SCIENCE 10

QUARTER 3
JHS STEM | MRS. AILENE MORADOS | S.Y. 2022 - 2023
Human Body Systems
- Humans have complex systems
- Cells are grouped for efficiency
- Dynamic equilibrium

Levels of organization
In a multicellular organism levels are:
Cell > tissues > organs > organ systems
● TISSUES
- group of similar cells that perform the same function
● ORGANS
- many groups of tissues work together
● ORGAN SYSTEMS
- a group of organs that work together to perform a specific function
● SPECIALIZED CELLS
- carry messages from one cell to another.
10 Organ Systems that make up the Human Body
1. Skeletal System
2. Muscular System
3. Respiratory System
4. Circulatory System
5. Excretory System
6. Reproductive System
7. Digestive System
8. Endocrine System
9. Nervous System
10. Lymphatic System

NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF THE BODY

- The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages
to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body.
- It is considered as the body’s storage center of information and also the body’s
control system.

1
 - It is mainly responsible for controlling and coordinating all the organ systems by
sending messages from the brain through nerve signals. It makes sure that all the
parts of the body are working together efficiently.
- controls and coordinates functions throughout the body and responds to internal and
external stimuli.
MAJOR DIVISIONS AND PARTS
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
- serves as the main processing center of the nervous system.
MAIN COMPONENTS:
A. BRAIN
- is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor
of information for the body. It has three main parts:
1. CEREBRUM - is the large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought.
2. CEREBELLUM - is the part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance, and
coordination
3. BRAIN STEM - connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic functions
such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure.
B. SPINAL CORD
- serves as a channel for signal between the brain and the
majority of the body parts, and controls some simple musculoskeletal
reflexes even without the processing of the brain.
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
- connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs.
MAIN DIVISIONS:
A. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- is associated with the voluntary control of body movements and has two
main parts:
a. SPINAL NERVES - carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the
body.
b. CRANIAL NERVES - are nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain
stem.
B. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- is associated with the involuntary control of body movements and has two
subdivisions:
a. SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - is activated when the body is in a dynamic
role or stress. (e.g., increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of pupil, sweating)
b. PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - maintains body functions and restores
the body to normal or relaxed mode.
NERVE CELL
- is the basic unit of the nervous system and it is also called a neuron.
- There are billions of neurons in the body
- cells that transmit the impulses.
PARTS OF A NEURON
a. CELL BODY
- Largest part

2
 - Contains nucleus and most of cytoplasm
- Most metabolic activities occur here
b. DENDRITES
- carry impulses toward the cell body
- Short, branched extensions
- Carry impulses from environment or other neuron toward cell body
- Neurons can have several dendrites
c. AXON
- carry impulses away from the cell body. Axons pass impulses to the
dendrites of other neurons or the cell body of muscle cells. Axons can be
grouped together into cable-like bundles called nerve
- Long fiber which carries impulses away from the cell body
- Ends in axon terminals, located a distance away from cell body
- Neurons only have one axon
d. MYELIN SHEATH
- Insulating membrane surrounding axon

TYPES OF A NEURON
a. SENSORY NEURON
- carry impulses from sense organs to the spinal cord
b. MOTOR NEURON
- carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles
c. INTERNEURON
- connect sensory and motor neurons and carry impulses between them

IMPORTANT TERMS

● SYNAPSE - the gap between

neurons
● STIMULUS - It is any factor in
the environment that may
trigger a nerve impulse.
● IMPULSE - messages carried
by the nervous system are
electrical signals. An impulse
begins when a neuron is
stimulated by another neuron
or the environment
● NEUROTRANSMITTER -
chemical used by neurons to
transmit an impulse across the
synapse
● HOMEOSTASIS - is the state
reached when each part of the

3
 body functions in equilibrium
with other parts. Both the
nervous system and
endocrine system are
essential in enabling the body
to maintain homeostasis.
● RESPONSE - is a reaction to
a condition or stimulus.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Includes the endocrine glands and their hormones
- The function of the endocrine system is to secrete hormones into the bloodstream
- is composed of different glands which secrete hormones that regulate metabolism,
growth and development, mood, and reproduction
HORMONE
- help regulate body processes such as growth, development, metabolism, and
response to stimuli.
- chemical messenger which targets a specific group of cells in order to cause that
group of cells do some activity or stop doing an activity.
- are organic substances released by the glands of the endocrine system directly into
the bloodstream.
- Hormones are capable of changing the physiological and metabolic behaviors of their
target cells to maintain homeostasis.

