SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeleton Classification of bones according to shape:

• Dried-up body • Long bones
• Includes joints, cartilages, and ligaments o Longer bones than wider.
• Divided into two parts (page 6): o Have a shaft with enlarged ends.
o Axial skeleton • Flat bones
▪ Bones that forms the o Thin, flattened and usually curved.
longitudinal axis of the body. o Have two thin layers of compact bone
▪ Central axis; medial line. sandwiching a layer of spongy bone
o Appendicular skeleton btwn them.
▪ Bones of the limbs and girdles • Short bones
that attached them to the o Cube-shaped and contain mostly
axial skeleton. spongy with an outer layer of
▪ Lateral axis; appendages or an compact bone.
“extension”. o Sesamoid bones – forms within
Bones: An overview tendons; special type of short bone.
Function of the Bones • Irregular bones
• Support o Mainly spongy bone with an outer
o Forms the internal framework that layer of compact bone.
supports the body. o Bones that didn’t fit to the preceding
• Protection types of bones falls into irregular
o Protects internal/soft organs from bones.
injuries (skull of the head).
• Movement Structure of bone
o Skeletal muscles use the bones as a• Diaphysis (shaft) – makes up of the bones
length and composed of compact bone.
levers to move the body and its parts.
• Blood cell formation • Periosteum – fibrous connective tissue
o “hematopoiesis” that occurs in the membrane that covers and protects the
marrow of some bones. diaphysis.
• Perforating fibers (sharpey’s fiber) –
Classifications of the Bone connective tissue fibers that secures the
• Adult humans have 206 bones in the body. periosteum to the underlying bone.
• Two basic types of osseous (bone) tissue: • Epiphyses
o Compact bone – dense and looks o Proximal epiphysis – end of a long
smooth and homogenous. bone that is closest to the center of
o Spongy bone – spiky, open the body.
appearance like sponge o Distal epiphysis – end of a long bone
that is far or away from the center of
the body.
o ends of the long bones.
o Consists of a thin layer of compact
bone enclosing an area filled with
spongy bone.
• Articular cartilage
o Covers the external surface of the
epiphyses.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Glassy hyaline cartilage o Consists of central canal and matrix
o Provides smooth surface to decrease rings.
friction at the joint when covered by o The structural and functional unit of
lubricating fluid. compact bone.
• Epiphyseal line – remnant of the epiphyseal
plate.
• Epiphyseal plate
o flat plate of hyaline cartilage.
o Causes the lengthwise growth of a
long bone.
o Seen in a young, growing bone.
• Endosteum – delicate connective tissue that
covers the inner bony surface of the shaft.
• Medullary cavity
o The cavity of the shaft in infants.
o Storage area of red marrow.
• Red marrow
o produces blood cells.
o Children until the age of 6-7 contains
• Canaliculi
red marrow that gradually replaces by
o Tiny canals that radiates outward
yellow marrow.
from the central canals to all lacunae.
o In adults, red marrow is confined in
Forms transportation system that
the spongy bone of the axial skeleton,
connects all the bone cells to the
hip bones, epiphyses of long bones
nutrient supply and waste
(femur, humerus)
removal services through hard
• Yellow marrow – stores adipose (fat) tissue. bone matrix.
• Bone markings – surfaces in the bones that
are not smooth but scarred with bumps,
holes, and ridges.

Microscopic Anatomy
• Trabeculae – Small needlelike pieces of bone
in compact bone.
• Osteocytes
o mature bone cells.
o Found in the lacunae.
• Lacunae – tiny cavities in bone matrix.
• Lamellae – concentric circles arrangement of
lacunae.
• Central canals (haversian canals)
o Canal network in bones that contain
blood vessels.
• Osteon (haversian system)
SKELETAL SYSTEM
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
• The growth is controlled by growth hormones,
during puberty, by sex hormones.
• Ends during adolescence when epiphyseal plate
are replaced by bones.
• Osteoclasts
o Giant bone-destroying cells.
o Breaks down bone matrix and releases
calcium ions into the blood.
o These cells are stimulated by hormone
called parathyroid hormone (PTH) that
released by parathyroid glands when Ca
ion drops below the homeostatic level.
o Hypercalcemia – when the blood Ca ion
level is too high, it is deposited in the bone
• Perforating canal (volkmann’s canal)
matrix as hard Ca salts by osteoblasts.
o Runs in the compact bone at right angles
• Bone remodeling – essential in bone to retain
to the shaft (diaphysis) and central canal.
normal proportion and strength during long-bone
o Communication pathway from the outside
growth as the body increase in size and weight.
of the bone to its interior (and the central
canal). • 2 controlling mechanism
o Calcium uptake and release
Bone formation, Growth, and Remodeling o Bone remodeling
Bone formation and Growth • Stresses coming from muscle pull and gravity
• The skeleton is formed from the two strongest and determine where bone matrix is to be broken
most supportive tissues in the body: down or formed for the skeleton to remain strong.
o Cartilage • Rickets
o Bone o a disease where calcification fails in
• Embryos are made up primarily of hyaline children.
cartilage, but as we age, these cartilages are o Happens in Vit. D deficient individual.
replaced by bones. o Vitamin D – calcium absorption.
• Cartilages remains on isolated sites such as bridges
of the nose, parts of the ribs, and joints.
• Flat bones forms on fibrous membranes.
• Bones use hyaline cartilages as their “model”.
• Ossification – process of bone formation.
• Involved 2 major phases:
o Osteoblasts – Bone-building cells
• Bone matrix – intracellular substance of the bone
that forms most of the mass of the bone.
• Growing bones as they lengthen, they also widens.
With the help of osteoblast in the periosteum that
Bone Fracture
adds bone matrix to the outside of the diaphysis as
osteoclast in the endosteum remove bone from • Fracture – breaking of bones.
the inner wall of diaphysis, enlarging the wall of o Closed (simple) fracture – bone breaks
medullary cavity. cleanly but doesn’t penetrate the skin.
• Appositional growth – process of bone growth in o Open (compound) fracture – broken bone
diameter (girth). penetrates the skin.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Common types of fractures: blood at the site of damage and
disposal of dead tissue by
phagocytes.
▪ Connective tissue cells of various
types forms internal and external
masses of tissue repairs that
collectively known as
fibrocartilage callus.
▪ Calluses came from the cells of
endosteum and periosteum that
contains several elements —
cartilage matrix, bone matrix, and
collagen fibers — acts as a “splint”
• Reduction to the broken bone that closes the
o realignment of the broken bone ends. gap.
o Treats fractures. o Bony callus forms
o Close reduction ▪ Fibrocartilage is replaced by bony
▪ Bone ends are coaxed back into callus as more osteoblasts and
their normal position by hand. osteoclasts migrate into the area
▪ Treating dislocated bones. and multiply.
o Open reduction o Bone remodeling occurs
▪ Surgery is needed. ▪ Few weeks or months, depending
▪ Bone ends is secured by pin or on the size and site of the break,
wires. the bony callous is remodeled
o In a reduced bones, usually immobilized by according to the mechanical
cast/traction for the healing process to stresses acted upon it.
begin.
o Usually takes up to 6-8 weeks in a simple
fracture but longer when larger bones and
the patient is old.
• Repair of bone fractures involves four major events:
o Hematoma forms
▪ ruptured blood vessels cause of
bone fracture.
▪ A blood-filled swelling/bruise
hematoma forms.
Axial Skeleton
▪ Bone cells deprived of nutrition
Skull
dies.
o Fibrocartilage callus forms • A bone structure that protects the brain.
▪ Early events of tissue repair are the • Have 2 sets of bones:
growth of new capillaries o Cranium – encloses and protects the brain
tissue.
(granulation tissue) in the clotted
o Facial bones – forms a cradle for the
organs responsible for our senses that is
open to the anterior and allow facial
muscles to express our feelings.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Parietal bone – paired parietal bones
forms most superior and lateral walls of
the cranium. Sagittal suture is formed at
the midline where two parietal meet, and
the coronal suture formed where the two
parietal bones meet the frontal bone.
o Temporal bone – lie inferior to the parietal
bones and join them at the squamous
suture. Several bone markings appear on
this bone.
▪ External acoustic meatus – canal
that leads to the eardrums and the
middle ear. Route of sound to
enter the ear.
o Styloid process – sharp, needlelike
projection, inferior to the external auditory
meatus.
▪ Attachment point ofmany neck
muscles.
o Zygomatic process – thin bridge of bone
that joins with the cheek-bone anteriorly.
o Mastoid process
▪ Full of air cavities (mastoid
sinuses), a rough porjection
posterior and inferior to the
external meatus.
▪ Attachment site for some
muscle of the neck.
▪ Close to the middle ear — high
• Sutures risk spot for infection — that
o Interlocking, immovable joints. they might get infected too,
o All but one of the bones of the skull are called mastoiditis.
joined by this. o Jugular foramen
• Mandible (jawbone) – attached to the rest of the ▪ junction of the occipital and
skull by a freely moveable joint. temporal bones.
• Cranium – boxlike; composed of 8 large flat bones. ▪ Allow passage of the jugular
Except for two sets of paired bones (parietal and vein, the largest vein of the
temporal), they are all single bones. head that drains blood from
o Frontal bone – forms the forehead, bony the brain.
projections under the eyebrows, and the ▪ Anterior to it in the cranial
superior part of each eye’s orbit. cavity is the internal acoustic
meatus.
o Internal acoustic meatus – transmits
cranial nerves VII and VIII (facial and
vestibulocochlear nerves).
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Carotid canal
▪ anterior to the jugular foramen
on the skull’s inferior aspects.
▪ Which the internal carotid
artery runs, supplying blood to
most of the brain.
Occipital bone
o most posterior bone of the cranium.
o Forms the base and back wall of the skull.
▪ This bone joins the parietal bones
anteriorly at the lamboid suture.
o Foramen magnum
▪ Large opening, “large hole” at the
base of this bone.
▪ Surrounds the lower part of the
brain and allows the spinal cord to
connect with the brain.
o Occipital condyles
▪ Lateral to the foramen Magnum on
each side; rockerlike.
▪ Rest on the first vertebrae of the
spinal column.
• Sphenoid bone
o Butterfly-shaped that spans the width of
the skull and forms part of the floor of the
cranial cavity.
o Sella turcica (turk’s saddle) – small
depression in the midline of sphenoid.
Forms a snug enclosure for the pituitary
gland.
o Foramen ovale – large oval opening in line
with the posterior end of the sella turcica.
Allows fibers of cranial nerve V (trigeminal
nerve) to pass to the chewing muscles of
the lower jaw (mandible).
o Optic canal – allows optic nerve to pass to
the eye.
o Superior orbital fissure – slitlike; which the
cranial nerves controlling eye movements
(III IV, V) pass.
o Sphenoidal sinuses – air cavities in the
central part of the sphenoid bone.

A: the maxilla
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Ethmoid bone ▪ Lighten the skull boned and
o Irregularly shaped and lies anterior to the amplify sounds we make as we
sphenoid. speak.
o Forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part • Sinusitis – infections in the areas of the mucosal
of the medial walls of the orbits. linings that is continuous in the nose and throat
o Cristal galli migrates to the sinuses.
▪ projection from its superior
o Can cause headache or upper jaw pain,
surface.
depending on which sinuses are infected.
▪ “Cock’s comb”.
▪ Outermost covering of the brain • Palatine bones
attaches to this projection. o Paired palatine bones lies superior to the
o Cribriform plates palatine process of the maxillae.
▪ small holes on each side of the o Forms the posterior part of the hard
cristal galli. palate.
▪ Allow nerve fibers carrying o Failure of these or the palatine processes
impulses from the olfactory (smell) to fuse medially results to cleft lip and
palate.
receptors of the nose to reach the
brain.
o Superior nasal conchae and the middle
nasal conchae – extensions of the ethmoid
bone, forms part of the lateral walls of the
nasal cavity.

Facial bones

• 14 bones make up the face. 12 are paired; only the

mandible and vomer are single.

• Maxillae (maxillary bone)

o Fuse to form the upper jaw.
o All facial bones except the mandible joins
the maxillae.
o Main or “keystone” bones of the face.
o Carries the upper teeth in the Alveolar
process.
o Palatine processes
▪ Extensions of the maxillae
▪ Forms the anterior part of the hard
palate of the mouth.
o It also contains sinuses that into drain
nasal passages. • Zygomatic bones
o Paranasal sinuses o Commonly known as cheek bones.
▪ Naming reveals their position o Also forms a good-sized portion of the
surrounding the nasal cavity. lateral walls of the orbits.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Lacrimal bones o Suspended in the mid neck region about
o Lacrimal = tear 2cm (1 in) above the larynx (voicebox),
o Finger-sized bones forming part of the where it is anchored by ligaments into the
medial wall of each orbit. styloid processes of the temporal bone.
Had a groove that serves as a passageway for tears o Horshoe-shaped, with a body and two
pairs of horns.
• Nasal bones
o Serve as a movable base for the tongue
o Small rectangular bones forming the bridge
of the nose. and as an attachment point for the neck
muscles to raise and lower the larynx when
o (Lower part of the skeleton of the nose is
we swallow and speak.
made up of hyaline cartilage).
• Vomer bone
Vertebral column (spine)
o Vomer = plow; refers to the bones shape.
o Single bones in the median line of the • Also known as spine, serving as the axial support of
nasal cavity. the body.
o Forms the inferior part of the bony nasal • Extends from the skull (supports) and to the pelvis
septum, that seperstes the 2 nostrils. where it transmits the weight of the body to the
• Inferior nasal conchae lower limbs.
o Thin, curved bones projecting medially • Formed by 26 irregular bones connected and
from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. reinforced by ligaments.
o Similar to the superior and middle conchae • Before birth, the spine consists of 33 vertebrae,
but are parts of the ethmoid bone. but 9 of these eventually fuse to form 2 composite
• Mandible bones: the sacrum and the coccyx.
o Lower jaw • The 24 single vertebrae is divided into different
o The largest and strongest bone of the face. parts:
o Forms the only freely moveable joints in o Cervical vertebrae – 7 vertebrae of the
the skull. This joints can be located just neck
anterior to your ears and opening and o Thoracic vertebrae – 12 vertebrae, where
closing your mouth. the ribs are attached.
o Body – horizontal part of the mandible o Lumbar vertebrae – 5 vertebrae
forms the chin. supporting the lower back.
o Rami – two upright bars of bone extend • Intervertebral discs
from the body to connect the mandible o pads of flexible fibrocartilage to separate
with the temporal bone. individual vertebrae.
o Alveoli (sockets) – where lower teeth lies. o Cushions, absorb shocks, and provides
o Alveolar process – alveoli sockets lies here. flexibility.
o Superior edge of the mandibular body. o 90% water content in young individual and
• Hyoid bone are spongy and compressible. As the
o Not really a part of the skull but closely individual age, water content decreases,
related to the mandible and temporal the discs becomes harder, and less
bones. compressible.
o Does not articulate (forms a joint) with any • Herniated (slipped) discs
other bone. o drying of the discs, along with a weakening
of the ligaments of the vertebral column.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Can happen in older people and when the o Vertebral arch – arch formed from the
vertebral column is subjected to joining of all posterior extensions, laminae
exceptional twisting forces. and pedicles, from the vertebral body.
o Numbness and excruciating pain can result o Vertebral foramen – canal through which
if the portruding discs presses on the the spinal cord passes.
spinal cord. • Transverse processes – two lateral projections
• Primary curvatures from the vertebral arch.
o the spinal curvatures in the thoracic and • Spinous processes – single projection arising from
sacral regions. the posterior aspect of the vertebral arch (act. The
o Present when we are born; produces the C- fused lamina)
shaped spine of the new born baby. • Superior articular process and inferior articular
• Secondary curvatures process – painted projections lateral to the
o Curvatures in the cervical and lumbar vertebral foramen, allowing a vertebra to form
regions. joints with adjacent vertebrae.
o Develop some time after birth.
o In adults, allow us to center our body
weight on our lower limbs.
o Cervical curvature appears when a baby
starts to raise its head.
o Lumbar curvature appears when the a
baby begins to walk.

Cervical Vertebrae (C1 – C7)

• Forms the neck region of the spine.
• Atlas (C1)
o has no body.
o Superior surface of its transverse process
contain large depression that receive the
• Abnormal spine curvature occipital condyles of the skull.
o Scoliosis – exaggerated sideway curvature o This joints allows you to nod.
of the spine. • Axis (C2)
o Kyphosis –exaggerated forward curvature
o Acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas
of the spine; slouch (and skull) above.
o Lordosis –exaggerated inward curvature of o Has a dens — large upright process. That
the spine; duck acts as a pivot point.
• Structural pattern of the vertebrae • The joint btwn these two allows you to rotate your
o Body or Centrum – disclike, weight-bearing
head from side to side.
part of the vertebra facing anteriorly in the
vertebral column. • Typical vertebrae (C3 – C7)
o Smallest and lightest version of vertebrae.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Their spinous processes are short and
divided into 2 branches
o Transverse processes of the cervical
vertebrae contain foramina (openings)
through which the vertebral arteries pass
on their way to the brain.
• Thoracic vertebrae (T1 – T12)
o All of them are typical.
o Larger than the cervical vertebrae; only
vertebrae that articulates with the ribs.
o The body is somewhat heart-shaped and
has 2 coastal facets (articulating surfaces)
on each side, which receive the head of
the ribs.
o Transverse process of each thoracic
vertebrae articulate with the knoblike
tubercles of the ribs.
o Spinous process is long and hooks sharply
downward, causing the vertebra to look
like a giraffe’s head from the side.
• Lumbar vertebrae (L1 – L5)
o Massive, block like bodies that are
somewhat kidney bean-shaped.
o Short, hatchet-shaped spinous process
make them look like a moose head from
the lateral aspect.
o The sturdiest of the vertebrae.
• Sacrum
o Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae.
o Superiorly articulates with L5, and
inferiorly connects with the coccyx.
o Ala – winglike; articulates laterally with the
hip bone, forming sacroiliac joint.
o Forms the posterior wall of pelvis.
o Posterior midline surface is roughened by
median sacral hiatus.
• Coccyx
o Formed from the fusion of 3 – 5 tiny, Thoracic Cage
irregularly shaped vertebrae. Bony thorax – includes the sternum, ribs, and thoracic
o Human “tailbone” — a vestigial remnant vertebrae.

Routinely called thoracic cage — forms a protective

cage of slender cage and cartilages around the organs
of the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs, and major blood
vessels).
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
▪ It is done in the sternum because it
is close to the body surface and
has easy access on hematopoietic
(blood-forming) tissue for
inspecting blood disease.
• Ribs
o 12 pairs of ribs in the thoracic cage.
o All the ribs articulates posteriorly with the
vertebral column and then curved
downward toward the anterior body
• Sternum surface.
o Breastbone o True ribs – 1st 7 pairs of the ribs that
o Typical flat bone and the result of fusion of directly attaches to the sternum by costal
the 3 bones: manubrium, body, and cartilage.
xiphoid process. o False ribs – next 5 pairs that is attached
o Attached directly to the 7 pairs of ribs via indirectly or not attached at all.
costal cartilages. ▪ Floating ribs – the last 2 pairs of
o Costal cartilages – bars of hyaline structure ribs that is not attached to the
that serves to prolong the ribs forward; sternum.
contributes to the elasticity of the thorax. o Intercostal spaces
o Has 3 important bony landmarks; jugular ▪ Spaces btwn the ribs
notch, sternal angle, and the xiphisternal ▪ Filled with the intercostal muscle,
joint. which aids in breathing.
▪ Jugular notch – concave upper
border of the manubrium; can be Appendicular Skeleton
palpated easily; generally is at the Composed of 126 bones of the limbs (appendages),
level of 3rd thoracic vertebrae. pectoral and pelvic girdle, which attaches the limb to
▪ Sternal angle – manubrium and the axial skeleton.
body meet at a slight angle to each
other; forms transverse ridge at Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
the level of the 2nd ribs Pectoral girdle or Shoulder girdle consists of two
▪ Used as reference point in bones: clavicle and scapula.
counting ribs. • Clavicles
▪ Xiphisternal joint – point where o Collarbones; comes in pair
the sternal body and xiphoid o Slender, doubly curved bones.
process fuse. Lies at the level of 9th o Each of clavicle attaches to the manubrium
thoracic vertebra. of sternum medially (at its sternal end) and
o Sternal puncture to the scapula laterally, where it helps to
▪ Process of inserting a needle into form the shoulder joint.
the marrow of sternum; where the o Acts as a brace to hold the arm away from
sample is withdrawn.
the top of the thorax and helps prevent
shoulder dislocation.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Broken clavicle results to the whole region ▪ Each shoulder girdle attaches to
of shoulder to cave in medially. the axial skeleton at only one point
— the sternoclavicular joint.
▪ The loose attachment of the
scapula allows it to slide back and
forth against the thorax as muscle
act.
▪ The glenoid cavity is shallow, and
the shoulder joint is poorly
reinforced by ligaments.
▪ This characteristics has a
drawback, the shoulder girdle is
easily dislocated.

