Salale University

College of Agriculture and Natural Resource

Department of Forestry

Course Title: Forest Mensuration and Inventory

(Fors3052)

Instructor: Yigrem w.

2023-09-21 1
 Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is Forest Mensuration?
 The management of forests and tree plantations requires a quantitative
estimate of the current & future volume and biomass of timber and by-
products, at national, regional, and local levels

 Such information is also needed for forest-policy decisions

Forest and forestry research requires a great deal of additional
information,
for example about the:

 density of forests and stands,

 size distribution, diversity, spatial distribution of trees within stands,
 the expected growth of trees and stands
2023-09-21 2
 Cont…
 Forest mensuration is the discipline which deals with these
topics

 Mensuration means “measure” in Latin word

 Forest mensuration is define as “the art and science of providing
the quantitative information about trees and forest stands
necessary for forest management, planning and research”

 The application of measurement principles to obtain quantifiable

information for forest management decision making
 It is concerned with obtaining information about
forest
resources and conditions
2023-09-21 3
 Cont…

 Tree may be described

 Crown width
quantitatively by many
parameters, the commonest  A Wood density

of which are:  Form or Shape

 Taper or the rate of
 Age
Change of diameter
 Diameter
with length
 Cross Sectional (Basal)
 Volume over or under
Area
bark
 Length or height
2023-09-21 4
 Cont…

 As demands on the world’s forests have grown, scientists and

professional are increasingly called on to quantify forest
s
structure, and the goods and services forests
composition,

 Grounded in geometry, sampling theory, and ecology as well as

practical field experience, forest mensuration
offers
opportunities for creative problem solving and critical thinking
2023-09-21 5
 The Role of Forest Mensuration in Forest Management

 The ultimate objective of forest mensuration is to provide:

quantitative information about the forest and its
resources
that will allow making reasonable decisions on its destiny,
use, and management

 It is one of the cornerstones in the foundation of forestry

 in the broadest sense it is a management activity involving:

 forest land,

 the plants and animals on the land, and

  humans as they use the land
2023-09-21 6
 Cont…
 In many jurisdictions, foresters are required to complete
detailed long-term forest management plans, especially on
public lands

 These plans require foresters to make detailed predictions

about:

the growth and yield of forest resources, and

how
harvesting and

other forest management activities influence the flow

of
 timber and other resources
2023-09-21 7
 Cont…

 Based on the outputs from these models, forest managers

make
decisions about:

 where?,

 When?,

 How?, and

 how much forest land should be treated

2023-09-21 8
 Cont…
Good forest management decisions require good tools
to
analyze the impacts of management activities on the
quantities and flows of the various forest resources and on
the state of the forest itself

These tools require good models and, ultimately, these

models
require good data

 The following questions are examples of the problems that

must be solved for a particular forest:
1.What silvicultural treatment will result in best
 regeneration and growth?
2023-09-21 9
 Cont…
2. What species is most suitable for reforestation?

3. Is there sufficient timber to supply a forest industry

and for an economical harvesting operation?

4. What is the value of the timber and land?

5. What is the recreational potential?

6. What is the wildlife potential?

7. What is the status of biodiversity on the area?

8. What is the status of the forest as a carbon sink?

2023-09-21 10
 Cont…

 Methods of tree stand measurements depends on:

 Purpose of measurement;

 Form of the product i.e., log, chips, etc.

 Quality and total value of product

 Relative precision and cost of measurement for different

methods

2023-09-21
11
 Bias, Accuracy and Precision

Bias (systematic error)

 is the lack of accuracy and can be reduced by identifying the

causes of this systematic error

 Bias implies systematic distortion arising from such sources as

a flaw in measurement or an incorrect method of sampling.

 The difference between true value and the measured value

 Inaccurate

 systematic error affecting all the measurements

2023-09-21 12
 Cont…

 Causes of Bias

Eg.1. Instrument not properly adjusted

2. Measure of 100- m units with a tape only of 99-m long

3. Under estimation of tree height by timber cruisers

consistently

4. Arbitrary shift of field plot locations to capture typical

samples

2023-09-21 13
 Cont…
Accuracy
 is a relative measure of the exactness of the value of an inferred
variable for a population

 It means how close the estimates are to the actual true value:

 the closeness of estimates to actual true value (the state

of being correct)

 Accuracy is success of estimating the true value of a quantity

 True value can be determined only by very

careful
 measurements with accurate instruments and formula used
2023-09-21 14
 Cont…

 As to the Forest Mensuration, although mensuration is a

branch of mathematics, F. Mensuration does not attempt
to
secure absolute mathematical accuracy

 F. Mensuration aims at reasonable and relative accuracy,

 i.e. maximum accuracy which is profitable and possible to

obtain in practice
2023-09-21 15
 Cont…

 The reasons for inaccurate measurements in F. mensuration

are:

a) Characteristics of trees

b) Varying methods and conditions of

felling and conversion

c) Personal bias of the estimator

d) Biological character of the forest

 very dense forest is not suitable

e) The use to which the measurements are to be put

2023-09-21 16
 Cont…

How close to actual true value (accuracy)?

 Using well calibrated (adjusted) equipment

 Using Trained person

 Multiple measurement

 Minimize errors of measurement

2023-09-21 17
 Cont…
Precision
 is the closeness of agreement between independent results of
measurements obtained under stipulated conditions
 represents the uniformity or repeatability in the
measurements
 It measures the extent to which the results are close to each
other, i.e. when the measurements are clustered together
 Precision is when the same spot is hit, again and again, which
is not necessarily the correct spot

2023-09-21 18
 Cont…

 If target is directly hit the center, that shows the absolute

accurate

 If it hits to the middle circle (>50% to 99.99%), it is precise

 If target hits in outer circle then it is bias (< 50%)

2023-09-21 19
 Cont…

2023-09-21 20
 Unit of measurement in forest mensuration
12 inch = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
66 feet or 22 yards = 100 links (1 chain )
8 furlongs or 1760 yard = 1 mile
10 chains or 220 yards = 1 furlong
I inch = 25.4 mm
1 foot = 30.48 cm
1 yard = 0.9144m
1 acre = 0.40468 ha
1 mile = 1.609km
1 cft = 0.0283 cu m
1 cft/acre = 0.070 cu m/ha
1 ha = 2.47105 acres
1 cu m/ha = 14.291 cft/acre
1 cubic meter = 35.3147 cubic ft
1 kilogram = 2.20462 pounds
1 metric = 0.98420 ton
21
 Chapter 2. Measurement of Trees
 The main objective of measurement of individual trees is to
estimate the quantity of timber, firewood or any other forest
product which can be obtained from them

2.1. Diameter Measurement of Trees

 Diameter of a stem is a length from the outside of the bole

through the Centre to the opposite side of it

Different views of tree diameter

2023-09-21 22
 Cont…

 Provides a measure of tree cos

r
sectional area (basal area) and

estimating tree volume

 The volume of a tree is dependent

on diameter or girth at breast-
height, total height and form
factor

2023-09-21 23
 Cont…
 It is not only necessary for calculation of volume of logs, but also
necessary for making as well as to correlate height, volume, age,
increment of trees
 The most frequent tree measurement made by forester is
diameter
at breast height (DBH)

 DBH is the average stem diameter outside bark at point,

137
.
above ground
 Universally adopted standard height for measuring girth,
diameters and basal area of standing trees as recommended by
 FAO is 1.37 m above ground
2023-09-21 24
 Cont…

Why tree diameter is taken at breast height?

