ANAPHY LEC REVIEWER

➢ It consists of LAMELLAE arranged in an

irregular pattern of thin columns called
TRABECULAE.
Skeletal System
Functions:
On the basis of shape:
• Support 1. Long Bones – longer than they are wide and are
• Protection mostly compact bone. They have shafts with heads
• Assistance in movement at both ends.
• Mineral homeostasis (Storage and Release)
a. Location: all bones of the limbs except
o It stores 99% of the body’s calcium and on patella, wrist, ankle.
demand, bones releases minerals into the
blood to maintain critical mineral 2. Short Bones – generally cube-shaped and are
balances. mostly spongy bone.

• Blood cell production a. Location: wrist, ankle, patella.

o Red Bone Marrow – produces red blood b. Sesamoid bones – special type of short
cells, white blood cells, and platelets bone which forms within tendons.
through the process of Hemopoiesis.
3. Flat Bones – thin, flattened, and usually curved;
▪ Found in the developing bones of these bones have 2 thin layers of compact bone
the fetus and at the hip, ribs, with a layer of spongy bone in between.
sternum, vertebrae, skull, ends of
the humerus and femur on adults. a. Location: most skull bones, the ribs,
sternum.
• Triglyceride storage
4. Irregular Bones – do not fit on any of the preceding
o Yellow Bone Marrow – contains mainly categories.
adipocytes which store triglycerides which
are potential chemical energy reserve. a. Location: vertebrae (spinal column)

Bone Classes Bone Structure: Macroscopic and Microscopic

Osseous Tissue: Bone Structure (Macroscopic):

1. Compact Bone

➢ The dense part of the bone that looks

smooth and homogenous that provides
protection and support and resists
stresses produced by weight and
movement.

➢ It is the strongest form of bone tissue.

➢ It is found beneath the periosteum of all

bones.

➢ It is the bulk of the diaphysis of long bones.

➢ Composed of OSTEONS.

2. Spongy Bone

➢ AKA Trabecular or Cancellous bone tissue.

1. Diaphysis – the main portion of the bone (shaft or
➢ It does NOT contain OSTEONS. body) that is long and cylindrical. It is covered and
protected by a fibrous connective tissue called
➢ It is in the interior of the bone protected by PERIOSTEUM.
the compact bone.
2. Epiphyses – this is the proximal and distal ends of Bone Structure (Microscopic):
bones which is a thin layer of compact bone
enclosing an area filled with spongy bone.

3. Metaphyses – the regions between the diaphysis

and epiphyses.

❖ Epiphyseal Growth Plate – a layer of

hyaline cartilage that allows the diaphysis
to grow.

❖ It is then replaced by bone during ages 14-

24 which is the EPIPHYSEAL LINE.
1. Osteocytes – mature bone cells that are found
within the matrix in tiny cavities called LACUNAE.
4. Articular Cartilage – thin layer of hyaline cartilage
covering the epiphysis where the bone forms an
❖ Lacunae – arranged in concentric circles
articulation with another bone (joint).
called LAMELLAE around the CENTRAL
(HAVERSIAN) CANALS.
❖ It reduces friction and absorbs shock at
freely movable joints. 2. Central (Haversian) Canal – AKA Osteon which is
the central canal and matrix rings that run
❖ It lacks perichondrium and blood vessels
lengthwise through the bony matrix and carry blood
meaning it is only capable of limited vessels and nerves to all areas of the bone.
damage repair.
3. Canaliculi – tiny canals that radiate outward from
5. Periosteum – the tough connective tissue sheath
the central canals to all lacunae and connects all
which is associated with blood supply in areas not the bone cells to the nutrient supply.
covered by articular cartilage.
4. Perforating (Volkmann’s) Canals – run in the
❖ Sharpey’s fibers (perforating fibers) –
compact bone at right angles to the shaft which
secure the periosteum to the underlying
serve as the communication pathway from the
bone. outside of the bone to its interior (central canals).