GLAND FUNCTION HORMONES LOCATION

PITUITARY Produces —Oxytocin At the base

hormones —Vasopressin of the Brain
that stimulate —Growth
growth, and Hormone (GH)
controls the —
functions of Adrenocorticotr
other glands opic Hormone
(ACTH)
—Prolactin
—Luteinizing
Hormone (LH)
—Follicle
Stimulating
Hormone (FSH)

THYROID Produces Thyroxin, In front of

4
 hormones Calcitonin the neck
that regulate and
body below the
metabolism, voice box
and storage
of calcium in
bones

PARATHYR Produces Parathormone In the neck

OID hormones
that control
the calcium
levels in your
body, and
normalizes
bone growth

THYMUS Produces Thymosin In front of

hormones the heart
that enable
the body to
produce T
cells before
puberty

ADRENAL Produces Adrenaline and On top of

GLAND hormones others the kidneys
that affects
metabolism,
immune
system and
blood
pressure,
stress
reaction

PANCREAS Produce Insulin, Behind the

hormones Glucagon stomach
that regulate
blood sugar
levels

REPRODUCTIVE

TESTES Produces Androgen, Scrotum /

(MALE) hormones Testosterone lower
that control abdomen
maturation of
sperm and

5
 development
of the
secondary
male sexual
characteristic
s;

OVARIES Produces Estrogen, Pelvic area

(FEMALE) hormones Progesterone / lower
that influence abdomen
development
of the
secondary
female sexual
characteristic
s, and
maturation of
the egg cells
and ovulation

PINEAL Produces a Melatonin In the brain

hormone that
regulates the
biological
clock in some
animals

EXOCRINE GLANDS
- release their secretions into ducts or tubes
● Liver- bile released into the gallbladder; then through a duct onto the small
intestine
● Pancreas- releases pancreatic juice into the small intestine via a duct
Endocrine glands
- Ductless glands
- Release hormones directly into the bloodstream
- Blood transports hormones throughout the body
- Each hormone acts only on certain tissue called target tissue
Human Endocrine Glands
- Pituitary
- Thyroid
- Parathyroid
- Adrenal
- Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
- Testes and ovaries

PITUITARY GLAND
- is called the master gland because it regulates many body processes

6
 - round organ about the size of a pea (~1cm in diameter), located behind the bridge of
the nose at the base of the brain
- Secretes 9 different hormones
1. Growth
2. Blood pressure
3. Regulation of pregnancy
4. Breast milk production
5. Sex organ functions on both men and women
6. Thyroid gland function
7. Metabolism
8. Water regulation in the body(kidney)
9. Temperature regulation

Pituitary Function
Hormones

Growth To increase body

Hormone (GH) size during
childhood and
adolescents to
maintain body
size during
adulthood

Thyroid To stimulate the

Stimulating thyroid to produce
Hormone (TSH) thyroxine

Follicle Regulate puberty,

Stimulating development and
Hormone (FSH) reproductive
processes

Luteinizing Stimulates the

Hormone (LH) production if
estrogen and
testosterone

THYROID GLAND
- Located on the neck
- Releases hormone thyroxine
- Function is to regulate rates of metabolism in the body
- Essential for normal physical and mental development
- Iodine deficiency in your diet results in goiter (enlargement of thyroid gland)
PARATHYROID GLAND
- Function is to control metabolism of calcium

7
 - Necessary for normal nerve and muscle function, blood clotting, healthy bones and
teeth.
- Located in the back of thyroid gland (in neck)
- Hormone released is parathormone
ADRENAL GLANDS (KIDNEY HATS)
- Located at the top of each kidney
- Hormones released are cortisone and adrenaline
Adrenaline- raise blood sugar levels and increases heartbeat and breathing rates
Cortisone
- regulate carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism
- Promotes conversion of fats and protein to glucose
ISLET OF LANGERHANS
- Located on the pancreas
- Hormones secreted are insulin and glucagon
Insulin- stimulates glucose uptake by cells
Glucagon- promotes conversion of glycogen (animal-based carbohydrate) to
glucose
Blood Sugar Regulation
● Types of Diabetes
a. Diabetes Type 1- usually found in children and young adults; the
body doesn’t make enough insulin
Symptoms:
- Feeling more thirsty than usual
- Urinating a lot
- Bed-wetting in children who have never wet the
bed during the night
- Feeling very hungry
- Losing weight without trying
- Feeling irritable or having other mood changes
- Feeling tired and weak
- Having blurry vision
b. Diabetes Type 2- the body doesn’t produce insulin or the cells
ignore it
Symptoms:
- Any of the type 1 symptoms
- Frequent infections
- Blurred vision
- Cuts/bruises that are slow to heal
- Numbness in the hands/feet
- Bladder Infections

