DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, OLEH CAMPUS

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL AND PETROLEUM

ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

COURSE TITLE: TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I

COURSE CODE: CHE 305

By
Engr. (Prof) K.M Oghenejoboh
Professor of Chemical Engineering (Environmental Pollution and Control)

1
 COURSE OUTLINE
Weeks Material Coverage
1 Introduction: Definitions and principles. Introduction to dimensional
analysis and similitude

2 Interpretation and application of dimensional analysis and similitude

3 Fluid flow: fluid statics and introduction to fluid dynamics; basic

equations of fluid flow: Bernoulli’s equation, momentum, navier
stokes etc

4 Properties of fluid momentum and energy equations. Vortex motion in

liquids. Friction

5 Continuous Assessment Test

6 Compressible flow: normal shock waves; Newtonian and Non-

Newtonian fluid.

7 Flow of incompressible fluids: fluid flow in pipes and nozzles; flow in

open channels

8 Flow measurement devices. Pumps, compressors, valves and piping.

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1.0 DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES
The subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related topics: fluid dynamics,
heat transfer, and mass transfer. Fluid dynamics involves the transport of linear momentum
and angular momentum, heat transfer deals with the transport of energy, and mass transfer is
concerned with the transport of mass of various chemical species. These three transport
phenomena should, at the introductory level, be studied together for the following reasons:
(1) They frequently occur simultaneously in industrial, biological, agricultural, and
meteorological problems; in fact, the occurrence of any one transport process by itself is the
exception rather than the rule.
(2) The basic equations that describe the three transport phenomena are closely related. The
similarity of the equations under simple conditions is the basis for solving problems “by
analogy.”
(3) The mathematical tools needed for describing these phenomena are very similar. Although it
is not the aim of this course to teach mathematics, the student may find it necessary to review
various mathematical topics as the development unfolds.

Learning how to use mathematics may be a very valuable by-product of studying transport
phenomena. The molecular mechanisms underlying the various transport phenomena are
very closely related. All materials are made up of molecules, and the same molecular motions
and interactions are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity. The main
aim of this course, therefore, is to give a balanced overview of the field of transport
phenomena, present the fundamental equations of the subject, and illustrate how to use them
to solve day-to-day problems that you may come across in the industry and your other
activities.

2.0 INTRODUCTION TO DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILITUDE

2.1 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the study of the
dimensions for solving several engineering problems. Each physical phenomenon can be
expressed by an equation giving relationship between different quantities; such quantities are
dimensional and non-dimensional. Dimensional analysis helps in determining a systematic
arrangement of the variables in the physical relationship, combining dimensional variables to
form non-dimensional parameters. It is based on the principle of dimensional homogeneity and
uses the dimensions of relevant variables affecting the phenomenon.
Dimensional analysis has become an important tool for analyzing fluid flow problems. It is
especially useful in presenting experimental results in a concise form. The uses of dimensional
analysis may be summarized as follows:
1. To test the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion.
2. To derive rational formulae for a flow phenomenon.
3. To derive equations expressed in terms of non-dimensional parameters to show the
relative significance of each parameter.
4. To plan model tests and presents experimental results in a systematic manner; thus
making it possible to analyze the complex fluid flow phenomenon.

3
2. 1.1 Dimensions
The various physical quantities used in fluid phenomenon can be expressed in terms of
fundamental quantities or primary quantities. The fundamental quantities are mass, length, time
and temperature, designated by the letters M, L, T, θ respectively. Temperature is especially
useful in compressible flow. The quantities which are expressed in terms of the fundamental or
primary quantities are called derived or secondary quantities, (e.g., velocity area, acceleration
etc.). The expression for a derived quantity in terms of the primary quantities is called the
dimension of the physical quantity. Table 1.1 gives the dimensions of various quantities used in
fluid mechanics.

Table 1.1: Quantities used in Fluid Mechanics

S/No Quantity Symbol Units (SI) Dimensions
(M,LT,θ system)
1 Mass M kg M
2 Length L m L
3 Time T s T
4 Temperature θ K θ
5 Area A m2 L2
6 Volume V m3 L3
7 Density ρ kg/m3 ML-3
8 Dynamic viscosity µ kg/m.s ML-1T-1
9 Kinematic viscosity υ m2/s L2T-1
10 Discharge Q m3/s L3T-1

2.1.2 Dimensional Homogeneity

A physical equation is the relationship between two or more physical quantities. Any correct
equation expressing a physical relationship between quantities must be dimensionally
homogeneous (according to Fourier’s principle of dimensional homogeneity) and numerically
equivalent. Dimensional homogeneity states that every term in an equation when reduced to
fundamental dimensions must contain identical powers of each dimension. A dimensionally
homogeneous equation is applicable to all systems of units. In a dimensionally homogeneous
equation, only quantities having the same dimensions can be added, subtracted or equated. The
principle of homogeneity proves useful in the following ways:
1. It facilitates the determination of the dimensions of a physical quantity.
2. It helps to check whether an equation of any physical phenomenon is dimensionally
homogeneous or not.
3. It facilitates conversion of units from one system to another.
4. It provides a step towards dimensional analysis which is fruitfully employed to plan
experiments and to present the results meaningfully.

The equation of a physical phenomenon can be developed in terms of dimensional groups or

parameters with the help of dimensional analysis, thus reducing the number of variables. The

4
methods of dimensional analysis are based on the Fourier’s principle of homogeneity. Out of
several methods of dimensional analysis, the following two methods will be discussed.
(a) Raleigh’s method
(b) Buckingham’s π-method/theorem

(a) Rayleigh’s Method

This method gives a special form of relationship among the dimensionless group, and has the
inherent drawback that it does not provide any information regarding the number of
dimensionless groups to be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis. Due to this reason this
method has become obsolete and is not favoured for use.
Rayleigh’s method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends upon
maximum of three or four variables only. In case the number of independent variables become
more than four, then it is very difficult to find the expression for the dependent variable.
In this method a functional relationship of some variables is expressed in the form of an
exponential equation which must be dimensionally homogeneous. Thus if X is a variable which
depends on X1, X2, X3 … Xn ; the functional equation can be written as :

X = f(X1, X2, X3, …Xn) (1.1)

In the above equation X is a dependent variable, while X 1, X2, X3 … Xn are independent
variables. A dependent variable is one about which information is required while independent
variables are those which govern the variation of dependent variable. Equation (1.1) can also be
written as:
X =φ ( X a1 , X b2 , X c3 , X d4 ……, X m
n) (1.2)
whereφ is a constant and a, b, c, d, …..m are the arbitrary powers. The values of the arbitrary
powers are obtained by comparing the powers of the fundamental dimensions of both sides. Thus
the expression is obtained for dependent variable.