 Convenient (suitable) height for taking measurement

 Avoids the fatigue (tire) caused unnecessarily

 Saves extra expenditure (cost) from not clearing the base

 The influence of buttress on the stem form is already much

reduced at breast height
 Standardizes diameter measurement giving a uniform point
of measurement

2023-09-21 25
 Rules of DBH measurement
 Before measuring the diameter of tree first remove moss, lianas,
lichens and loose bark found on the tree
 Breast height (BH) should be measured by stick on standing trees
at 1.3m above the ground level
 If the tree is standing upright on a level ground;

Measure the DBH at 1.3 m above the ground if the tree standing straight
up on level ground

9/21/2023 26
 Cont…
 If the tree is leaning on level ground, in this case measure 1.3 m
being on the side of the lean.

Measure the DBH at 1.3 m above the ground while standing on the direction of the
lean
9/21/2023 27
 Cont.…
 If the tree is leaning on sloping ground, measure the diameter
being on the upper slope of the lean.

Measure of DBH at 1.3 m above the ground on the uphill side of the tree

9/21/2023 28
 Cont.…
If the tree is forked above 1.3 meters
 If the tree is forked above the BH, it is counted as one
(single)
tree

Measure the dbh at 1.3 m above the ground

9/21/2023 29
 Cont.…
If the tree is forked below 1.3 meters
 when it is forked below BH, each
fork should be treated as a separate tree.
 So two measurements taken and count the trees as two
individual
trees
 Forked stem measure the DBH of each stem separately at 1.3 m
9/21/2023 30
 Cont.….
 If the tree becomes forked at exactly 1.3 m above the gon
ru
 In this case measure the smallest diameter below the fork

Measure narrowest point below 1.3 m if the tree is forked at 1.3 m

9/21/2023 31
If the tree is having stilted roots at exactly 1.3 meters

 In this case if the dbh is above the stilted portion of the trunk
at
a point where the trunk diameter becomes uniform measure
exactly at that point
 Also measure just above the silted point where tree diameter
becomes uniform
 32
9/21/2023
 Cont...
If the tree is swelling or crooked at 1.3 m above ground

 In this case measure tree diameter above or sometimes

below hdeformity
t the smallest diameter below or above breast
height should be recorded
 Measurement is done at equal distance above and below bes ra
height and then dbh is estimated by taking mean of the two
readings and this is the best option to taking one measurement.

33
9/21/2023
Measurement of trees where a protocol may allow
 If Lianas is growing on the tree
 Climber or tree whose aerial roots extends down the trunk of a
supporting tree and joins around the tree;
 In this case simply estimate the diameter of the tree
 Do this if protocol states that these trees and plants are to be
included

9/21/2023 34
 Cont.….
If Lianas are growing close to the tree
 In this case simply measure the dbh at 1.3 m above the
ground
 Lianas mostly refer to huge tropical
climbers of having
greenish
 D o this if protocol states that these plants are to be included:
 For lianas measure the dbh at 1.3 m above the ground
9/21/2023 35
 Cont.….
 Tree splitting into several stems close to the ground level
measure DBH of each stem separately and report the number of
stems and diameter of each stem
 If it is necessary to consolidate the diameters of various stems
into a single index, the DBH for the tree as a whole could be
taken as the square root of the sum of all squared stem DBHs
𝐷𝐵𝐻 = ( 𝐷𝐵𝐻 1) +( 𝐷𝐵𝐻 2) +( 𝐷𝐵𝐻 3)
2 2 2

9/21/2023 36
 DBH vs Girth
 DBH = 2 r
Where, r is radius of stem
 Girth = Perimeter of Stem at Breast Height = 2πr
Thus,
Gbh = Dbhπ

 DBH
DUB = DOB – 2 t
Girth
g = g’ –2πt
Where,
 g = girth under bark.
 g’ = girth over bark.
 t = bark thickness.

2023-09-21 37
Ratio of UB and OB

2023-09-21 38
 Cont…
Basic Level

 The basic depth of the bark can be

estimated by cutting through the
bark to the wood or observing the
bark of at least five recently felled
trees

Advanced Level

 Bark thickness can be measured with

a specifically designed instrument
called bark gauge
2023-09-21 39
 Measuring instruments of diameter

 The most commonly used instruments for

measuring
diameters at BH are: Diameter tape, calipers, Biltmore stick
and other optical instruments.

Diameter tape

 A measuring tape that has scales on both sides: one side

is specially marked to show the diameter of a tree and the
other is a normal scale

 The diameter of a tree cross section obtained by

measuring te
h
circumference of the tree and dividing by π
circumference 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒆
𝑫 = π
9/21/2023
40
 Cont…

g. If the circumference of a tree is 94.3cm, then calculate

diameter of tree

 Given: Required: D =?

C= 94.3 cm

π = 3.14

Solution
C
D
π
D = 94.3 𝑐 𝑚 = 30cm
3.14

9/21/2023 41
 Cont.…

Advantage of using diameter tape

 Only one measurement needed

 Small & light easily practice

 Bigger trees can be measured with tapes easily

Disadvantages

 If tree has rough bark, the tape exaggerates the diameter

 Slower in dense shrub growth

 For non-circular trees tape overestimates girth

9/21/2023 42
 Calipers

 Used to measure tree DBH when diameters are less than about

60 cm.