• Scapulae
o Shoulder blades, commonly known as
“wings” because it flares when we move
our arms posteriorly.
o Not directly attached to the axial skeleton.
o Loosely held in place by trunk muscles.
o Each triangular scapula as a flattened body
with 3 borders: superior, medial
(vertebral), and lateral (axillary).
o Also has 3 angles: superior, inferior, and
lateral.
o Glenoid cavity – a shallow socket that
receives the head of the arm bone, is in Bones of the Upper Limbs
the lateral angle. 30 separate bones forms the skeletal framework of
o Has 2 important processes: each upper limb, including the arm, forearm, and hand.
▪ Acromion – enlarged lateral end of
the spine of the scapula. • Arm
▪ Coracoid process – beaklike; points o Formed by a single bone humerus.
laterally at the top of the shoulder o Humerus
and anchors some of the muscles ▪ Typical long bone
of the arm. ▪ Has a rounded head in its proximal
o Acromioclavicular joint – where acromion end that fits to the shallow glenoid
connects with the clavicle laterally. cavity of the scapula.
o Suprascapular notch – large; medial to the o Anatomical neck – a slight constriction
coracoid process; nerve passageway. inferior to the head.
o The shoulder girdle is very light and allows o Intertubercular sulcus – separates the 2
upper limb exceptionally free movement, bony projections that is anterolateral to
due to the following factors: the head:
▪ Greater tubercle
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
▪ Lesser tubercle
▪ Sites of muscle attachment.
o Surgical neck – distal to the tubercle; most
frequently fractured part of the humerus.
o Deltoid tuberosity
▪ roughened area in the midpoint of
the shaft.
▪ Where the large, fleshy deltoid
muscle of the shoulder attaches.
o Radial groove
▪ Runs obliquely down to the
posterior aspect of the shaft.
▪ Marks the course of the radial
nerve — important nerve of the
upper limb. • Forearm
▪ Trochlea – medial; distal end of the o Consists of 2 bones — radius and ulna.
humerus; looks like a spool. o Radius
▪ Capitulum – lateral; ball-like; can ▪ if in anatomical position, lateral
be outlined with a “C” from the bone; on the thumbside of the
anterior view. forearm.
o Coronoid fossa – depression above the ▪ Hand is rotated, palm faces
trochlea anteriorly. backward; the distal end of the
o Olecranon fossa – depression on the radius crosses over and ends up
posterior surface. medial to the ulna.
o Medial epicondyle and lateral epicondyle o Radioulnar joints – small; articulates
– it flanks the 2 depressions (olecranon proximally and distally the radius and ulna.
and coronoid); allows the corresponding o Interosseous membrane – flexible;
processes of the ulna to move freely when connection along the entire length of the 2
the elbow is bent and extended. bones.
o Styloid process – found at the distal end of
radius and ulna.
o The disc-shaped head of the radius forms a
joint with the capitulum of humerus.
o Radial tuberosity – below the head; where
the tendons of the biceps muscle attaches.
o Ulna – if in anatomical position, medial
bone of the fore arm.
o Coronoid process– anterior; on the
proximal end of ulna
o Olecranon – posterior
o Trochlea notch – separates coronoid
process and olecranon.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Together these 2 processes grip the • For bearing weights
trochlea of the humerus kn a curved • The reproductive organs and part of the large
“tongue-in-groove”-like joint intestine lie within and protected by the pelvis.
• Hand • Hip bone is formed by the fusion of 3 bones:
o Consists of carpals, metacarpals, and o Ilium – connects posteriorly with the
phalanges. sacrum at the sacroiliac joint — large
o Carpal bones – 8 bones; arranged in two flaring bone that forms most of the hip
irregular rows of four bones each. Forms bone.
the part of the hand called carpus. o Alae – winglike portions of the ilia.
o Carpus – wrist. o Iliac crest – upper edge of an ala;
o Bound together by ligaments that restrict important anatomical landmark for those
movements btwn them. who give intramuscular injections.
o Palm of the hand contains metacarpals – o Anterior superior iliac spine where the
numbered 1 to 5 from the thumb side of iliac crest ends anteriorly and posteriorly in
the hand toward the little finger. When fist the posterior superior iliac spine; small
in clenched, heads of the metacarpals
inferior spines located below these.
become as the knuckles.
o Ischium – “sit-down bone” — it forms the
o Phalanges
most inferior part of the coxal bone.
▪ Bones of the fingers.
o Ischial tuberosity – roughened area that
▪ Each hand has 14 phalanges.
receives body weight when sitting.
▪ 3 in each finger: proximal, middle,
o Ischial spine – superior to the tuberosity;
distal.
landmark particularly in pregnant women;
▪ Only the thumb has only proximal
narrows the outlet of the pelvis where the
and distal.
baby pass through during birth.
o Greater sciatic notch – allows blood vessel
and the large sciatic nerve to pass from the
pelvis posteriorly into the thigh.
▪ Injections in the buttocks is
always given in this area to
avoid possible nerve damage.
o Pubis – most anterior and inferior part of
the coxal bone.
o Obturator foramen – fusion of rami of the
pubis anteriorly and the ischium
posteriorly forms a bar encloses this bone;
it is an opening that allows blood vessels
and nerves to pass into the anterior part of
Bone of the pelvic girdle the thigh.
• Pelvic girdle – formed by 2 coxal bones: hip bone o Pubic symphysis – cartilaginous joint
and sacrum. formed by pubic bones that articulates
• Pelvis – formed by pelvic girdle; coxal bones, anteriorly.
sacrum, and coccyx. o Acetabulum – deep socket where ilium,
• Large and heavy that are attached to the L5 lumbar ischium, and pubis fuses together; “vinegar
vertebra. cup”
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
receives the head of the thigh bone.
o Bony pelvis is divided into 2 regions:
o False pelvis – superior to the true pelvis;
area medial to the flaring portions of the
ilia.
o True pelvis – surrounded by bone and lies
inferior to the flaring parts of the ilia and
the pelvic brim.
o The dimension of true pelvis is important
in women. It should be large enough for
the baby’s head to pass through at
childbirth.
o Outlet – inferior opening of the pelvis
measured btwn the ischial spine.
o Inlet – superior opening btwn the right
and left sides of the pelvic brim.
o Difference between the characteristics of
male and female pelvis
▪ Female inlet is larger and more
circular.
▪ Female pelvis as a whole is
shallower, and the bones are
lighter and thinner.
▪ Female ilia flares laterally, giving
them more curvy hips.
▪ Female sacrum is shorter and less
curved.
Bones of the Lower Limb
▪ Ischial spines are shorter and
Lower limb carries our total body weight.
farther apart; thus the outlet is
• Thigh
larger.
o Femur or thigh bone; only bone in the
▪ Female pubic arch is more rounded
thigh.
because the angle of the pubic
arch is larger. o Heaviest, strongest, and the longest bone
in the body.
o Its proximal end has a ball-like head, a
neck, and a greater trochanter and lesser
trochanter.

o Separated anteriorly by intertrochanteric

line and separated posteriorly by
intertrochanteric crest. These markings
and the gluteal tuberosity are located in
the proximal end of the shaft; serves as
sites for muscle attachment.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Head of the femur articulates with the o Fibula – lies alongside the tibia laterally,
deep, secure socket of the acetabulum of forms joint with it proximally and distally,
the hip bone. and is thin and sticklike
o Same as the surgical neck of the humerus, ▪ Has no part in forming knee joint.
surgical neck of the femur is still a ▪ Lateral malleolus – distal end;
common fracture site, especially in old age. forms the outer part of the ankle.
o Femur slants medially as it runs downward
to join with the leg bones; this brings the
knees in line with the body’s center of the
gravity.
o Medial course of the femur is more
noticeable in women because their pelvis
is wider.
o Distally on the femur are lateral condyle
and medial condyle; they articulates with
the tibia below.
o These condyles are separated posteriorly
by deep intercondylar fossa.
o Anteriorly on the distal femur is the
smooth patellar surface, which forms a
joint with the patella/kneecap.
• Leg
o Tibia and fibula
o Interosseous membrane – connects these
two bones along their length.
o Tibia (shinbone) – larger and more medial.
o At the proximal end are the medial
condyle and lateral condyle separated by
the intercondylar eminence. The 2
condyles articulates with the distal end of
the femur to form the knee joint.
o Patellar ligament — encloses the patella —
sesamoid bone that attaches to the tibial
tuberosity (roughened area on the
anterior tibial surface.
o Distally, medial malleolus (process) forms
the inner bulge of the ankle.
o Anterior surface of the tibia is a sharp
ridge.
o Anterior border – unprotected by muscles
can be felt easily beneath the skin.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
Foot o Ligaments that binds the foot bones
together, and tendons of the foot muscles
help to hold the bones firmly in an arched
position but still allow a certain give or
springiness.
o Weak arches are refered to as fallen arches
or flat feet.
Prostheses
• Artificial joints
• Consisted of a metal ball on a stem (the femoral
head) and a cup-shaped polyethylene socket
(acetabulum) anchored to the pelvis by polymethyl
methacrylate cement (bone cement).

• ROBODOC machine – helps in performing surgeries

for prosthetics.

• Foot has two functions:

o To support our body weight.
o Acts as a lever that allow us to propel our
bodies to walk and run
o Tarsus – forms the posterior half of the
foot; composed of 7 tarsal bones.
o Body weight is carried mostly by two • CAD/CAM – computer-aided design and computer-
largest tarsals: Calcaneus (heel bone) and aided manufacturing; reduces the time and cost of
the talus (ankle). individual joints.
o The talus lies superior to the calcaneus • Osteochondral grafting – healthy bone and
that articulates with the tibia. cartilage are removed and transplanted to an
o Like the fingers it has 3 phalanges. injured joint.
▪ Proximal, middle, and distal.
▪ Except the 2 great toes. • Autologous chondrocyte implantation – healthy
chondrocytes are removed, cultivated in the lab,
and implanted to the damaged joint.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Stem cell regeneration – undifferentiated stem
cells are removed from the bone marrow and
placed in a gel, which is packed into an area of
eroded cartilage.

Joints
• also called articulation.
• Sites where 2 or more bones meet.
• Hold bones together securely but also give rigid
skeleton mobility.
• Classified in two ways: functionally and
structurally.
A: has a joint cavity filled with lubricating fluid instead
• Synarthroses – immovable joints. of cartilage or fibrous tissue separating the articulating
• Amphiartroses – slightly movable joints. bones.
• Diarthroses – freely moveable joints.
• Immovable and slight moveable joints are Fibrous joints
restricted mainly tk the axial skeleton, where firm • Bones are united by fibrous tissue.
attachments and protection of internal organs are • E.g. sutures of the skull.
priorities.
• In sutures, the irregular edges of the bones
• Structurally: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial interlock and are bound tightly together by
joints. connective tissue fibers, allowing no movement.
• Fibrous joints – immovable • Gomphoses – “peg-in-socket”; fibrous joint found
• Cartilaginous joints – somewhat immovable and where the teeth meet the facial bones.
slightly immovable but mostly amphiarthrotic. • Syndesmoses – connecting fibers are longer than
• Synovial joints – freely moveable. those sutures; thus giving the joint more “give”;
joint connecting the distal ends of the tibia and
fibula is a syndesmosis.

Cartilaginous joints
• Come in 2 varieties that differs on which type of
cartilage is involved.
• Synchondroses – are immovable (synarthrotic)
joints linked by hyaline cartilage; includes
epiphyseal plates of growing long bones and the
joints btwn ribs 1-7 and the sternum.
• Symphyses – are slightly moveable
(amphiarthrotic) joints linked by discs of
fibrocartilage; includes invertebral discs of the
spinal column and the pubic symphysis of the
pelvis.

Synovial joints
• Joints in which the articulating bonee ends are
separated by a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid;
all joints of the limb are synovial joints.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Have 4 distinguishing ft. Types of Synovial Joints based on Shape
o Articular cartilage – articular (hyaline) • Shape of articulating bone surfaces determines
cartilage covers the end of the bones what movements are allowed at a joint.
forming the joint. • Plane joint
o Articular capsule – joint surfaces are o articular surfaces are essentially flat, and
enclosed by a sleeve, or layer, of fibrous only short slipping or gliding movements
connective tissue, which is lined with a are allowed
smooth synovial membrane. o nonaxial – gliding back and forth doesn’t
o Joint cavity – articular capsule encloses a involve rotation around any axis
cavity called the joint cavity. It contains o e.g. intercarpal joints of the wrist.
lubricating synovial fluid secreted by • Hinge joint – cylindrical end of one bone fits into a
synovial membrane. trough-shaped surface on another bone
o Reinforcing ligaments – fibrous layer of the o angular movement is allowed in just one
capsule is usually reinforced with plane.
ligaments. Bursae and tendon sheaths are o uniaxial — allows movement around one
not strictly part of synovial joints, but are axis only
found closely associated with them. o e.g. elbow joint, ankle joint, and the joints
▪ Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs btwn phalanges of the fingers.
lined with synovial membrane and • Pivot joint
contains a thin film of synovial o rounded end of one bone fits into a sleeve
fluid. Common where ligaments, or ring of bone (possibly ligaments)
muscles, skin, tendons, or bones o also uniaxial – rotating bone can turn only
rub together. around its long axis.
▪ Tendon sheath – an elongated • Condylar joint
bursa that wraps completely o egg-shaped articular surfaces of one bone
around tendon subjected to fits into an oval concavity in the other
friction. o Biaxial – occurs around 2 axes. Can travel
from its side to side, and back and forth.
Dislocation – bone is forced out if it’s normal position o Knuckle (metacarpophalangeal) joints
in the joint cavity. • Saddle joints
Reduction – process of returning the bone to its proper o Articular surface has both convex and
position. concave areas like a saddle for horse.
o Biaxial – allows the same movements as
condylar joints.
o Carpometacarpal joints in the thumb,
responsible for our opposable thumbs.
• Ball-and-socket joints
o Spherical head of one bone fits to the
round socket in another.
o Multiaxial – allow movements in all axes.
Including rotation.
o The most freely moving synovial joint.
o Shoulder and hip

Bursitis
• “water on knee” due to the inflammation of bursae
or synovial membrane. E.g. falling on one knee.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
Sprain ▪ Disease in which uric acid
• Happens when the ligaments or tendons are accumulates in the blood and may
damaged by excessive stretching or are torn away be deposited as needle-shaped
from the bone. crystals in the soft tissue of joints.
• Note that ligaments or tendons are avascular, thus
it heals slowly and can be extremely painful.
Arthritis
• Arth = joint, it is = inflammation; describes over
100 different inflammatory or degenerative
diseases that damages joint.
• Symptoms: pain, stiffness, and swelling of the joint.
• Acute forms of arthritis usually results from
bacterial invasion, during the infection, the
synovial membrane thickens and fluid production
decreases, leading to increased friction and pain;
can be treated with antibiotic.
• Chronic forms of arthritis includes: osteoarthritis, Developmental Aspect of the Skeleton
rheumatoid arthritis, and gouty arthritis. Birth to Adulthood
o Osteoarthritis (OA) – most common form • The first long bones in a young fetus are formed by
of arthritis. hyaline cartilage, and the earliest flat bones of the
▪ A chronic degenerative condition skull are actually fibrous membranes.
that affects the aged. • Fontanels
▪ Degenerative joint disease (DJD) or o fibrous membranes that connects the
“wear-and-tear arthritis. cranial bones; rhythm of the baby’s pulse
▪ Erosion of articular cartilage, can be felt here.
eventually the bone. o Fontanel = little fountain
▪ New bone forms, narrowing the o Anterior fontanel – largest fontanel;
joint margin creating bone spurs. diamond-shaped.
▪ Makes crepitus (crunching noise) o Allows the fetal skull to be compressed
when moving. slightly during birth and for the brain to
▪ Limited movement grow in early infancy.
o Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) – rheumat =
susceptible to change or flux.
▪ Chronic inflammatory disorder.
▪ Usually occurs btwn ages of 40 and
50 but may occur at any age.
▪ Autoimmune disease; antibodies
attacks joints
▪ Inflammatory enzymes destroy
joint cartilage and bone.
▪ Pannus (“rag”; abnormal tissue)
growth in synovial membrane.
▪ Resulting in ankylosis; abnormal
stiffening due to fusion of bones.
o Gouty arthritis or Gout
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
long-bone growth ends.
• Once adult height is reached, a healthy skeleton
changes very little until late middle age.
• Old age, bone mass loss becomes prominent.

• at birth to infancy, the cranium of the baby is huge Older Adults

relative to its face. • Osteoporosis
• Young kid resembles “bubble head” because their o bone-thinning disease that afflicts half of
head is quite large than their body size. women over 65 and 20% of male over the
• In 2 yrs, fontanels fully ossify; the skull is 3 age of 70.
quarters its adult size. o Bones of the spine and the femur are
• 8-9 yrs, the skull is almost adult in size and particularly susceptible.
proportion. • Kyphosis – “dowager’s hump”; hunched over
• 6-11 yrs, head appears to enlarge substantially as posture.
the face literally grows out of the skull. • Other factors that may contribute in osteporosis
• Jaws increased in size, cheekbones and nose o Vitamin D deficiency
becomes more prominent as respiratory passages o Smoking
expand and permanent teeth develop. o Insufficient weight bearing exercise
• During youth, growth of the skeleton increase in • Older people tend to do nothing to “save their
overall body height and size, and also changes strength” results in pathologic fractures.
body proportions. • Pathologic fractures – breaks that occur
• At birth, head and the trunk are proportionately spontaneously without apparent injury.
much longer than the lower limbs. • Advancing years also takes toll on joints; weight-
• By the age of 10, the head and the trunk are bearing joints in particular begins to degenerate
approx. the same height as the lower limbs and and osteoarthritis is common.
change little thereafter.
• During puberty, female pelvis broadens in
preparation for child bearing, and the entire male
skeleton becomes robust.
• By the end of adolescence, the epiphyseal plates of
long bones that provide for longitudinal growth in
childhood becomes fully ossified, and
SKELETAL SYSTEM
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscles • Smooth contours of the body.
• Latin word mus = little mouse. This • Large, cigar-shaped, multinucleate cells.
observation is seen in flexing them. • Largest muscle fiber measuring up to 30cm
• To contract or shorten; responsible for the (nrly 1ft) in length.
movement of our body. • Also known as striated muscles.
• “machine” of the body. • Skeletal, striated (forms stripes in muscle
fibers), voluntary (subjected to conscious
Overview of Muscle Tissue control)
Muscle Types • Can also be activated by reflexes.
• Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles

A: epi = upon, over, above; mys ,= muscle

• Muscle fibers – elongated skeletal and • Endomysium – a connective tissue sheath that
smooth muscle cells. encloses each muscle fiber.
• Ability to contract of a muscle depends on 2 • Perimysium – coarse fibrous membrane that
types of myofilaments. wraps the sheathed skeletal muscle fibers.
• Myofilaments – threadlike structure that • Fascicle – bundle of fibers that is wrapped by
comprises the myofibril inside the muscle cell; perimysium.
equivalent to microfilament of the • Epimysium – connective tissue that overcoats
cytoskeleton. and bound fascicles, that covers the entire
• The term myo- or mys- (muscle), or sarco- muscle.
(flesh) refers to the muscle. • Ends of epimysium that extends beyond the
o E.g. Sarcoplasm – muscle cells in the muscle blend either to a strong, cordlike
cytoplasm. tendon (made of collagen fibers) or sheetlike
aponeurosis, which indirectly attaches to
Skeletal Muscle bone, cartilage, or connective tissue covering.
• Skeletal muscle fibers – packaged into organs
called skeletal muscles that attach to the
skeleton.
• Covers our bone and cartilage framework.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Figure 8-shaped bundles.
• Let the heart contracts to pump blood to the
body.
• Made of intercalated disc – branching cells
joined by gap junctions.
• Heart pumps at a fairly steady rate; “in-house”
pacemaker.
• Nervous system stimulates the hear for “high
gear” such as running to catch a bus.

Muscle Functions
• Produce Movement – includes locomotion;
enables us to respond quickly to changes in
the external environment.
• Maintain Posture and Body Position –
maintains erect or seated position, even
slouching.
• Stabilize Joints – muscles and tendons helps
to stabilize the joints of the skeleton.
• Generate Heat – generates body as by-
product of muscle activity.
• Additional Functions – forms valves that
regulates passage of substance; dilate and
constricts the pupils of our eyes; make up the
arrector pili muscles that causes
“goosebumps”; enclose and protect internal
Smooth Muscles organs.
• Visceral (internal organs), nonstriated,
involuntary Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
• Found mainly on the walls of hollow (tubelike)
visceral organs such as stomach, urinary
bladder, and respiratory passages.
• Spindle-shaped, uninucleate, and surrounded
by scant edomysium.
• Arranged in layers; runs circularly and
longitudinally.
• “housekeeping” e.g. moving food through the
digestive tract (peristalsis) and emptying
bowels and bladder.
• Smooth muscle contraction is slow and
sustained.

Cardiac Muscle
• Found only in the heart
• Cardiac, striated, uninucleate, involuntary • Sarcolemma – oval nuclei that can be seen just
• Cardiac cells are cushioned by small amounts beneath the plasma membrane.
of endomysium and are arranged in spiral or
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• Sarcomere o Irritability – ability to receive and
o Chains of tiny contractile units respond stimulus.
o structural and functional unit of o Contractility – ability to forcibly
skeletal muscle. shorten when adequately stimulated.
o Aligned end to end along the length of o Extensibility – ability of muscle fibers
myofibrils. to stretch.
o Precise arrangement of even smaller o Elasticity – ability to recoil and resume
structure (myofilaments) within their resting length after being
sarcomeres that produces striation in stretched.
skeletal muscle fibers.
• Myofibrils – ribbonlike organelles composed The Nerve Stimulus and the Action Potential
of bundles of myofilaments. • Contraction in skeletal muscle fibers are
• Alternating light (I) band and dark (A) bands stimulated by nerve impulses.
gives the muscle fiber its striation. • Motor unit – consists of one neuron and all
• Z disc – dark area; midline interruption in light the skeletal muscle fibers it stimulates.
(I) band • Neuron – nerve cells
• H zone – light central area in dark (A) band. • Axon – long, threadlike extensions of neuron.
• M line – center of the H zone; contains tiny • Axon terminals – a branch/es that forms
protein rods that holds adjacent thick junctions with the sarcolemma of a different
filaments together. muscle cell.
• Myofilaments – threadlike protein within • Neuromascular junctions (nerve-muscle) –
sarcomeres. junction that contains synaptic vesicles filled
• Thick filaments – made mostly of bundled with a chemical neurotransmitter.
molecules of the protein myosin (contractile • Acetylcholine (ACh) – a type of
protein). neurotransmitter that is responsible for the
• Cross bridges – small projections or myosin stimulation of muscle fibers.
heads at the end of thick filaments. • Nerve endings and the muscle fiber are very
• Titin– elastic filaments that runs through the close to each other but they never touch, this
core of the thick filament; attaches the myosin gap is called synaptic cleft that is filled with
filament to the Z discs. interstitial fluid.
• Thin filaments – composed of contractile
proteins called actin (contractile protein). Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
• Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR) • Lou gehrig’s disease
o muscle fiber organelle • Neurological disease that affects motor
o Special endoplasmic reticulum neurons.
o Interconnecting tubules and sacs of • Common characteristics: malfunctioning
the SR surrounds every myofibril. mitochondria, inflammation, and the
o Stores and releases Ca generation of free radicals that damage
▪ Ca serves as a “go” signal for DNA and tissue much like intense UV light.
contraction. • Individual with this type of disease is
generally death within 2 to 5 yrs. Because
Skeletal Muscle Activity breathing can also be affected resulting in
Stimulation and Contraction of Single Skeletal suffocation.
Muscle Fibers
• Functional properties:
irritability/responsiveness, contractility,
extensibility, and elasticity.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Step 6: for this reason, a single nerve impulse
produces only one contraction. This prevents
continued contraction of the muscle fiber in the
absence of additional nerve impulses. The muscle
fiber relaxes until stimulated by the next round of
acetylcholine release.