(b) Buckingham’s Pi-Method

When a large number of physical variables are involved Raleigh’s method of dimensional
analysis becomes increasingly laborious and cumbersome. Buckingham’s method is an
improvement over the Rayleigh’s method. This method make use of the Creek capital letter π
(Pi), hence it is called the Buckingham π-method. The advantage of this method over Rayleigh’s
method is that it lets us know, in advance of the analysis as to how many dimensionless groups
are to be expected.
The Buckingham’s π-theorem states that if there are n variables (dependent and independent
variables) in a dimensionally homogeneous equation and if these contain m fundamental
dimensions (such as M, L, T. etc.), then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless
terms. These dimensionless terms are called π-terms
Mathematically, if any variable X 1, depends on independent variables X 2, X3, X4, …..Xn, the
functional equation may be written as
X1 = f(X2, X3, X4, …, X5) (1.3)
Equation (1.3) can also be written as
f1(X1, X2, X3, X4, …, X5) = 0 (1.4)
It is a dimensionally homogeneous equation and contains n variables. If there are m
fundamental dimensions, then according to Buckingham,s π-theorem .Equation. (1.4) can be

5
written in terms of a number of π-terms (dimensionless groups) in which the number of π-terms
equal to (n-m). Hence, Equation (1.4) becomes
f 1 ( π 1 , π 2 , π 3 ,. . . π n−m )=0
(1.5)
Each dimensionless π-term is formed by combining m variables out of the total n
variables with one of the remaining (n-m) variables i.e., each π-terms contains (m + 1) variables.
These m variables which appear repeatedly in each of the π-terms are consequently called
repeating variables and are chosen from among the variables such that they together involve all
the fundamental dimensions and they themselves do not form a dimensionless parameter. In the
above case, let X1, X2, X3 and X4be the repeating variables with the fundamental dimensions m
(M, L, T) = 3. Then each term is written as

a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c 2
}
¿π1=X2 ,X3 ,X4 ,X1¿ π2=X2 ,X3 ,X4 ,X5¿ ⋮¿ ⋮¿ ¿¿ ¿¿¿ }}} (1.6)
where a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2 etc. are the constants which are determined by considering dimensional
homogeneity. These values are substituted in Equation (1.6) and values of 1 2 3
π ,π ,π ,...πn−m are

obtained. These values of π ' s are substituted in equation (1.5). The final general equation for the
phenomenon may then be obtained by expressing anyone of the π-terms as a function of the other
as

π1=φ ( π2 ,π3 ,π 4 ,...πn−m) ¿ }¿ ¿¿

(1.7)

Selection of Repeating Variables

The following points should be considered when choosing m-repeating variables:
1. m-repeating variables must contain jointly all the fundamental dimensions involved in the
phenomenon. Usually the fundamental dimensions are M, L and T. However, if only two
dimensions are involved, there will be two repeating variables and they must contain
together the two dimensions involved
2. The repeating variables must not form the non-dimensional parameters among themselves
3. As far as possible, the dependent variable should not be selected as repeating variable.
4. No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions
5. The repeating variables should be chosen such that one variable contains;
(i) Geometric property (e.g. length, l, diameter, d, height, h, etc.)
(ii) Flow property (e.g. velocity, v, acceleration, a, etc.)
(iii) Fluid property (e.g. mass density, ρ, weight density, w, dynamic density, µ, etc.)
The choice of repeating variables, in most of fluid mechanics problems may be:
(i) l, v, ρ (ii) d, v, ρ (iii) l. v, µ (iv) d, v, µ

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1.2 Interpretation of Dimensionless Numbers
Some important dimensionless terms applicable to fluid mechanics are Reynolds Number (Re),
Weber Number (We), and Froude number (Fr)

1.2.1 Reynolds Number

Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous force
inetial force ρV 2 L2 ρVL VL
Re= = = =
viscous force μVl μ υ (1.8)
Reynolds number signifies the relative predominance of the inertia to the viscous forces
occurring in the flow system. The higher the value of the Reynolds number, the greater will be
the relative contribution of inertia effect. The smaller the value of Re, the greater will be the
relative magnitude of the viscous stresses.

1.2.2. Weber Number

Weber number is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to surface tension
ρV 2 L2 ρV 2 L
⋮ We= =
σL σ
or
V
We=
√ σ / ρL (1.9)
where σ is surface tension. The knowledge of Weber number is useful where surface tension
effects can be significant such as gas/liquid and liquid/liquid interfacse and liquid/solid
boundaries. It can also be important in flows through small cross sections as orifices and weirs
especially at small heads.

1.2.3 Froude Number

Froude number is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to force of gravity.

Fi ρL2 V 2 V 2
Fr= = =
Fg ρL3 g Lg
or
V
⋮ Fr=
√ Lg (1.10)
This ratio is important in open conduit flows where gravity can influence the flow, for example,
spillways and channels. The nature of the flow, whether tranquil or rapid, depends on the value
of Fr. It is therefore an important parameter in the design of hydraulic structures and ships.
In most flows, all the possible forces are not significant simultaneously. Therefore, only one or
two of the above ratios may be applicable at any given time. This makes flow analysis possible
under most circumstances.

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2.0 Model Studies and Similitude
In order to know about the performance of large machines/equipment involving fluid flow,
before their actual manufacture, models of these equipment or plants are made. A model is a
small replica of the actual machine/equipment. The actual equipment/machine or plant is called a
prototype. Similitude is the science of predicting the behaviour of a large object (usually) from
the behaviour of a smaller object which is geometrically similar. The model is built and
subjected to various forces that the prototype would encounter. The information thereby obtained
is used to improve the performance of the prototype.
In order to achieve total similarity between the prototype and the model, there must be kinematic
and dynamic similarity in addition to geometric similarity. Kinematic similarity implies that the
ratio of velocity and the ratios of quantities derived from velocity at corresponding points of the
model and prototype must be constant while dynamic similarity implies that the ratio of dynamic
forces at corresponding points of the prototype and model must be constant. The later condition
implies that the dimensionless numbers (Re, We, Fr, etc.) must be the same for corresponding
points of the model and the prototype.