❖ Has two layers:

5. Osseous Tissue – abundant extracellular matrix
(ECM).
i. Outer fibrous layer – composed
of dense connective tissue. ❖ 15% Water
❖ 30% Collagen fibers
ii. Inner osteogenic layer –
❖ 55% Mineralized Salts
composed of cells that also
allows cells to grow in thickness. 6. Calcium Phosphate – most abundant mineral salt
that combines with other mineral salts which is
❖ Function:
deposited in the framework formed by collagen and
then crystallizes/hardens also known as
i. It protects the bone. CALCIFICATION.

ii. It assists in fracture repair. 7. Calcium Salts – responsible for the hardness and
resist compression of the bones.
iii. It nourishes bone tissue.
8. Organic parts (Collagen) – contribute to the
iv. It is the attachment points for flexibility tensile strength of bones.
ligaments and tendons.

6. Medullary Cavity – AKA Marrow Cavity that is the

hollow cylindrical space within the diaphysis that
contains numerous blood cells.

❖ In adults, it has the fatty yellow bone

marrow inside.
9. Osteoprogenitor Cells – unspecialized bone stem
❖ In infants, it has the red bone marrow for cells which are the only bone cells that undergo
blood cell production. cell division. They are found along the inner portion
of the periosteum, in the endosteum, and in the
canals within bone that contain blood vessels.
 10. Osteoblasts – bone-building cells that synthesize
and secrete collage fibers and other organic 3. Small Periosteal veins – accompany their
substances. They initiate calcification and do not respective arteries.
undergo cell division. They surround themselves
with extracellular matrix and they secrete then
become trapped and become OSTEOCYTES. Nerve Supply:

11. Osteocytes – mature bone cells that are the main ❖ It accompanies the blood vessels that supply
cells in the bones which do not undergo cell bones and are sensitive to tearing or tension like
division. severe pain from fracture or a bone tumor.

12. Osteoclasts – huge cells derived from the fusion of

as many as 50 monocytes (WBCs) that are located Bone Formation and Development
at the endosteum which regulate blood calcium
levels. Ossification – AKA Osteogenesis which is the process of
bone formation. It occurs in the following situations:
13. Bone Resorption – breakdown of bone ❖ Initial formation of bones in an embryo and fetus
extracellular matrix by the release of powerful
lysosomal enzymes and acids from osteoclasts ❖ Growth of bones during infancy, childhood,
that causes digestion of protein and minerals. This adolescence until their adults
is also part of the normal development,
maintenance, and repair of bone. ❖ Remodeling of bones

❖ Repair of fractures throughout life

Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone

Arterial Supply: Initial Bone Formation in an Embryo and Fetus

1. Periosteal arteries – small arteries accompanied 1. Intramembranous Ossification – bones that form
by nerves that enter the diaphysis through many directly within mesenchyme which is arranged in
interosteonic (Volkmann’s or perforating) canal sheetlike layers that resemble membranes.
and supply the periosteum and other parts of the
compact bone. 2. Endochondral Ossification – bones form within
hyaline cartilage that develops from mesenchyme.
2. Nutrient artery – near the center of the diaphysis
and enters the nutrient foramen. Upon entering the
medullary cavity, it divides into the proximal and Intramembranous Ossification
distal branches. 1. Development of the Ossification Center

❖ These branches supply the inner part of ➢ Cells of the mesenchyme cluster together
the compact bone of the diaphysis and the and differentiate, first into
spongy bone tissue and red bone marrow. OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS then into
OSTEOBLASTS.
3. Metaphyseal arteries – arise from the arteries that
supply the associated joint that enter the ➢ Ossification Center – site of
metaphyses together with the nutrient artery and differentiation.
supplies the red bone marrow and bone tissue of
the metaphyses. ➢ Osteoblasts – secrete organic
extracellular matrix of bone until they are
4. Epiphyseal artery – arise from the arteries that surround by it.
supply the associated joint that enter the
epiphyses and supply the red bone marrow and 2. Calcification
bone tissue of the epiphyses.
➢ Secretion of the extracellular matrix stops,
Venous Supply: and the cells now become OSTEOCYTES
that lie in lacunae and extend their narrow
1. Nutrient veins – 1 or 2 nutrient veins accompany cytoplasmic processes into the canaliculi.
the nutrient artery and exit through the diaphysis.
➢ Calcium and other mineral salts are
2. Epiphyseal and Metaphyseal veins – numerous deposited, and extracellular matrix
epiphyseal veins and metaphyseal veins hardens or calcifies.
accompany their respective arteries and exit
through the epiphyses and metaphyses
respectively.
 3. Formation of Trabeculae 3. Development of the primary ossification center