When a nerve impluse reaches the axon terminal;

Step 1: Ca channels open, and Ca2+ enters the
terminal.

Step 2: Ca entry causes some of the synaptic

vesicles in the axon terminal to fuse with the cell
membrane and release acetylcholine.

Step 3: which then diffuses across the synaptic

cleft and attaches to membrane receptors in highly
folded regions of the sarcolemma.

Step 4: if enough acetylcholine is released, the

sarcolemma at that point becomes temporarily
even more permeable to Na+, which rush into the
muscle fiber, and to K+ which diffuse out of the
muscle fiber. However, more Na+ enters than K+
leaves. This imbalance gives the cell interior an Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: the Sliding
excess of positive ions, which reverses the resting Filament Theory
electrical conditions of the sarcolemma. This event • What causes the filaments to slide?
called depolarization, opens more channels that • The nervous system activates the muscle fiber,
only allow Na+ entry. the myosin head attach to binding sites on the
thin filaments, and the sliding begins.
Step 5: this movement of ions generates an • Each cross bridge attach and detach several
electrical current called an action potential. Once times during contraction, that generates
begun, the action potential is unstoppable; it tension that helps pull the thin filaments
travels over the entire surface of the sarcolemma, toward the center of the sarcomere.
conducting electrical impulses from one end of cell • Some myosin head (legs) are always in contact
to another. Result: muscle contraction. While the with actin (ground); thus resulting to the
action potential is occuring, the enzyme “walking” of the myosin cross bridges.
acetylcholineterase (AChE) present on the • This cycle is repeated during contraction.
sarcolemma breaks down acetycholine to acetic • Happening simultaneously in sarcomeres.
acid and choline.
• Myofilaments do not shorten during
contraction, but slides on each other.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• The formation of cross bridges — when the Muscle Response to increasingly Rapid
myosin heads attach to actin — requires Ca2+ Stimulation
and ATP. • Muscle twitches – single, brief, jerky
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ into the contractions.
cytoplasm when stimulated by action o Sometimes result in various system
potentials. problems; not how the muscles
• This Ca2+ triggers the biding of myosin to actin, normally operate.
initiating filament sliding. • Nerve impulses are delivered to the muscle at
a very rapid rate. So rapid that the muscle
Contraction of Skeletal Muscle as a Whole cannot relax complety between stimuli.
Graded Response • The result is successive contractions are
• Muscle Fibers when stimulated adequately, “summed” together, and the contractions gets
will contract to its fullest extent; never stronger and smoother. This scenario exhibits
partially contract. the Unfused tetanus or incomplete tetanus.
• The reaction of the whole muscle to the • When the muscles are stimulated rapidly that
stimuli is according are graded response. no evidence of relaxation is seen and the
• Graded responses – different degrees of contractions are completely smooth and
shortening that generates different amount of sustained it exhibits fused tetanus or
force. complete tetanus or in tetanic contraction.
• Graded muscle contraction are produced in 2
ways:
o Changing the frequency of muscle
stimulation.
o Changing the number of muscle fibers
being stimulated at one time.

Muscle response to stronger stimuli

• Tetanus produces stronger muscle
contractions, but its primary role is to produce
smooth and prolonged muscle contractions.
• The force of muscle contraction depends on
how many of its cells are stimulated.
o Slight contraction if few cells are
stimulated.
o Strong contraction if motor units
stimulates all of muscle fibers.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Pyruvic acid, and small
amounts of energy is bonded
with ATP molecules. (2 ATP/1
glucose molecule).
▪ Pyruvic acid enters the
aerobic pathway as long as
oxygen is present, but when
muscle activity is in high
intensity, oxygen and glucose
Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction delivery is inadequate. In
Pathways for ATP regeneration during Muscle these conditions, the pyruvic
Activity acid during glycolysis is
• There are three pathways for working muscles converted to lactic acid that
to generate ATP: is referred to as anaerobic
o Direct Phosphorylation of ADP by glycolysis.
creatine phosphate
▪ Found in the muscle fibers.
▪ As ATP depleted, interaction
between CP and ADP results
in transfer of a high-energy
phosphate group from CP to
ADP, thus regenerating more
ATP in a fraction of a seconds.
▪ CP supply will be exhausted in
less that 15s.
o Aerobic pathway
▪ ATP comes from aerobic
respiration
Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit
▪ Occurs in the mitochondria
• Muscle fatigue – failure to contract even when
and involves oxygen.
being stimulated.
▪ Collectively called oxidative
• Suspected causes:
phosphorylation.
o Imbalances in ions (Ca2+, K+).
▪ During aerobic respiration
o Problems at the neuromascular
C6H12O6 → CO2 + H2O, some of
the energy released in this junction.
reactions bonds with the ATP • Many agree that the major factor is oxygen
molecules. deficit.
▪ Fairly slow and requires • Oxygen deficit – happens when a person can’t
continuous supply of oxygen keep up with the oxygen intake they need
and nutrients fuels. when they are working vigorously.
o Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid • When muscle lack sufficient oxygen for
formation aerobic respiration, lactic acid begins to
▪ Break down of C6H12O6 via a accumulate in the muscle via anaerobic
pathway of glycolysis. pathway (the burning sensation).
▪ Does not use oxygen; does
anaerobic. Types of Muscle Contraction
▪ Occurs in the cytosol. • Isotonic Contractions
▪ C6H12O6 is broken down to o “same tone” or tension.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
o Myofilaments are successful in their ▪ Improves digestion (and
sliding movements, the muscle elimination)
shortens, and movement occurs. ▪ Enhances neuromascular
o E.g. Bending the knee, smiling, and coordination
lifting weights. ▪ Strengthen the skeleton
• Isometric contraction ▪ Heart enlarges
o “same measurement” or length. (hypertrophies) and pumps
o Myosin filaments are “spinning their more blood that helps to clear
wheels” and the tension in the muscle more fat deposits from the
keeps increasing. blood vessel walls.
o They’re trying to slide but the muscle ▪ Lungs become more efficient
is pitted against some more or less in gas exchange.
immovable object. • Resistance or isometric exercise
o E.g. trying to push your palms of the o Cause the muscle to increase in size
your hands together in front of you, o E.g. lifting weights
your arms and chest are contracting o Pits the muscle to an immovable
isometrically. object.

Muscle Tone Muscle Movements, Roles, and Names

• continuous partial contraction that keeps the
muscle firm, healthy, and constantly ready for
action.

Flaccid Paralysis
• When a the nerve supply to the muscle is
destroyed, the muscle is no longer stimulated,
and loses its tone. Soon after it becomes
Flaccid (soft or flabby), and begins to atrophy
(waste away). Types of Body Movements
• Every one of you 600-odd skeletal muscle is
Effects of Exercise in Muscles attached to bone, or to other connective
• Muscle inactivity always leads to muscle tissue structures, at no fewer than 2 points.
weakness and wasting. • Origin – attached to immovable or less
• Regular exercise increases muscle size, movable bone.
strength, and endurance. • Insertion – attached to the movable bone.
• Aerobic or endurance exercise • Some muscles have interchangeable origins
o E.g. aerobic class jogging, or biking. and insertions
o Results in stronger, flexible muscle o such as rectus femoris muscle of the
with greater resistance to fatigue. anterior thigh crosses both hip and
o This change come about because of knee joints, in which the proximal
blood supply to the muscle increases, pelvic attachment is the origin;
and the individual muscle fibers form o when the knee bends (by other
more mitochondria and store more muscles), the rectus femoris can flex
oxygen. the hip, and then it’s distal attachment
o Makes the body’s; on the leg is considered the origin.
▪ Metabolism efficient.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• Body movement occurs when muscles • Circumduction
contracts across the joint. o Combination of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction.
o Commonly seen in ball-and-socket
joints (shoulder); when you do a big
arm circles.

Special Movements
• Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
o Up and down movements of the foot
at the ankle.
o Lifting the foot so that its superior
surface approaches the shin is
dorsiflexion.
o Pointing toes away from your head is
• Flexion
plantar flexion.
o movement, in a sagittal plane
• Inversion and eversion
decreases the angle of the joint and
o Special movement of the foot.
brings 2 bones closer together.
o Turn the sole medially (inversion)
o Typical of hinge joints, but also
o Turn the sole laterally (eversion)
common at ball-and-socket joints).
• Supination and pronation
• Extensions
o Supination – turning backward;
o Opposite of flexion, it is a movement
forearm rotates laterally, palms facing
that increases angle, or distance
anteriorly, radius and ulna are parallel.
between the 2 bones or part of the
o Pronation – turning forward; forearm
body.
rotates medially, palm faces
o Hyperextension – extensions that are
posteriorly, radial and ulna forms an X.
greater than 180°.
o Refers to the movement of the radius
• Rotation
around the ulna.
o Movement of a bone around its
• Opposition
longitudinal axis.
o In the palm of the hand, the saddle
o Common in ball-and-socket joints and
joint btwn metacarpal 1 and the
movement of atlas around the dens of
carpal allows opposition of the
the axis.
thumb.
• Abduction
o Action by which you move your thumb
o moving limb away (generally on the
to touch the other fingers for grasping
frontal plane) from the
something.
midline/medial plane of the body.
o Fanning movements of your fingers or
toes when they are spread apart.
• Adduction
o Opposite of abduction
o Movement of a limb toward the body
midline.
o Stretching your arms forward with
hands clasped together.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Interactions of Skeletal Muscle in the Body
• Primer mover – muscle that has a major
responsibility for causing particular
movement.
• Antagonists – muscles that oppose or reverse
a movement.
• When a prime mover is active, the antagonists
is stretched and relaxed; Antagonist can be a
prime mover in its own right.
• E.g. biceps brachii and brachialis muscles of
the arm (prime movers of elbow flexion) are
antagonized by the triceps brachii (a prime
mover of elbow extension).
• Synergists
o syn = together, erg = work
o helps prime movers by producing the
same or by reducing undesirable
movement.
o E.g. the flexor muscles of the fingers
cross both the wrist and the finger
joints. You can make a fist without
bending your wrist because synergist
muscle helps to stabilize the wrist
joints and allow the prime mover to
act on your finger.
• Fixators
o Specialized synergists.
o Hold a bone still or stabilize the origin
of a prime mover so all the tension can
be used to move the insertion bone.
o Postural muscles are fixators because
they help to stabilize he vertebral
column.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Naming Skeletal Muscles • Shape of the muscle
• Direction of the muscle fibers o Some muscles have a distinctive shape
o Some are referenced into some that helps to indetify them.
imaginary line, usually the midline of o E.g. the deltoid muscle is roughly
the body or the long axis of a limb triangular (deltoid = triangular)
bone. • Action of the muscle
▪ Rectus o Muscles are named for their actions
❖ Straight; o Flexors, entensors, and adductor
❖ It’s fibers runs parallel appear in their names.
to the imaginary line. o E.g. adductor muscles of the thigh all
❖ E.g. rectus femoris is bring about its adduction, and the
the straight muscle of extensor muscles of the wrist all
the thigh. extend to the wrist.
▪ Oblique
❖ At a slant Arrangement of Fascicles
❖ Muscle Fibers that • Circular pattern
runs obliquely to the o fascicles are arranged in concentric
imaginary line. rings.
• Relative size of the muscle o Circular muscles are typically found
o Such term as; surrounding external body openings
▪ Maximus – largest which they close by contracting,
▪ Minimus – smallest creating a valve.
▪ Longus – long o “sphincters” or “squeezers”.
▪ E.g. gluteus maximus is the o E.g. orbicularis muscles surrounding
largest muscle of the gluteus the eyes and mouth.
muscle group. • Convergent muscle
• Location of the muscle o Fascicles converge toward a single
o Named for the bone they are insertion tendon.
associated at. o Convergent muscle is triangular or
o E.g. temporalis and frontalis muscle fan-shaped.
overlie the temporal and frontal o E.g. pectoralis major muscle of the
bones of the skull, respectively. anterior thorax.
• Number of origins • Parallel arrangement
o Biceps – 2 o Length of the fascicles runs parallel to
o Triceps – 3 the long axis of the muscle, as in the
o Quadriceps – 4 sartorius of the anterior thigh.
o E.g. the biceps muscle of the arm has o Straplike.
2 heads, or origins, and the triceps has o Fusiform – a spindle-shaped muscle
3. with an expanded belly (midsection)
• Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion o E.g. biceps brachii muscle of the arm.
o Muscles are named for their • Pennate pattern
attachments. o Short fascicles attach obliquely to a
o E.g. sternocleidomastoid muscle has central tendon.
its origin on the sternum (sterno), o In the extensor digitorum muscle of
clavicle (cleido), and inserts on the the leg, the fascicles insert only one
mastoid process of the temporal side of the tendon and the muscle is
bone. unipennate.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• • Orbicularis Oculi (pair)
o If the fascicles insertsinto opposite o Fibers of the orbicularis oculi run in
sides of the tendon the muscle is circles around the eyes. It allows your
bipennate. eyes to close, squint, blink, and wink.
o If the fascicles insert from several • Orbicularis Oris
different sides, the muscle is
o The circular muscles of the lips. Often
multipennate.
called the “kissing” muscle, it closes
the mouth and portrudes the lips.
• Buccinator (pair)
o Fleshy buccinator muscle runs
horizontally across the cheek and
inserts into orbicularis oris.
o It flattens the cheek (whistling or
blowing a trumpet).
o Also listed as a chewing muscles
because it compresses the cheek to
hold food between teeth during
Muscle’s fascicle arrangement determines its chewing.
range of motion and power. • Zygomaticus (pair)
o Extends from the corner of the mouth
Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles to the cheekbone.
Head and Neck Muscles o Often referred to as the “smiling”
• Grouped into 2 large categories: muscle because it raises the corners of
o Facial muscles and chewing muscles. the mouth.
o Facial muscles are unique because the • Masseter (pair)
insert into other soft tissues, such as o As it runs from the zygomatic process
other muscles or skin. of the temporal bone to the mandible.
o Chewing muscles begin to break down The masseter covers the angle of the
food for the body. lower jaw.
o All the head and neck mentioned here o This muscle closes the jaw by
are paired except for the platysma, elevating the mandible.
orbicularis oris, frontalis and • Temporalis
occipitalis. o Is a fan-shaped muscle overlying the
temporal bone.
Facial Muscles o It inserts into the mandible and acts as
• Frontalis a synergist of the masseter in closing
o Covers the frontal bone, runs the the jaw.
cranial aponeurosis to the skin of the
eyebrows, where it inserts: allows you A Closer Look
to raise your eyebrows. Anabolic Steroids
o Posterior end of the cranial • A performance enhancing drugs.
aponeurosis is the small occipitalis • These steroids are variants of testosterone —
muscle, which covers the posterior hormone responsible for the changes during
aspect of the skulls and pulls the scalp puberty that usher boys into manhood.
posteriorly. • Increase in bone and muscle mass.
• International athletic completions banned this
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• Side effects: ↑ risk of heart attack and stroke, sternocleidomastoid muscles may be injured and
high blood pressure, enlarged heart, developed spasms; “wryneck”.
dangerous changes in cholesterol levels, fluid
retention, and acne.
• Gender specific side effects
o in men: baldness, breast enlargement,
shrinking testicles, and ↑ risked of
prostate cancer.
o In women: grow facial hair but lose
scalp hair, develop deeper voice,
infertility, ↑ risk of osteoporosis.
• Can also be addictive and lead to serious
psychological issues
o E.g. roid rage

Neck Muscles Trunk Muscles

• Moves the head and shoulder girdle
• Small and straplike
• Platysma
o Single sheetlike muscle that covers
the aterolateral neck.
o Originates from the connective tissue
covering the chest muscles and inserts
into the area around the mouth.
o It’s action is to pull the corners of the
mouth inferiorly, producing a
downward sag of the mouth (sad
clown face).
• Sternocleidomastoid
o Paired sternocleidomastoid muscles
o 2 headed muscles; 1 found on each
side of the neck. Anterior Muscles
o 1 arises from the sternum, the other • Pectoralis Major
arises from the clavicle. o Large fan-shaped muscle covering the
o Heads fuse before inserting into the upper part of the chest.
mastoid process of the temporal o Origin is from the sternum, shoulder
bone. girdle, and the first 6 ribs.
o When the 2 muscles contract o Inserts on the proximal end of the
together, they flex your neck. humerus.
o “prayer” muscles due to the action of o Forms the anterior wall of the axilla
bowing the head. and acts to adduction and flex the
o If 1 muscle contracts, the face is arm.
rotated toward the shoulder on the • Intercostal Muscles
opposite side and tilts the head to its o Deep muscle found btwn the ribs.
own side. o External intercostals are important in
breathing because they help to raise
Torticollis – due to difficult births, one of the the rib cage when you inhale.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
o Internal intercostals that lies deep to o Transversus abdominis
the external intercostals, depress the ▪ Deepest muscle of the
rib cage, helping to move air out of the abdominal wall.
lungs when you exhale forcibly. ▪ Fibers run horizontally across
• Muscles of the abdominal girdle the abdomen.
o Includes: rectus abdominis, external ▪ Arises from the lower ribs and
and internal obliques, and transversus iliac crest inserts into the
abdominis. pubis.
o Forms a natural “girdle” that ▪ Compresses the abdominal
reinforces the body trunk. contents.
o Together, resembles the structure of
plywood; exceptionally strong for its
thickness.
o Forms a muscular wall that is well
suited for its job containing and
protecting the abdominal contents.
o Rectus abdominis
▪ Paired; straplike
▪ Most superficial muscles of
the abdomen
▪ Fibers run from the pubis to
the rib cage, enclosed in an
aponeurosis.
Posterior Muscles
▪ To flex the vertebral column.
• Trapezius
▪ Compress the abdominal
o The most superficial muscles of the
contents during defecation
mostwrior neck and upper trunk.
and childbirth; involved in
o Together forms a diamond- or kite-
forced breathing.
sjaped muscle mass.
o External oblique
o Origin is very broad.
▪ Paired superficial muscles
o Runs from the occipital bone of the
that makes up the lateral
skull down the vertebral column to
walls of the abdomen.
the end of thoracic vertebrae.
▪ Fibers run downward and
o Flares laterally to insert on the
medially from the last eight
scapular spine and clavicle.
ribs and insert into the ilium.
o Antagonist of the
▪ Flexes the vertebral column
sternocleidomastoids because the
and also rotates the trunk and
extend the head.
bend it laterally.
o Can also elevate, depress, adduction,
o Internal oblique
and stabilize the scapula.
▪ Paired muscles deep to the
• Latissimus Dorsi
external obliques.
o Are the two large, flat muscles that
▪ Fibers run at right angles to
covers the lower back.
those of external obliques.
o Originates on the lower spine and
▪ Arise from the iliac crest and
ilium and then sweep superiorly to
insert into the last 3 ribs.
insert into the proximal end of the
▪ Flexes the vertebral column
humerus.
and also rotates the trunk and
o Each of this muscle extends and
bend it laterally.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• A Muscles of the Upper Limb
adducts the humerus.
o Important muscles in swimming
(power stroke).
• Erector spinae
o Paired muscle is deep muscles in the
back.
o is the primer mover of back extension.
o Each is a composite muscle consisting
of 3 muscles columns (longissimus,
iliocostalis, and spinalis) that
collectively spans the entire length of
the vertebral column.
o Act as a powerful back extensors
(“erectors”) and also provides
resistance that helps control the
action of bending over at the waist.
• Have 3 groups:
o Injuries in back structures, these
o Arises from ahoulder girdle and cross
muscles go into spasms, a common
the shoulder joint to insert into
source of lower back pain.
humerus; Moves the arm — pectoralis
• Quadratus lumborum major, latissimus Dorsi, and deltoid.
o Forms part of the posterior abdominal o Encloses the humerus and insert on
wall. the forearm bones; Cause moment at
o Each muscle flexes the spine laterally. the elbow joint.
o Together, extends the lumbar spine. o Muscles of the forearm; inserts on the
o Arises from the iliac crest and insert hand bones and cause their
into the upper lumbar vertebrae. movement.
• Deltoid o Flexor carpi and flexor digitorum
o Fleshy, triangular-shaped muscles muscles, found on the anterior aspect
o Forms the rounded shape of the of the forearm, flex the wrist and
shoulders. fingers, respectively.
o Site of intramuscular injections o Extensor Carpi and extensor
(“bulky”) digitorum muscles, found on lateral
o Origin of each deltoid winds across and posterior aspect of the forearm,
the shoulder girdle from the spine of extend the same structures.
the scapula to the clavicle. • Muscle causing movement at the elbow joint
o Inserts into the proximal humerus. o All anterior muscles of the humerus
o Prime movers of arm abduction.
cause elbow flexion.
o Order of decreasing strength:
brachialis, biceps brachii, and
brachioradialis.
o Biceps brachii
▪ Most familiar muscle of the
arm; bulges when you flex
your elbow.
▪ Originates by two heads from
the shoulder girdle and
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• G • Causes the movements at the hip, knee, and
Inserts into the radial foot joints.
tuberosity. • Among the largest, strongest muscles in the
▪ Powerful prime mover for body.
flexion of the arm and acts to • Specialized for walking and balancing the
supinate the forearm. body.
o Brachialis • Spans two joints and can cause movement at
▪ Lies deep to the biceps brachii both of them.
and, like the biceps, is a prime • Terms used: insertion and origin
mover in elbow flexion. interchangeable according to the action
▪ Lifts the ulna as the biceps lifts performed.
the radius. • Muscles on the thigh helps the body upright
o Brachioradialis and cause various movement in the hip joint.
▪ Fairly weak muscle that arises • Thigh muscles cross the knee and cause its
on the humerus and inserts flexion or extension.
into the distal forearm. • Many of the thigh muscles have no
▪ Resides mainly in the attachment on the pelvic girdle, they can
forearm. cause movement at the hip joint as well.
o Triceps brachii • Muscles on the leg cause assorted movement
▪ The only muscle fleshing out of the ankle and foot.
the posterior humerus.
▪ Its 3 heads arise from the Muscle causing Movement at the Hip Joint
shoulder girdle and proximal • Gluteus maximus
humerus o Superficial muscles of the hip that
▪ Inserts into the olecranon forms most of the flesh of the buttock.
process of the ulna. o Hip extensor that acts to bring the
▪ Powerful prime mover of thigh in straight line with the pelvis.
elbow extension — o Not very important in walking but very
antagonist of the bicep brachii important for extending the hip when
and brachialis. power is needed (jumping).
▪ Straighten the arm — e.g. o Originates from the sacrum and iliac
strong job in boxing. bones.
o Inserts on the gluteal tuberosity of the
Muscle of the Lower Limb femur and into the large tendinous
iliotibial tract.
• Gluteus medius
o Runs from the ilium to the femur.
o Beneath/deep to the gluteus
maximus.
o Hip abductor that is important in
steadying the pelvis during walking.
o Site for intramuscular injections
because the medial part of the
buttock houses for the sciatic nerve —
damaging this results in nerve damage
• Iliopsoas
o Fused muscle composed of 2 muscles.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
o Iliacus and psoas major On both sides of the proximal tibia.
o Runs from the iliac bones and lower o Prime movers of thigh extension and
vertebrae deep inside the pelvis to knee flexion.
insert on the lesser trochanter of the • Sartorius
femur. o Thin, straplike
o Prime mover of hip flexion. o Most superficial muscle of the thigh.
o Also acts to keep the upper body from o Runs obliquely across the thigh from
falling backward when we are the anterior iliac crest to the medial
standing erect. side of the tibia.
• Adductor Muscles o Weak thigh flexor.
o Form the muscle mass at the medial o “tailors” muscle — it acts as a
side of each thigh. synergist for tailor to sit with both leg
o They adduct, or press, the thighs crossed in front of them.
together. • Quadriceps group
o They tend to get flabby very easily. o Consists of 4 muscles: rectus femoris
o Origin on the pelvis and insert on the and 3 vastus muscles — flesh out the
proximal aspect of the femur. anterior thigh.
o Vastus Muscle
o Vascus muscle originate from the
femur
o Rectus femoris originates from the
pelvis.
o All four muscle insert into the tibial
tuberosity via the patellar ligament.
The group as a whole extend the knee
powerfully (kicking a soccer ball).
o Rectus femoris crosses 2 joints (hip
and the knee) also help flex the hip.
o Vastus lateralis and rectus femoris are
sometimes used in intramuscular
injection site (infants who doesn’t
have fully developed gluteal muscles).