2.1 Similarity Theory

2.1.1 Geometric Similarity
Figure (2.1) illustrates geometric similarity between a model and prototype

hp

h
m
lp

l
m
b bp
m

Figure 2.1 Illustration of Geometric Similarity

For geometric similarity, the ratio of the corresponding sides in both model and prototype must
be the same, that is
lp hp bp
= = =L P =cons tan t
lm hm bm (2.1)

8
where l, b and h denote length, breadth and height respectively, p and m denote prototype and
model while LP denotes prototype-model scale ratio. The area and volume ratios can be
expressed as
Ap
=L2P
Am (2.2)
Vp
=L3P
Vm (2.3)
2.1.2 Kinematic Similarity
Kinematic similarity deals with the geometry of particle motion and therefore knowledge of
portion and time is required to describe the motion. Consequently, for kinematic similarity, the
ratio of lengths in the model and prototype as well as the ratio of times must be constant.
Similarly the ratio of any quantity derived from length and time (such as velocity, acceleration,
discharge and kinematic viscosity) must also be constant. In other words there must be geometric
similarity in order to have kinematic similarity. Consequently, for two geometrically similar flow
fields, the time-ratio, velocity-ratio, acceleration-ratio, discharge-ratio and kinematic viscosity-
ratio are as follows:
Tp T p
2
1
= =T P =cons tan t
Tm T m
1 2 (2.4)
Vp Vp LP
2
1
= =V P = =cons tan t
Vm Vm TP
1 2 (2.5)
ap ap LP
2
1
= =a P = 2 =cons tan t
am am TP
1 2 (2.6)
Qp Qp 3
LP
2
1
= =Q P = =cons tan t
Qm Qm TP
1 2 (2.7)
υp υp 2
LP
2
1
= =υ P = =cons tan t
υm υm TP
1 2 (2.8)
Equations (2.4) to (2.8) must be satisfied by the two fields of conditions if kinematic similarity is
to prevail. The presence of Q and υ among the conditions suggests that the flow rates for both
fields do not have to be the same nor is it compulsory for both fluids to have the same viscosity.
This advantage can be exploited by using cheap and common fluids like air and water as the
model fluid.

2.1.3 Dynamic Similarity

So far, we have considered the geometry of objects and the geometry of flows without
considering the forces controlling the flows. The forces controlling the flows are dealt with under
the subject of fluid dynamics. In simple terms, dynamics deal with the study of forces which
keep a particle in motion and for dynamic similarity, the ratio of the forces in the model and
prototype must be constant. Mass, length and time are important in dynamic similitude.
Similarity must be maintained between these quantities and their derivatives (velocity,
acceleration, force, energy, etc.) in the developed model and prototype. Obviously there must be
geometric and kinematic similarities as preconditions for dynamic similarity.

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The simple statement of dynamic similarity is
FP
=cons tan t
FM (2.9)
The condition requires that the flow patterns be similar in both the model and prototype. The
scale ratios defined above for geometric similarity and kinematic similarity apply to dynamic
similarity and in addition, the scale ratios for mass and inertia force must be defined.
mp mp 3
ρ P LP
2 3
1
= =m P =ρ P L P = =cons tan t
mm mm ρ M LM
3
1 2 (2.10)
Fp Fp 4 2
ρ P LP T M
2
1
= =F P =mP a P = =cons tan t
Fm Fm ρ L
4
T
2
1 2 M M P (2.11)
The scale ratios of the derivatives of force are obtained similarly
Mp
=M P =m P V P =cons tant
1

Mm
1 (2.12)
and for energy
EP EP
1
= =E P =F P LP =cons tan t
2

EM EM
1 2 (2.13)
If the ratio of the overall forces must be constant, the ratio of the force components to inertia
force must be constant. The force components in this sense are pressure forces, viscous forces,
surface tension forces, elasticity forces and gravitational forces. Their ratios must be the same in
both model and prototype. It means that the ratios obtained above must be the same in both
model and prototype, that is

( ) ( )
ρ VL
μ mod el
=
ρ VL
μ prototype (2.14)

( ) ( )
V
√ σ / ρL mod el
=
V
√ σ / ρL prototype (2.15)

( √ Lg ) ( √ Lg )
V
=
V
mod el prototype (2.16)
When expressed in dimensionless form, many dimensionless variables (scale factors) can be
derived from Equations (2.14 – 2.16). For example, if the Re equation is written in the form
ρ M V M L M ρ P V P LP
=
μM μP (2.17)
Equation (2.17) can be rearranged in dimensionless form to give
( ρ P / ρ M ) ( V P / V M ) ( L P / LM )
=1
( μP / μM ) (2.18)
or
ρP V P L P
=1
μP (2.19)
If the same fluid is used for both model and prototype, ρ P = 1, μ P = 1 and therefore
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 1
V P=
Lp (2.20)
Lp
T P= =L2p
Vp (2.21)
Lp Lp 1
a P= 2
= =
Tp T 4p L3p (2.22)
L2p
Q P= A p V p = 2 =L p
Tp (2.23)
m p =ρ p v p =L3p (2.24)
ρ p L3p
F P =m p a p = =1
L3p (2.25)
Similar expressions can be derived for the other force derivatives.

2.2 Applications of Similarity Theory

2.2.1 Submerged Bodies
The behaviour of submerged bodies is studied in water tunnels, water being preferred where very
high velocities are required. Tunnel studies are used to determine drag characteristics and
compressibility characteristics where very high air velocities are involved. The Reynolds model
is used to achieve dynamic similarity between prototype and model flows.

2.2.2 Pipe Flow

A typical flow of incompressible fluids in closed conduits is the flow in pipes. For such flows,
gravity, surface tension and compressibility forces have no effect and the flow is controlled
solely by pressure and velocity. Therefore, the Reynolds model is applicable for the analysis of
the flow. The flow velocity varies across the pipe, being zero at the wall and maximum at the
centre. Depending on the mean velocity through the pipe, the mode of flow can be laminar or
turbulent. For Re ≤ 2000, the flow is laminar and viscous forces predominate. When Re ≥
2000, inertia forces predominate. Complete similarity is achieved between the model and
prototype for laminar flow under all conditions. However, for turbulent flow, there has to be
geometric similarity between the roughness of the pipes and their laminar sublayers before
dynamic similarity can be attained between the model and the prototype flows.

2.2.3 Open Channel Flow

For flow in a channel open to the atmosphere, the effect of surface tension and compressibility
forces is negligible while gravity and viscosity forces predominate. For a short reach of the
channel, the effect of viscosity can be ignored without much error using the Froude model. When
Fr ∠ 1, gravity forces predominate and when Fr ¿¿ 1, inertia forces predominate. The Froude
model is used to study the characteristics of wave motion, reservoir gates and spillways.

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3.0Fluid statics and Dynamics
3.1 Fluid Statics
Fluid statics is the part of fluid mechanics that deals with fluids when there is no relative motion
between the fluid particles. Typically this includes two situations: when the fluid is at rest in
stable equilibrium and when it moves like a rigid solid. This type of fluid transport deals majorly
with incompressible fluids at rest A fluid at rest has no shear stress. Consequently, any force
developed is only due to normal stresses i.e, pressure. Such a condition is termed the hydrostatic
condition. In fact, the analysis of hydrostatic systems is greatly simplified when compared to that
for fluids in motion.
The importance of fluid statics becomes apparent when we note that the atmosphere around us
can be considered to be at rest and so are the oceans. The simple theory developed here finds its
application in determining pressures at different levels of atmosphere and in many pressure-
measuring devices. Further, the theory is employed to calculate force on submerged objects such
as ships, parts of ships and submarines. The other application of the theory f fluid statics is in the
calculation of forces on dams and other hydraulic systems.
Specific areas of interest under this theory are-
1. Pressure at a point within a fluid
2. Equation for Pressure Field
3. Manometry, measurement of pressure
4. Force on an immersed surfaces
5. Buoyancy and stability

3.2 Fluid Dynamics

In many situations or circumstances, it is important to have an accurate knowledge of the
velocity of flowing fluids so as to predict their effects on objects and surfaces over which they
flow. Examples are fluids flowing past solid bodies such as submarines and aeroplanes. For good
control, the pressures and the drag exerted on such devices must be known accurately. The
effects depend to a large extent on the velocity of the fluids. A fluid contains millions of
molecular particles which are in continuous vibratory motion. The vibratory motion takes place
whether the fluid is stationary or flowing. As a result of the vibration and the viscous property of
the fluid, especially if it is a liquid, the path of each particle changes continuously as the fluid
flows. Therefore, it is difficult to predict the motion of individual particles. Two approaches have
been developed for describing the motion of the particles of a flowing fluid. They are the
lagrangian and Eulerian Viewpoints respectively.

