components as
independetly as a simple factor thather than quadratic.

This can be shown in Fig.2.22.

Fig.2.22: Angle contribution by quadratic poles

2.5.4. Steps to sketch the Bode Plot

1. Express given 𝐻(𝑠) into time constant form

2. Draw a line of 20 log10 𝐾 𝑑𝐵.

3. Draw a line of appropriate slope representing poles or zeros at origion, passing

through intersection point of 𝜔 = 1 and 0 dB.

4. Shift this intersection point on 20 log10 𝐾 line and draw parallel line to the draw in

step 3. This is resultant of constant K and poles or zeros at the origin.

5. Change the slope of this line at various corner frequencies by appropriate values

i.e., depending upon which factor is occuring at corner frequency. For a simple

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

pole, slope must be changed by −20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒, for a simple zero +20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒

and for quadratic poles by −40 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒. Do not draw these individual lines.

6. Prepare the phase angle table and obtain the table of 𝜔 and resultant phase angle

𝜃𝑟 by actual calculation. Plot thse points and draw the smooth curve the neccesary

phase angle plot.

Exercises

1. Construct Bode magnitude and phase plots for the impedance of the network

shown in Fig. 2.23.

Fig. 2.23.

3. Draw the Bode plot for the following function.

20(𝑠 + 2)
𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 16)

Measure of Relative Stability

Relative stability can be measured by two quantities designated as (i) gain margin and
(ii) phase margin, which can be obtained from the Bode plot. Again, in order to find these
quantities, we have to define phase-crossover frequency and gain-crossover frequency in
the Bode plot.

Phase Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the angle of the system function is
−180° is called phase-crossover frequency. So frequency at which the resultant phase
angle plot intersects −180° line is called phase-crossover frequency denoted as 𝜔𝑝 .

Gain Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the manitude of the system function
is 0 𝑑𝐵 is called gain-crossover frequency. So frequency at which the resultant magnitude
plot intersects 0 𝑑𝐵 line is called gain-crossover frequency denoted as 𝜔𝑔 .
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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

Gain Margin (GM)

The GM is the amount of gain in dB that can be added to the system before the system
becomes unstable. It is the reciprocal of the magnitude of the system function at the
frequency where the phase angle is −180° or at the phase-crossover frequency.
1 1
Mathematically 𝐺𝑀 = |𝐻(𝑗𝜔 , 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵, GM in dB = 20 log10 |𝐻(𝑗𝜔 = −20 log10 |𝐻(𝑗𝜔𝑝 )|
𝑝 )| 𝑝 )|

Positive GM means increase in gain is allowable and system is stable. On the otherhand,
the negative GM means the gain limit has been crossed and sytem is unstable.

Phase Margin (PM)

The PM is the amount of phase lag in degrees that can be added to the system before the
system becomes unstable. It is 180° plus the phase angle 𝜙 at the gain-crossover
frequency. Mathematically 𝑃𝑀 = 180° + 𝜙, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜙 = ∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔𝑔 )

Positive PM means increase in phase lag is allowable and system is stable. On the
otherhand, the negative PM means the phase lag limit has been crossed and sytem is
unstable.

Determination of gain margin and phase margin from Bode plot

GM can be directly read out from resultant magnitude plot by extending 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑝 line till
it intersects resultant magnitude plot (say point A corresponding to = 20 log10 |𝐻(𝑗𝜔𝑝 )|).
the difference between 0 dB (say point B) and point A is gain margin. If point A is below
0 dB line, GM is positive and if point A is above 0 dB line, GM is negative.

PM can be directly read out from resultant phase angle plot by extending 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑔 line till
it intersects resultant phase angle plot (say point C corresponding to ∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔𝑔 )). the
distance between −180° line (say point D) and point C is the gain margin. If point C is
below −180° line, PM is positive and if point C is above −180° line, PM is negative.

Exercise: draw bode plot for the following network function

20
𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 10)

from Bode plot for this exercise, determine, phase-cross-over frequency, gain-crossover
frequency, gain margin, phase margin and stability

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