Muscle causing Movement at the Ankle and Foot

A: the insertion for the rectus femoris during hip • Tibialis anterior
flexion is the pelvis, and during knee extension, o Superficial muscles on the anterior
the tibial tuberosity. leg.
o Arises from the upper tibia and then
Muscles causing Movement at the Knee Joint parallels the anterior crest as in runs
to the tasal bones, where it inserts by
• Hamstring group
a long tendon.
o Froming the muscle mass of the
o Acts as a dorsiflex and invert the foot.
posterior thigh.
o Consists of 3 muscles — bbicep • Extensor digitorum Longus
femoris, semimembranosus, and o Lateral to the tibialis anterior
semitendinosus o Arises from the lateral tibial condyle
o Originates on the ischial tuberosity and proximal three-quarters of the
and run down the thigh to insert on fibula.
o Prime mover of toe extension.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• Fibularis muscle • Muscles of the thoracic and lumbar regions
o Includes 3 muscles: Longus, brevis, becomes extensive to cover and move the
and tertius bones of the limbs.
o Found on the lateral part of the leg • Muscle and their control by the nervous
o Arise from the fibula and insert into system develop early in pregnancy.
the metatarsal bones of the foot.
• Quickening – the first movement of the fetus
o Group as a whole as plantar flexes and
inside the mother’s womb; occurs by 16th
everts the foot.
o Which is antagonistic to the tibialis week of pregnancy.
anterior. • Babies development of muscle controls
• Gastroecnemius proceeds in a superior/inferior direction.
o Two-bellied muscle that forms the • Muscular control also proceeds in
curved of calf of the posterior leg. proximal/distal direction.
o Arises by two heads, one from each • Skeletal Muscle is resistant to infection
side of the distal femur throughout life because they are vascular.
o Inserts through the large calcaneal • Muscles will atrophy if not used continually.
(achilles) tendon into the heel of the
foot. Muscular dystrophy – group of inherited muscle-
o Prime mover for plantar flexion of the destroying diseases that affects specific muscle
foot. groups.
o “toe dancers” muscle. • Common and most serious form of muscular
• Soleus dystrophy is the duchennne’s muscular
o Fleshy muscle deep to the dystrophy — expressed exclusively in boys.
gastroecnemius. o Usually diagnosed btwn ages 2-7 yrs.
o Arises on the tibia and fibula o A normal-appearing children becomes
o Doesn’t affect knee movement clumsy and falls frequently resulting
o It inserts into the calcaneal tendon from muscle weakness.
and is strong plantar flexor of the foot. o This disease progresses to the upper
extremities until it reaches the head
and chest muscles.
o Rarely live beyond their early 20s and
generally die of respiratory failure.
o Cause of muscular dystrophy: lack of
dystrophin (a protein that helps
maintain the sarcolemma.

Developmental Aspect of the Muscular System

• In a developing embryo, the muscular system
is laid down in segments, and each segment is
invaded by nerves.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Myasthenia gravis
• Asthen = weakness, gravi = heavy
• Autoimmune disease that affects muscles in
adulthood.
• Characterized by: Drooping upper eyelids,
difficulty in swallowing, talking, muscle
weakness, fatigability.
• Involves shortage of acetylcholine receptors at
neuromuscular junction.
• Death occurs when respiratory muscles can no
longer function leads to respiratory failure.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Digestive System ● Food enters through here
● Also called oral cavity

Lips
➔ Also known as labia
➔ Protects its anterior opening

Cheeks
➔ Form its lateral walls

Hard palate
➔ Forms its anterior roof

Soft palate
➔ Forms its posterior roof

Part 1: Anatomy and Physiology Uvula

➔ A fleshy fingerlike projection on
2 Main Groups: the soft palate, which dangles from
1. Alimentary Canal the posterior edge of the soft
2. Accessory Digestive Organs palate
➔ Separates nasal & oral cavity
➔ Pag umaangat, sinasara yung nasal
Organs of the Alimentary Canal cavity
- Also called the gastrointestinal tract or gut
- A continuous, coiled, hollow muscular tube
that winds through the ventral body cavity Vestibule
from mouth to anus ➔ The space between the lips and
cheeks externally and the teeth
1. Mouth and gums internally
2. Pharynx
3. Esophagus
4. Stomach Oral Cavity Proper
5. Small Intestine ➔ The area contained by the teeth
6. Large Intestine (leads to the
terminal opening, anus)
Tongue
➔ Involuntarily or subconsciously
Mouth mixes food with saliva

Lingual frenulum
➔ A fold of mucous membrane, which
secures the tongue to the floor of
the mouth and limits its posterior
movements
➔ “Tongue-tied” - children born with
an extremely short lingual
frenulum
 Esophagus
Teeth ● Also called gullet
➔ 32 permanent teeth ● Runs from the pharynx through the
➔ 4 quadrants to count the teeth (8 diaphragm to the stomach
teeth per quadrant) ● About 25cm or 10 inches long
➔ 2, 1, 2, 3 ● It is essentially a passageway that
conducts food (by peristalsis) to the
stomach.
(2) Incisors - for cutting (flattened)
(1) Canine - for piercing (patulis) Made up of 4 tissue layers or tunics:
(2) Premolars - for grinding 1. Mucosa
(3) Molars - for grinding - the innermost layer, a moist
mucous membrane that
lines the hollow cavity, or
Salivary glands lumen, of the organ.
➔ Secretes saliva 2. Submucosa
➔ Adds saliva to the food for easy - Found just beneath the
swallowing/digestion mucosa
➔ 3 Types: - A soft connective tissue
a. Parotid gland containing blood vessels,
b. Sublingual gland nerve endings, mucosa
c. Submandibular gland associated lymphoid tissue
(MALT), and lymphatic
vessels.
Palatine tonsils 3. Muscularis externa
➔ Paired masses of lymphatic tissue - a muscle layer typically
at the posterior end of the oral made up of an inner
cavity circular layer and an outer
longitudinal layer of
smooth muscle cells
Lingual tonsils 4. Serosa
➔ Covers the base of the tongue - Outermost layer of the wall
- Visceral peritoneum
(consists of a single layer of
❖ 15-20 times of chew before swallowing flat, serous fluid-producing
❖ If mas mabilis nguyain at lunukin, mas cells
madami makukuhang carbs - Parietal peritoneum (lines
❖ Swallowing - deglutition the abdominopelvic cavity
❖ Chewing - mastication by the way of a membrane
extension, the mesentery

Pharynx
● Subdivided into 3 parts:
- Nasopharynx (part of the
respiratory passageway)
- Oropharynx (posterior to the oral
cavity)
- Laryngopharynx (continuous with
the esophagus inferiorly
❖ Peritonitis Pyloric antrum
- The peritoneum is infected, the ➔ When the body narrows inferiorly
peritoneal membranes tend to ➔ Pylorus: funnel-shaped, the
stick together around the infection terminal part of the stomach
site ➔ Pyloric sphincter/ Pyloric valve:
control the flow of food and
❖ 2 important intrinsic nerve plexuses: digestive juices
a. Submucosal nerve plexus
b. Myenteric nerve plexus ● Varies from 15 to 25cm (6 to 10 inches) in
length, its diameter and volume depend
- They help regulate the mobility and on how much food it contains
secretory of activity of GI tract organs. ● When full, it can hold about 4 liters (1
gallon) of food
● When empty, it collapses inward on itself,
and its mucosa is thrown into large folds
Stomach called rugae (roo′ge; ruga = wrinkle, fold).

● Major function: holds the food and mixes it Lesser omentum

with acid and enzymes that continue to ➔ A double layer of peritoneum
break the food down into a liquid or paste. ➔ Extends from the liver to the lesser
curvature of the stomach
Cardial region or Cardia
➔ Near the heart
➔ Surrounds the cardioesophageal Greater omentum
sphincter ➔ Another extension of the
➔ Where food enters the stomach peritoneum
from the esophagus ➔ Drapes downward and covers the
abdominal organs like a lacy apron
before attaching to the posterior
Fundus body wall
➔ The expanded part of the stomach
lateral to the cardial region

Body
➔ The midportion of the stomach
➔ Greater curvature: convex lateral
surface
➔ Lesser curvature: concave medial
surface
Gastric pits
➔ indentations in the stomach which
denote entrances to the tubular
shaped gastric glands.

Gastric glands
➔ glands in the lining of the stomach
that play an essential role in the
process of digestion.
➔ Secret the components of gastric
juice

Intrinsic factor
➔ a substance needed for absorption
of vitamin B12 from the small
intestine. Small Intestine

Chief cells
➔ produce inactive protein-digesting
enzymes, mostly pepsinogens.

Parietal cells
➔ produce corrosive hydrochloric
acid (HCl), which makes the
stomach contents acidic and
activates the enzymes, as in the
conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin

Mucous neck cells ● the body’s major digestive organ

➔ produce a thin acidic mucus with ● a muscular tube extending from the
an unknown function that is quite pyloric sphincter to the large intestine
different from that secreted by the ● the longest section of the alimentary tube,
mucous cells of the mucosa with an average length of 2 to 4 m (7 to 13
feet) in a living person.
● Major function: to break down food,
Enteroendocrine cells absorb nutrients needed for the body, and
➔ produce local hormones, such as get rid of the unnecessary components.
gastrin, that are important in ● Has 3 subdivisions:
regulating the digestive activities a. Duodenum - twelve finger widths
of the stomach long
b. Jejunum - empty
c. Ileum - twisted intestine; joints the
Chyme large intestine at the ileocecal
➔ After food has been processed in valve
the stomach, it is thick like heavy ● Chemical digestion of foods begins here.
cream ● Only able to process a small amount of
➔ Enters the small intestine through food at one time
the pyloric sphincter
● Pancreatic Ducts - they complete the - act as the immune system's
chemical breakdown of foods in the small first line of defense against
intestine microbial and dietary
● Bile (formed by the liver) also enters the antigens
duodenum through the bile duct in the
same area

Large Intestine

● 3 Structures that increase the absorption:

a. Villi - fingerlike projections of the ● much larger in diameter than the small
mucosa that give it a velvety intestine (thus its name) but shorter in
appearance and feel, much like the length.
soft nap of a towel ● About 1.5 m (5 feet) long, it extends from
the ileocecal valve to the anus
Lacteal - a rich capillary bed and a ● Major function: to dry out the indigestible
modified lymphatic capillary food residue by absorbing water and to
within each villus eliminate these residues from the body as
feces
b. Microvilli - tiny projections of the ● 5 subdivisions:
plasma membrane of the mucosa a. Cecum
cells that give the cell surface a - first part of the large
fuzzy appearance (sometimes intestine
referred to as brush border) - Hanging from the cecum is
the wormlike appendix, a
c. Circular folds - they form an potential trouble spot
internal “corkscrew slide” to
increase surface area and force b. Appendix
chyme to travel slowly through the - it is an ideal location for
small intestine so nutrients can be bacteria to accumulate and
absorbed efficiently (also called multiply
plicae circulares) - Appendicitis (inflammation
of the appendix)

Peyer’s patches c. Colon

- found in the submucosa - The ascending colon travels
increase in number toward up the right side of the
the end of the small abdominal cavity and
intestine. makes a turn, the right colic
 (or hepatic) flexure, to
travel across the abdominal
cavity as the transverse
colon. It then turns again at
the left colic (or splenic)
flexure and continues down
the left side as the
descending colon to enter
the pelvis, where it
becomes the S-shaped
sigmoid colon.

d. Rectum & Anal canal

- Anus: opens to the exterior
- 2 valves of the anal canal:
1. External anal
sphincter -
composed of ● Permanent teeth - second set of teeth; 32
skeletal muscle; permanent teeth
voluntary ● Wisdom teeth - third molars; emerge
2. Internal anal between the ages of 17 and 25.
sphincter - formed
by smooth muscle; (2) Incisors - for cutting (flattened)
involuntary (1) Canine - for piercing (patulis)
(2) Premolars - for grinding
● Teniae coli - three bands of muscles (the (3) Molars - for grinding
longitudinal layer of the muscularis
externa is reduced to these)
● Haustra - small pocketlike sacs (puckered
walls)

Accessory Digestive Organs

Teeth

● Deciduous teeth/ baby teeth/ milk teeth -

begin to erupt around 6 months; the first ● 2 Major Regions of the teeth:
teeth to appear are the lower central 1. Crown - enamel-covered part of
incisors. the tooth above the gingiva or
● A baby has a full set (20 teeth) by the age gum.
of 2 years.
 - Enamel (a ceramic-like ● a soft, pink, triangular gland that extends
substance as thick as a across the abdomen from the spleen to the
dime, that directly bears the duodenum
force of chewing; hardest ● Produces enzymes that break down all
substance in the body) categories of digestible foods
● Produces the hormones insulin and
2. Root - The portion of the tooth glucagon
embedded in the jawbone
- Neck (connects the crown
and root)
- Cement (cover the outer Liver & Gallbladder
surface of the root) ● Liver
- Periodontal membrane - the largest gland in the body
(where the tooth attaches) - Has 4 lobes
- Dentin (bonelike material, - suspended from the diaphragm
underlies the enamel and and abdominal wall by a delicate
forms the bulk of the tooth; mesentery cord, the falciform
surrounds a central pulp ligament
cavity) - Produces bile (leaves through the
- Root canal (provides a common hepatic duct)
route for blood vessels, - Bile: yellow-to-green, watery
nerves, and other pulp solution containing bile salts, bile
structures to enter the pulp pigments (chiefly bilirubin, a
cavity of the tooth) breakdown product of
hemoglobin), cholesterol,
phospholipids, and a variety of
electrolytes.
Salivary Glands
● Gallbladder
● Its 3 pairs: - a small, thin-walled green sac that
a. Parotid glands - lie anterior to the snuggles in a shallow fossa in the
ears; large (Mumps - an inferior surface of the liver
inflammation of the parotid - When food digestion is not
glands) occurring, bile backs up the cystic
b. Submandibular glands duct and enters the gallbladder to
c. Sublingual glands - B & C empty be stored.
their secretions into the floor of the - Gallstones: crystallized cholesterol
mouth through tiny ducts if bile is stored in the gallbladder
for too long or too much water is
● Produces saliva, a mixture of mucus and removed
serous fluids - Jaundice: tissues become yellow;
● The mucus moistens and helps to bind bcs of blockage of the ducts
food together into a mass called a bolus - Hepatitis: inflammation of the liver
● The clear serous portion contains an - Cirrhosis: chronic inflammatory
enzyme, salivary amylase, in a condition in which the liver is
bicarbonate-rich (alkaline) juice that severely damaged and becomes
begins the process of starch digestion in hard and fibrous
the mouth.

Pancreas Functions of the Digestive System

 6. Defecation - the elimination of indigestible
residues from the GI tract via the anus in
the form of feces.

1. Ingestion - voluntary process

2. Propulsion - swallowing; peristalsis

Activities of the Stomach

● Food breakdown and propulsion
● Gastric juice - regulated by both neural
and hormonal factors
● Gastrin - prods the gastric glands to
produce still more of the protein digesting
enzymes (such as pepsinogen), mucus, and
hydrochloric acid.

3. Mechanical Breakdown - chewing,

segmentation
4. Digestion - large food molecules are
chemically broken down to their building
blocks by enzymes
5. Absorption - the transport of digestive end
products from the lumen of the GI tract to
the blood or lymph
 ● Hiatal hernia - a structural abnormality in
which the superior part of the stomach
protrudes slightly above the diaphragm.

● Pepsin - active protein-digesting enzyme

● Rennin - second protein-digesting enzyme
produced by the stomach

● Enterogastric reflex - binabalik sa stomach

yung food
● Vomiting/emesis - essentially a reverse
peristalsis occurring in the stomach (and
perhaps the small intestine), accompanied
by contraction of the abdominal muscles
and the diaphragm, which increases the
pressure on the abdominal organs.

Activities of the Small Intestine

● Chyme breakdown and absorption
(chemical digestion, chyme stimulation,
microvilli, pancreatic juices, absorption,
diffusion of fats, debris)
● Chyme propulsion (peristalsis,
constriction)
● Chyme reaching the small intestine is only
partially digested. Carbohydrate and
protein digestion has begun, but virtually
no fats or nucleic acids have been digested
up to this point.
● 3- to 6-hour journey through the looping
coils and twists of the small intestine
● Brush border enzymes - break down
double sugars into simple sugars and
complete protein digestion
● Foods entering the small intestine are
literally deluged with enzyme-rich
pancreatic juice delivered via a duct from
the pancreas, as well as bile from the liver.
● Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that:
(1) along with brush border enzymes,
complete the digestion of starch
(pancreatic amylase)
(2) carry out about half of protein
digestion (via the action of trypsin,
● Heartburn - the cardioesophageal chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase,
sphincter fails to close tightly and gastric and others)
juice backs up into the esophagus (3) are totally responsible for fat
● Esophagitis - inflammation of the digestion, because the pancreas is
esophagus essentially the only source of
lipases
(4) digest nucleic acids (nucleases).
 ● Pancreatitis - a rare but extremely serious colon and the rectum to contract and the
inflammation of the pancreas that results anal sphincters to relax.
from activation of pancreatic enzymes in ● Diarrhea - watery stools, result from any
the pancreatic duct condition that rushes food residue through
the large intestine before that organ has
had sufficient time to absorb the water
● Constipation - the stool becomes hard and
difficult to pass; may result from lack of
fiber in the diet, poor bowel habits (“failing
to heed the call”), narcotic pain
medications such as hydrocodone, and
laxative abuse.

Part 2: Nutrition and Metabolism

❖ ATP (adenosine triphosphate) - the

● The release of pancreatic juice into the chemical energy from body cells need to
duodenum is stimulated by both the vagus drive their many activities.
nerve and local hormones. ❖ Kcal (kilocalories) - The energy value of
● When chyme enters the small intestine, it foods is measured in units
stimulates the mucosa cells to produce
several hormones (secretin &
cholecystokinin; influence the release of
pancreatic juice and bile)

Activities of the Large Intestine

● Nutrient breakdown and absorption
(absorption, metabolism, feces)
● Propulsion of Food Residue and defecation
(haustral contractions, propulsion, mass
movements, defecation reflex, impulses)
● Haustral contractions - slow segmenting Nutrition
movements lasting about 1 minute that ● Nutrient - a substance in food that the
occur every 30 minutes or so. body uses to promote normal growth,
● Mass movements - long, slow-moving but maintenance, and repair
powerful contractile waves that move over ● Major nutrients:
large areas of the colon three or four times - Carbohydrates
daily and force the contents toward the - Lipids
rectum. - Proteins
● Diverticulosis - formation of diverticula, in ● Minor nutrients:
which the mucosa protrudes through the - Water
colon walls - Vitamins
● Diverticulitis - a condition in which the - Minerals (Ca, Zn, Mg)
diverticula becomes inflamed, can be
life-threatening if ruptures occur.
● Defecation reflex - a spinal (sacral region)
reflex that causes the walls of the sigmoid
 ★ Vitamins
- organic nutrients of various forms
that the body requires in small
amounts
- Vitamins A, C & E have anticancer
effects
- Diets rich in: broccoli, cabbage,
brussels sprouts
- Coenzymes: they act with an
enzyme to accomplish a particular
type of catalysis.