3.2.1 The Lagrangian Approach

In this approach, the motion of each particle of the fluid is studied by following its position in the
flow field and noting each position against time. An origin of co-ordinates (x o, yo, zo) is selected
at an arbitrary time t. (usually t = 0). And then the position of each particle relative to the origin
is noted against time. The coordinates of the position of the particle at any time are therefore
functions of time. i.e.

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 x=f ( t )
y=f ( t )
z=f ( t ) (3.1)
The particle’s velocity can be obtained by differentiating its position vector with respect to time
and such derivative is described as a total or substantial derivative since x, y, and z are functions
of time only. Displacement is therefore the basic quantity and all other properties such as
velocity and acceleration can be derived from equation (3.1). The later are then referred to as
derived properties. If ⃗
F represents the position vector relative to the selected origin and
^i , ^j and k^ , the unit vector in the x, y and z directions respectively, then
⃗F =^i x+ ^j y+ k^ z (3.2)
d⃗
F ^ dx ^ dy ^ dz
V̄ = = i + j +k
dt dt dt dt (3.3)
V̄ = ^i u+ ^j v + k^ w (3.4)
where u, v and w are the components of the particle’s velocity in the x, y and z directions
respectively.
Using this approach one has to determine the motion of the particle in the body of the fluid in
order to determine its velocity. This is a difficult, I not an impossible task.

3.2.2 The Eulerian Approach

In the Eulerian approach, a point is selected in the fluid relative to an origin and noting the
velocities of the particles as they pass the point against time. Consequently, the particles’
velocities depend on the position of the point as well as on time. Hence, one can write
V̄ =f ( x, y , z , t ) (3.5)
u=f 1 ( x , y , z , t )
v=f 2 ( x , y , z, t )
w=f 3 ( x , y , z , t ) (3.6)
Equation (3.6) can be expressed in terms of the displacement from the origin as
V̄ =f 4 ( s , t ) (3.7)
In this consideration, velocity is the basic quantity and all other properties are derived from it. It
is tedious if not impossible to track particle in the flowing fluid because of its erratic motion
which in turn results in erratic changes in the relative positions of the particles. For this reason
the Eulerian approach is preferred to the Lagrangian approach.
The velocity components of a flowing fluid can be related to its geometry using the streamline.
The streamline may be defined as the path of a particle in the flowing fluid. Consequently, the
tangent to the streamline at any point gives the direction of the particle’s velocity at that point. A
particle cannot cross its own streamline since it moves tangentially to it. A collection of
streamlines is called a streamtube. The streamlines which separate the flow from a conduit are
called a boundary streamlines. The equation of the streamlines in three dimensions is given as
dx dy dz
= =
u v w (3.8)

13
The equation simply states that the displacement components are proportional to the velocity
components and they are in the same direction. The equation provides a basis for obtaining an
analytical relationship between the velocity components and the various points in the flow field.

For motion along a streamline, the acceleration of a particle consists of two components –
tangential and radial components. The tangential component expresses the rate of change of the
particle’s velocity with respect to time in the direction of motion. The radial component on the
other hand, arises from the fact that the angular position of the particle with respect to the origin
of the coordinates changes with respect to position.
Let the tangential velocity of a particle be expressed as a function of both position and time, i.e.
V t =f ( S , t ) (3.9)
Then the acceleration can be expressed as
∂ V ∂ S ∂ V t ∂t
at= t +
∂ S ∂ t ∂t ∂t (3.10)
∂Vt ∂V t ∂V t
at= =V t +
∂t ∂S ∂t (3.11)
The first term on the right hand side is the convective acceleration and the second term is the
local acceleration. If we have steady situation, the velocity does not change with time at any
position and the second term disappears giving
∂V t
a t =V t
∂S (3.12)
For the normal component of acceleration we differentiate
V n =f ( S , t )
with respect to time to obtain
∂ V n ∂V n ∂ S ∂V n ∂t
a n= = +
∂t ∂ S ∂t ∂t ∂t (3.13)
∂ V n ∂ S ∂V n
a n= +
∂S ∂t ∂t (3.14)
∂V n ∂ S
The component ∂ S ∂ t arises solely from rotation and can therefore be related to angular
∂V n
velocity ω while ∂t arises from translation. Since the rotational acceleration is circular and
acts towards the centre of the fluid container, it is called centripetal acceleration. Its opposite
which acts away from the centre is called centrifugal acceleration which can be represented as
a f =V t ω (3.15)
or
V 2t
af =
r (3.16)
Since Vt = rω
It is however important to note that the rotational acceleration acts towards the centre, it is
therefore centripetal, and since it opposes the centrifugal acceleration, it is negative.
Incorporating this into equation (3.14), we have the total normal acceleration of the flowing
particle as

14
 V 2t ∂V n
+a n=−
r ∂t (3.17)
From equation (3.17), it can be seen that the total normal acceleration is made up of the
centripetal acceleration and the linear acceleration due to the change of the normal velocity in the
normal direction.

3. 3 Continuity Equation (Navier Stokes Equation)

The continuity equation is a mathematical statement of the law of conservation of mass which
states that the mass of a system is constant. If the system is an open one, for example, a control
volume into and from which fluid flows, then for conservation of mass, the rate of mass inflow
from the control volume minus the rate of mass outflow from the control volume must be equal
to the rate of increase of mass within the control volume. The mathematical statement of the
continuity equation can be demonstrated by using a differential-size control volume. When it is
necessary to determined velocity components as functions of position, the differential form of the
continuity equation is very useful. This is because the differential-size control volume can be as
small as possible, in fact, in the limit, it reduces to a point.