 A calipers may be constructed of metal, plastic or wood, consists

of a graduated beam/rule with two perpendicular arms

 Is the most efficient to measure DBH directly whenever there is

direct access to the tree

9/21/2023 43
 Cont…

Measuring tree diameter with a caliper

9/21/2023 44
 Cont...
Advantages of Calipers
 Diameters can be read directly in cm and mm, thus making the
instrument
applicable for precise scientific work

 It is adaptable for use by unskilled labor

 give more accurate results than the diameter tape

Disadvantages
 The reading of measurement not accurate when its adjustment incorrect
 Calipers sufficient in size to measure large trees are very difficult to
carry
and handle. Only measure up to 60 cm tree

 Two measurements have to be taken on every tree to get correct

diameter
  for inaccessible locations calipers are less useful because of its weight
9/21/2023 45
 Basal Area (BA)

BA is a cross-sectional area of tree stem measured at breast

height (1.3m) above ground

Basal area is a measure of how much of a specific area is

covered by trees which is similar to the measure trees per acre,
but the BA is often a better measurement

I n forestry management, the BA helps determine when and if it

may be important to clear out trees and what areas may need
more focus and attention to plant new trees

9/21/2023 46
 Cont…

Why to measure tree Basal Area?

BA closely relates to volume

Useful measure of site occupancy

Useful to forecast future
development of stand

9/21/2023 47
 Cont…

To determine basal area simply measure the DBH in cm and

calculate BA as the following:

2
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 =
4
𝛑d
This formula converts the diameter in cm to the basal area in
m2

Used to estimate tree volumes

9/21/2023 48
 Cont.…

E.g. If DBH of tree is = 30 cm calculate its basal area ?

2
 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 =
4
𝛑d

 First convert DBH in meter, 1m = 100cm

2
 Basal area = 3.14∗( 0 . 3 m ) = 0.071m2
4

9/21/2023 49
 Tree Height
 Height is the linear distance of an object normal to the surface
of the earth
 Tree height is the vertical distance measured from the ground
surface

 height measurement:
 used to estimate or determine the volume of a tree
 helps to deal with the issues of site classification
 find out productive capacity of site and knowledge of
age
 gives a reliable measure of the site quality
9/21/2023 50
 Tree height can be distinguished into the following categories:

 Total Height: vertical distance

between ground level and tip of
the tree
 Bole Height: the distance between
ground level and crow point.
 The Crown Point is the
position of the first crown
forming living or dead
branch
 Merchantable/Log Height: is the
distance between ground level Bole height
and the terminal point of the
last usable portion of the tree
 Stump height is the distance
between the ground and basal
position on the main stem where a
tree is cut

9/21/2023 51
 Cont…

 Dominant height: is the average height of 100 thickest

trees per hectare

 Crown height

 The height of the crown as a measured vertically from the

ground level to the point half way between the lowest green
branches forming green crown all round, called crown height

9/21/2023 52
 Cont…

9/21/2023 53
 Measurement of tree height

 Direct method
 It involves climbing or using height measuring poles
 It is rarely used and only for small trees
Another way is to fell the tree and determine length
of
tree, this method is destructive

 Indirect method
Using geometric principle
Using trigonometric principle
9/21/2023 54
 Tree height measurement using geometric method
Ruler of a certain length (30cm) and a pole of constant
length/height used to measure tree height
Technique:
 Place a pole of known length at upright position against the
tree to be measured
 Hold ruler vertically and parallel to the tree to be measured.
 Find the sighting position by moving back & forth and/or
right and left so that the top of the ruler exactly aligned
with the tip of tree and bottom of the ruler with the base of
the tree
 Take ruler reading in line with the top of the pole. Then
apply the following formula.

9/21/2023 55
 Cont…

Tree height measurement technique by geometric

principles

∆ABC ≅ ∆Abc
(BD/BC) ≅ (bd/bc); (bc/BC) = (bd/BD)

Known ruler length (bc) X Known length of pole (BD)

Tree height (BC) =
Ruler reading on the pole (bd)

9/21/2023 56
 Cont...

 E.g. If BD length is 4m, bc is 30 cm and the length of bd is

5.5 cm. Find the height of the tree (BC)?

Tree height (BC) =

Known ruler length (bc) X Known length of pole (BD)

Ruler reading on the pole (bd)

𝐵𝐶 = 30𝑐𝑚 ∗
4 𝑚5.5𝑐

Tree height (BC)=21.81m

9/21/2023 57
 Cont...

 Advantages of height measurement with geometric principle:

 No distance measurement is required

 Height reading is not influenced by slope

 Drawbacks of height measurement with geometric principle:

In dense forest it is difficult to find suitable point
of
observation

 It’s very slow and rough information

9/21/2023 58
 Tree height measurement using trigonometric principles

 Instruments used to measure tree height based on trigonometric

principles:

1. Hypsometer

 is instrument used for determining the height of standing tree

from observations taken at some distance from the tree

 e.g. Sunto hypsometer & Silva hypsometer

9/21/2023 59
 Cont…

2. Altimeters

 is altitude measuring instruments, which can be devised to

determine heights of tree; e.g. Haga altimeter

9/21/2023 60
 Cont…
3. clinometers
 Clinometer is a tool commonly used by foresters to measure
tree heights and slope angles
 Looking into the eyepiece of the clinometer (PCT/DEG scale)

 Using the right hand scale you will read a negative number if
the tree is on level ground or down slope

 You will read a positive number if the tree is up slope

9/21/2023 61
 Cont…

9/21/2023 62
 Cont…
 To measure the tree height with a
clinometer, the following procedures
apply:
1. Measure the ground distance between
surveyor and tree with the measuring tape
2.Determine, if necessary, the slope angle
in degrees with the clinometer and the
corresponding cosine decimal (on the back
side) take the top and base (bottom)
reading of the tree in percent and
3. Calculate the height as follows

9/21/2023 63
 Cont…

Where, D= Ground distance

S= Slope angle
BR = Base reading
TR= Top reading

9/21/2023 64
 Cont…

E.g.1. if, D= 20m E.g.2. if, D = 30m

S= 50 = Cos 50 = 0.9962 S = 100 = Cos 100= 0.9848
BR = -25% BR = 10%
TR= + 65%, then H= ? TR = 120%, then H=?
H = TR - BR x D x Cos S0 H = TR - BR x D x Cos S0
100 100
= (65+ 25) x 20m x 0.9962 = (120 – 10) x 30m x 0.9848
100 100
= 17.9m = 32.5m

9/21/2023 65
 Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Errors
 Instrumental errors occur as a result of some deficiency in
instrument apart from its incorrectness

 Drawbacks of the instruments i.e.