Dietary Sources of the Major Nutrients ★ Minerals

- Inorganic substances: calcium,
★ Carbohydrates phosphorus, potassium, sulfur,
- Sugars and starches sodium, chloride, and magnesium
- Sugars: fruits, sugar cane, milk - Vegetables, legumes, milk, and
- Starches: grains, legumes, and root some meats
vegetables

★ Lipids
- Saturated and unsaturated fats Carbohydrate, Fat, and Protein Metabolism in
- Saturated: meat, dairy foods, Body Cells
coconut
- Unsaturated: seeds, nuts, most ● Metabolism - chemical reactions in the
vegetable oils body
- Major sources: egg yolk, meats, a. Catabolic - polymers = monomers
milk products + energy
b. Anabolic - monomers + energy =
★ Proteins polymers
- Animal products
- Eggs, milk, fish, most meat proteins
- Legumes (beans and peas), nuts, Carbohydrate Metabolism
and cereals
- Essential amino acids
 ★ Cellular Respiration ● Acetic acid sa blood if fats ang ginagamit
1. Glycolysis (anaerobic - no oxygen as source of ATP
needed) ● Ammonia nabubuo if proteins naman ang
- Where: Cytoplasm ginagamit as source for ATP.
- Process: Glucose → 2
Pyruvate
- Product: 2 ATP & 2 NADH ● Glycogen - large polysaccharide molecule,
which are stored in the liver
● Glycogenesis - glycogen formation
● Glycogenolysis - glycogen splitting; The
liver cells then release glucose bit by bit to
the blood to maintain blood glucose
2. Krebs Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle homeostasis.
- 2 Pyruvate -> Acetyl CoA + ● Gluconeogenesis - formation of new sugar
4 Carbons → Citric Acid
- Product: 2 ATP, 8 NADH, 2
FADH, CO2

3. Electron Transport Chain/ ETC

- Proton gradient to ATP
synthase
- 1 NADH = 3ATP/2
- 1 FADH = 2 ATP

● Hyperglycemia - an excessively high level

of glucose in the blood (some of the
excess is stored in body cells (particularly
liver and muscle cells) as glycogen)
● Hypoglycemia - blood glucose level is too
Cholesterol Metabolism and Transport
low (the liver breaks down stored glycogen
● Cholesterol - it serves as the structural
and releases glucose to the blood for
basis of steroid hormones and vitamin D
cellular use)
and is a major building block of plasma
membranes (not used as an energy fuel)
● Low-density lipoproteins
- transport cholesterol and other
Fat and Protein Metabolism
lipids to body cells, where they are
used in various ways.
- If large amounts, the chance that
fatty substances will be deposited
on the arterial walls, initiating
atherosclerosis, is high.
- Bad lipoproteins
● High-density lipoproteins
- lipoproteins that transport
cholesterol from the tissue cells (or
arteries) to the liver for disposal in
bile
 - A high HDL level is considered
“good” because the cholesterol is ❖ Vasodilation - dilation of blood vessels to
destined to be broken down and release heat (radiation or evaporation)
eliminated from the body. ➔ Hyperthermia: elevated body temperature
(heat stroke - permanent brain damage
caused by high temperature)
➔ Heat exhaustion: the term used to describe
Body Energy Balance the heat-associated collapse of an
individual during or following vigorous
a. Energy intake physical activity
- Energy acquired (glycolysis, krebs
cycle, etc)
b. Energy output
- Energy used

Metabolic Rate and Body Heat Production

1. Basal Metabolic Rate

- Amount of energy used at rest
- Thyroxine - metabolic hormone
(produced by the thyroid gland)

❖ Hyperthyroidism - causes a host of effects

due to the excessive metabolic rate it
produces
❖ Hypothyroidism - results in slowed Part 3: Developmental Aspects
metabolism, obesity, and diminished
thought processes ● During 5th week, nabubuo ang digestive
system
● Rooting reflex - helps the infant find the
2. Total Metabolic Rate nipple (mother’s or bottle)
- BMR + calories burnt when doing ● Sucking reflex - helps him or her to hold on
vigorous activities to the nipple and swallow

❖ Vasoconstriction - constriction of blood ★ Cleft lip and palate

vessels to conserve heat (shivering) - Most common defect
➔ Frostbite: the skin cells, chilled by internal - Cleft palate is more serious
ice crystals and deprived of oxygen and because the child is unable to suck
nutrients, begin to die. properly
➔ Shivering: involuntary shuddering
contractions of the voluntary muscles
★ Tracheoesophageal fistula
- an abnormal connection between
the esophagus and the trachea

★ Cystic fibrosis
- primarily affects the lungs, but it
also significantly impairs the
activity of the pancreas
- huge amounts of mucus are
produced, which block the
passages of involved organs

★ Phenylketonuria (PKU)
- involves an inability of tissue cells
to use phenylalanine, an amino
acid present in all protein foods

★ Gastroenteritis
- Inflammation of the
gastrointestinal tract

★ Appendicitis
- Inflammation of the appendix
- common in teenagers for some
unknown reason

★ Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

- characterized by alternating bouts
of diarrhea and constipation

★ Polyps
- benign mucosal tumors
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ✔ Brace and
capillaries
anchor neurons to blood

I. NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS

✔ Determine permeability and exchanges

between blood capillaries and neurons
✔ Protect neurons from harmful substances in
blood
✔ Control the chemical environment of the brain
Sensory input - gathering information mopping up leaked potassium ions
✔ Sensory receptors monitor changes, called
stimuli, occurring inside and outside the body
Integration
MICROGLIA
✔ Spiderlike phagocytes
✔ Nervous system processes and interprets
sensory input and decides whether action is
needed
Motor Output
✔ A response, or effect, activates muscles or
glands

✔ Monitor health of nearby neurons

✔ Dispose of debris

EPENDYMAL CELLS
✔ Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord

✔ Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal

fluid

✔ Support cells in the CNS are grouped

together as neuroglia
✔ General functions
Support
Insulate and Protect neurons OLIGODENDROCYTES
✔ Nervous tissue is made up of two principal
cell types
✔ Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial
cells, or glia)
Resemble neurons
Unable to conduct nerve impulses
Never lose the ability to divide
✔ Neurons ✔ Wrap around nerve fibers in the central
nervous system

ASTROCYTES ✔ Produce myelin sheaths

✔ Abundant, star-shaped cells

SCHWANN CELLS ▪ Axon terminals are separated from the next
neuron by a gap
✔ Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers
in the PNS
✔ Synaptic cleft - gap between axon
terminals and the next neuron
✔ Synapse - functional junction between
nerves where a nerve impulse is transmitted

MYELIN
✔ White, fatty material covering axons
SATELLITE CELLS
✔ Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies

✔ Protects and insulates fibers

✔ Speeds nerve impulse transmission

✔ Schwann cells - wrap axons in a jelly

rol l like fashion (PNS) to form the myelin
Neurons = nerve cells sheath
✔ Cells specialized to transmit messages ✔ Neurilemma - part of the Schwann cell
(nerve impulses) external to the myelin sheath
✔ Major regions of all neurons ✔ Nodes of Ranvier - gaps in myelin
Cell body - nucleus and metabolic center of the sheath along the axon
cell
Processes - fibers that extend from the cell
body ✔ Oligodendrocytes - produce myelin
sheaths around axons of the CNS
▪ Lack a neurilemma
✔ Cell body is the metabolic center of the
neuron
Nucleus with large nucleolus ✔ Nuclei - clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
Nissl bodies ✔ Ganglia - collections of cell bodies
▪ Rough endoplasmic reticulum outside the CNS in the PNS
Neurofibrils
▪ Intermediate filaments that maintain cell shape ✔ Tracts - bundles of nerve fibers in the
CNS
✔ Dendrites - conduct impulses toward the ✔ Nerves - bundles of nerve fibers in the
cell body PNS
▪ Neurons may have hundreds of dendrites
✔ Axons - conduct impulses away from the ✔ White matter - collections of myelinated
cell body fibers (tracts)
▪ Neurons have only one axon arising from the ✔ Gray matter - mostly unmyelinated fibers
cell body at the axon hillock and cell bodies
▪ End in axon terminals, which contain vesicles
with
neurotransmitters
NEURONS

IRRITABILITY
✔ Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it
to a nerve impulse
CONDUCTIVITY
✔ Ability to transmit the impulse to other
neurons, muscles, or glands

Sensory (afferent) neuron ELECTRICAL CONDITIONS OF A

✔ Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to RESTING NEURON’S MEMBRANE
the CNS ✔ The plasma membrane at rest is inactive
✔ Receptors include: (polarized)
✔ Cutaneous sense organs in skin ✔ Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s
✔ Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons plasma membrane than outside
Motor (efferent) neuron
✔ Carry impulses from the central nervous
system to viscera and/or muscles and glands
Interneurons (association neurons)
✔ Cell bodies located in the CNS
✔ Connect sensory and motor neurons
✔ K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell
MULTIPOLAR NEURONS ✔ Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell
✔ many extensions from the cell body ✔ As long as the inside of the membrane is more
✔ All motor and interneurons are multipolar negative (fewer positive ions) than the outside,
the cell remains inactive
✔ Most common structural type
ACTION
✔ A stimulus changes the permeability of the
neuron’s membrane to sodium ions
✔ Sodium channels now open, and sodium (Na+)
diffuses into the neuron

BIPOLAR NEURONS
✔ one axon and one dendrite
✔ Located in special sense organs, such as nose
and eye
✔ The inward rush of sodium ions changes the
✔ Rare in adults
polarity at that site and is called depolarization

ACTION INITIATION AND

GENERATION
✔ A graded potential (localized depolarization)
exists where the inside of the membrane is
more positive and the outside is less positive
UNIPOLAR NEURONS
✔ have a short single process leaving the cell
body
✔ Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia
✔ Conduct impulses both toward and away
from the cell body
✔ If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium ✔ STEP 1: When the action potential reaches the
influx great enough, local depolarization axon terminal, the electrical charge opens
activates the neuron to conduct an action calcium channels
potential (nerve impulse)

PROPAGATION
✔ If enough sodium enters the cell, the action
potential (nerve impulse) starts and is
propagated over the entire axon

✔ All-or-none response means the nerve impulse ✔ STEP 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny
either is propagated or is not Fibers with myelin vesicles containing the Neurotransmitter
sheaths conduct nerve impulses more quickly Chemical to fuse with the axonal membrane

REPOLARIZATION ✔ STEP 3: The entry of calcium into the axon

✔ Membrane permeability changes again terminal causes porelike openings to form,
becoming impermeable to sodium ions and releasing the neurotransmitter into the
permeable to potassium ions synaptic cleft

✔ STEP 4: The neurotransmitter molecules

diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to
receptors on the membrane of the next neuron

✔ Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the neuron,

repolarizing the membrane ✔ STEP 5: If enough neurotransmitter is
✔ Repolarization involves restoring the inside released, a graded potential will be generated.
of the membrane to a negative charge and Eventually an action potential (nerve impulse)
the outer surface to a positive charge will occur in the neuron beyond the synapse

✔ Initial conditions of sodium and potassium ✔ STEP 6: The electrical changes prompted by
ions are restored using the sodium- neurotransmitter binding are brief. The
potassium pump neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the
✔ This pump, using ATP, restores the original synapse either by reuptake or by enzymatic
configuration activity
✔ Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell
while two potassium ions are returned to the ✔ Transmission of an impulse is electrochemical
cell Transmission down neuron is electrical
Transmission to next neuron is chemical
✔ Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot
conduct another nerve impulse
REFLEXES
TRANSMISSION OF SIGNAL ✔ are rapid, predictable, and involuntary
SYNAPSES responses to stimuli. Reflexes occur over
neural pathways called reflex arcs

SOMATIC REFLEXES
✔ Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
✔ Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is
normally under voluntary control
✔ Example: pulling your hand away from a hot
object

AUTONOMIC REFLEXES
✔ Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the
heart, and glands
✔ Example: regulation of smooth muscles, heart
and blood pressure, glands, digestive system
⮚
⮚
1. Sensory receptor - reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory neuron - carries message to the
THE BRAIN
integration center ✔ Cerebral hemispheres
⮚ 3. Integration center (CNS) - processes ✔ Diencephalon
information and directs motor output ✔ Brain stem
⮚ 4. Motor neuron - carries message to an ✔ Cerebellum
effector
⮚ 5. Effector organ - is the muscle or gland to be Cerebral Hemisphere
stimulated
✔ Include more than half of the brain mass
✔ The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
grooves (sulci)

TWO NEURON REFLEX

✔ Fissures are deeper grooves

✔ Lobes are named for the cranial bones that lie
over them
✔ Simplest type
✔ Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex 3 MAIN REGIONS OF CEREBRAL
HEMISPHERE
THREE-NEURON REFLEX ARCS ✔ Cortex is superficial gray matter
✔ White matter
✔ Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray matter

Cerebral Cortex
Primary somatic sensory area
✔ Located in parietal lobe posterior to central
sulcus
✔ Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory
neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and effector ✔ Receives impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors
✔ Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex
✔ Pain, temperature, light touch (except for special
senses)
✔ Sensory homunculus is a spatial map
II. Central Nervous System ✔ Left side of the primary somatic sensory area
receives impulses from right side (and vice
✔ Organs versa)
Brain and Spinal cord

✔ Function
Integration; command center
Interprets incoming sensory information
Issues outgoing instructions
 Basal nuclei
Cerebral areas involved in special senses ✔ Islands of gray matter buried deep within the
Visual area (occipital lobe) white matter of the cerebrum
Auditory area (temporal lobe)
Olfactory area (temporal lobe) ✔ Regulate voluntary motor activities by
modifying instructions sent to skeletal muscles
by the primary motor cortex

DIENCEPHALON
✔ Sits on top of the brain stem
✔ Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres

Primary motor area ✔ Made of three structures

✔ Located anterior to the central sulcus in the 1. Thalamus
frontal lobe 2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus
✔ Allows us to consciously move skeletal
muscles
✔ Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal)
tract, which descends to spinal cord
✔ Motor homunculus is a spatial map

Broca’s area
✔ (motor speech area)
✔ Involved in our ability to speak
✔ Usually in left hemisphere

Other specialized areas

Anterior association area (frontal lobe)
Posterior association area (posterior cortex) Thalamus
Speech area (for sounding out words) ✔ Encloses the third ventricle
Cerebral white matter ✔ Relay station for sensory impulses p assing
upward to the cerebral cortex
✔ Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
✔ Transfers impulses to the correct part of the
✔ Corpus callosum connects hemispheres cortex for localization and interpretation
✔ Tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are
known as commissures Hypothalamus
✔ Association fiber tracts connect areas within a ✔ Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
hemisphere
✔ Important autonomic nervous system center
✔ Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum
with lower CNS centers ✔ Regulates body temperature
✔ Regulates water balance
✔ Regulates metabolism
✔ Houses the limbic center for emotions
✔ Regulates the nearby pituitary gland
✔ Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction (smell)

Epithalamus
✔ Forms the roof of the third ventricle
✔ Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
✔ Includes the choroid plexus forms cerebrospinal
fluid
✔ Emotions
BRAIN STEM
✔ Attaches to the spinal cord

Midbrain
✔ Extends from the mammillary bodies to the
pons inferiorly
✔ Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the
third and fourth ventricles
✔ Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles,
convey ascending and descending impulses
✔ Four rounded protrusions, corpora quadrigemina, ✔ Reticular activating system (RAS)
are visual and auditory reflex centers ✔ Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and
✔ Contains auditory and visual reflex centers consciousness
✔ Contains nuclei for cranial nerves ✔ Filter for incoming sensory information
Oculomotor (III) and Trochlear (IV)

Pons Cerebrum
✔ The rounded structure protruding just below the ✔ Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
midbrain ✔ Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region of
✔ Mostly composed of fiber tracts white matter
✔ Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
✔ Relays information from the cerebrum to the
cerebellum
✔ Controls respiratory and depth
✔ Contains nuclei of cranial nerves Trigeminal,
Abducens and Facial Nerves.

Medulla Oblongata
✔ The most inferior part of the brain stem that
merges into the spinal cord
CEREBELLUM
✔ Includes important fiber tracts
✔ Controls balance
✔ Contains important centers that control:
✔ Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
▪ Heart rate
activity and coordination of body movements
▪ Blood pressure
▪ Breathing
▪ Swallowing PROTECTION OF CENTRAL
▪ Vomiting NERVOUS SYSTEM
▪ Meninges
▪ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
✔ Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and ▪ Blood-brain barrier
medulla
✔ Relays ascending sensory pathways impulses
from skin and proprioceptors
✔ Contains cranial nerves Vestibulocochlear,
Glossopharygeal, Vagus, Accessory and
Hypoglossal

Reticular Formation
✔ Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain
stem
✔ Involved in motor control of visceral organs
MENINGES
Dura mater
✔ Outermost leathery layer
✔ Double layered external covering
✔ Periosteum - attached to inner surface of the
skull BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
✔ Meningeal layer - outer covering of the ✔ Includes the least permeable capillaries of the
brain body
✔ Folds inward in several areas ✔ Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to
✔ Falx cerebri pass through the capillary walls
✔ Tentorium cerebelli - connects cerebellum to ✔ Excludes many potentially harmful substances
cerebrum from entering the brain, such as wastes
✔ Useless as a barrier against some substances
like fats, respiratory gases and other fat-
Arachnoid layer soluble molecules
✔ Middle layer
✔ Subarachnoid space is filled with BRAIN DYSFUNCTION
cerebrospinal fluid
Traumatic brain injuries
✔ Arachnoid granulations protrude through the
dura mater and absorb cerebrospinal fluid ● Concussion
into venous blood ✔ Slight brain injury
✔ Typically little permanent brain damage occurs
Pia mater
● Contusion
✔ Internal layer
✔ Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs
✔ Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal cord ✔ Coma may occur
● Death may occur after head blows due to:
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID ✔ Intracranial hemorrhage
✔ Similar to blood plasma in composition ✔ Cerebral edema
✔ Formed continually by the choroid plexuses ● Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or
✔ Choroid plexuses - capillaries in the stroke
ventricles of the brain ✔ Results when blood circulation to a brain area is
✔ CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the blocked and brain tissue dies
brain and spinal cord ✔ Loss of some functions or death may result
✔ Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles, ● Hemiplegia - one-sided paralysis
and central canal of the spinal cord ● Aphasia - damage to speech center in left
✔ Arachnoid Granulations - absorbs CSF in hemisphere
the venous blood in the dural sinuses
✔ Contains more VITAMIN C
● Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
✔ Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood
flow)
✔ Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired
speech
SPINAL CORD ✔ bundles of nerves suspended in the CSF which
protects and nourishes the cord.
✔ Extends from the foramen magnum of the ✔ In adults, it extends from the foramen
skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra magnum at the base of the skull to between
✔ Cauda equina is a collection of spinal the first (L1) and second lumbar vertebra (L2)
nerves at the inferior end ✔ In newborn infants, it extends to the third or
✔ Provides a two-way conduction pathway to fourth lumbar vertebra (L3 – L4)
and from the brain ✔ 18 inches long & ½ inch wide
✔ 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the ✔ bilateral symmetry
spinal cord

III. Peripheral Nervous System

✔ PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the
CNS
✔ Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside
the CNS

✔ Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that

surrounds each fiber
✔ Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into
a fascicle
✔ Epineurium binds groups of fascicles

Mixed nerves
✔ Contain both sensory and motor fibers

Sensory (afferent) nerves

✔ Carry impulses toward the CNS
Motor (efferent) nerves
✔ Carry impulses away from the CNS
CRANIAL NERVES
✔ 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and
neck
✔ Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to
thoracic and abdominal cavities
✔ Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory
only Optic, Olfactory and Vestibulocochlear

✔ protected by the vertebral column. The

surrounding vertebrae provide a sturdy shelter
for the enclosed spinal cord.
● OLFACTORY ( Sensory )
✔ Arise from olfcatory receptors in the nasal
mucosa and synapse with the olfactory bulbs
✔ Carries impulses for the sense of smell

● OPTIC ( Sensory )
✔ Arise from the retina of the eye and form the
optic nerve.
✔ Carries impulses for vision

● OCULOMOTOR ( Motor ) ● FACIAL ( Mixed )

✔ Arises from the midbrain of the eye ✔ Fibers leave the pons and run to the face
✔ Supplies motor fibers to four of the six muscles ✔ Activates the muscles of expression and
✔ Controls lens shape and pupil size dilation lacrimal and salivary glands
✔ Carries sensory impulses from the taste buds
● TROCHLEAR ( Motor ) of anterior tongue

✔ Arises from the midbrain of the eye

✔ Supplies motor fibers for one external eye
● VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR ( Sensory )
muscle ✔ Fibers runs from the equilibrium and hearing
receptors of the inner ear to the brain stem
● TRIGEMINAL ( Mixed ) ✔ Transmits impulses for the sense of balance
and cochlear branch transmits impulses for
✔ Emerge from the pons and form three divisions the sense of hearing
that run in the face
✔ Conducts sensory impulses from the skin of
the face and mucosa of the nose and mouth
● GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL ( Mixed )
✔ Activates the chewing muscles ✔ Fibers merge from the medulla and run to the
throat
● ABDUCENS ( Motor ) ✔ Supplies motor fibers to the pharynx that
promote swallowing and saliva production
✔ Fibers leave the pons and run to the eye
✔ Carries sensory impulses from taste buds of
✔ Supplies motor fibers to the lateral rectus the posterior tongue and from pressure
muscle which rolls the eye laterally receptors of the carotid artery

● VAGUS ( Mixed )
✔ Fibers emerge from the medulla and descend
into the thorax and abdominal cavity
✔ Carry sensory impulses from and motor
impulses to the pharynx, larynx and the
abdominal and thoracic viscera
✔ Most motor fibers are parasymphatetic fibers
that promote digestive activity and help
regulate heart activity
● ACCESSORY ( Motor ) ● CERVICAL ( C1-C5 )
✔ Fibers arise from the superior spinal cord (C1- ✔ Phrenic
C5) and travel to muscles of the neck and back ✔ Covers the diaphragm, the skin and muscles
✔ Motor fibers activate the sternocleidomastoid of shoulder and neck
and trapezius muscles
● BRACHIAL ( C5-C8 and T1 )
● HYPOGLOSSAL ( Motor ) ✔ Axillary - Deltoid muscle and skin of shoulder,
✔ Fibers run from the medulla to the tongue muscles and skin of superior thorax
✔ Motor fibers control tongue movements; ✔ Radial - triceps and extensor muscles of the
sensory fibers carry impulses from the forearm skin of posterior upper limb
tongue ✔ Median - flexor muscles and skin of forearm
and some muscles of hand
SPINAL NERVES ✔ Musculocutaneous - Flexor muscles of
arm, skin of lateral forearm
✔ 31 pairs
✔ Formed by the combination of the ventral and
✔ Ulnar - some flexor muscles of forearm, wrist
and many hand muscles, skin of hand
dorsal roots of the spinal cord
✔ Named for the region of the spinal cord from
which they arise ● LUMBAR ( L1-L4 )
✔ Femoral including lateral and anterior
cutaneous branches

✔ Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the

spinal cord into a dorsal ramus and a ventral
ramus
✔ Ramus - branch of a spinal nerve; contains
both motor and sensory fibers
✔ Lower abdomen, anterior and medial thigh
✔ Dorsal rami- serve the skin and muscles of muscles and skin of anteromedial leg and thigh
the posterior trunk
✔ Obturator - abbductor muscles of medial
✔ Ventral rami (T1–T12) - form the thigh and small hip muscles, skin of medial thigh
intercostal nerves that supply muscles and skin and hip joint
of the ribs and trunk
✔ Ventral rami (except T1 –T12) - form a ● SACRAL ( L4-L5 and S1-S4 )
complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior ✔ Sciatic - largest nerve in the body, splits
to common fibular and tibial nerves just
above the knee. Lower trunk and posterior
surface of thigh
✔ Plexus - networks of nerves serving motor
and sensory needs of the limbs
✔ Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the
cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
Four plexuses
1. Cervical
2. Brachial
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral
 S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
✔ Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal
ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons extend
to organs that are served
✔ Conserves energy
✔ Longer pathways, slower system
✔ Controls body’s response while at rest