The differential form of the continuity equation is obtained by considering the flow into and out
of the six faces of an elemental cuboid of a control volume placed such that the sides are parallel
to the coordinates axes x, y and z. let the origin be at the corner o(x, y. z). the mass fluxes are as
shown in figure 7.1


wxy  wxy z
z


 u x  z  uxz y
y

∆z

uyz uxy  uyz x
x

∆y

∆x  u x z

wxy

Figure 3.1 Notation for deriving differential form of continuity equation

If it is assumed that the density of the fluid is not constant, the net mass flux in the x direction is

{[ ρu+ ∂∂x ( ρu ) Δx ]−[ ρu ]} ΔyΔx= ∂∂x ( ρu ) ΔxΔyΔz (3.18)

15
similarly, the net mass fluxes in the y direction are
∂ ( ρv ) ΔxΔyΔz
∂y (3.19)

and
∂ ( ρw ) ΔxΔyΔz
∂z (3.20)

Therefore, the total net mass efflux through the surface of the element is

[ ∂x ∂y ∂z ]
∂ ( ρu )+ ∂ ( ρv )+ ∂ ( ρw ) ΔxΔyΔw
(3.21)

The decrease of mass within the control volume is

∂ρ
− ΔxΔyΔz
∂t (3.22)

On equating the two terms, we have

∂ ( ρu ) + ∂ ( ρv ) + ∂ ( ρw )=− ∂ ρ
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t (3.23)
For steady flow, we have .
∂ ( ρu ) + ∂ ( ρv ) + ∂ ( ρw )=0
∂x ∂y ∂z (3.24)

and for steady and incompressible flow, we have

∂u ∂ v ∂ w
+ + =0
∂x ∂ y ∂z (3.24)

In vector notation, Equation (3.8) can be written as

∇⋅v=0
where
∇ = differential operator
v = velocity vector components

3. 4 Momentum Equation
The three laws of motion enunciated by Newton apply to both solids and fluids. Thus, when a
stream of fluid is brought to rest or its rate of flow or direction changes its momentum changes.
The change in momentum is effected by external forces. However, the methodology of
application of the laws to the fluid is not as simple as it is for the solid. The linear momentum
equation for the fluid is best derived from the control-volume equation. In order to derive the
linear momentum equation from the general control-volume equation, the system’s momentum
has to be substituted for the system’s extensive property p and momentum per unit mass, which
is velocity. For the system’s extensive property p, the resulting equation is

16
 ∂ ( momentum )= ∂ v ρ.VdV + vρ .VdA
∂t
∫
∂t CV
∫
CS (3.25)
But according to Newton’s second law of motion, the sum of all the external forces on the
∂ ( momentum )
system is equal to the rate of change of momentum, that is, ∂t . If the sum of the
forces is represented by Σ F, we can write
ΣF= ∂ ∫ v ρ dV + ∫ vρ VdA
∂ t CV CS (3.26)
This is the general linear momentum equation. In words, it states that the sum of the external
forces of a system (or a control volume) is equal to the rate of increase of momentum within the
system plus the net rate of outflow of momentum across the ports.
The external forces consist of two components, - body forces and surface forces. The body forces
are directly proportional to the mass of the fluid and its environment or conduit. The possible
components of body forces are gravity and electromagnetic forces; however only gravity forces
can be applicable in fluid flow. Pressure and viscous or shear forces constitute the surface forces.
Equation (3.26) can be written as
ΣF B+ΣF S = ∂ ∫ v ρ dV + ∫ vρ VdA
∂t CV CS (3.27)
where FB and FS represent body and surface forces respectively. Equation (3.27) may be written
for the coordinate directions as follows:
ΣF x= ∂ ∫ v x ρ dV +∫ v x ρV⋅dA
∂t CV CS (3.28)
ΣF y = ∂ ∫ v y ρdV + ∫ v y ρV⋅dA
∂t CV CS (3.29)
ΣF Z = ∂ ∫ v Z ρ dV + ∫ v Z ρV⋅dA
∂ t CV CS (3.30)
v v
where x , y and v z are the components of velocity, v, in the x, y and z directions respectively.
If the velocity profiles are uniform across the ports,. Equations (3.28 – 3.30) becomes
ΣF x= ∂ ∫ v x ρ dV +∑ v x .V⋅A
∂t CV CS (3,31)
ΣF y = ∂ ∫ v y ρdV + ∑ v y .V⋅A
∂t CV CS (3.32)
ΣF z = ∂ ∫ v Z ρ dV +∑ v z .V⋅A
∂ t CV CS (3.33)

3.5 Energy Equation

The starting point for the derivation of the energy equation is the First Law of Thermodynamics
which states that the change in the energy of a system is the difference between the heat added
(QH) to the system and the work done (W) by the system on its surroundings:
ΔE=Q H −W (3.34)
17
For a small element of the control volume
dE=δQ H −δW (3.35)
Since the energy of a system is a property, the achievement of dE is not a function of path.
Therefore dE is said to be an exact differential. Giving heat to a system or obtaining work from a
system is a function of the process adopted because Q and W are quantities which flow across
the system boundary. Therefore δQ and δW are not exact differentials and this is why they are
not represented in the same way as dE
The components of E are internal energy due to the vibration of the particles of the
system, kinetic and potential energies, thus we can write
E=Ei + E k + E p (3.36)
In the time interval dt, the change in the energy of a system can be written as
dE δQ H δW
= −
dt dt dt (3.37)
δQ H δW
where dt is the rate at which heat is added to the system and dt is the rate at which the
system does work on its surroundings. E represents the total energy of the system and therefore,
it is an extensive property. Let us represent the corresponding intensive property, that is, energy
per unit mass by e. By substituting for E and c in the general control volume equation, we have
dE ∂
= ∫ eρ dV + ∫ eρ .V . dA
dt ∂t CV CS (3.38)
Combining Equation (3.37) and (3.38) gives
δQ H δW ∂
− = ∫ eρ dV + ∫ eρ . V . dA
dt dt ∂ t CV CS (3.39)

Let ei, ek and ep represent the internal, kinetic and potential energies per unit mass respectively.
Substituting ei + ek + ep for e in equation (3.39) yields
δQ H δW ∂
= ∫ e +e +e ρ dV +∫CS ( ei +e k +e p ) ρ. VdA
dt ∂ t CV ( i k p )
−
dt (3.40)
If m is the mass of a system, V its velocity and z its centre of gravity above a given datum, then
m v2 v2
ek = =
2m 2 (3.41)
and
mgz
e p= =gz
m (3.42)
Using the usual representation for internal energy, u, Equation (3.42) becomes
δQ H δW ∂
dt
v2
2 ( )
v2
− = ∫CV u+ +gz ρ dV +∫CS u+ +gz ρ. V .dA
dt ∂ t 2 ( ) (3.43)
δW δW f δW s
The work term dt consists of two parts called flow work dt and shaft work dt
respectively. The flow work is a function of the pressure exerted on the fluid rather than the fluid
density, it is therefore represented as