 Christen Hypsometer keeps on swinging due to wind
 To eliminate errors, Christen’s hypsometer needs suspending a
weight below the instrument
 Similarly, patience, careful observation and favorable
weather
conditions need while handling instruments
2023-09-21 66
 Cont…

2. Personal errors

 Shaking hands of the observer

 Ocular problem with observer in using Sunto Clinometer

3. Errors due to measurement

 Correct measurement cannot be obtained due to presence of

shrubs and undergrowth

 The tape will not be in level while finding out the

horizontal distance by stepping

2023-09-21 67
 Cont…

 Incorrect measurement of angles of elevation and

depression may incur errors resulting in incorrect height
 To reduce such types of errors, the observer should
stand at such a distance from the tree that the angle is
equal to 450 or

 the horizontal distance from the tree may be roughly

equal to the height of the tree

2023-09-21 68
 Cont…

4. Errors due to observation

 Invisibility of the base of tree during the angle
measurement of the bottom of the tree

 Invisibility of the tip of the tree in case of broadleaved

trees

 To reduce the error, In case of broadleaved tree, the

observer should stand far away from the tree as practicable

2023-09-21 69
 5. Errors due to lean of trees

 In order to avoid errors due to lean:

 Take measurement from such a position that lean is to the side

rather than towards or away from the observer

 Measure the horizontal distance from the point of observation to

the point vertically below the tip of the tree

 Keep the angle 450 as far as possible

 Measure the height of the tree from two opposite sides,

 once with the tree leaning towards the observer and other with
the tree leaning away
2023-09-21 70
 Cont…
 The average of the two will give the height with minimum error

2023-09-21 71
 Bark
 Bark is considered an accumulation of several different outer

layers of a wood plant

 Bark comprises the outer part of woody stems and branches

 It includes all the plant tissue outside cambium

2023-09-21 72
 Cont…

 In general, bark has two parts:

i) Outer bark:-It is a dead tissue

 Its primary function is protection from biotic and abiotic

environment

 It also reduces moisture loss

ii) Inner bark (phloem);- It is living tissue

 Its primary function is nutrient transport (such as

carbohydrates and hormones)

2023-09-21 73
 Cont…

2023-09-21 74
 Cont…

2023-09-21 75
 Cont…

 Bark thickness is measured by Swedish bark gauge

 Bark thickness of trees varies with: -Species, rate of growth,

genotype and age positions in the tree
 Some trees have very thick bark- especially many savannah
trees where the bark protects the cambium from fire and is an
adaptation to the savannah conditions

2023-09-21 76
 Measuring Tree Volume
Tree shape

 Trees take different forms and shapes depending on

the
conditions under which they are grown

 The size and height of the crown and its distinction from the
stem depend on many factors like species, age, stem density etc.
 Trees are found to taper, which means the diameter and girth of
a tree gradually reduce from base to top (Form factor)

 degree of taper varies from part to part and thus leads to different
shapes of the various parts of the stem
2023-09-21 77
 Cont…
Form factor
 summary of the overall stem shape

 It is the ratio between the volume of a tree to the product of

basal area and height;

F= V/BA*h

Where, F = form factor

V = Volume

BA= Basal area

h = tree height

2023-09-21 78
 Cont…
 Form factors usually lie within the range of 0.25 and 0.55

2023-09-21 79
 Cont…

 Taper is the decrease in diameter of a stem of a tree or from

base upwards

 Use of form factors

 To estimate volume of standing tree

 To study of growth stem of trees

2023-09-21 80
 Cont…

 Parts of a tree stem tend to

approximate truncated parts of
some known geometrical shapes

 The base of the tree tends to be

neiloid while the tip tends to be
conoid.

 The main part of the bole tends

to be paraboloid

2023-09-21 81
 Source of variation for form factor

 Common causes of irregularity in form are:

 Abrupt change of diameter at different parts of the bole;

 Deformity after injury to the cambium;

 Abrupt change of diameter associated with heart rot;

Species and genotype, age, stocking, crown size, site
factors especially wind exposure and

 Swelling from occlusion of branches

 Tree in open forest has high form factor
 Tree in dense forest has low form factor
2023-09-21 82
 The Crown
 The tree crown is the organ that supports the photosynthesizing
tissue

 consists of the mass of foliage and branches growing outward

from the trunk of the tree

2023-09-21 83
 Cont…

 The commonest dimensions of crown used in tree menstruation

are:

1. Crown diameter (K)

2. Crown depth or length= the depth of the crown from
tip to the lowest living branch

3. The ratio of the crown diameter (K) to the bole

diameter (d)- K/d

2023-09-21 84
 Figure: Different heights of a single tree
2023-09-21 85
 Cont…
 Crown diameter
 The average crown diameter may be calculated by:
K = d min + d max.
2
 The K/d ratio
 It refers the ratio of the crown diameter (K) to the bole diameter (d)
 The K/d ratio for any species, site, age and stocking is essential
parameter that reflects many characteristics of the species
 For example, species with small K/d ratio are recommended for

reforestation program as there are more stems per hectare which

‘implies more basal area and volume per hectare

2023-09-21 86
 Cont…

2023-09-21 87
 Volume determination of standing and felled trees
 The volume of tree is determined by how tall it is (its height),
how fat it is (diameter), and how its shape changes along the
length of the stem (taper form)

 The volume of standing trees (V) is estimated using a standard

formula as a function of three basic parameters, i.e.

 BA or girth (g)

 Height (h), and

 Form factor (f)

V (m3)=BA*h*f

2023-09-21 88
 Cont…
E.g. If a tree has a BA of 0.02m2 , with height of 18 m, then
calculate the tree volume if the form factor (f) is 0.5;

Given: BA= 0.02m2

H = 18 m
f = 0.5
Required: V=?
V = BA*h*f
V = 0.02m2*18m*0.5
V = 0.18 m3

2023-09-21 89
 Methods of determining felled tree volumes
1. Application of SMALIAN’S formula
 Smalian’s formula states that the volume of a log can be closely
estimated by multiplying the average of the areas of the two
log ends by the log’s length

2023-09-21 90
 Cont…

 The units used for the areas and the length must be the same

2023-09-21 91
2) HUBER’S FORMULA

3) NEWTON’S FORMULA

2023-09-21 92
 Volume determination of stacked and piled wood
 In measuring the stack volume, three measurements are
involved;

i. Length

ii. Width

iii. Height

2023-09-21 93
 Biomass

 Biomass is defined as the total amount of above ground living

organic matter in trees expressed as oven-dry tones per unit
area

 wood, branches, bark and leaves produced by trees, shrubs and

herbs and other vegetation growing above the ground are
included in above ground biomass; while,