HORMONE OVERSEC UNDERSEC

RETION RETION

8
 PITUITARY GROWTH Gigantism Dwarfism in
GLAND HORMONE in childhood
childhood
and
acromegaly
in adults
(bones of
face, hands
and feet
enlarged)

THYROID THYROXINE results in results in

GLAND nervousnes cretinism
s and (mental
weight loss retardation,
small size) in
children

PARATHYRO PARATHOR results in

ID GLAND MONE nerve
disorders,
brittle bones
and clotting
problems

ADRENAL ADRENALIN results to

GLAND E inability to
deal with
stress

PANCREAS INSULIN results in results in

low blood high blood
sugar sugar. This
can lead to a
condition
known as
diabetes.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM CONTROL

- Regulated by feedback mechanism
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
- Act like a thermostat in a home
- As the temperature cools, the thermostat detects the change and triggers the furnace
to turn on and warm the house
- Once the temperature reaches its thermostat setting, the furnace turn off
- Often used to maintain homeostasis
Homeostasis- often maintained by two hormones who have antagonistic effects

9
POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
- Control events that can be out of control and do not require continuous adjustment
- Rarely used to maintain homeostasis

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DISORDER

Hormonal imbalance will occur if the organs and hormones of your body do not
produce the right amount of chemicals needed which in turn may lead to some dysfunctions.
The following are some examples of endocrine disorders.
- Osteoporosis is a disease that happens when the mineral density of the bone is
reduced making it brittle and porous. Parathyroid hormone secretion is one of the
possible causes of this disease.
- Goiter is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland. It results from the
underproduction or overproduction of thyroid hormones.
- Gigantism is a disorder that happens during childhood when there is abnormal
increase in height associated with too much secretion of growth hormones.
- Dwarfism is a condition wherein the production of growth hormones in the pituitary
gland is insufficient resulting in short stature.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- also known as genital system
- the biological system made up of all anatomical organs involved in sexual
reproduction

TYPES OF REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- produces male gametes or also called as "Sperm Cells"
- goal is to transfer these male gametes onto the female
PARTS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
A. Bladder
B. Vas Deferens
C. Urethra
D. Penis
E. Glans
F. Prepuce (Foreskin)
G. Rectum
H. Seminal Vesicle
I. Ejaculatory Duct
J. Prostate Gland
K. Cowper's Gland
L. Epididymis
M. Testis

10
 N.Scrotum
- regulates the temperature of the testes.
EXTERNAL STRUCTURES
a. Penis - Deposits the sperm into the vagina during mating
b. Scrotum - Hangs behind the penis and contains the testicles. It acts as a climate
control system for the testes.
c. Testis - responsible for making testosterone and producing sperm cells
d. Epididymis - a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle. It
carries, stores, and brings the sperm to maturity.

INTERNAL STRUCTURES
a. Vas Deferens - it transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for
ejaculation. Vasectomy is called when a couple doesn't want to have a baby
anymore.
b. Ejaculatory Duct - formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal
vesicles
c. Urethra - carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body
d. Seminal Vesicle - produces a sugar - rich fluid (fructose) that provides sperms with
a source of energy and helps with the sperms' motility (ability to move)
e. Prostate Gland - It is a walnut-like structure which contributes additional fluid to the
ejaculate, and help to nourish the sperm
f. Cowper's Gland - also called the Bulbourethral gland. It produces a clear, slippery
fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra
and to neutralize any acidity due to residual drops of urine in the urethra.

IMPORTANT HORMONES
Hormones - are chemical messengers of the body. They are important to maintain
homeostasis.
● Pituitary Gland - known as the master gland since it controls other body
processes.
● Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - signals sperm production
(spermatogenesis)
● Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - stimulates production of testosterone

11
 ● Testosterone - Most important male hormone. It is responsible for regulating sex
differentiation, male sex characteristics, spermatogenesis and fertility.