➢ As the bone matrix forms, it develops intro ➢ Primary Ossification Center – region
trabecular that fuse with one another to where the bone tissue will replace most of
form SPONGY BONE. the cartilage. The nutrient artery
penetrates the perichondrium and the
➢ Connective tissue associated with BVs in calcifying cartilage model through a
the trabeculae differentiates into RED nutrient foramen in the midregion of the
BONE MARROW. cartilage model.

4. Development of the Periosteum ➢ It stimulates Osteoprogenitor cells at the

perichondrium to differentiate into
➢ Mesenchyme condenses at the periphery Osteoblasts.
of the bone and develops PERIOSTEUM.
➢ Osteoblasts begin to deposit ECM over the
➢ A thin layer of COMPACT BONE replaces remnants of calcified cartilage forming
the surface layers of the spongy bone. spongy bone trabeculae.

➢ Spongy bone remains at the center. ➢ Primary ossification spreads from this
central location toward both ends of the
➢ Newly formed bone is remodeled cartilage.
(destroyed / reformed) as the bone
transformed into adult size and shape. ➢ Once the perichondrium starts to form
bone, it is now known as PERIOSTEUM.

Endochondral Ossification ➢ Periosteal capillaries grow into the

disintegrating calcified cartilage to help
1. Development of the cartilage model induce the growth of a primary
ossification center.
➢ Cells in the mesenchyme crowed together
in the shape of the future bone, and then 4. Development of medullary (marrow) cavity
develop into CHONDROBLASTS.
➢ Osteoclasts break down some of the
➢ Chondroblasts – secrete cartilage newly formed spongy bone trabeculae.
extracellular matrix producing a
CARTILAGE MODEL which will be the ➢ This leaves a cavity, the MEDULLARY
future diaphysis consisting of HYALINE (MARROW) CAVITY, in the diaphysis
CARTILAGE. (shaft).

➢ Perichondrium – covering that develops ➢ Eventually most of the wall of the

around the cartilage model. diaphysis is replaced by compact bone.

2. Growth of the cartilage model 5. Development of the secondary ossification

center
➢ Once chondroblasts become deeply
buried in the cartilage extracellular matrix, ➢ Develop usually around the time of birth.
they will become CHONDROCYTES.
➢ Bone formation occurs but spongy bone
➢ Interstitial (Endogenous) Growth – remains in the interior of the epiphyses (no
growth from within where the cartilage medullary cavity is formed)
model grows in length by continual cell
division of chondrocytes and further ➢ Proceeds outward from the center of the
excretion of ECM. epiphysis towards the outer surface of the
bone.
➢ Appositional (Exogenous) Growth –
growth at the outer surface wherein growth 6. Formation of articular cartilage and the
of the cartilage thickness is mainly due to epiphyseal (growth) plate
the deposition of the ECM material on the ➢ Hyaline cartilage that covers the
cartilage surface of the model by new epiphyses becomes the articular
chondroblasts that develop from the cartilage.
perichondrium. ➢ Prior to adulthood, hyaline cartilage
remains between the diaphysis and
epiphysis as the Epiphyseal (Growth)
Plate that is the region responsible for the
lengthwise growth of long bones.
 Bone Growth: Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence ➢ Epiphyseal plate fades leaving a bony structure
which is called EPIPHYSEAL LINE.
Growth in Length

1. Interstitial growth of cartilage on the epiphyseal ➢ Closure of epiphyseal plate is a gradual process
side of the epiphyseal plate and is useful in determining:
o bone age,
2. Replacement of cartilage on the diaphyseal side of o adult height,
the epiphyseal plate with bone by endochondral o age at death (especially in infants,
ossification. children, and adolescence)

Epiphyseal (Growth) Plate – layer of hyaline cartilage in the

Growth in Thickness
metaphysis of a growing bone that consists of four zones.
➢ Bone can grow in thickness (diameter) only by
1. Zone of resting cartilage
appositional growth.