SYMPHATETIC DIVISION
✔ also known as the thoracolumbar division
✔ Fight-Or-Flight
✔ Preganglionic neurons originate from T1
✔ COMMON FIBULAR - Superficial and deep through L2
branches. Found in the lateral aspect of leg and ✔ Axons pass through a ramus communicans to
foot. enter a sympathetic trunk ganglion
✔ TIBIAL - including sural and plantar branches. ✔ Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the spinal
Found in the posterior aspect of leg and foot cord
✔ Superior and inferior gluteal ✔ Takes over to increase activities
✔ Very short neurons, faster system
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS ✔ Control the body’s response during
perceived threat
SYSTEM
Motor subdivision of the PNS
✔ Consists only of motor nerves
✔ Controls the body automatically (and is also
known as the involuntary nervous system)
✔ Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and
glands
✔ Chain of two motor neurons
Preganglionic neuron is in the brain or spinal
cord
Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
✔ Has two arms
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division

Somatic nervous system \

✔ Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside the
CNS
✔ Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are
served

✔ When body divisions serve the same organ, they

PARASYMPATHETIC cause antagonistic effects due to different
DIVISION neurotransmitters
✔ Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release
✔ also known as the craniosacral division
acetylcholine
✔ Rest and Digest
✔ Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic)
✔ Preganglionic neurons originate in: fibers release norepinephrine
Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
✔ Preganglionic axons of both divisions release
acetycholine

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT OF THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM
✔ The nervous system is formed during the first
month of embryonic development
✔ Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
✔ Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
✔ The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
brain to develop

Severe congenital brain diseases include:

▪ Cerebral palsy
▪ Anencephaly
▪ Hydrocephalus
▪ Spina bifida

✔ Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons

die throughout life and are not replaced; thus,
brain mass declines with age
✔ Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure
due to changes in body position
✔ Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal
intellectual function
✔ Disease - particularly cardiovascular disease is
the major cause of declining mental function with
age
✔ Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of blood
vessels

✔ Premature babies have trouble regulating body

temperature because the hypothalamus is one
of the last brain areas to mature prenatally
✔ Development of motor control indicates the
progressive myelination and maturation of a
child’s nervous system
 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

Principles of Chemical Communication Characteristics of the Endocrine System

Chemical Messengers o Composed of endocrine glans located
throughout of the body
 Allow cells to communicate with each other to o Secreted amounts of chemical messengers –
regulate body activities hormones into the bloodstream
 Produced by collection of cells or glands o Travel through general blood circulation 
(endocrine/nervous) target tissues or effectors (specific sites where
hormones produce particular response)
Classes of Chemical Messengers o Endocrine – derived from Greek word endo
1. Autocrine chemical messengers (within) krino (to secrete)
o Stimulates the cell that originally secreted o Exocrine – have ducts that secretes to the
it & sometimes nearby cells of the same outside of the body
type o Endocrinology – study of the hormones and
o Ex. White blood cell – stimulate their own glands
replication  increases total no. of WBC
2. Paracrine chemical messengers Hormones
o Local messengers – secreted by one cell
type but affect neighboring cells of a o Hormone – Greek word hormon (to set into motion)
different type o Regulate almost every physiological
o Do not travel in the general circulation – process in our body
but secreted into the extracellular fluid Chemical Nature of Hormones
o Ex. Histamine – released by WBC during
allergic reactions (stimulates vasodilation o Lipid-Soluble Hormones
nearby vessels  Nonpolar – steroid hormones, thyroid and
3. Neurotransmitters fatty acid derivative
o Secreted by neurons that activate the  Small molecules and insoluble in
adjacent cell water-based fluids
o Secreted into the synaptic cleft
 Travel in the bloodstream attached to
o Considered to be paracrine CM – binding proteins
specialized group (most appropriate)
4. Endocrine chemical messengers  Degraded slowly and not rapidly
o Secreted into the bloodstream by certain eliminated from circulation – lifespan few
glands and cells days to several weeks
o Affect cells that are distant from their  Without the binding proteins,
source quickly diffuse out of capillaries
and be degraded by enzymes or
removed by the kidney
Functions of the Endocrine System
 Breakdown products excreted in the urine
1. Metabolism or bile
o Regulates the rate of metabolism – sum of the o Water-soluble hormones
chemical changes in the tissues  Polar molecules – include protein, peptide,
2. Control of food intake and digestion and amino acid hormones
o Regulates the level of satiety (fullness)  Can dissolve in the blood – most them
o Breakdown of food into individual nutrients dissolve directly in the blood  travel into
3. Tissue development the target tissue without binding proteins
o Influences the development of tissues (ex.  Do not readily diffuse –some large
Nervous system) molecules
4. Ion regulation
 Organs regulating these hormones
o Regulate the solute concentration of the blood have very porous or fenestrated
5. Water balance
o Regulates the water balance by controlling  Those small molecules – require the binding
solutes in the blood proteins to avoid being filtered out of the
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation blood
o Prepares the body for physical activities  Relatively short half-lives
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients  Degraded by proteases within the
o regulates the levels of blood glucose bloodstream  filtered out by the
8. Control of reproductive functions kidney
o Controls the development and functions of  Hormone target cells destroy
both male and female’s reproductive system water-soluble hormone
9. Uterine contractions and milk release  Can also end the effect via
o during delivery and for lactating females endocytosis
10. Immune system regulation
o Control production of immune cells
1|RDJ
Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

 Inside the cell, lysosomal enzymes

degrade  recycles for new Inhibition of Hormone Release
proteins can be synthesize
 Some water-soluble hormone – more stable  Important to inhibit some hormones
in the blood
Inhibition of hormone release by Humoral Stimuli
Protein and peptide hormones have
carbohydrate attach or terminal ends –  Existence of a companion hormone to inhibit the
modified to protect them from protease same humoral stimulus
activity o Opposed those of the secreted hormone
and counteract the hormone’s action
 These can also be stable when they are
 If blood pressure goes up  atria of the heart
attached to the binding proteins
secrete atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) which
lowers blood pressure
Control of Hormone Secretion o Aldosterone use to raise the blood pressure
in response to a low BP
 blood level of most hormones fluctuates within
o Work together  maintains homeostasis
homeostatic range through negative-feedback and
few instances – positive-feedback Inhibition of hormone release by Neural Stimuli
Stimulation of Hormone Release
 Neurons inhibit targets just often as they stimulate
Control by Humoral Stimuli targets
 If inhibitory, then target endocrine gland does not
 blood-borne chemicals – directly stimulate the secrete its hormone
release of some hormones and they circulate in the
blood Inhibition of hormone release by Hormonal Stimuli
 humoral – body fluid
 Some hormones prevent secretion of other
 sensitive to the blood levels of a particular hormones
substance (glucose, Ca, and Na) o Inhibiting hormone – hormones from
o hormone is released in response to the hypothalamus prevent the secretion of
chemical’s concentration tropic hormones
 calcium  PTHormone is released
 ADH release when water- Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
conservation is needed since of the Negative feedback
elevated concentration of blood
solute  Hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the hormone
 Increase blood glucose levels  itself
insulin by pancreas o Once blood level reached a certain point
Control by Neural Stimuli o There is an adequate hormone to activate
the target cell
 Neurons release neurotransmitter into the synapse  Self-limiting system
– produce the hormone o Thyroid hormone inhibit secretion of
 Stimulates the cell to increase hormone secretion releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
o Stimulate the epinephrine and Positive feedback
norepinephrine  increase the heart rate
and blood flow through exercising muscle  Some hormones – promote the synthesis and
o When stop exercising  declines the secretion of tropic hormone – to stimulate their
secretion of these hormones target cell
 Some neurons secrete directly in the blood –  Further secretion of the hormone
neuropeptides  Self-propagating system
o Stimulating hormone secretion from other o Prolonged estrogen – stimulates ovulation
endocrine cells – releasing hormones
 Term is reserved almost for the Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action
hypothalamus
Control by Hormonal Stimuli  Hormones exert actions by binding to proteins -
receptors
 A hormone stimulates the secretion of other o Stimulate the cells that have the receptor
hormones for the hormone
o Tropic hormones – hormones from the o It binds to the receptor site – allows only a
anterior pituitary gland specific type of hormone to bind –
specificity

2|RDJ
Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

o Some receptor can bind to a ‘family’ of Membrane-Bound receptors that activate G proteins
receptors which are structurally similar
 G proteins largest-smallest – alpha (), beta(),
Classes of Receptors and gamma()
1. Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptor o Inactive state – alpha binds to guanine
diphosphate (GDP)
 Since these are nonpolar and can freely cross the  Converts GTP to GDP with alpha
cell membrane – diffuse and bind to nuclear subunit (GTPase) and recombines
receptors with the other subunits
o Can be found in the nucleus or the o Active state – alpha binds to guanine
cytoplasm triphosphate (GTP)
o When bind, it interacts with the DNA to  Can produce cellular responses
regulate the transcription of the target
G proteins that interact with Adenylate Cyclase
tissue
 Thyroid and steroid hormones generally bind to  Activated  subunits – influence the rate of cAMP
nuclear receptors formation by activating or inhibiting adenylate
o Recognized as the lipid-soluble hormone – cyclase (converts ATP to cAMP)
rapid effect on target cells o cAMP – second messenger that bind to
protein kinases which regulate the activity
2. Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-bound
of other enzymes (increase or decrease
receptors
activity)
 Polar molecules which cannot pass through the o phosphodiesterase – breaks down cAMP to
membrane – instead interact with membrane- AMP
bound receptors  the increase of cAMP is caused by the hormone
o When bind to receptor, it initiates a glucagon when binds to the receptors of liver cells
response inside the cell o break down glycogen to glucose for release
from liver cells
Action of Nuclear Receptors
Signal Amplification
 Stimulate protein synthesis and binds to DNA 
produce new proteins  some hormones that stimulate second messengers
o Hormone-response elements – recognize can produce an almost instantaneous response -
and bind to specific nucleotide sequences in response proteins are already present
the DNA which regulates the transcription o each receptor produces thousands of 2nd
of specific mRNA messengers, leading to a cascade effect
and ultimately amplification of the
o Transcription factor – formed by the
combination of the hormone and its hormonal signal
receptor o a hormone has army of molecules to
o Ex. Testosterones stimulate the synthesis of produce the final products
proteins  Epinephrine – effective fight or flight situation – it
o Degraded within the cell –limiting length of can turn on target cell responses in seconds
time of the hormone’s influence
Endocrine Glands and their Hormones
Membrane-bound receptors and Signal
Amplification  Consists of ductless glands that secrete hormones
into the interstitial fluid
 can be activated in two ways  Richest blood supply – endocrine glands (adrenal
o some receptors alter the activity of G and thyroid glands)
proteins at inner surface of the cell
membrane Pituitary and Hypothalamus
o other receptor directly alter the activity of
the intercellular enzymes  Pituitary gland
 Second-messenger system - activations of these two o Also called the hypophysis (“under growth”)
 elicits specific responses in cells – second – small gland (size of a pea)
messengers o Rest in a depression of the sphenoid bone
o produced inside a cell once a ligand binds inferior to the hypothalamus of the brain
to its membrane-bound receptor o Lies posterior to the optic chiasm and
o activates specific processes inside the cell infundibulum (connected by a stalk)
for the response of the hormone o Divided into the anterior pituitary gland
o ex. cAMP – ligand stimulate this hormone and posterior pituitary gland
which it will stimulate the cellular processes  APG – made up of epithelial cells
derived from embryonic oral cavity
 PPG – extension of the brain and
composed of nerve cells
3|RDJ
Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

oControl the functions of many other glands  Have daily peak levels during deep sleep
in the body o Increases during periods of fasting and
o Was known as the body’s master gland exercise
 Hypothalamus  Blood GH hormone levels do not become elevated
o Important autonomic nervous system & during rapid growth –
endocrine control center of the brain o children have higher levels than adults
(located inferior to the thalamus) o Genetics, nutrition, and reproductive
o Controls the pituitary gland – hormonal hormone influence growth
control and direct innervation  Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
Hormonal Control of the Anterior Pituitary o Somatomedins
o GH increases IGF secretion from tissues
 Synthesizes hormones under the control of the (liver)
hypothalamus o Have their own receptors that insulin can
also bind
 Neurons of hypothalamus produce neuropeptides
that will secrete them into a capillary bed Thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH)
o Neuropeptides – transported through veins
to a second capillary bed  Binds to membrane-bound receptors on cells of
o Leave the blood – binds to membrane- thyroid gland
bound receptors  TSH stimulation  growth of thyroid gland
o Transport the releasing and inhibiting o Too much TSH  thyroid gland enlarges
hormones – hypothalamic-pituitary portal and secrete too much thyroid hormone
system
o Too little TSH  thyroid gland decreases
 Releasing hormone – stimulation and secretes too little Thyroid hormone
 Inhibiting hormone – decreases the
 Regulated by a releasing hormone in the
secretion
hypothalamus
Direct innervation of the Posterior Pituitary Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
 Storage location for two hormones  Binds to membrane-receptors on adrenal cortex
o Synthesized by special neurons in the cells
hypothalamus
 Cortisol - Increases the secretion of a hormone from
 Controls secretion of the PP adrenal cortex
Hormones
o Also called hydrocortisone
o Produce in cell bodies  transported o Keeps adrenal cortex from degenerating
through the axon extend through the
 Binds as well to melanocytes and increase skin
infundibulum PPG
pigmentation
 NS and ES are closely interrelated o Too much ACTH – darkening of the skin
o Emotions influence the Endocrine System
through hypothalamus  Increased by Releasing hormone from
 Influence functions of hypothalamus
hypothalamus and parts of the Gonadotropins
brain
 Binds to the receptors of the cells in gonads
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
o Regulate growth, development, and
Growth Hormone (GH) functions of gonads
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Stimulates the growth of bones, muscles by o Females
increasing gene expression  Stimulates ovulation
 Resists protein breakdown during food deprivation  Promotes estrogen and
– favors lipid breakdown progesterone
 Too little GG  abnormal development of pituitary o Males
o Pituitary Dwarf – deficiency of GH but  Interstitial cells of the testes –
normally proportioned secretes testosterone (Interstitial
o Treatment – administering GH using a cell-stimulating hormone ICSH)
gene in a bacteria  Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Excess GH  hormone-secreting tumors o Stimulates the development of follicles in
o Abnormally tall – giantism the ovaries and sperm cells in testes
o Acromegaly – large facial features and o Without LH and FSH – decrease the size of
hands ovaries and testes & no production of
 Controlled by two hormones from hypothalamus oocytes or sperm cells
o Releasing hormone – stimulation GH  FSH and LH secretion with the Releasing Hormone
o Inhibiting hormone – inhibits GH of hypothalamus
4|RDJ
Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

Prolactin o Between follicles – have loose connective

tissue – contains capillaries and scattered C
 Binds in the membrane-receptors of the breast – cells – secrete hormone calcitonin
promoting development of breast and production  Regulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary –
of milk
secretes TRH that travels to the APG  stimulate
 Regulatory hormones – one increases secretion and the TSH that will secrete thyroid hormones
another one decreases it o Small increase during the night and TSH
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) levels occur on a daily basis
o Decrease blood levels of TSH  decrease
 Receptors that bind on melanocytes synthesis and release of TH
o Synthesizing melanin  Have negative-feedback effect on the
 Structure of MSH and ACTH are similar  causing hypothalamus and pituitary
the oversecretion of either hormone  darken skin o Increase the levels of TH inhibit the
secretion of TSH-releasing hormone from
 Has increasing and decreasing MSH secretion in pituitary gland
the hypothalamus
o decrease TH levels  TSH-RH and TSH to
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary be secreted
o loss of negative-feedback will result excess
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) TSH  enlarge gland called goiter –
develops when iodine in the diet is too low
 “anti” + “urine volume” and known as vasopressin o less TH, then TSH-RH and TSH secretion
 Binds to receptors and increases water increase causing a goiter
reabsorption by kidney tubules  regulate growth and development
o Less water lost in urine o lack of TH - hypothyroidism
o Can cause blood to constrict when large  infants – cretinism – characterized
amounts is released by mental retardation, short
 Reduced ADH release = large amounts of dilute stature, and abnormal skeletal
urine structure
 Lack ADH secretion  diabetes insipidus –  adults – decreased in metabolic
producing large amounts of urine rate and lethargic
o Excess water loss from the blood  hard time performing
o Loss of important electrolytes routine task
 Familiar to someone drinking alcohol – inhibition of  can cause myxedema –
ADH secretion – more urine to released accumulation of fluid in the tissue
in subcutaneous tissue of the skin
Oxytocin o elevated rate of TH – hyperthyroidism
 increased in metabolic rate,
 Binds to membrane-receptors extreme nervousness, and chronic
 causes contraction of smooth muscle cells of the fatigue
uterus and milk letdown from breasts  grave disease – autoimmune
 Pitocin – assist in childbirth and constrict uterine disease causes of hyperthyroidism
blood vessels after childbirth  occur in immune system –
produce abnormal proteins
Thyroid Gland
 accompanied by bulging of
eyes – exophthalmia
 Made up of two lobes connected by a narrow band
called isthmus (constriction)  requires iodine to synthesize two separate TH
o Lobes are located on each side of trachea o without the iodine – no secretion or
inferior to the larynx production of TH
 One of the largest endocrine glands – appears o Thyroxine/ tetraiodothyronine
more red than surrounding tissues – highly vascular  Contains 4 iodine atoms (T4)
o Triiodothyronine
Thyroid Hormones  Contains 3 iodine atoms (T3)
o Deficiency not common – iodized salt or
 Main function is to secrete of the gland vegetables that grow a soil rich iodine
 Regulate the metabolism in the body  Parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin
 Synthesized and stored within the gland – thyroid o Secreted if blood concentration of Ca2+
follicles – small spheres with walls composed of becomes too high
simple cuboidal epithelium  It lowers blood Ca2+ levels to return
o Filled with the protein thyroglobulin which their normal range
TH is attached to it  Binds to receptors of osteoclasts
and inhibits them

5|RDJ
Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|34726598


Inhibition of osteoclasts reduces Adrenal Glands
rate of Ca2+ reabsorption
(breakdown) from bone  Two small glands located superior to each kidney
o Prevents elevated blood Ca2+ levels  Has an inner part – adrenal medulla (middle) and
outer part – adrenal cortex (outer)
Parathyroid Gland
Adrenal Medulla
 Four of these tiny glands – embedded in the
posterior wall of thyroid glands  Epinephrine
o Secrete hormones – parathyroid hormones o (epi - upon + nephros - kidney) or
(PTH) adrenaline
 Essential for regulation of blood  Small amounts of norepinephrine are released as
calcium levels well
 PTH Effects  Activation of the sympathetic nervous system
o Increases active vitamin D formation stimulates the adrenal medulla to secrete the two
 Stimulates increases Ca2+ hormones
absorption by intestinal epithelial o Active when excited or physically active
cells o Increased as well when stressed and low
o PTH secretion increases blood Ca2+ levels blood glucose levels
 Binds to receptors on osteoblasts  Fight-or-flight hormones
 Major effects include:
 Osteoblasts secrete
o Release of storage energy sources to
substances that stimulate
support increased physical activity
osteoclasts to reabsorb
bone  Fatty acids – derived from the
breakdown of adipose tissue
o PTH decreases loss of Ca2+ in the urine
o Increased heart rate – high blood pressure
 Vitamin D – produced from precursors in the skin – o Increased smooth muscle contraction and
modified by liver and kidneys blood vessels (vasoconstriction)
o UV light acting on the skin – required for o Increased blood flow of skeletal muscle
the first stage of vitamin D and final stage  Skeletal muscle blood vessels does
– synthesis in the kidney is stimulated by not contract (increased) and
PTH elsewhere, decreased
 Decreased blood Ca2+ levels – increase PTH o Increased metabolic rate
secretion  Responses from adrenal medulla reinforce the
o PTH increase the rate of bone effect of sympathetic division of the autonomic
reabsorption nervous system
o Prolonged reabsorption  reduced bone
density Adrenal Cortex

 Increased blood Ca2+ levels – decrease PTH  Secrete three classes of steroid hormones that bind
secretion to nuclear receptor
o Stimulates the calcitonin – causes the blood Mineralocorticoids
Ca2+ levels to decline
 Abnormal high rate of PTH secretion –  Secrete by the outer layer of the adrenal cortex
hyperparathyroidism  Helps regulate blood volume and blood levels of K+
o Cause is a tumor in the gland and Na+
o Bones becomes soft, deformed, and easily  Aldosterone – major hormone of this class
fractured o Binds to the receptor molecules of the
o Makes nerve cells and muscle cells less kidney but affects the intestines, sweat
excitable  fatigue and muscle weakness glands, and salivary glands
o Excess Ca2+ - deposited in the soft tissues o Causes Na+ and H20 to be retained in the
of body  inflammation and kidney stones body and increases the rate at which K+ is
 Abnormal low rate of PTH secretion – eliminated
hypoparathyroidism  K+ is much more sensitive since
o Result from injury and surgical removal of more K+ levels then Na+ levels
thyroid and parathyroid glands decreases
o Leads to reduction in the rate of bone o Changes in blood pressure indirectly affects
reabsorption and formation of vitamin D the rate of aldosterone secretion
o Excitable nerve and muscles  muscle  Low blood pressure – release of
cramps or tetanus  can affect breathing renin (protein molecule) from the
that can result to death kidney