2.FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- produces female gametes or also called as "Egg Cells/Ovum"
- receives male gametes
- carries the baby throughout its development
PARTS OF A FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
a. Ovary - site of oogenesis; produces hormones estrogen and progesterone
b. Fimbriae - picks up the ovum from the ovary
c. Fallopian Tube - passage from ovary to uterus; side of fertilization
d. Endometrium - nourishes the embryo; sheds during menstruation
e. Uterus - site of egg implantation, embryo development
f. Cervix - muscular opening of the uterus
g. Vagina - entrance of the penis, also called the birth canal

IMPORTANT INFO

● Females have 2 ovaries,

which alternate each month
to produce an egg or ovum.
● Ovaries contain ~ 400,000
egg cells, but only ~ 400
actually mature between
the ages of 12 - 50.
● The ovary releases an egg
every 28 days.

PATHWAY OF THE SPERM

1. Vagina
2. Cervix

12
 3. Uterus
4. Fallopian Tube

IMPORTANT HORMONES
● Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - signals development of egg cells
(oogenesis)
● Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - plays a role in the development of ova, and
stimulation of estradiol and progesterone production
● Estrogen
- instrumental in breast development, fat distribution in the hips, legs and
breasts, and the development of reproductive organs.
- secreted by ovaries prior to ovulation
● Progesterone
- helps to prepare the body for potential pregnancy
- prohibits muscle contractions in the uterus that would cause the body to
reject an egg
- secreted by ovaries after ovulation
- If egg is not fertilized, progesterone levels become low and menstruation
happens

IMPORTANT TERMS

● MENSTRUATION - the
process in which blood and
other tissues are shed from
the uterus and leave the
body through the vagina
● MENARCHE - onset of
menstruation, normally
occurs between ages 11-15
● MENOPAUSE - normally
occurs between the ages 45
and 55

PHASES OF MENSTRUATION
1. FLOW / MENSTRUATION PHASE (DAYS 1-5)
- endometrium is shed; follicle growth in ovary
- estrogen and progesterone levels are low
2. FOLLICULAR PHASE (DAYS 6-13)
- follicles grow and mature
- secretes Estrogen - endometrium thickens and Stimulates LH
3. OVULATION (DAY 14)

13
 - LH peaks causing secondary oocyte to burst from the follicle in the ovary
into oviduct
4. LUTEAL PHASE (DAY 15-28)
- LH causes corpus luteum to develop from follicle
- corpus luteum secrets E & P
- Endometrium thickens and is maintained (progesterone prevents
contractions)
- Inhibits LH and FSH

GnRH (GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE)

- Comes from hypothalamus
- needed in order to release LH and FSH in the pituitary gland

FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
- process through which the level of one substance (particularly hormones)
influences the level of another substance
- important to maintain homeostasis

POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

- Estrogen stimulates the production of GnRH and LH
- happens before ovulation

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

- Progesterone inhibits (restrain) the production of GnRH and LH
- happens after ovulation

DNA VS. RNA

NUCLEIC ACID
- a naturally occuring chemical compound that serves as the primary information
carrying molecule in cell and make up genetic material.

14
TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

NUCLEOTIDE
- is an organic molecule that is the building block of DNA and RNA
3 PARTS OF NUCLEOTIDE
1. Phosphate Group
2. Sugar
3. Nitrogenous Base
TYPES OF STRUCT SUGAR NITROGE LOCATION
NUCLEIC URE NOUS
ACID BASE
PAIRS

DNA Double- Deoxyri Adenine Nucleus

Stranded bose - and
Deoxyge Thymine,
nated Cytosine
and
Guanine

RNA Single- Ribose Adenine Can go

Stranded and Uracil, inside the
Cytosine nucleus,
and but stays in
Guanine the
cytoplasm

—------------------------------------------------------------------------
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
DNA
- molecule made up of two strands twisted around each other in a double helix
shape.
- director for cells and it codes for your traits.
- each strand is made up of a sequence of four chemical bases:
● ADENINE (A)
● THYMINE (T)
● GUANINE (G)
● CYTOSINE (C)
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
- process of making proteins
PROTEINS
- are the 'executor of cell life activities
- composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
PEPTIDE

15
 - short amino acid chains
AMINO ACIDS
- Building blocks of proteins
3 TYPES OF RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- carries genetic codes from DNA (nucleus) to ribosomes
- transcribes the DNA nucleotide bases to RNA nucleotide bases
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- 80% of total RNA in the body, found in ribosomes
- binds the mRNA and tRNA to ensure that codons are translated correctly
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- translates the mRNA codons into the correct amino acids
- Transfer amino acids during protein synthesis

DNA REPLICATION
- Two identical DNA molecules are produced
- Process is semi-conservative (One old strand and One new strand)
- ENZYMES - molecules that speed up the rate of chemical reaction
- starts at a certain part called ORIGIN
WHERE?
- Nucleus (however not all cells have a nucleus - prokaryotic cells)
WHEN?
- before it divides so that the new daughter cell can also get a copy of DNA
EUKARYOTIC CELL - before mitosis or meiosis in a time known as interphase.