➢ Layer nearest to the epiphyses that

1. Formation of bone ridges
consists of small, scattered
chondrocytes.
o At the bone surface, periosteal cells
differentiate into OSTEOCLASTS which
➢ Resting: cells do not function in bone
secrete COLLAGEN FIBERS and other
growth, rather they anchor the epiphyseal
organic molecules that form bone ECM.
plate to the epiphysis of the bone.
o The OSTEOBLASTS become surrounded by
2. Zone of proliferating cartilage
the ECM and develop into OSTEOCYTES.

➢ Slightly larger chondrocytes in this zone

2. Formation of Endosteum
are arranged like stacks of coins.
o The ridges fold together and fuse.
➢ Chondrocytes undergo interstitial growth
as they divide and secrete ECM.
o The groove becomes a tunnel that
encloses the BV.
➢ The chondrocytes divide to replace those
that die at the diaphyseal side of the
o The former periosteum now becomes the
epiphyseal plate.
endosteum that lines the tunnel.

3. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage

3. Formation of Osteon

➢ Consists of large, maturing chondrocytes

o Osteoblasts in the endosteum deposit
arranged in columns.
bone ECM forming new concentric
lamellae.
4. Zone of calcified cartilage
o Formation of additional concentric
➢ Final zone is only a few cells thick and
lamellae proceeds inward toward the
consists mostly of chondrocytes that are
periosteal BV.
dead because the ECM around them has
calcified.
o Tunnel fills in and a new OSTEON is
created.
➢ Osteoclasts dissolve the calcified
cartilage.
4. Increase in bone thickness

➢ Osteoblasts and capillaries from the

o As an osteon is forming, osteoblasts under
diaphysis invade the area.
the periosteum deposit new
circumferential lamellae further
➢ Osteoblasts lay down the bone ECM
increasing the thickness of the bone.
replacing the calcified cartilage by the
process of Endochondral Ossification.
o Additional periosteal BVs become
enclosed like in step 1, the growth process
continues.
Epiphyseal (Growth) Plate

➢ Closes when adolescence comes to an end (age 18 Bone Remodeling

in female and 21 in males).
1. Resorption – destruction of bone ECM.
➢ Epiphyseal cartilage cells stop dividing and bone
replaces all remaining cartilage.
 o Osteoclast – releases enzymes that digest o Blood vessels are broken at the fracture
collagen fibers and other organic line causing leakage and eventually
substances. formation of a mass of blood around the
fracture site which is called HEMATOMA.
2. Deposition – formation of bone ECM.
o Osteoblast – rebuild bone. o Bone cells die due to the lack of blood at
the area and causes swelling and
inflammation.
Factors Affecting Bone Growth and Remodeling
o Phagocytes (Neutrophils and
1. Minerals Macrophage) and Osteoclasts begin to
o Calcium and Phosphorus remove the dead or damaged tissue
o Magnesium around the fracture hematoma.
o Fluorine
o Manganese o Last up to several weeks.

2. Vitamins 2. Reparative Phase

o Vitamin A – stimulates activity in
osteoblasts. o Fibrocartilaginous (Soft) Callus
o Vitamin C – collagen synthesis.
o Vitamin D – increase calcium absorption i. A mass of repair tissue consisting
from food in the GIT. of collagen fibers and cartilage
o Vitamin K and B12 – for other bone that bridge the broken ends of
proteins. bone.