6|RDJ
Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

 Acts as an enzyme causes a o Alpha – secrete glucagon

blood protein – o Beta cells – secrete insulin
angiotensinogen o Delta cells – secrete somatostatin
 Angiotensin I converted to  Important to maintain blood glucose levels within
Angiotensin II for the smooth normal range
muscle in blood vessels to constrict o Below – malfunction of nervous system
 This increases the o Other tissues rapidly breakdown lipids and
aldosterone secretion proteins – provide alternative energy
o Retention of Na+ and H20  increase the source
BP and constricted blood vessels o Lipids  fatty acids to acidic ketones
 Help raise blood pressure  Acidosis – below the pH level of the
body fluids when fatty acids and
Glucocorticoids ketones are release
o Proteins are broken down and used by the
 Middle layer of the adrenal cortex that regulate liver to synthesize glucose
blood nutrient levels
 Elevated blood glucose levels  stimulate beta
 Major hormone – cortisol cells to produce insulin
o Increases the breakdown of proteins and o Increased parasympathetic stimulation and
lipids  increases the conversion of energy increased blood levels of amino acids 
the body can use insulin secretion
o Ex. Liver to convert amino acids to glucose o With decreased insulin levels  blood
– acts on the adipose tissue  causing glucose is conserved – providing adequate
lipids to breakdown to fatty acids glucose for the brain
 Glucose and fatty acids are  Major target tissues – liver, adipose tissue, muscles
released in the blood and area of hypothalamus – controls the appetite
o Proteins  amino acids released in the (satiety center)
blood o Increases the rate of the glucose and
o Stressful conditions  larger secretion of amino acids – synthesize of the proteins
cortisol  Diabetes mellitus
 If prolonged, immune system can o Inability to regulate blood glucose levels
be suppressed  leads the body within normal range
susceptible to stress o Type 1 – occurs when too little insulin is
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secreted from the pancreas
o Anterior pituitary  bind to membrane-  Cannot take up the glucose
bound receptors  regulates the secretion effectively – high blood glucose
of cortisol levels – hyperglycemia
o Blood glucose declines  cortisol secretion  Satiety center responds to little
increases glucose  exaggerated appetite
 Acts on the hypothalamus to  Excessive urine production 
increase secretion of ACTH- dehydrated and thirsty
releasing hormone  stimulate  Instead glucose, lipids and proteins
ACTH to secrete cortisol are broken down for energy 
wasting away body tissue, acidosis,
Androgen and ketosis
 Inner layer of adrenal cortex that stimulate the  Lack of energy  insulin injection
development of secondary male characteristics and to control the blood glucose levels
secrete small amounts on both sexes  Too much insulin present  blood
o Males – secreted by the testes glucose becomes very low
o Females – influence female sex drives  Insulin shock – loss of
o Exaggerated male characteristics  consciousness and
secretion is abnormally high disorientation
o Most apparent before puberty when effects o Type 2 – caused by either too few insulin
are not masked receptors or defective receptors on target
cells (does not respond to insulin normally)
Pancreas, insulin, and diabetes  Glucagon
o Released from the alpha cells when blood
Pancreas glucose levels are low
o Glucagon binds to receptors in the liver 
 Consists of pancreatic islets which are dispersed converted into glucose
throughout the exocrine portion of the pancreas
o Released into the blood to increase blood
 Consists of three types of cell that regulate blood glucose levels
level of nutrients especially glucose o Glucagon is reduced after a meal
7|RDJ
Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

 Somatostatin  short day length causes an increase of melatonin

o Released by the delta cells in response to secretion
food intake  long day length causes a decrease of melatonin
o Inhibits the secretion of insulin and secretion
glucagon & inhibits gastric tract activity  plays important role in the onset of puberty in
 Blood glucose level humans
o Increases  insulin increase, glucagon o tumors may develop in pineal gland –
decrease increase secretions but others decrease
o Decreases  insulin decrease, glucagon
increase Other Hormones
o Decreases  epinephrine and cortisol
increase to increase the blood levels of  linings of stomach and small intestine secrete
nutrients hormones – stimulate the digestive juices from
o GH slows protein breakdown and favors stomach, pancreas, and liver
lipid breakdown o small intestines have hormones to regulate
the rate of at which food passes
Testes and Ovaries  Prostaglandins
o Widely distributed in the body – function
Male – testosterone secreted by the testes
as intercellular signals
 Responsible for the growth and development of  Mainly as autocrine or paracrine
male reproductive structures chemical signals
o Muscle enlargement, voice changes, and o Relaxation of smooth muscle – dilation of
growth of body hair blood vessels
 Play a role in inflammation
Female – estrogen and progesterone secreted by the  Medically use to initiate abortion
ovaries o Produced by platelets for blood clotting
o Prevention is aspirin
 Contribute to the development of the female
reproductive structures  From headache to painful
cramping
o Enlargement of breasts and distribution of
adipose tissue  Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH, ANP)
o Female menstrual cycle is controlled o Response to elevated blood pressure
o Inhibits Na+ reabsorption in the kidneys
LH and FSH stimulate the secretion of hormones from  Causes more urine to be produced,
ovaries and testes reducing blood volume
 Erythropoietin
 Released by the hypothalamus and controls the
o Secreted by the kidneys
secretion of the hormones in the ovaries and testes
o Response to reduced oxygen levels in the
 Have a negative-feedback effect on hypothalamus kidney
and anterior pituitary o Acts on bone marrow to increase the
production of red blood cells
Thymus
 Placenta
 Lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity o Important hormones for ladies to maintain
pregnancy and stimulate breast-
 Important in the function of the immune system
development
 Secretes a hormone called thymosin – aids in the o Hormones are estrogen, progesterone, and
development of white blood cells called T cells human chorionic gonadotropin – similar to
o Protect the body against infection by the structure and function of LH
foreign organisms
 Important for the early life Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System
o If not developed, immune system does not
develop normally and less capable of  GH secretion decreases as people age
fighting infections o Regular exercise offsets this decline
o Explain gradual decrease in muscle mass
Pineal Gland and bone & increase in adipose tissue
 small, pinecone-shaped structure located superior  Decrease in melatonin
and posterior of the thalamus of the brain o Changes in sleep-pattern
o Decreases GH and testosterone
 produces melatonin – inhibition of the
hypothalamic-releasing hormone  Thyroid hormones decreases slightly with age
o prevents secretion of the reproductive o Immune system can be damaged
tropic hormones LH and FSH o Less common in men
o inhibits reproductive systems  Reproductive hormones decreases  menopause

8|RDJ
Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

Ch.21: Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation

21.1: Functions of the Circulatory System

● The circulatory system carries blood from the heart to the tissues of the body and returns
the blood to the heart.
● The circulatory system allows for nutrient, waste, and gas exchange with tissues.
● The circulatory system transports other substances (hormones, enzymes, etc.) through
the body.
● The circulatory system regulates blood pressure flow to the tissues.

21.2: Structural Features of Blood Vessels

Blood flows from the heart through elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arterioles to
the capillaries. Blood returns to the heart from the capillaries through venules, small
veins, and large veins.
● Structure of Blood Vessels
○ Except for capillaries and venules, blood vessels have 3 layers
○ The inner tunica intima consists of endothelium, a basement membrane, and an
internal elastic lamina.
○ The tunica media, the middle layer, contains circular smooth muscle and elastic
fibers.
○ The outer tunica adventitia is connective tissue.
● Types of Arteries
○ Large elastic arteries are thin-walled with large diameters. The tunica media has
many elastic fibers and little smooth muscle.
○ Muscular arteries are thick-walled with small diameters. The tunica media has
abundant smooth muscle and some elastic fibers.
○ Arterioles are the smallest arteries. The tunica media consists of smooth muscle
cells and a few elastic fibers.
● Capillaries
○ The entire circulatory system is lined with simple squamous epithelium called
endothelium. Capillaries consist only of endothelium.
○ Capillaries are surrounded by loose connective tissue, the adventitia, that
contains pericapillary cells.
○ 3 types of capillaries exist
■ The walls of continuous capillaries have no gaps between the endothelial
cells.
■ Fenestrated capillaries have pores, called fenestrae, that extend
completely through the cell.
■ Sinusoidal capillaries are large-diameter capillaries with large fenestrae.
○ Materials pass through the capillaries in several ways: between the endothelial
cells, through the fenestrae, and through the plasma membrane.
○ Blood flows from arterioles though metarterioles and then through the capillary
network. Venules drain the capillary network.
■ Smooth muscle in the arterioles, metarterioles, and precapillary

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

sphincters regulates blood flow into the capillaries.

■ Blood can pass rapidly through the thoroughfare channel.
○ Arteriovenous anastomoses allow blood to flow from arteries to veins without
passing through the capillaries. They function in temperature regulation.
● Types of Veins
○ Venules are composed of endothelium surrounded by a few smooth muscle cells.
○ Small veins are venules covered with a layer of smooth muscle.
○ Medium-sized veins and large veins contain less smooth muscle and fewer
elastic fibers than arteries of the same size.
○ Valves prevent the backflow of blood in the veins.
○ Vasa vasorum are blood vessels that supply the tunica adventitia and tunica
media
● Neural Innervation of Blood Vessels
○ Sympathetic nerve fibers supply the smooth muscle of the tunica media.
● Aging of the Arteries
○ Arteriosclerosis results from a loss of elasticity in th aorta, large arteries, and
coronary arteries.

21.3: Pulmonary Circulation

● Moves blood to and from the lungs
● Pulmonary trunk arises from the right ventricle and divides to form the pulmonary
arteries, which project to the lungs
● From the lungs, the pulmonary veins return to the left atrium.

21.4: Systemic Circulation: Arteries

● Arteries carry blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all parts of the body.
● Aorta
○ The aorta leaves the left ventricle to form the ascending aorta, aortic arch, and
descending aorta (consisting of the thoracic and abdominal aorta).
● Coronary arteries
○ Supply the heart
● Arteries of the Head and Neck
○ The brachiocephalic, left common carotid, and left subclavian arteries branch
from the aortic arch to supply the head and upper limbs. The brachiocephalic
artery divides to form the right common carotid and the right subclavian arteries.
The vertebral arteries supply the head.
○ The common carotid arteries and vertebral arteries supply the head.
■ The common carotid arteries divide to form the external carotids, which
supply the face and mouth, and the internal carotids, which supply the
brain.
■ The vertebral arteries join within the cranial cavity to form the basilar
artery, which supplies the brain.
● Arteries of the Upper Limb
○ The subclavian artery continues (without branching) as the axillary artery and

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

then as the brachial artery. The brachial artery divides into the radial and ulnar
arteries.
○ The radial artery supplies the deep palmar arch, and the ulnar artery supplies the
superficial palmar arch. Both arches give rise to the digital arteries.
● Thoracic Aorta and Its Branches
○ Has visceral branches that supply the thoracic organs and parietal branches that
supply the thoracic wall.
● Abdominal Aorta and Its Branches
○ Has visceral branches that supply the abdominal organs and parietal branches
that supply the abdominal wall.
○ Visceral branches are paired and unpaired.
■ The paired arteries supply the kidneys, adrenal glands, and gonads.
■ The unpaired arteries supply the stomach, spleen, and liver (celiac trunk);
the small intestine and upper part of the large intestine (superior
mesenteric); and the lower part of the large intestine (inferior mesenteric).
● Arteries of the Pelvis
○ The common iliac arteries arise from the abdominal aorta, and the internal iliac
arteries branch from the common iliac arteries.
○ The visceral branches of the internal iliac arteries supply the pelvic organs, and
the parietal branches supply the pelvic wall and floor and the external genitalia.
● Arteries of the Lower Limb
○ The external iliac arteries branch from the common iliac arteries.
○ The external iliac artery continues (without branching) as the femoral artery and
the as the popliteal artery. The popliteal artery divides to form the anterior and
posterior tibial arteries.
○ The posterior tibial artery gives rise to the fibular (peroneal) and plantar arteries.
The plantar arteries for the plantar arch from which the digital arteries arise.

21.5: Systemic Circulation: Veins

● The 3 major veins returning blood to the heart are the superior vena cava (head, neck,
thorax, and upper limbs), the inferior vena cava (abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs), and
the coronary sinus (heart).
● Veins are of 3 types: superficial, deep, and sinuses.
● Veins Draining the Heart
○ Coronary veins enter the coronary sinus or the right atrium
● Veins of the Head and Neck
○ The internal jugular veins drain the venous sinuses of the anterior head and
neck.
○ The external jugular veins and the vertebral veins drain the posterior head and
neck.
● Veins of the Upper Limb
○ The deep veins are the small ulnar and radial veins of the forearm, which join the
brachial veins of the arm. The brachial veins drain into the axillary vein.
○ The superficial veins are the basilic, cephalic, and median cubital. The basilic

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

veins becomes the axillary vein, which then becomes the subclavian vein. The
cephalic vein drains into the axillary vein.
● Veins of the Thorax
○ The left and right brachiocephalic veins and the azygos veins return blood to the
superior vena cava.
● Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis
○ Ascending lumbar veins from the abdomen join the azygous and hemiazygous
veins.
○ Vessels from the kidneys, adrenal gland, and gonads directly enter the inferior
vena cava.
○ Vessels from the stomach, intestines, spleen, and pancreas connect with the
hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein transports blood to the liver for
processing. Hepatic veins from the liver join the inferior vena cava.
● Veins of the Lower Limb
○ The deep veins are the fibular (peroneal), anterior and posterior tibial, popliteal,
femoral, and external iliac.
○ The superficial veins are the great and small saphenous veins.

21.3: Dynamics of Blood Circulation

● The interrelationships among pressure, flow, resistance, and the control mechanisms
that regulate blood pressure and flood flow play a critical role in the function of the
circulatory system.
● Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Vessels
○ Blood flow through vessels is normally streamlines, or laminar. Turbulent flow is
disruption of laminar flow.
● Blood Pressure
○ Blood Pressure is a measure of the force exerted by blood against the blood
vessel wall. Blood moves through vessels because of blood pressure.
○ Blood pressure can be measured by listening for Korotkoff sounds produced by
turbulent flow in arteries such as pressure is released from a blood pressure cuff.
● Blood Flow and Poiseulle’s Law
○ Blood flow is the amount of blood that moves through a vessel in a given period.
Blood flow is directly proportional to pressure differences and inversely
proportional to resistance.
○ Resistance is the sum of all the factors that inhibit blood flow. Resistance
increases when viscosity increases and when blood vessels become smaller in
diameter or increase in length.
○ Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow. Most of the viscosity of blood results
from red blood cells. The viscosity of blood increases when the hematocrit
increases.
● Critical Closing Pressure and Laplace’s Law
○ As pressure in a essel decreases, the force holding it open decreases, and the
vessel tends to collapse. The critical closing pressure is the pressure at which a
blood vessel closes.

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

○ Laplace’s law states that the force acting on the wall of a blood vessel is
proportional to the diameter of the vessel times blood pressure.
● Vascular Compliance
○ Vascular compliance is a measure of the change in volume of blood vessels
produced by a change in pressure. The venous system has a large compliance
and acts as a blood reservoir.
○ The greatest volume of blood is contained in the veins. The smallest volume is in
the arterioles.

21.7: Physiology of the Systemic Circulation

● Cross SectionalArea of Blood Vessels
○ As the diameter of vessels decreases, their total cross-sectional area increases,
and the velocity of blood flow through them decreases.
● Pressure and Resistance
○ Blood pressure averages 100 mmHg in the aorta and drops to 0 mmHg in the
right atrium. The greatest drop occurs in the arterioles, which regulate blood flow
through tissues.
● Pulse and Pulse Pressure
○ Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and diastolic pressures. Pulse
pressure increases when stroke volume increases or vascular compliance
decreases.
○ Pulse pressure waves travel through the vascular system faster than the blood
flows.
○ Pulse pressure can be used to take the pulse, which can serve as an indicator of
heart rate and rhythm.
● Capillary Exchange and Regulation of Interstitial Fluid Volume
○ Blood pressure, capillary permeability, and osmosis affect the movement of fluid
from the capillaries.
○ A net movement of fluid occurs from the blood into the tissues. The fluid gained
by the tissues is removed by the lymphatic system.
● Functional Characteristics of Veins
○ Venous return to the heart increases because of an increase in blood volume,
venous tone, and arteriole dilation.
● Blood Pressure and the Effect of Gravity
○ In a standing person, hydrostatic pressure caused by gravity increases blood
pressure below the heart and decreases pressure above the heart.

21.8: Control of Blood Flow in Tissues

Blood flow through tissues is highly controlled and matched closely to the metabolic
needs of tissues.
● Local Control of Blood Flow in Tissues
○ Blood flow through a tissue is usually proportional to the tissue’s metabolic

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

needs. Exceptions are tissues that perform functions that require additional
blood.
○ Control of blood flow by the metarterioles and precapillary sphincters can be
regulated by the vasodilator substances or by lack of O2 and nutrients.
○ Only large changes in blood pressure have an effect on blood flow through
tissues.
○ If the metabolic activity of a tissue increases the number and the diameter of
capillaries in the tissue increase over time
● Autoregulation of Blood Flow
○ Autoregulation refers to changes in blood flow in response to changes in O2
nutrients and metabolic by-products which alter vasoconstriction and contraction
of the precapillary sphincters to adjust blood flow through tissues .
○ Long-term regulation of blood flow results in alteration in capillary diameter and
number of capillaries in a tissue.
● Nervous and Hormonal Control of Blood Flow in Tissues
○ The sympathetic nervous system ( vasomotor center in the medulla) controls
blood vessel diameter. aOther brain areas can excite or inhibit the vasomotor
center.
○ Vasomotor tone is a state of partial contraction of blood vessels.
○ The nervous system is responsible for routing the flow of blood and maintaining
blood pressure.
○ Sympathetic action potentials stimulate epinephrine and norepinephrine
released from the adrenal medulla and these hormones cause vasoconstriction
and most blood vessels.

21.9: Regulation of Mean Arterial Pressure

Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is proportional to cardiac output times peripheral
resistance.
● Short-Term Regulation of Blood Pressure
○ Baroreceptors are sensory receptors sensitive to stretch.
■ Baroreceptors are located in the Carotid sinuses and the aortic Arch.
■ The baroreceptor reflex changes peripheral resistance heart rate and
stroke volume in response to changes in blood pressure.
○ Chemoreceptors are sensory receptors sensitive to O2 CO2 and pH levels in the
blood.
○ Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released from the Adrenal medulla as a
result of sympathetic stimulation. They increase heart rate stroke volume and
vasoconstriction.
○ The CNS ischemic response, which results from high CO2 or low pH levels in
the medulla, increases peripheral resistance.
● Long-Term REgulation of Blood Pressure
○ In the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism renin is released in the kidneys
in response to low blood pressure.
■ Renin promotes the production of Angiotensin II which causes

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

vasoconstriction and an increase in aldosterone secretion.

○ The ADH (vasopressin) mechanism causes ADH release from the posterior
pituitary in response to a substantial decrease in blood pressure. ADH acts
directly on blood vessels to cause vasoconstriction.
○ The atrial natriuretic mechanism causes atrial natriuretic hormone released from
the cardiac muscle cells when arterial blood pressure increases.
■ It stimulates an increase in urine production causing a decrease in blood
volume and blood pressure.
○ The fluid shift mechanism causes fluid shift which is the movement of fluid
between the interstitial spaces and capillaries in response to changes in blood
pressure to maintain blood volume.
○ The stress relaxation response is an adjustment of the smooth muscles of blood
vessels in response to a change in blood volume.

Review Questions:
1. 3,4,1,2,6,5- B
2. Idk- D → A; 1,3,2 (metarteriole, thoroughfare channel, precapillary sphincter)
3. E → A (large arteries)
4. D
5. D
6. D → C (basilar, internal carotid)
7. 3,5,1,2,4- D
8. A
9. 1,2,3,4- A
10. 4,2,1,3- D
11. E
12. 1,4,3- B → C (2,3,4: superior mesenteric vein, hepatic portal vein, hepatic
vein)
13. E → A (1,2: small saphenous and great saphenous)
14. D → B (increase in vessel volume divided by the increase in vessel pressure)
15. B
16. E → A ( veins increase their volume because of their large compliance)
17. D → E (all of these are correct)
18. B → D (all of these are correct)
19. B
20. B
21. D
22. D
23. A
24. E
25. D

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

67Ch. 18: Urinary System | Fluid Balance

● Functions of the Urinary System

○ Excretion
○ Regulation of blood volume and blood pressure
○ Regulation of solute concentration in the blood
○ pH regulation
○ Regulation of RBC synthesis
○ Regulation of Vitamin D synthesis

● Components of Urinary System

○ 2 kidneys
○ 2 ureters (connect kidney to bladder) → carry urine from renal
pelvis of kidney to bladder
○ 1 urinary bladder → stores urine (1000 mL)
○ 1 urethra → exits bladder, carries urine from bladder to outside of
body

● Upper Urinary Tract → kidneys, ureters, bladder

● Pararenal Fat (around kidneys) → energy, cushioning, insulation

● Anatomy of the Kidneys

○ Kidneys (bean-shaped) lie on posterior abdominal wall →
retroperitoneal organs
■ Renal capsule (connective tissue) surrounds each kidney →
protection barrier
● Thick adipose tissue surrounds renal capsule on each
kidney
■ Hilum (indentation)
● Contains renal artery, veins, nerves, and ureter
■ Each kidney has an outer cortex and inner medulla
■ Renal Sinus
● Contains renal pelvis, blood vessels, fat
■ Renal Pyramid
● Junction between cortex and medulla
● Calyx: tip of pyramid
■ Renal Pelvis
● Where calyces join
● Narrows to form ureter

■ Nephron: functional unit of kidney

● Consists of:
○ Renal Corpuscle: structure that contains a Bowman
Capsule and Glomerulus
■ Bowman Capsule
● Enlarged end of nephron

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

● Opens into proximal convoluted tubule

(urine collection)
● Contains Podocytes (specialized cells
around glomerular capillaries)
■ Glomerulus
● Contains capillaries wrapped around it
■ Filtration Membrane
● In renal corpuscle
● Includes glomerular capillaries,
podocytes, basement membrane
■ Filtrate: fluid that passes across filtration
membrane
○ Proximal Tubule
■ Where filtrate passes first
○ Loop of Henle
■ Contains descending and ascending loops
■ Water and solutes pass through thin walls by
diffusion
○ Distal Tubule
■ Between Loop of Henle and Collecting Duct
■ Empty into collecting duct which empties into
papillary duct which empty into calyx
● Carry fluid from cortex through medulla

○ Arteries and Veins

● Urine Production
○ Primary function of kidney is to regulate body fluid composition
■ Sorts the substances from blood for either removal via urine or
return to the blood
● Waste products are removed from body, whereas other
substances are conserved to maintain homeostasis
○ Filtration: occurs when blood pressure forces water and other small
molecules out of glomerular capillaries and into Bowman Capsule, forming
filtrate
○ Tubular Reabsorption: movement of substances from filtrate across wall
of nephron back into blood of peritubular capillaries
■ Some solutes/ions are reabsorbed via active transport and
cotransport