SSB PROTEINS (Single Stranded Binding Proteins)

- binds to the strands to keep them reported

STEPS:
1. 1st Step
- separate two strands
- enzyme helicase, making replication fork
- The separated strands each provide a template for creating a new strand
of DNA.

2. 2nd Step
- enzyme primase starts the process
- makes a small piece of RNA called a primer
- PRIMER - marks the starting point for the construction of the new strand of
DNA
3. 3rd Step
- enzyme DNA polymerase binds to the primer, and will make new strand of
DNA
- can only add DNA bases in one direction, from 5' end to the 3' end

16
 - LEADING STRAND (TOP) - one of the new strands of DNA, is made
continuously
- DNA polymerase adding bases one by one in the 5' end to 3' end
direction.
- LAGGING STRAND (BOTTOM) - runs opposite direction
- Therefore, DNA polymerase can only make this strand in a series
of small chunks called Okazaki fragments.
4. 4th Step
- Once new DNA has been made, enzyme exonuclease removes all the
RNA primers from both strands of DNA. Another DNA polymerase enzyme
then fills in the gaps that are left behind with DNA. Finally, the enzyme
DNA ligase seals up the fragments of DNA in both strands to form a
continuous double strand.

KEYPLAYERS IN DNA REPLICATION

a) HELICASE (the unzipping enzyme)
- an enzyme that unzips / separate the double helix by breaking the
hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases
- Unbinds the strands
b) PRIMASE (the initializer)
- an enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers. These
primers serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis.
c) DNA POLYMERASE (the builder)
- an enzyme that replicates DNA molecules to build a new strand
d) LIGASE (the gluer)
- an enzyme which connects two strands of DNA together.
GENE EXPRESSION
- encoded RNA is used to synthesize a protein.
- 2 PROCESSES: Transcription and Translation
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
● Transcription - happens in nucleus; where DNA is used as a template to make
messenger RNA (mRNA)
● Translation - happens in cytoplasm; the information contained in the messenger
RNA (mRNA) is used to make a polypeptide.
RNA TRANSCRIPTION
- coding region of DNA is converted to mRNA
TRANSLATION
- information in the nucleotide base sequence of mRNA is used to dictate the amino
acid sequence of a protein.
TWO STAGES OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1. TRANSCRIPTION
- Transcription occurs inside the nucleus, and it is the first step in gene
expression.
In transcription stage of protein synthesis, the DNA unzips through the

17
 help of enzymes called RNA polymerases. They combine nucleotides to
form an RNA strand (using one of the DNA strands as a template).
- is the process wherein the DNA sequence of a gene is "rewritten" using
RNA nucleotides.
2. TRANSLATION
- The second stage of protein synthesis is translation. It is where the codes
in the messenger RNA is translated to a polypeptide that contains a
specific series of amino acids. Amino acid bonds with each other to form
polypeptides which make up proteins.
- STAGES
1) INITIATION
- promoter region of the gene functions as a recognition site for
RNA polymerase to bend
- This is where the majority of gene expression is controlled, by
either permitting or blocking access to this site by the RNA
polymerase.
- binding carries the DNA double helix to unwind and open.
2) ELONGATION
- RNA polymerase slides along the template DNA strand
- As the complementary base pairs up, the RNA polymerase links
nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing RNA molecule.
- Once the RNA polymerase reaches the terminator portion of the
gene, the messenger RNA transcript is complete and RNA
polymerase, the DNA strand and the messenger RNA transcript
dissociate from each other.
- The strand of messenger RNA that is made during transcription
includes regions called exons that code for a protein, and non-
coding sections called introns.
- is the second stage in translation where the amino acid chain
gets longer. In this stage, messenger RNA reads one codon at a
time. Then, the amino acid corresponding to each codon is added
to a growing polypeptide chain.
INTRON SPLICING
- non-coding introns need to be removed and modifications such as a 5' cap and a 3'
poly-A tail are added.
- performed by a complex made up of proteins and RNA called spliceosomes.
- This complex removes the intron segments and joins the adjacent exons to produce
a mature messenger RNA strand that can leave the nucleus through a nuclear and
enter cytoplasm to begin translation

3) TERMINATION
- is the last stage of translation. It is where the finished polypeptide
is released. It starts when a stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA) is
read by the ribosome, activating a series of events that stop
translation and disassemble the subunits of the ribosomal RNA.