3. Hormones ii. BVs grow into the fracture

hematoma.
o Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) –
produced by liver and bone tissue that iii. Phagocytes begin to clean up
stimulate osteoblasts, promote cell dead bone cells.
division at the epiphyseal plate and the
periosteum, and enhance synthesis of iv. Fibroblasts from periosteum
proteins for bone growth. invade the fracture site and
produce collagen fibers.
o Thyroid hormones – from thyroid gland
that stimulates osteoblasts. v. Cells in the periosteum develop
into chondroblasts and being to
o Insulin – from the pancreas that aid in the produce fibrocartilage.
synthesis of bone proteins.
vi. Takes about 3 weeks to form.
o Sex Hormones (Estrogen and
Testosterone) – increases osteoblast o Bony Callus
activity, increase synthesis of bone ECM,
sudden growth spurt during teenage years. i. Fibrocartilage is converted to
spongy bone.
i. Estrogens – shutdown growth at
epiphyseal plates (stop growth in ii. Osteoprogenitor cells develop
length) into osteoblasts which begin to
produce spongy bone trabeculae.
ii. Adulthood: Estrogen – slows
resorption by promoting iii. Trabeculae join the living and
apoptosis of osteoclasts. dead portions of the original bone
fragments.
o Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
o Calcitriol iv. Lasts about 3-4 months.
o Calcitonin
3. Bone Remodeling Phase
o Final phase of fracture repair
Bone Repair
o Dead portions of the original fragments of
1. Reactive Phase broken bone are gradually resorbed by
osteoclasts.
o Early inflammatory phase
o Compact bone replaces spongy bone
o 6-8 hours after the injury around the periphery of the fracture.
Two Divisions of the Skeleton: 33 vertebrae

1. Axial Skeleton – bones that form the longitudinal o 7 cervical

axis of the body which has 80 bones. o 12 thoracic
o Skull o 5 lumbar
o Hyoid o 5 fused vertebrae at the sacrum
o Ribs o 4 fused vertebrae at the coccyx
o Sternum
o Vertebrae / Spine
Joints
2. Appendicular Skeleton – bones from the limbs
and girdles that are “appended” or attached to the FUCTIONAL: amount of movement.
axial skeleton.
1. Synarthroses – immovable joints.
o Bones of the upper limbs and lower limbs
o Shoulder
2. Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joints.
o Hip bones
3. Diarthroses – freely movable joints.

Axial Skeleton: Skull

STRUCTURALLY: composition.
Mandible – largest and strongest facial bone.
1. Fibrous – immovable. (sutures)
8 cranial bones
2. Cartilaginous – most are slightly movable.
o Frontal
(symphysis)
o 2 parietals
o 2 temporals
3. Synovial – freely movable.
o Occipital
o Sphenoid Synovial Joints
o Ethmoid
1. Articular Cartilage – covers the ends of bones.
14 facial bones
2. Articular Space – joint surface is enclosed by a
o 2 nasals
sleeve or layer of fibrous connective tissue line with
o 2 maxillae
a smooth synovial membrane.
o 2 zygomatic
o 2 lacrimal
3. Joint Cavity – articular capsule encloses this cavity
o 2 palatines
which contains lubricating synovial fluid.
o 2 inferior nasal conchae
o Mandible
4. Reinforcing Ligaments – fibrous layer of the
o Vomer
capsule reinforced with ligaments.
Paranasal Sinuses – cavities that are in bones near nasal
Synovial Joints: according to SHAPE.
cavities which are air-filled.
1. Plane Joint
Hyoid Bone – Supports the tongue, neck muscles, and
o Flat articular shape
pharynx with no direct attachments to other bones.
o MOVEMENT: Gliding, slipping
Fontanels – soft spot in fetal skull that allow deformation at
birth and calcify to form sutures. 2. Hinge Joint
o Cylindrical end of one bone fits into a trough-
shapes surface of another bone
Axial Skeleton: Vertebrae o MOVEMENT: angular in just one plane;
unaxial
Functions:
3. Pivot Joint
o Encloses spinal cord.
o Rounded end of one bone fits into a sleeve or
o Supports head.
ring of bone
o Point of attachment for muscles of back, ribs, and
o MOVEMENT: Around its long axis
pelvic girdle.

Regions (Superior to Inferior) 4. Condylar Joint

o Egg-shaped articular surface of one bone fits
o Cervical into an oval concavity of another
o Thoracic o MOVEMENT: Side to side, back and forth;
o Lumbar biaxial
o Sacrum
o Coccyx
5. Saddle Joint
o Each articular surface has both convex and
concave areas.
o MOVEMENT: biaxial

6. Ball-and-Socket Joint
o Spherical head of one bone fits into a round
socket in another
o MOVEMENT: multiaxial (all axes + rotation)