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

○ Tubular Secretion: active transport of solutes across nephron walls into

filtrate
○ Urine Production-Reabsorption
■ 99% of filtrate is reabsorbed and reenters circulation
■ Proximal tubule is primary site for reabsorption of solutes and water
■ Descending Loop of Henle concentrates filtrate
■ Reabsorption of water and solutes from distal tubule and collecting
duct is controlled by hormones
○ Urine Production-Secretion
■ Water, small ions, by-products of metabolism, drugs, and urea are
found in urine

○ Filtration
■ Nonspecific process in which materials are separated by size or
charge
● Filtration membrane allows some substances (water and
small solutes), but not others(blood cells and proteins), to
pass from blood into Bowman Capsule
■ Formation of filtrate depends on pressure gradient →
Filtration Pressure
● Forces fluid from glomerular capillary across filtration
membrane into Bowman Capsule
○ Glomerular Capillary Pressure: blood pressure in
glomerular capillary
■ Glomerular Capillary Pressure is the major
force causing fluid to move from glomerular
capillary across filtration membrane into
Bowman Capsule
● 2 major opposing forces to Glomerular
Capillary Pressure:
○ Capsular Pressure: caused by
pressure of filtrate already
present in Bowman Capsule
○ Colloid Osmotic Pressure:
within glomerular capillary
○ Filtration pressure forces fluid from glomerulus into Bowman Capsule
because glomerular capillary pressure is greater than both the capsular
and colloid osmotic pressure
○ An increase in blood protein concentration encourages movement of water
by osmosis back into glomerular capillaries to reduce filtration pressure
○ A decrease in blood protein concentration inhibits movement of water by
osmosis back into glomerular capillaries to increase filtration pressure
○ Regulation of Filtration
■ Filtration pressure and rate of filtrate formation are maintained
within a narrow range of values usually
● Can change dramatically under some conditions

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

■ Sympathetic stimulation (and cardiovascular shock) constricts

arteries, decreasing renal blood flow and filtrate formation
● Therefore, only a small amount of urine is produced
● Intense physical activity and/or trauma also increase
sympathetic stimulation, resulting in a small amount of urine
production
■ Increased blood pressure decreases sympathetic stimulation,
increasing urine volume
■ Decreased concentration of plasma proteins increases filtration
pressure, increasing urine volume
○ Tubular Reabsorption
■ As filtrate flows from Bowman Capsule through proximal convoluted
duct, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tube, and collecting duct,
many of the solutes are reabsorbed
● Only 1% of original filtrate volume becomes urine
■ The proximal convoluted tubule is primary site for reabsorption of
ions/water
● Cuboidal cells of proximal convoluted tubule have
microvilli and mitochondria → well-adapted to
transport molecules/ions across nephron wall by
active transport and cotransport
○ Proteins, amino acids, glucose, fructose, Na+, K+,
Ca2+, HCO3-, and Cl- are transported from proximal
convoluted tubule

■ Most of the useful solutes that pass through the filtration membrane
into the Bowman capsule are reabsorbed in the proximal
convoluted tubule
● However, little water is removed from the filtrate
○ Filtrate becomes dilute
○ Tubular Secretion
■ Substances, including by-products that become toxic, are secreted
into nephron from peritubular capillaries
■ Can be active or passive
● Ammonia passively diffuses into lumen of nephron
● H+, K+, creatinine, histamine, and penicillin are actively
transported into nephron

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

● Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume

○ Hormonal Mechanisms
■ Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism (conserve
water/ions)
● Renin and Angiotensin help regulate Aldosterone secretion
○ Renin: produced by liver; converts Angiotensinogen
to Angiotensin I when blood pressure is low
■ Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE)
converts Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II
■ Angiotensin II causes constriction, and forces
adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
● Aldosterone increases rate of active
transport of Na+ in the distal tubules
and collecting ducts (reabsorption
from nephrons) → volume of water
in urine decreases→ increased
water/ion retention → increased
blood pressure
○ If aldosterone is missing, large
amounts of Na+ remain in
nephron and causes water to
remain which increases urine
volume
■ Urine would then contain
high concentration of Na+
and would take Cl- with it
■ Antidiuretic Hormone Mechanism (ADH or Vasopressin, AVD)
● ADH is secreted by posterior pituitary gland when blood
pressure is low to increase water retention and blood
pressure
○ When ADH levels rise, increased permeability of distal
tubules and collecting ducts to water increases
■ Causes a greater reabsorption of water from
filtrate

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

● Increases production of small volume of

concentrated urine
○ When ADH levels decrease, less water is reabsorbed
and a large volume of dilute urine is produced

● Release of ADH from posterior pituitary gland is regulated by

hypothalamus (sensitive to changes in solute concentration)
○ Baroreceptors that monitor blood pressure also
influence ADH secretion

■ Atrial Natriuretic Hormone (ANH) Mechanism → DECREASES

BP
● ANH is secreted from cardiac muscle cells in right atrium
when blood pressure in right atrium increases
● ANH acts on kidneys to decrease blood pressure
○ Decreases Na+ and water reabsorption, causing ions
and water to stay in nephron to become urine
■ Increased loss of Na+ and water
■ Increased urine decreases blood volume and
decreases blood pressure
● Alcohol interferes w/ this process!

● Urine Movement
○ Anatomy and Histology of Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra
■ Ureters: tube that carries urine from kidney to bladder; lined w/
transitional epithelium (stretchy)
● Urinary bladder (lined w/ transitional epithelium) can hold up
to about 1000 mL of urine
■ Urethra: tube that carries urine from bladder to outside of body
■ Internal Urinary Sphincter (males only): junction between
bladder and urethra)
● Contracts to keep semen from entering bladder during sex
■ External Urinary Sphincter (males and females): skeletal muscle
that surrounds urethra which allows person to start/stop flow of
urine through urethra
● Voluntary control
○ Micturition Reflex
■ Activated by stretching of bladder wall
● As bladder fills w/ urine, pressure increases which stimulates
stretch receptors in wall of bladder
■ The Micturition Reflex is an automatic reflex, but can be inhibited or
stimulated by higher brain centers

● Body Fluid Compartments

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

○ 60% of male body weight consists of water

○ 50% of female body weight consists of water
■ Females have a higher percentage of body fat typically
○ Water and its dissolved ions are distributed in 2 compartments
■ Intracellular Fluid Compartment: fluid inside all body cells
● ⅔ of total body water
● Includes everything enclosed by cell membranes
■ Extracellular Fluid Compartment: fluid outside all body cells
● ⅓ of total body water
● Includes interstitial fluid, plasma in blood vessels, and fluid in
lymphatic cells
○ Composition of the Fluid in the Body Fluid Compartments
■ Intracellular fluid has high concentration of ions like K+, Mg2+, PO43-,
and SO42- and proteins
■ Extracellular fluid has high concentration of Na+, Ca2+, Cl-, and
HCO3-

● Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Composition

○ Thirst Regulation
■ Thirst Center in hypothalamus has neurons that control
water intake → thirst = motivation, drinking = behavior
● When blood becomes more concentrated, thirst center
initiates sensation of thirst
● Likewise, when blood pressure drops, thirst center activates
sensation of thirst
○ Ion Concentration Regulation
■ Maintaining extracellular fluid composition within a normal range is
required to sustain life
● Regulating positively-charged ions is particularly important!
■ Sodium Ions
● Dominant ions in extracellular fluid
○ Affects osmotic pressure
● Controlled by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism,
ANH mechanism, and ADH mechanism
● 2.4 g/day of Na+ is recommended intake
■ Potassium Ions
● Muscles and nerves are highly sensitive to changes in
extracellular K+ concentration
● Aldosterone regulates concentration of K+
○ Dehydration, shock, and tissue damage all increase
concentration of K+, causing aldosterone secretion to
increase which increases secretion of K+
■ Calcium Ions
● Affects muscles and nerves when changes in concentration
occur

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

○ Decreases in Ca2+ causes higher permeability for Na+

which makes cells more excitable → tetany and
twitching
○ Increases in Ca2+ causes cells less excitable,
inhibiting action potentials in nerves and
muscle cells → paralysis
● PTH increases Ca2+ concentration
○ Degrades bone to increase blood calcium
● Vitamin D increases Ca2+ concentration
○ Increases rate of absorption of calcium in intestine
● Calcitonin decreases Ca2+ concentration
○ Reduces rate of bone breakdown and decreases
release of calcium from bone
■ Phosphate and Sulfate Ions
● Slowly reabsorbed by active transport in kidneys
○ Excess is excreted in urine

● Regulation of Acid-Base Balance

○ Body fluid pH is maintained between 7.35-7.45
■ Deviations from that range are life-threatening (acidosis or
alkalosis)
○ pH of body fluids is controlled by 3 factors: buffers, respiratory system,
and kidneys
○ Buffers: chemicals that resist a change in pH of a solution when either
acids or bases are added to the solution
■ Contain salts of weak acids/bases that combine with H+ when H+
increases in those fluids, or release H+ when H+ decreases in
those fluids
■ Tend to keep the H+ concentration in a narrow range of values
■ 3 major buffers: proteins, PO43- buffer, and HCO3- buffer
■ Proteins and phosphate combine with H+ ions
○ Respiratory System

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

■ Maintains blood pH by altering levels of O2 and CO2

● Increasing levels of CO2 decreases blood pH →
acidosis
○ Kidneys
■ Nephrons of kidneys (distal tubule) secrete H+ into urine, directly
regulating pH of body fluids
● Responds more slowly than respiratory system

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

Ch. 19: Reproductive System

● Functions of the Reproductive System

○ Production of gametes
○ Fertilization
○ Development/nourishment of a new individual
○ Production of reproductive hormones

● Formation of Gametes
○ Gametes: sex cells
■ Sperm cells in testes of males
■ Oocytes (eggs) in ovaries of females
○ Meiosis: cell division in gonads that results in gametes
■ Consists of 2 consecutive cell divisions (meiosis I then meiosis II)
that result in 4 daughter cells, each of which contain half the
number of chromosomes as parent cell
■ Occurs in testes and ovaries
○ The first meiotic division (begins before birth in females) is a reduction
division, since the chromosome number is reduced from 46 (23 pairs) to
23 chromosomes
○ The second meiotic division is similar to mitosis
○ During fertilization, zygote receives 23 chromosomes from each parent
■ Genetic makeup of each zygote is unique

● Male Reproductive System

○ Consists of testes, series of ducts (epididymis, vas deferens, urethra),
accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands),
and supporting structures (scrotum, penis)
○ Sperm cells are heat-sensitive and must develop at a temperature slightly
less than normal body temperature
■ Testes are located outside of the body in the scrotum (body
temperature is lower)
○ Scrotum: saclike structure containing the testes
■ Beneath its skin lies a layer of loose connective tissue and a layer
of smooth muscle (dartos muscle)
● In cold temperatures, dartos muscle contracts which causes
skin to become firm and wrinkled (shrinks in size)
○ Extensions of abdominal muscles (cremaster
muscle) also contracts to pull testes closer to the
body to increase temperature while in colder
environments
● In warm temperatures, dartos muscle and cremaster muscle
relax which loosens and thins the skin of the scrotum
○ Allows testes to move away from body and to lower
their temperature

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

● If the testes are too warm or too cold, normal sperm cell
development does NOT occur
○ Testes: primary male reproductive organ; consists of many lobules which
contain seminiferous tubules
■ Seminiferous Tubules are the location of sperm cell development
● Contain Germ Cells and Sustentacular (Sertoli) Cells
○ Sertoli Cells nourish germ cells and produce
hormones
● Interstitial (Leydig) Cells surround seminiferous tubules
○ Interstitial (Leydig) Cells secrete testosterone

○ Spermatogenesis
■ Spermatogenesis: formation of sperm cells
● Before puberty, interstitial cells are not prominent nor are the
seminiferous tubules functional
○ During puberty, activation/enlargement occurs and
spermatogenesis begins; seminiferous tubules
produce germ cells (least developed cells) and
sustentacular cells
● Most peripheral germ cells are Spermatogonia
(undeveloped sperm cells)
○ Divide through mitosis
■ Some remain as spermatogonia to continue
divisions
■ Some form Primary Spermatocytes which
divide by meiosis to become sperm cells

■ Primary spermatocyte contains 46 chromosomes

● After passing through first meiotic division to produce 2
Secondary Spermatocytes, pass through second meiotic
division to produce 2 smaller Spermatids which each have
23 chromosomes
○ Spermatids undergo structural changes to form sperm
cells
■ Develop a head, midpiece, and flagellum (tail)
to become a sperm cell (spermatozoon)
● Head: contain nucleus and DNA
● Midpiece: contain mitochondria
● Tail: flagellum for movement
● In front of the nucleus is the Acrosome
(contains enzymes that are released
during fertilization; necessary for sperm
cell to penetrate egg cell)
○ Ducts (where sperm cells are transported after production)
■ Epididymis
● Seminiferous tubules empty into rete testis

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

○ Rete testis empties into efferent ductules

■ Efferent ductules empties into epididymis
● Sperm cells continue to mature in
epididymis
○ After maturing a few days in
epididymis, sperm cells develop
ability to function as gametes
(develop ability to swim and bind
to oocytes)
○ Capacitation (final changes)
occur after semen is ejaculated
into vagina and prior to
fertilization
■ Vans Deferens (Ductus Deferens)
● Emerges from epididymis to connect and form the
spermatic cord → extends through abdominal wall via
inguinal canal
● Becomes Ampulla of Ductus Deferens before reaching
prostate gland
○ Contains smooth muscle which contracts in peristaltic
waves to propel sperm cells through vas deferens
■ Seminal Vesicle and Ejaculatory Duct
● Seminal Vesicle: one of two glands that empty into
ejaculatory ducts (joins with ampulla of Vas deferens to form
ejaculatory duct)
○ Each ejaculatory duct extends into prostate gland and
ends at beginning of urethra in prostate gland
● Seminal vesicles secrete thick, mucus-like secretions that
contain fructose (energy) and other nourishing nutrients for
sperm cells
○ Secretions also contain proteins that coagulate after
ejaculation and enzymes that destroy abnormal
sperm cells
○ Prostaglandins are present in seminal vesicle
secretions which cause contractions of female
reproductive tract (help transport sperm cells through
tract)
■ Urethra
● Extends from bladder to end of penis
● Prostatic Urethra: passes through prostate gland
● Membranous Urethra: passes through floor of pelvis and is
surrounded by external urinary sphincter
● Spongy Urethra: extends length of penis and opens at end
● While male reproductive fluids are passing through, a
sympathetic reflex causes internal urinary sphincter to

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

contract which keeps semen from passing into bladder and

keeps urine from entering urethra!
○ Penis
■ Male organ of copulation and functions to transfer sperm cells to
female
■ Has 3 layers of erectile tissue which fill with blood to form an
erection
● 2 columns on dorsal and sides are Corpora Cavernosa
● 1 small column on ventral portion is Corpus Spongiosum
■ Prepuce: foreskin

○ Glands
■ Seminal Vesicles: next to vas deferens; help form ejaculatory duct
■ Prostate Gland: consists of both glandular and muscular tissue
● Cells lining prostate gland secrete prostatic fluid
○ Secretions have alkaline pH and neutralize acidic
urethra, testes, seminal vesicles, and vagina
○ Secretions also have proteolytic enzymes that break
down coagulated proteins of seminal vesicles
(liquefies semen after inside female)
■ Bulbourethral (Cowper) Glands: secrete mucus near base of
penis
● Lubricates urethra
● Neutralizes acidity of male urethra and female vagina
● Provides lubrication during intercourse
○ Secretions
■ Semen: mixture of sperm cells and secretions from male
reproductive glands; provide transport medium and nutrients that
protect/activate sperm
● Majority of fluid (60%) is produced by seminal vesicles and
prostate gland (30%)
■ Testicular secretions include sperm cells and small amount of fluid
● Sperm can live for 72 hours once inside female
■ Path of Sperm
● Sperm develop in seminiferous tubules (testes)
● Passes through epididymis (mature) then the vas deferens
● Receive secretions from seminal vesicles, prostate gland,
and bulbourethral gland
● Passes through urethra where semen (sperm) exit body

● Physiology of Male Reproduction

○ Depends on both hormonal and neural mechanisms to function normally
■ Hormonal mechanisms control development of reprod. structures
and sex characteristics
■ Neural mechanisms control sexual action/behavior
○ Regulation of Reproductive Hormone Secretion

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

■ Hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, and testes produce

hormones to affect male reprod. system
■ Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is released from
hypothalamus and passes through anterior pituitary gland to cause
secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) into blood
○ Puberty in Males
■ Puberty: sequence of events by which a child is transformed into a
young adult
● Reproductive system matures and assumes its adult
functions
○ Effects of Testosterone
■ Testosterone: major male hormone secreted by testes
● Necessary for spermatogenesis and for development of
male secondary sexual characteristics

○ Male Sexual Behavior and Male Sex Act

■ Testosterone is required for normal sexual behavior
■ Male sex act is complex series of reflexes that result in erection of
penis, secretion of mucus into urethra, emission, and ejaculation
● Emission: movement of sperm cells, mucus, prostatic
secretions, and seminal vesicle secretions into
prostatic/membranous/spongy urethra
● Ejaculation: forceful expulsion of secretions to the exterior;
first major component of male sex act
○ Parasympathetic action potentials cause erectile
tissues to dilate, allowing blood to fill sinusoids in
these tissues
○ Resolution: phase after ejaculation when penis
becomes flaccid

○ Infertility in Males
■ Reduced or diminished fertility
■ Cause of infertility is a low sperm cell count
● Can decrease due to trauma, radiation, cryptorchidism, or
infections
● Can decrease due to inadequate secretion of LH and FSH
because of hypothyroidism, trauma/infarctions of
hypothalamus/ant. pituitary gland, or tumors
● Can decrease due to low testosterone levels

● Female Reproductive System

○ Functions of the Female Reproductive System
■ Produce female oocytes (eggs) → sex cells
■ Produce sex hormones
■ Receive sperm from males

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

■ Develop and nourish embryos

○ Consists of ovaries, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, vagina, external
genitalia, and mammary glands
○ External Female Genitalia
■ Vulva
● External female sex organs
○ Mons pubis, labia majora and minora, clitoris, and
vestibule (common urogenital space → where
urethra and vagina empty into)
○ Mons Pubis: fatty layer of skin covering pubic
symphysis
○ Labia Majora: larger, outer folds of skin
■ Equivalent to male scrotum
○ Labia Minora: thin, inner folds of skin
○ Clitoris: small erectile structure located in vestibule
○ Prepuce: where 2 labia minora unite over clitoris
○ Vestibule: space in which vagina and urethra are
located
○ Female Reproductive Organs
■ Ovaries (2)
● Primary female reproductive organ
● Produces oocytes and sex hormones
● One on either side of uterus
● Ovarian Ligaments: anchor ovaries to uterus
● Suspensory Ligaments: anchor ovaries to pelvic cavity
● Ovarian Follicles: cells in ovaries that contain oocytes
■ Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes
● Part of uterus which extends toward ovaries and receive
oocytes
● Location of fertilization
● Fimbriae: fringe-like structures (cilia) around opening of
uterine tubes that help sweep oocyte into uterine tubes
● Tubal Ligation: sterilization of female
● Ectopic Pregnancy: if fertilized oocyte (zygote) implants
somewhere beside uterus (usually in uterine tube)
○ Uterus
■ Perimetrium (serous): outermost layer
■ Myometrium (muscular): middle layer; smooth muscle
■ Endometrium: innermost layer that is shed during menstruation
■ Pear-sized structure located in pelvic cavity
● receives, retains, and provides nourishment for fertilized
oocyte, where embryo resides/develops
■ Fundus: body of uterus
■ Cervix: narrow region that leads to vagina; very muscular
● Attaches to vagina at the fornix
○ Vagina

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

■
Extends from uterus to outside of body
■
Female copulation organ that receives penis during intercourse
■
Allows menstrual flow
■
Involved in childbirth
■
Contains very muscular walls and a mucous membrane
■
Very acidic (low pH) to keep bacteria out
● Acidic environment kills sperm
○ Mammary Glands
■ Organs of milk production; located in breasts (modified
sweat glands) → prolactin(stimulates milk production) and
oxytocin (causes contraction of myoepithelial cells)
■ Consists of lobes covered by adipose tissue
● Lobes, ducts, lobules are altered during lactation to expel
milk
● Many alveoli make up a lobule, many lobules make up a
lobe
■ Milk collects in alveoli

○ Oogenesis and Fertilization

■ Oogonia: cells from which oocytes develop

● Ovulation
■ When a mature follicle ruptures forcing oocyte into pelvic cavity
● Due to LH (anterior pituitary gland)
○ Corpus Luteum: mature follicle after ovulation → makes estrogen
and progesterone
■ Degenerates if egg is not fertilized
■ Lives 2 weeks → if egg is fertilized,

● Physiology of Female Reproductive

○ Controlled by hormonal and neural mechanisms
○ Puberty in Females
■ Maturation of the hypothalamus results in puberty
● Begins around 11 and 13 and finishes by around 16
○ Marked by menarche (first period)
■ Changes associated w/ puberty result from increasing rate of
secretion of estrogen (builds uterine lining) and progesterone
(maintains pregnancy by preserving uterine lining) by ovaries
○ Menstrual Cycle
■ Abnormal (from evolutionary standpoint) series of changes that
occur in sexually mature, nonpregnant females and that culminate
in menses (period of mild hemorrhage in which part of
endometrium is sloughed and expelled from uterus)
■ Average is 28 days and results from cyclical changes that occur in
endometrium
■ Follicular phas

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|34726598

■ Estrous Cycles: endometrial lining is reabsorbed but is not shed

● Vaginal bleeds may occur, however

○ Menopause
■ When woman is 40-50 years old, menstrual cycles become less
regular and eventually the cycles stop completely
● The whole time period from onset of irregular cycles to their
complete cessation is female climacteric
■ Cause of menopause is age-related changes in the ovaries
● Follicles become less sensitive to stimulation by FSH and LH
■ Older women experience gradual changes in response to reduced
amount of estrogen and progesterone
● Hot flashes, fatigue, anxiety, temporary decrease in libido,
occasionally-emotional disturbances, etc.
○ Female Sexual Behavior and the Female Sex Act
■ Sex drive is dependant on hormones
○ Infertility in Females
■ Caused by malfunctions of uterine tubes (during pelvic
inflammatory disease), reduced hormone secretion, and
interruption of implantation

Downloaded by Irene Sapp (irenesapp02@gmail.com)