18
 The polypeptide produced in this stage will be processed further
before it becomes a functional protein.

MUTATIONS

MUTATIONS
- are changes made to an organism's genetic material
- changes may be due to errors in replication, errors during transcription, radiation,
viruses and many other things.
- are changes to a DNA sequence. Just like the information in DNA as a group of
sentences, mutations are mistakes in spelling of the words that form those
sentences
POINT MUTATIONS
- large category of mutations that describe a change in single nucleotide of DNA, that
causes the DNA to be different from the normal type gene sequence.
TYPES OF POINT MUTATION
a) INSERTION
- extra base pair is added to a sequence of bases
- EXAMPLE: Beta Thalassemia - blood disorder that reduces the production
of hemoglobin.
b) DELETION
- extra base pair is deleted from a sequence
- EXAMPLE: Cystic Fibrosis - hereditary disease that affects the lungs and
digestive. If a person has cystic fibrosis, the body produces thick and
sticky mucus that can clog the lungs and obstruct the pancreas.
c) SUBSTITUTION
- bases are swapped for different ones
- EXAMPLE: Sickle Cells

GENETIC DISORDERS
- caused by an abnormality in the genetic makeup of an individual
- can be caused by a chromosomal abnormality
1. CRI-DU-CHAT SYNDROME
- also known as 5p- (5p minus) syndrome, is a chromosomal condition that
results when a missing piece of chromosome 5 is missing.
- Affected individuals have distinctive facial features, including widely set
eyes (hypertelorism), low-set ears, a small jaw, and a rounded face.
2. DOWN'S SYNDROME
- Trisomy 21
- chromosomal condition that is associated with intellectual disability, a
characteristic facial appearance and weak muscle tone (hypotonia) in
infancy.
3. EDWARDS SYNDROME
- Trisomy 18

19
 - chromosomal condition associated with abnormalities in many parts of the
body. Individuals with trisomy 18 often have slow growth before birth
(intrauterine growth retardation) and a low birth weight.
4. PATAU SYNDROME
- Trisomy 13
- The extra genetic material disrupts normal development, causing multiple
and complex organ defects.
5. JACOBSEN SYNDROME
- a condition caused by a loss of genetic material from chromosome 11.
- affected individuals have delayed development, including the development
of speech and motor skills (such as sitting, standing, and walking).
6. KLINEFELTER SYNDROME
- results from the presence of one extra copy of the X chromosome in each
cell (47, XXY). Extra copies of genes on the X chromosome interfere with
male sexual development, often preventing the testes from functioning
normally and reducing the levels of testosterone.
7. TURNER SYNDROME
- results when one normal X chromosome is present in a female's cells and
the other sex chromosome is missing or structurally altered. The missing
genetic material affects development before and after birth.

ARE MUTATIONS ALWAYS BAD?

- Favorable mutations present organisms with an advantage over others and ensure
their survival. These mutations will accumulate in a population.

UNIT 3: BIODIVERSITY AND

EVOLUTION
GROUP 1: SOURCES OF EVIDENCE
of EVOLUTION

Over time, organisms inhabiting the earth have changed. Their structures, traits, and
abilities have allowed them to adapt to and survive in their environment. Data from the fossil
records, anatomy and morphology, embryonic development, and biochemistry could be
analyzed to demonstrate if evolution of life on earth has taken place.

TERMS
● FOSSILS - are the preserved remains of plants and animals whose bodies were
buried in sediments, such as sand and mud, under ancient seas, lakes, and rivers.
Fossils also include any preserved trace of life that is typically more than 10,000
years old. Fossils usually consist of traces of the remains of the organism itself.
However, fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it
was alive, such as the footprints or feces of a dinosaur or reptile.
● PALEONTOLOGY - is the study of the developing history of life on Earth, of ancient
plants and animals, based on the fossil record.

20
 ● PALEONTOLOGIST - a person who studies fossils. Fossils are examples of
evidence that paleontologists use in studying evolution. These can be the remains of
organisms, which include bones, shells, teeth, and also feces embedded in rocks,
peat, resin, and ice.
● SEDIMENTARY ROCK - is a type of rock that is formed by the accumulation or
deposition of mineral or organic particles at Earth's surface, followed by cementation.
Fossils can be commonly found in this type of rock.

EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
Evolution is not just a matter of change over time. Many things evolve such as trees
lose their leaves, mountain ranges rise and erode, but they aren't examples of biological
evolution since they don't involve genetic inheritance. The central idea of evolution is that life
on Earth shares a mutual ancestor, as you and your cousin share a common grandparent.
Through the development of change, the common ancestor of life on Earth paves way to the
fantastic diversity that we see documented in the fossil record and around us today. Evolution
means that we're all distant cousins: humans and oak trees, hummingbirds and whales.

FOSSIL RECORDS
- are traces of organisms that lived in the past and were preserved by natural
processes or catastrophic events.
- Fossils document the existence of now-extinct past species that are related to
present-day species.
- Fossils provide important evidence for evolution and the adaptation of plants and
animals to their environments.
- Fossil evidence provides a record of how creatures evolved and how this process
can be represented by a ‘tree of life’, showing that all species are related to each
other.
TYPES OF FOSSILS
1. IMPRESSION FOSSILS
- Also known as “Imprints” or fossilized impressions, are shallow external
molds left by animal or plant tissues with little or no organic materials.
- They are a form of trace fossil – a fossil that leaves evidence of an
organism's movements or activity
2. COMPRESSION FOSSILS
- are animal or plant tissues preserved in sedimentary rock and are formed
with more organic material.
- Compression fossils, such as those of fossil ferns, involve the chemical
reduction of the complex organic molecules composing the organism's
tissues. In this case, the fossil consists of original material, albeit in a
geochemically altered state.
- While it is uncommon to find animals preserved as good compression
fossils, it is very common to find plants preserved this way. The reason for
this is that physical compression of the rock often causes distortion of the
fossil. Since leaves are basically flat, the resulting distortion is minimal.
Plant stems and other three-dimensional plant structures do not preserve

21
 as well under compression. The best fossils of leaves are found preserved
in layers of sediment that had been compressed in a direction perpendicular
to the plane of the deposited sediment.

UNIT 3: BIODIVERSITY AND

EVOLUTION
GROUP 2: AGE OF FOSSILS

FOSSILS
- Fossils are the remains or marks of plants and animals that lived a very long time
ago. They are usually found in rock and stone. Fossils are important because they
tell us stories about things that lived on the Earth before us.
- Fossils are not the actual remains of the organism. They are made from the hard
parts of plants and animals, such as: bark, seed cases, bones and teeth. These parts
do not easily rot away after plants and animals die, and these take millions of years
to form.
DETERMINING THE AGE OF FOSSILS
Do you know how a paleontologist usually determines the ages of a fossil?
Paleontologists make initial estimates of the age through the positions in the sedimentary
rocks. Fossils found in the bottom layer are much older that those found in the upper layer of
rocks.

RELATIVE DATING
- It is a method used to determine the age of the rocks by comparing them with the
rocks in the other layers. The younger sedimentary rock layer is assumed to be found
on top and the older rock is found at the bottom layer. Fossils found at the bottom
layer are assumed to be older than those on the upper layer.
- The fossils of invertebrates found at the bottom part of the rock layer suggest that
invertebrates are probably one of the first and oldest organisms that lived on earth.

RADIOMETRIC DATING
- Radiometric dating calculates an age in years for geologic materials by measuring
the presence of a short-life radioactive element, e.g., carbon-14, or a long-life
radioactive element plus its decay product, e.g., potassium-14/argon-40.
- The method used to determine the age of rocks using the decay of radioactive
isotopes present in rocks. All organisms have decaying carbon-14 in it. plants and
animals that are still alive constantly replace the supply of carbon in their body and
the amount of carbon-14 in their body stays the same. When an organism dies,
carbon-14 starts to decay.

CARBON DATING
- A method used to tell the age of organic materials. Art collectors use carbon dating
to determine if a piece of artwork is genuine or not.
- Carbon dating is a process that scientists use to find out the age of a fossil. All living
things consume forms of carbon throughout their lives. A rare type of carbon called

22
 carbon-14 is radioactive, which means that it decays over time. Living things usually
absorb carbon-14 through natural carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Since every
radioactive substance decays at a specific rate, scientists can use a substance’s half-
life to find out how long it has existed.
- Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years. Scientists can estimate an age for any fossil
that has enough carbon-14 left to measure. However, carbon dating may become
more difficult as humans continue to use fossil fuels. Oil and coal put more stable
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which affects the amount of carbon-14 that living
things absorb. If a plant or an animal does not contain enough carbon-14 to measure,
then finding its age will be much harder.