 Roots, tubers and other part of plant found in the soil

categorized as below ground biomass

9/21/2023 94
 Factors affecting the biomass

i. Density:

 It is the mass per unit volume expressed in Kg/m3

 Specific density is ratio of density of any substance with water

 Volume as well as weight shrink due to dryness

 So, there is moisture content in fresh weight, it is expressed in

%

 Density varies from pith to sapwood

 It also varies from stump to top

9/21/2023 95
 Cont…
ii. Moisture content

 It is the moisture in wood, but also in all parts of trees

 The moisture content varies from species, geographical
areas

 It also varies with age and physical condition of trees

 It varies in broadleaf and conifer

 Moisture content = ((Fresh wt-dry wt)/Fresh wt)*100%

iii. Bark

9/21/2023 96
 Tree Age
 The following methods may be used for age determination of
standing trees:
 From existing record- in case of artificially raised trees
 By estimates- ocular estimating considering
 the size and relative taper of the stem,
 the form, size and shape of the crown,
 the color and condition of the bark, and
 Conditions of growth and the site qualities.
 By the number of annual shoots
 By annual ring- applicable to species displaying distinct annual
rings especially conifers
9/21/2023 97
 Site Quality

 Site is complex of physical and biological factors of an area that

determine what forest or other vegetation it may carry
 site quality expresses the average productivity of a designated
land area for growing forest trees.
 Site quality is measure of relative productive capacity of a site
for particular species

 Different site gives different growth response to different

species
 This help to evaluate the vegetation characteristics and site
factors
9/21/2023 98
 Chapter 3. Forest Inventory
Introduction

 Protection and rational utilization of natural resources become

more and more important in order to meet the
increasing
demands for raw wood material

 Among the resources, the importance of forest is not only as a

source of wood but as the means of protecting the hills there by
regulating stream flow, and reducing the rate of soil erosion,
among many others

Maximum advantages and benefits from forests can only

be
secured provided that the existing forest is properly managed99
2023-09-21
 Cont…
 Sound forest management depends on the quantity and quality
of information available on the forest

 This information is obtained from forest inventories

 Forest inventory is defined in different forms by different

authors, but essentially with more or less the same meaning

 Forest inventory: is a tool that provides the information about

size and shape of the area as well as qualitative and/or
quantitative information of the growing stock

2023-09-21 100
 Cont…
 Forest Inventory is the counting of one or more species,

generally above specified size limit, and their classification by

size condition or any other prescribed quality

 It is used to obtain estimates on the quality and quantity of

forest trees

 This must also include a description of the characteristics

land upon which the trees are growing:

 E.g. topography, soil types etc.

2023-09-21 101
 Cont…
 Forest inventory information may be obtained either from
measurements of individual trees or stand

 Information may be obtained by

 measurements taken from the ground or

on remote sensed imagery (aerial photograph, satellite
imagery, etc.).

 Forest inventory information obtained from the entire forest is

called complete or 100% inventory.

 In contrast, when the measurements are taken from a

representative sample of the forest it is a sampling inventory
2023-09-21 102
 History of Forest Inventory

 The first inventories were carried out in Europe in the 14th and
15th centuries

 The rise of forest inventory was due to intensive mining

activities which in the vicinity of the mines depleted the forest
resources severely

 The early inventories are crude assessment and not to compare

with today’s inventory exercises

 In 19th century, forest inventories were an establishe

d
component of forest planning
2023-09-21
 Cont…

Data gatherings were based mainly on visual estimation

During this period statistical sampling was not available yet

It was only developed around 1900

The first large area inventories took place in Sweden
around
1840 on provincial level and the first large area forest inventory
in the tropics was carried out in Burma around 1860 (by
Dietrich Brandis).
2023-09-21 104
 Cont…
Beginning in the 1910s national forest inventories
were
carried out in the Nordic countries Norway, Sweden and
Finland

In these times the forest inventories gave considerable inputs

to
the development of statistical sampling theory

Changes and progresses in forest inventory were

largely
fostered by the developments in the fields of:

statistics (sampling and modeling),

 remote sensing (aerial photos and satellite images),

2023-09-21 105
 Cont…

computers,

measurement devices and also road infrastructure

(increased accessibility to remote areas) and

means of transportation which facilitated reaching

field plots in the forest

2023-09-21 106
 Purpose of forest inventory

 To make informed decisions about forest management

 For quantification of volumetric product yield and the structural

composition of forest,

 Silvicultural prescriptions-connected with stand examinations to

make stand-level-decisions

 Regeneration survey- for estimation of survival rate

 For harvest or operational survey- estimate volume and value of
an area prior to a commercial harvest

9/21/2023 107
 Geographical levels of forest inventory

 Forest information is required on different geographical levels

i. Forest inventories at local level:

For forest stands, forest inventories are carried out to

plan
forest operations or to prepare selling standing timber

For forest enterprises, forest inventories are

periodically
carried out to prepare forest management plans which
define
silvicultural treatments such as thinning, harvest, etc... for a
 planning period

2023-09-21 108
 Cont…

ii. Forest inventories at national level:

 General estimates of all elements are normally recorded in

such type of forest inventory

 A complete picture of the forests of the nation including their

potential without detailed analysis of any one area or
characteristics is given

2023-09-21 109
 Cont…
Regional and national forest inventories provide
essential
data for formulating national forest policies, planning forest
industry investments, forecasting wood production,
and
monitoring forest ecosystem dynamics

The traditional role of a NFI has been to provide

unbiased
forest resource information covering a whole country and
including computation of forest statistics

NFIs assess forest areas, growing stock volumes, and

changes
in biodiversity status, land use, carbon stock, and ecosystem
services
2023-09-21 110
 Cont…

It represents a response to support increasing demands for

additional information on forest resource attributes; for
policy, national & international reporting, and for reports
on:

Climate change

Criteria and indicators of sustainable fores

management, Biodiversity and forest health

Sustainability

2023-09-21 111
 Cont…

iii. Forest inventory at International level:

FAO has carried out global forest assessments from the

1940s
onwards

In the 1960s UNESCO expressed the urgent need for

integrated resources assessments with the objective to
promote the conservation of nature

UNCED 1992 made obvious that there is a great gap

regarding natural resources information
2023-09-21 112
 Types of forest inventory

 Three broad classes of forest inventories can be considered

based on the depth of the investigation:

1. Reconnaissance inventory:

 This class of inventory is based upon an exploratory

investigation of the forest population

 The information derived is primarily intended for preliminary

management decisions

9/21/2023 113
 Cont…

2. Management inventory:
 This inventory represents a low intensity investigation of a
large tract of forested area; for example, a forest reserve.