18
 δW f
=∫CS PV . dA
dt (3.44)
Therefore, the equation for the total work done on the surroundings is
δW δW s
=∫CS PV . dA+
dt dt (3.45)
The shaft work is the work done by the system in moving its boundaries. For example the fluid
in the cylinder of an automobile engine does work by moving the piston of the engine. By
convection, the work done by a system is positive while work done on a system is negative.
If the rate of heat supplied to the system is represented by Q H and the rate of shaft work
done by the system on the surroundings by Ws, the energy equation becomes
v2
2 ( v2
)
Q H −W s−∫CS PV .dA= ∂ ∫CV u+ +gz ρ dV +∫CS u+ +gz ρ .V . dA
∂t 2 ( ) (3.46)
This can be rearranged to obtain the general form of the energy equation as
v2
2 ( v2
2
P
)
Q H −W s= ∂ ∫CV u+ +gz ρ dV +∫CS u+ +gz+ ρ . V . dA
∂t ρ ( ) (3.47)
When there is steady flow, the time-dependent term disappears and the equation reduces to

Q H −W s=∫CS ( v2 P
)
u+ +gz+ ρ . V . dA
2 ρ (3.48)
If in addition there is uniform flow across the ports, we have

Q H −W s=∑
CS
( v2 p
u+ +gz+ ρV . A
2 ρ ) (3.49)
The enthalpy of a fluid is defined as
P
h=u+
ρ (3.50)
Substituting Equation (3.49) into (3.50) gives

Q H −W s=∑
CS
( v2
)
h+ +gz ρ. V A
2 (3.51)
This equation cannot yield any information on what is happening within the control volume.
Rather, the equation is an expression of the change in the energy of the system as a result of the
flow of heat and work across the boundaries. Specifically, by supplying an amount of heat Q H,
the system does an amount of work Ws while its energy increases by an amount

Q H −W s=∑ h+
CS
( v2
2 )
+gz ρV . A
(3.52)
⃗ ⃗
For inflow, V⃗ . ⃗A =−VA , since V and A
are opposite in sign. On the other hand, for outflow, V⃗ . ⃗A
=VA. Therefore, if we have a system with one inlet port and one outlet port only, we can write

Q H −W s= u+
[( v2
2
p
)
+ gz + ρ(VA )
ρ ] [(
onlet
− u+
v2
2
p
)
+ gz + ρ(−VA )
ρ ]
inlet (3.53)

or

19
 Q H −W s= u+
[( v2
2
p
+ gz + ρVA
ρ ) ] [(
onlet
− u+
v2
2
p
+ gz + ρ VA
ρ ) ]
inlet (3.54)
From continuity equation,
dm
( ρ VA )inlet =( ρ VA )exitt = = ṁ
dt (3.55)
Therefore,

Q H −W s=m u+
[( v2
2
+ gz+
p
ρ ) (
onlet
− u+
v2
2
+ gz+
p
ρ )
exit ] (3.56)
or

Q H −W s=m h+
[( v2
2
+ gz ) (
onlet
− h+
v2
2
+ gz ) exit ] (3.57)

3.6 Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation states that the total energy of a flowing inviscid and frictionless fluid is
constant, i.e.
p v2
+ +z=cons tan t
ρg 2 g (3.58)
The energies of two points in the fluid can be related as
p 1 v 21 p2 v 22
+ +z = + +z
ρg 2 g 1 ρg 2 g 2 (3.59)
It therefore follows that if the conditions for which the terms will be zero prevail, then, the
energy equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. The conditions are:
(a) The fluid must not be receiving or delivering shaft work between the two points that are
being considered
(b) There must be no heat transfer
(c) The flow must be inviscid and frictionless
These conditions can only be satisfied by an ideal fluid, the real fluid experiences fluid friction
which is represented by hL. Hence, the equivalent Bernoulli equation for the real fluid is
p 1 v 21 p2 v 22
+ +z = + +z +h
ρg 2 g 1 ρg 2 g 2 L (3.60)
In order words, the Bernoulli equation for the real fluid is the same as the energy equation for the
case of no heat transfer and no work addition or rejection between the two points under
consideration.

4.0 Vortex motion in fluid

In the dynamics of fluid, a vortex is fluid that revolves around the axis line. This fluid might be
curved or straight. Vortices can otherwise be known as a circular motion of a liquid. In the cases
of the absence of forces, the liquid settles. Vortices often form as a result of a difference in fluid
speed - like when fast wind moves over slow wind. Examples of vortex flow are: Hurricanes,
20
tornadoes and air moving over a plane wing The 'strength' of a vortex tube (also
called vortex flux) is the integral of the vorticity across a cross-section of the tube, and is the
same everywhere along the tube (because vorticity has zero divergence) Vortices can either be
free or forced. Free vortex flow requires no external force to rotate the fluid particles while
forced vortex flow requires the help of some external torque to rotate the fluid particle. The fluid
mass in forced vortex flow, rotate at constant angular velocity, ω. The tangential velocity, V, of
any fluid particle is given by:
V= ωr (4.1)
Where, r is radius of fluid particle from the axis of rotation
Examples of forced vortex flow are:
 A vertical cylinder containing liquid which is rotated about its central axis with a constant
angular velocity ω,
 Flow of liquid inside impeller of a centrifugal pump
 Flow of water through runner

4.1 Equations of vortex fluid flow

For free vortex flow, we have
vr = C = constant (4.2)
C
v=
i.e. r (4.3)
substituting equation 2 into equation of motion for free vortex flow gives
v2
dP=ρ dr−ρ gdz
r (4.4)
2
C
dP=ρ dr− ρ gdz
r 2 .r (4.5)
2
C
dP=ρ dr−ρ gdz
r3 (4.6)
Considering two points, 1 and 2 at radial distances r1 and r2 from central axis with heights z1 and
z2 from the bottom of the vessel and integration equation (5) gives

2 2 2
C2
∫ ∫ 3 dr−∫ ρ gdz
dP= ρ
1 1 r 1 (4.7)

4.2 Equation of forced vortex flow

For forced vortex flow, we have

2 πN
ω=
ɷr = C = constant; and 60 (4.8)
where ɷ is the angular velocity which is constant
substituting equation (4.8) into equation of motion for forced vortex flow gives
ω2 r 2
dP=ρ dr− ρ gdz
r (4.9)

21
 dP=ρω 2 r dr−ρ gdz (4.10)
Considering two points, 1 and 2 at radial distances r1 and r2 from central axix with heights z1 and
z2 from the bottom of the vessel and integration equation (4.5) gives

2 2 2
∫ dP=∫ ρ ω r dr −∫ ρ gdz
2

1 1 1 (4.11)

ρω 2 2 2
P2 −P1 = [ r −r ]− ρg [ z 2−z 2]
2 2 1
(4.12)

5.0 Friction in fluids

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other. Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a
viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.

Fluid friction is a force that restricts the movement either within itself or of another medium
moving through the liquid. It describes the friction between the layers of the viscous liquid that
moves relative to each other. The internal resistance to flow is termed as viscosity.

Fluid friction is observed in the flow of liquids and gases. Its causes are similar to those
responsible for friction between solid surfaces, for it also depends on the chemical nature of
the fluid and the nature of the surface over which the fluid is flowing.

The force on an object that resists its motion through a fluid is called drag. When a fluid is in
contact with a solid object or another fluid, the force resisting motion between them is
called fluid friction.
Some examples of fluid friction are:
 Water pushing against a swimmer's body as they move through it (external)
 The movement of your coffee as you stirs it with a spoon (external)
 Sucking water through a straw (internal
 Submarine moving through water (external)

5.1 Factors affecting fluid friction

Fluid friction depends on the following factors
1. Speed of the body: Speed and friction are directly proportional to each other. The higher
the speed of a body, the greater the drag will be. A body moving with high speed will
experience more drag than that moving with a relatively lesser speed
2. Nature of the fluid: The thicker the flowing fluid the higher the fluid friction will be.
That is why there is less fluid friction in water than lubricating oil
3. The viscosity of the fluid: fluid friction is directly proportional to the thickness of the
fluid. The more the density of a fluid, the more the drag
4. The shape of the body: A body with a streamline shape experiences less drag than other
shapes. Streamline shapes are shape that start and end with a point

22
 5. The temperature: Temperature is directly proportional to the fluid friction. Increase in
temperature leads to increase in friction
6. Surface area of the body: The size of the body which faces the fluid friction should be
as low as possible in order to feel less drag. A body moving horizontally can cut through
the liquid more easily than that a body moving vertically

6.0 Compressible Flow in Pipes

A nozzle is a short conduit and as such the gas flowing through it takes a very short time to go
through it, thereby eliminating the possibility of heat transfer. It is therefore convenient to
assume isentropic through the nozzle. The flow through a pipe cannot be treated similarly
because of the pipe roughness and the possibility of heat transfer as a result of the length. Gas
flow through pipes can either be adiabatic with friction or isothermal with friction.
In adiabatic flow with friction, the pipe is assumed to be insulated so that the flowing fluid
cannot exchange heat with the surroundings through the pipe wall. Fluid friction generates heat
which is manifested by way of increase in the temperature of the fluid as it flows. In isothermal
flow with friction, the temperature of the flowing gas is kept constant. This is usually done by
extracting heat from the wall of the pipe by means of a jacket of another fluid

6.1 Normal Shock Waves

During ideal fluid flow, an increase in flow area results in a decrease in the flow velocity,
however if such is through the divergent section of convergent/divergent nozzle the velocity
increases as the flow area increases. Consequently the density and pressure decrease at such a
fast rate that the necessary discharge at the exit cannot be ascertained. Such an abnormal
situation cannot be sustained for long. A natural and spontaneous phenomenon known as shock
wave takes place to restore the flow to ideal flow. A shock wave, therefore, is a disturbance
moving through a medium in the form of thin wavefronts that cause sudden changes in the
pressure, temperature, and density of the medium. It occurs when an object travels through a
fluid with speed faster than that of sound. For example, when a bullet is fired from a pistol at a
speed greater than the speed of sound in air or airplane traveling as supersonic speed

The shock wave causes sudden change in pressure. The resulting pressure waves are either
normal to the direction of flow or inclined to it. The former is called normal shock wave and the
latter oblique shock wave. The gas properties change drastically across the shock wave. The
velocity decreases while the pressure, temperature and the density increase. The increase in
pressure shows that the shock wave is a compressive process. The changes are not isentropic
because the reduction in the kinetic energy of the gas is converted irreversible to heat energy
which manifests by way of an increase in the temperature of the gas. The shock wave is therefore
a case of irreversible adiabatic process which results in an increase in entropy

6.2 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

When a fluid flows though a pipe or parallel plates, the adjacent layers experience shearing
stress. The shearing stresses can be compared to frictional forces experienced by two solid
sliding on each other. This stress which is an important property of fluids is known as viscosity.
The viscosity of a fluid can be defined as the measure of the fluid’s resistance to flow as a result
of the cohesive forces of its particles. Newton has shown that the Force, F is directly proportional
to the product of the area of moving plate, A, and the velocity gradient U/d, i.e
23
 U
F=μ A
d
(6.1)
where μ is a constant of proportionality known as coefficient of dynamic viscosity or simply as
viscosity. Rearranging equation (6.1) yields
F U
τ= =μ
A d
(6.2)

In equation (1.33), τ represents the shear stress at the interface of the flowing liquid/solid plate.

This equation is valid is valid if d is small and the velocity profile can be assumed to be linear. If

d is large and the velocity profile is therefore parabolic, the differential form of the equation

should be used, i.e.

dV x
τ =μ
dy
(6.3)

Equation (6.3) is the general form of the momentum transport equation between layers of

flowing fluid in which the origin of the coordinate is transverse to the direction of flow (i.e. y),

chosen in a such a way that y increases as the velocity increases. If the origin is chosen such that

velocity decreases as y increases the equation is modified as

dV x
τ =−μ
dy
(6.4)

The form of equation (6.4) takes cognizance of the fact that τ is a quantity that can be negative

When the fluid is sheared, the shearing stress, τ varies with the rate of shearing dV/dy. If the

variation is linear and the plot of τ against dV/dy passes through the origin, the fluid is said to be

Newtonian. All fluids which behave in any other fashion are said to non-Newtonian. For

example, plastics do not shear or flow until the inherent stresses in them have been overcome.
24
After that, some exhibit linear relationship while others do not attain that relationship until some

shearing rate has been attained. The fluid whose viscosity is zero is called ideal fluid. The ideal

fluid is non viscous and therefore cannot offer any resistance to flow. In reality, such fluid does

not exist but it is often convenient to treat fluids with very low viscosities as non-viscous. All

other fluids, natural or synthetic are described as real fluids. Viscosities of time dependent fluids

change with the duration of shearing.

The viscosity of a liquid depends significantly on its temperature. It decreases with increase in

temperature and increases with decrease in temperature. On the other hand, the viscosity of a gas

increases with increase in temperature. At constant temperature, the viscosity of a liquid does not

change significantly with pressure while the viscosity of a gas is constant at high temperature

and low pressures

7.0 Incompressible fluid flow

Incompressible flow means flow with variation of density due to negligible or infinitesimal
pressure changes. All the liquids at constant temperature are incompressible. Compressible fluid
flow on the other hand means a flow that undergoes a notable variation in density with trending
pressure. An example of incompressible fluid flow is the stream of water flowing at high speed
from a garden hose pipe.