 The information produced is primarily intended for broad-

based management decisions, allowable cut calculations
and long range planning

9/21/2023 114
 Cont…

3. Operational inventory:

 An operational inventory is based upon an intensive

investigation of a relatively small area

 The information produced is primarily intended for use in

short term or “operational” planning,

 e.g. related to the harvesting of timber volumes within local

cutting compartments or logging units

9/21/2023
115
 Costs of a forest inventory

 Forest inventory is generally a costly undertaking, hence

explicit planning and real need is a necessary

 There are three main factors, which influence the cost of an

inventory:

Type of information required;

Standard of accuracy;

Size of area to be surveyed

2023-09-21 116
 Cont…

a. Type of information Required:

 General information on areas of the important forest types

can be obtained relatively cheaply from aerial photographs

 In contrast terrestrial forest inventory is very expensive

particularly if various detailed information is required

 Hence, the intensity and quality of the selection of

representative samples requires careful supervision

2023-09-21 117
 Cont…

b) Standards of Accuracy:

 The greater the degree of accuracy required, the greater

the percentage of the forest that has to be sampled

 The reduction of the standard error by half requires

approximately four times as many samples

c) Size of Area to be surveyed:

 The cost per unit area for aerial photography will be less than
the larger the zone photographed

2023-09-21 118
 Planning forest inventory

 The main task of forest inventory is to collect information

efficiently and present it in a form, which is readily understood

 This requires, however, much thought and preparation, i.e.,

planning
 There must be an explicit information requirement that justifies the
need for an inventory to be carried out

 Make discussions with decision makers or others who request the

information in order to make clear & illustrate options and
limitations of a forest inventory

9/21/2023 119
 Cont…

 A good forest inventory;

 Should be conform to the objectives

 Should provide adequate precision

 Methodologically sound & follow statistical sampling

criteria

 Have comprehensive & transparent reporting &

documentation

 Overall credibility

9/21/2023 120
 Procedure of planning a forest inventory

 Setting the foundations

 justification, funds, objectives, defining mandates, etc…

 Inventory planning

 Definition of technical objectives, development of inventory

design, inventory protocol (Write the field manual, which
gives a detailed information of the measurement procedure in
the field; and design form sheets.), etc…

2023-09-21 121
 Cont…
 Data collection

 Remote sensing (selection of imagery–map products) and/or

 Field data: organization, training,

implementation,
supervision, etc…

 Data management & analysis

 Database development, data entry, data analysis, database

maintenance, etc…

 Reporting
2023-09-21 122
 Planning principles for forest inventory

 The following planning principles can be used as checklist:

A. Objectives
B. Standardization
C. Time and Funds
D. Forest classification
E. Sampling and plot designs
F. Maps
G. Field measurement procedures
H. Calculation and compilation

2023-09-21 123
 Cont...

A. Objectives

 The objectives of the inventory must be clear right at the

beginning of the planning stage including the variables/
parameters to be estimated (e.g. diameter, girth & heights)

 Furthermore the units of measurement, desired precision at a

specified level of probability, the kind of recording forms and
the style of presentation of the results must be worked out
before the commencement of the inventory

2023-09-21 124
 Cont…
B) Standardization:
 To have uniform content of information which enables
combining, analyzing and comparison forest inventory
results

 Some of the specifications, which could be standardized are:

 Definition of terms and symbols
 Forest type classification
 The units and measurements

9/21/2023 125
 Cont...
C. Time and Funds
 The size of the sample and the degree of precision of forest
inventory tasks are governed by the time and fund
available

 In many cases an inventory design that gives the desired

information with an acceptable limit of error for the
lowest cost is chosen

making sure that there is sufficient resource to carry out

the work (of a reasonable forest inventory)

9/21/2023 126
 Cont...

D. Forest classification
 The classification of a very large forest area into smaller
sub-divisions enable the observer or the surveyor to have
a better understanding of the forest
 This sub-division allows more efficient sampling and
maps can also be prepared showing the different forest
and land types

9/21/2023 127
 Cont...
E. Sampling designs
The information collected by an inventory is obtained either
by observations and measurements in the field or aerial
photographs

 In most cases the combined approach is used

 The aerial photographs can serve to classify the forest, to
prepare maps and to estimate areas while information on the
forest conditions and timber quantities and qualities is gathered
through field work on the ground.
9/21/2023 128
 Cont…
F. Maps
 Before the commencement of the inventory work, maps must be
adequately available for the following reasons:

 to establish flight lines for the photographs

 to establish the pattern of ground sampling to be used
 to locate areas selected for sampling
 to serve as base maps on which different forest types and other
features can be drawn
 The most favoured scales for actual mapping of forest
conditions range from 1:10000 to 1:20000

9/21/2023 129
 Cont...

G. Field measurement procedures

 Organize logistics (transport, measurement devices),

 Make a time table for field work and for image

interpretation

H. Calculation and compilation

 Design a data base and make a “pseudo”-analysis with

dummy data in order to be sure that you can analyze the
data as you would like it

9/21/202 130
 Contents of inventory’s report

As a general principle:
 The report should contain all information required to
meet the inventory’s objectives

 The report should be understandable for those who

need the information provided and who will use the
results

 There should be a detailed technical section for the

possibly interested expert

9/21/202 131
 Cont...
 However the structure of a typical forest inventory report
shall contain:

 Introduction (justification, legal basis, users etc.)

 Data sources, sampling and plot design.

 Organization and implementation

 Data analysis and algorithms

 Inventory results (totals and broken down to smaller
reporting units (strata):
Areas, Growing stock, Forest structure,
composition, & Age classes,
Assortments, Damages, Road infrastructure
9/21/2023 132
 Cont...

 Technical discussion of results and inventory

 Description of problems encountered
 Comparison with earlier studies
 More specifically:
 Include an executive summary
 Give precision statements for the all estimations,
i.e. for all variables and all reporting units

9/21/2023 133
 Cont...