7.1 Equations of Incompressible Fluid Flow

In most situations of general interest, the flow of a conventional liquid, such as water, is
incompressible to a high degree of accuracy. A fluid is said to be incompressible when the mass
density of a co-moving volume element does not change appreciably as the element moves
through regions of varying pressure. In other words, for an incompressible fluid, the rate of
change of, ρ following the motion is zero: that is:
dρ
=0 ( 7 .1 )
dt

In this case, the continuity equation reduces to:

∇. v =0 ( 7 . 2)
Therefore, as a consequence of mass conservation, an incompressible fluid must have a
divergence-free, or solenoidal, velocity field. This means that the volume of a co-moving fluid

25
element is a constant of the motion. In most practical situations, the initial density distribution in
an incompressible fluid is uniform in space. Hence, it follows from Equation (7.1) that the
density distribution remains uniform in space and constant in time. In other words, we can
generally treat the density, ρ, as a uniform constant in incompressible fluid flow problems.

Suppose that the volume force acting on the fluid is conservative in nature that is,

F = −ρ ∇ . ψ ( 7 .3 )

Where ψ(r, t) is the potential energy per unit mass, and ρ , ψ, the potential energy per
unit volume. Assuming that the fluid viscosity is a spatially uniform quantity, which is
generally the case, the Navier-Stokes equation for an incompressible fluid reduces to:
dv ∇p
=− −∇ ψ + υ ∇ 2 v (7.4)
dt ρt

Where
μ
υ= ( 7 .5 )
ρ

is termed the kinematic viscosity, and has the units m2s-1. This shows that momentum
diffuses a distance of order √ υ t meters in t seconds as a consequence of viscosity.
The complete set of equations governing incompressible flow is:

∇. v =0 (7.6)

dv ∇p
=− −∇ ψ + υ ∇ 2 v (7 . 7 )
dt ρt

Here, ρ and υ are regarded as known constants, and ψ(r, t) as a known function. Thus, we have
four equations--namely, Equation (7.6), plus the three components of Equation (7.7), for four
unknowns--namely, the pressure, p(r, t) , plus the three components of the velocity, v(r, t) . Note
that an energy conservation equation is redundant in the case of incompressible fluid flow.

8.0 Flow measurement

A flow meter is a device used to measure the volume or mass of a gas or liquid. ... Or more
frequently, the most utility from a flow meter and the greatest variety of flow meters focus
on measuring gasses and liquids in a pipe.

26
Measurement of flow, whether it is a liquid or gas, is commonly a critical parameter in many
processes. In most operations it is important to know that the right fluid is at the right place at the
right time. Measuring flow and pressure can provide this security to the process and personnel.

When measuring the flow of liquid, the two things which are needed to be measured are:
pressure energy and kinetic energy. Fluid flow measurement involves both liquid and gases in
motion. The different kinds of common flow meters are:
1. Differential pressure flow meters.
2. Positive displacement flow meters.
3. Velocity flow meters.
4. Mass flow meters.
5. Open channel flow meters.

8.1 Fluid Flow Equipment

8.1.1. Pumps
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical
action, typically converted from electrical energy into hydraulic energy. Pumps can be classified
into three major groups according to the method they use to move the fluid:
 Direct lift
 Displacement
 Gravity pumps.
Pumps operate either by reciprocating or rotary mechanism and require energy to
perform mechanical work in moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources,
including manual operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, and come in many sizes, from
microscopic for use in medical applications, to large industrial pumps.
Some applications of mechanical pumps are
 pumping of water from wells
 aquarium filtering
 pond filtering
 water-cooling and fuel injection, in the energy industry
 for pumping oil and natural gas
 for operating cooling towers and other components of etc.
There are three basic types of pumps:
1. positive-displacement
2. centrifugal
3. axial-flow pumps.
The most used is the positive displacement type. A positive-displacement pump makes a fluid
move by trapping a fixed amount and forcing or displacing that trapped volume into the
discharge pipe. Some positive-displacement pumps use an expanding cavity on the suction side
and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the

27
suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The
volume is constant through each cycle of operation.
The power imparted into a fluid increases the energy of the fluid per unit volume. Thus the
power relationship is between the conversion of the mechanical energy of the pump mechanism
and the fluid elements within the pump. In general, this is governed by a series of simultaneous
differential equations, known as the Navier–Stokes equations. However a more simple equation
relating only the different energies in the fluid, known as Bernoulli's equation can be used.
Hence the power, P, required by the pump can be expressed as:
Δ pQ
P= ( 8 . 1)
η
where Δp is the change in total pressure between the inlet and outlet in Nm-2, and Q, the volume
flow-rate of the fluid is given in m 3/s., η is the pump efficiency which depends upon the pump's
configuration and operating conditions

8.1.2. Compressors
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor. However, s ometimes the words "pump"
and "compressor" are used interchangeably, but there is a difference: A pump is a machine that moves a
fluid (either liquid or gas) from one place to another while a compressor is a machine that squeezes a
gas into a smaller volume before moving or pumping it somewhere else
Compressors are similar to pumps in that both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can
transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the
volume of a gas..
Many compressors can be staged, that is, the fluid is compressed several times in steps or stages,
to increase discharge pressure. Often, the second stage is physically smaller than the primary
stage, to accommodate the already compressed gas without reducing its pressure. Each stage
further compresses the gas and increases its pressure and also temperature. To avoid having
excessively high temperature at the exit stage, intercoolers are provided between stages
Compressors are used throughout industry to provide shop or instrument air; to power air tools,
paint sprayers, and abrasive blast equipment; to phase shift refrigerants for air conditioning and
refrigeration; to propel gas through pipelines; etc. There are different types of compressors that
move air into a chamber. The four most common types of air compressors you will see are:
 Reciprocating Air Compressor
 Centrifugal Compressor
 Rotary Screw Compressor
 Axial Compressor.

8.2 valves and piping

8.2.1 Valves
A valve is a mechanical device or natural object that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a
fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing
various passageways. When you turn on a faucet (tap) to brush your teeth, you're opening
a valve that allows pressurized water to escape from a pipe. Valves regulate gases as well as
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liquids. The type of valves used in a pipe depends on the piping requirements. The cost of valve
in the piping system is up to 20 to 30% of the overall piping cost. And the cost of a given type
and size of the valve can vary 100%. It means that if you choose a ball valve over a butterfly
valve for the same function. It can cost you more. So, the selection of valves is essential to the
economics, as well as operation, of the process plants. The following are some common valves
 Gate Valve
 Globe Valve
 Check Valve
 Plug valve
 Ball Valve
 Butterfly Valve
 Needle Valve
 Pinch Valve
 Pressure Relief Valve

8.2.2 Piping
Within industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids (liquids and gases) from one
location to another. The engineering discipline of piping design studies the efficient transport of
fluid.
Industrial process piping (and accompanying in-line components) can be manufactured
from wood, fiberglass, glass, steel, aluminum, plastic, copper, and concrete. The in-line
components, known as fittings, valves, and other devices, typically sense and control
the pressure, flow rate and temperature of the transmitted fluid, and usually are included in the
field of piping design (or piping engineering), though the sensors and automatic controlling
devices may alternatively be treated as part of instrumentation and control design. Piping
systems are documented in piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs). If necessary, pipes can
be cleaned by the tube cleaning process.

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