 Give a clear description of the methods used, and specify

the
reasons why this method and not another has been chosen

 Spell out practical or other problems encountered

 Attach field manual and form sheets to the reportin

g
documents

 Provide maps whenever possible

 (Do not forget the acknowledgements)

9/21/2023
 Cont...
 Give budget information or indications, or at least information
on time consumption for the different planning and
implementation steps

 Graph the sampling and plot design

 Describe the overall organization of the:
exercise,
training measures and
composition of field crews

 State the models used

9/21/2023 135
 Chapter 4. Forest Sampling

Forest Sampling
 Total Enumeration/total count is not possible in case of
forest measurement
 Partial enumeration is conducted usually and this process is
termed sampling
 SAMPLE: is a part of population consisting of one or more
sampling units, selected and examined as a representative of
the whole
 The sample is the proportion of the population that is
examined to make inferences about the population
9/21/2023 136
 Cont…

 A population is a collection of elements about which

information is desired

 The units in which the population is defined and that are

available to be selected in the sample are called sample units

 populations are made up of sampling units

A sampling unit is any clearly defined part of, or an individual in

a population and which might be included as one member of a
sample drawn from it

9/21/2023 137
 Cont…

 The total aggregate of these sampling units constitutes the

population
 SAMPLING: is enumeration of a representative part of the
whole population
 Forest Sampling is therefore, a sampling process in which
inventory of the forest is carried out only in a representative
portion of the whole population
 In forest inventory work, the sampling units may be stands,
compartments, administrative units, fixed area plots or strips
or sampling points.
9/21/2023 138
 Cont…
 The selection of a sample from a population could be done:

Subjectively or

Objectively

 In subjective process, sample selector could choose sampling

units from the population which he or she considers ‘typical’.

 subjective selection always risks the biases of the selector’s

judgment; there is no guarantee that the results from such
samples will reflect properly the true characteristics of the
population.
9/21/2023 139
 Cont…

 In science in general, and in forest inventory, it is no different,

sample selection is done objectively

 The personal prejudices of the selector play no part

This type of sample unit selection usually done by a random

selection process:

a) Lottery method
b) Tables of random numbers, or
c) A Computer random number generator

9/21/2023 140
 Sampling designs
 A sampling design is a definite plan for obtaining a
sample from a given population

 It refers to the technique or procedure the researcher would

adopt in selecting items for the sample

 Sample design is determined before data collection

 The researcher should select a sample design which should

be reliable and appropriate for his research study

9/21/2023 141
 Advantage of sampling over total measurement

i. Reduced cost and saving of time

 Data collected certain % of forest areas

 Save time and cost

 Less measurement

 Less number of man power needed

9/21/2023 142
 Cont…
ii. Relative accuracy
Total enumeration is more accurate but sampling may
provide
better result in case of large areas

Appropriate sampling intensity provide better result

ii. Knowledge of error
iii. Greater scope
Highly trained man power needed
Volume or biomass
Partial sampling widen scope
9/21/2023 143
 Cont…

KIND OF SAMPLING:

1.RANDOM 2. NON RANDOM

 Simple Random Selective Sampling

Sampling
 Stratified Random Systemic Sampling
Sampling

9/21/2023 144
 Random Sampling
 In this method, sampling units composing a sample are selected in
such a manner that all possible unit of the same size have equal
choice/chance of being chosen

A) Simple Random Sampling

 Sampling units are selected by some strictly random process from

the whole population or area without dividing it into homogenous
blocks

 Sampling units have equal chances of being chosen for the sample
 Mainly used if the population is homogenous and not widely spread
geographically
9/21/2023 145
 Cont.…

Simple Random Sampling

9/21/2023 146
 Cont.…
Merits

 Scientific method and no bias

Estimation methods are simple and easy

Demerits

If sample chosen is widely spread, takes more time

and cost
A population frame or list is needed

For a given precision, it usually requires

larger
sample size
9/21/2023 147
 Cont.…
b) Stratified Random Sampling
 If the forest is heterogeneous it is recommendable to sub-divide the
forest into smaller homogenous blocks in order to have a much smaller
standard error

 This method of division of area into homogenous groups is called

stratification.

 Stratification means to divide a heterogeneous population into

subpopulations (strata) based on common grouping criteria.
 Stratification may be done by topographic features, forest types,
density classes, height classes, age class, etc.

9/21/2023 148
 Cont.…

9/21/2023 149
 Cont.…
 Criteria should be used, that are directly related to the
variables to be measured;

 E.g.: Carbon stocks and carbon stock change

 Carbon stocks and carbon stock changes are depending on

several factors which can be divided into:
physical factors (climate and soil)
biological factors (tree composition as species and
ages, stand density)
anthropogenic factors (management practices,
disturbances history)
9/21/2023 150
 Cont.…
Why stratification?

Different forest areas differ in carbon stocks and carbon

stock
dynamics

For instance; an intensely logged forest contains lower

carbon
stocks than a primary forest, or an area converted to forest
shows different carbon stock dynamics over time than a forest
area converted to other land use

The variability between sample plots within a stratum

is
 reduced compared to the variability within the entire forest
area, consequently
9/21/2023 151
 Steps for stratifying the area
1. Define Land-Use Categories;
 the broad land-use which forms the basis of estimating and
reporting GHG emissions and removals, (e.g. Forest Land,
Cropland, Grassland…)

2. Land-Use Categories are reported as either land remaining in

the category or land converted to a new category;
 e.g. “Forest Land, remaining Forest Land”, “Land
converted
to Forest Land”
3.Further stratification of each land-use category into more
homogenous (in density and dynamic) spatial units considering
biological, physical and anthropogenic factors
9/21/2023 152
 Cont…

9/21/2023 153
 Cont…
 Merits of Stratified Random Sampling
 More representatives than systematic and simple random
 Greater accuracy than simple random
 convenience
 Demerits
 More time and cost due to wide geographical area
 Sampling units for each stratum is necessary
 Require more prior information about population
 When to use
 When populations are heterogeneous
9/21/2023 154
 Non–random sampling

a) Selective sampling
 This consists of choosing samples according to the subjective
judgement of the observer
 This may give good approximation of populations parameters if
it is properly used by person with intensive knowledge of the
population,

 but generally it is to be avoided because of bias due to the

prejudices and opinions of the observer
 For rough and quick estimates, this sampling is often employed

9/21/2023 155
 Cont…

b) Systematic sampling
 It involves the location of sampling points at regular or
systematic interval
 the sampling units are spaced at fixed intervals throughout the
population
 Distance between plot is fixed (100m or more based on forest
land size)
 Easy to locate and distribution of samples are uniform

9/21/2023 156
 Cont.….
 For Forest Inventory systematic sampling is usually chosen
because:
 e a s i l y planned,
 f a s t e r in execution and mostly cheaper;
 i t gives better estimates of the mean;
 i t gives thus better precision compared to random sampling
General characteristics systematic sampling
 Formation of Transect line
 Study area is divided into quadrate or plot
 Distance between samples are the same

9/21/2023 157
 Transects

 A transect is a path along the inventory data were records and

counts

 The transects approach is very regular in vegetation data design

 Based on location starting transect at random and takes samples
along connecting two points

 On this transect line we develop the plots by connecting the two

points:

 many plots on single parallel transect line

9/21/2023 158
 Design of transect line

100m

500 m

9/21/2023 159
 Cont.…
 Sampling is usually carried out by establishing plots within the
forest

 A plot is an area in which all trees are measured

 The most common plots have a fixed area plots are circular or
Square/ rectangular in shape
 In fixed area plots nested contain smaller subunits of various
shapes and sizes depending on the variables to be measured
 Tree measured in main plots, saplings and seedling were
measured on a nested plots/ sub-plots

9/21/2023 160
 Example of a nested plot in square shape

Sampling design

5m*5m 5m*5m
Seedling & Seedling &
Sapling Sapling

5m*5m
Seedling & Tree were recorded
sapling

5m*5m 5m*5m
Seedling & Seedling &
Sapling Sapling

9/21/2023 161
 Forest measurement

 While thinking of forest stand measurement there are some

central questions to be dealt with:

How many samples?

How to select the samples?

How to take what observations?

How to calculate the estimations?

9/21/2023 162
 Cont.…

 Thus, there are three basic design elements, which are

actually dependent on each other, to answer the questions:

 Estimation design;

 Response/plot design &

 Sampling design

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Estimation design
 It explains and defines how the estimations are calculated. There
are two types of estimations:

a) Estimations of the variable(s) of interest (= point estimates);

 an estimate of a population parameter given by a single

number
 e.g. 30cm is the mean height obtained by a sample of 5 trees
randomly drawn from a total of 100 trees is considered to be
the mean heights of the entire trees. This single value 30cm
is a point estimate
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 Cont.…

b) Estimations of the precision of the point estimates (interval

estimates)
 An interval estimate gives you a range of values where the
parameter is expected to lie
 Example:
Volume = 200 m3/ha ± 30 m3/ha

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 Cont.…
 The followings are some of the estimators that are frequently
used or applied in forest mensuration and inventory

Mean
i) The simple arithmetic mean
 This is the most commonly used measure of location
Sample mean = sum of the observations / number of observations

Where: x1…. Xn = observations

n = total observations
x bar = mean 166
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 Cont.…
ii) Weighted arithmetic mean
 If a forester selects randomly two trees from a stand for
height measurement and the estimated heights are 20m and
20m + 25m
25m, the mean height would be 2
=

 Nevertheless if the same forester selects five trees and the

estimated heights are 20m, 20m, 20m, 20m, and 30m then the
mean height is (4x20+ 1x30) / 5 = 110 / 5 = 22m.

 This is called a weighted mean because it “gives weight” to

the fact that there are 4 of 20 and 1 of 30
 we can see from the above example given that the word
“weighting” is synonymous with frequency
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 Cont.…
iii) Quadratic Mean/ Root Mean Square
 This is used principally for calculating mean diameters where
“weight “ is given to the fact that volume of a stem varies as
the square of the diameter and not to the diameter itself.

E.g. Find the Root Mean Square of 2, 4, 9, 10, and 12.

 Step 1: Count the number of items.

N=5
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 Cont.…
 Step 2: Square all of the numbers. 22,42,92,102, 122 = 4, 16,
81, 100, 144

 Step 3: Add the numbers from Step 2 up: 4 + 16 + 81 + 100 +

144 = 345

 Step 4: Divide Step 3 (the sum) by Step 1 (number of items in

the set): 345/5 = 69

 Step 5: Find square root of Step 4. √(69) = 8.31

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 Range, standard deviation, coefficient of variation
 Let us first consider three sets of tree heights (m) data taken
from
three small plots

Sample 1: 19, 21, 17, 23, 18, 22, 24, mean = 20.6

Sample 2 : 27, 15, 24, 21, 18, 19, 20, mean = 20.6

Sample 3: 19, 16, 25, 31, 18, 14, 20, 22, mean = 20.6

 Each of these samples has a mean equal to 20.6m.

 Nevertheless the dispersion of the observations in the three
samples differs greatly

 Dispersion refers to the way in which the observations are

 spread out on either side of the mean 170
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 In the first sample there is little variability (or variation) among
the observations as they are all grouped within three units of the
mean.

 In the second sample only one observation (21) is closer to the

mean and some are as far away as six units

 In the third sample only one observation (20) is closer to the

mean and some are as far away as ten units

 If we describe each of these samples only by its arithmetic mean

of 20.6 we are not able to convey the information about the
degree of reliability that exists in each sample
171
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 Two of the commonly used measures of dispersion are the

range and the standard deviation

 Range
 This is the simplest measure of dispersion
 The range equals the value of the largest sample observation
minus the smallest sample observation
E.g. from observation of 10, 14, 8, 10, 15, 4, 7
 Minimum value in data = 7
 Maximum Value in the data = 15
 Range = MV–MV; 15–7 =

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 Cont.…
 Variance
 dispersion of data points around the mean
 Variance is also termed the mean squared deviation.
 Is the average squared deviation from the mean of a set of
data

 It used to find standard deviation

 Sample Variance can be calculated as the following
formula
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 Cont.…

Eg. Assume that the following five observations were a

sample
drawn from a population:

1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Then find its sample variance?

We start by calculating the mean: (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) / 5 = 3
Then, sample variance is calculated as:

 This gives us a sample variance of 2.5

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 Standard deviation
This is the unit of measurement used to measure
the
dispersion of individual observations about their arithmetic
mean.

The root mean squared deviation of a dataset

standard measure of the deviation of the entire data in
any
distribution.

Usually represented by s or σ
The value of the standard deviation is always positive
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 Cont.…

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 Cont.…

 Coefficient of variation (CV)

 The ratio of the standard deviation to the sample mean as
percentage is known as the coefficient of variation.

 Where, S is standard deviation & x is mean

 CV is relative standard deviation

 It is difficult to compare the variation that exists between
two
populations if the means are different
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 Cont.…
 Confidence Limits
 Suppose that the mean height of a sample of ten trees was
15.25 m
 This mean height is an estimate of the true population mean.
 We do not know the population mean, but we hope that our
sample estimate is close to the true figure.
 Perhaps it is likely that population mean lies in the interval
from 13.8 to 16.9 meter

 This interval is known as the confidence interval and the

figures 13.8 and 16.9 are known as the confidence limits
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 Cont.…

 Usually we express confidence limits with a certain level

of
probability (95%, 99%)

 This means, “we are 95% confident that population mean

lies in the interval 13.8 to 16.9,
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