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

Out of the examination of layers of rocks and dating fossils, scientists were able to
develop the geologic time scale. The geologic time scale shows the major events in the earth's
history. It also shows the appearance of various kinds of organisms in a particular period of
time on earth.

Era is the largest division of geologic time scale, namely precambrian, paleozoic,
mesozoic, and cenozoic. Each era is further divided into periods.

1. PRECAMBRIAN ERA
- The Precambrian is the earliest part of Earth's history, set before the current
Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian is so named because it preceded the
Cambrian, the first period of the Phanerozoic Eon, which is named after
Cambria, the Latinised name for Wales, where rocks from this age were first
studied.
- It occurred 4.5 billion to 541 million years ago.
- PERIODS (YOUNGEST TO OLDEST):
● HADEAN
● ARCHEAN
● PROTEROZOIC
- MAJOR EVENTS:
● The formation of Earth and observation of the oldest rocks.
● The formation of most primitive fossils.
● The generation of oxygen in the primitive atmosphere.
● The initialization of complex life.
2. PALEOZOIC ERA
- PALEOZOIC means 'ancient life'. The oldest animals on Earth appeared
just before the start of this era in the Ediacaran Period, but scientists had
not yet discovered them when the geologic time scale was made.
- It occurred 541 to 252 million years ago.
- PERIODS:
● PERMIAN
● CARBONIFEROUS
● DEVONIAN

23
 ● SILURIAN
● ORDOVICIAN
● CAMBRIAN
- MAJOR EVENTS:
● The Paleozoic Era began with the Cambrian explosion. It ended
with the Permian extinction.
● During the era, invertebrate animals diversified in the oceans.
Plants, amphibians, and reptiles also moved to the land.

3. MESOZOIC ERA
- Mesozoic Era, second of Earth's three major geologic eras of Phanerozoic
time. Its name is derived from the Greek term for “middle life.
- It occurred 252 to 66 million years ago.
- PERIODS:
● Triassic
● Jurassic
● Cretaceous
- MAJOR EVENT:
● It ended with a massive meteorite impact that caused a mass
extinction, wiping out the dinosaurs and up to 80% of life on
Earth.
4. CENOZOIC ERA
- The Cenozoic is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66
million years of Earth's history. It is characterized by the dominance of
mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and
the current configuration of continents.
- It started 66 million years ago.
- PERIODS:
● PALEOGENE
● NEOGENE
● QUATERNARY
- MAJOR EVENT:
● Cenozoic Era major events including mass extinctions, the rise of
mammals, changes in the climate, and the movement of
continents into their present positions.

UNIT 3: BIODIVERSITY AND

EVOLUTION
GROUP 1: COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
- Comparative anatomy is the study of the similarities and differences in the anatomy
of different organisms, especially among organisms that are related through
evolution. This field of study helps us understand how organisms have evolved over

24
 time and can provide insight into an organism's biology, behavior, and ecological
needs.
- Through comparative anatomy, we can see how traits and structures have evolved
in different species and use this information to make inferences about the common
ancestor of those species.

TYPES OF EVOLUTION
1. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION
- Divergent evolution occurs when different populations of the same species
split and evolve independently due to geographical separation or different
ecological adaptations. Over time, these populations become genetically
distinct and may even develop into different species. For example, cichlids
in the African Great Lakes have evolved into over 200 different species
due to divergent evolution.
a. HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE
- Homologous structures have evolved from the same ancestral
structure, meaning that they share a common developmental
origin and have a similar underlying structural architecture. For
example, the wings of a bird and the forelimbs of a mammal both
have a similar structure but have evolved to serve different
functions in each group due to different ancestral and ecological
pressures.
2. CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
- Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species develop similar
traits, functions, or morphological features in response to similar
environmental pressures or ecological niches. For example, the wings of
bats and birds have similar functions in enabling flight but have evolved
independently due to different evolutionary backgrounds.
a. ANALOGOUS STRUCTURE
- Analogous structures have evolved independently from different
ancestral structures and may have different underlying structural
architectures but have evolved to perform similar functions
across different species. For example, the wings of a bat and the
wings of a bird both allow flight, but they have evolved
independently and have different underlying structures.

HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE
VS.
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURE

BASIS OF HOMOLOGOUS ANALOGOUS

COMPARISON STRUCTURE STRUCTURE

Origin Have the same Have different

ancestor ancestors

25
 Function Modified to perform Adapted to
different functions similar functions

Example Forelimbs of Bat Wings of Birds,

and Whale Bats and
Butterflies

SUMMARY:
● Convergent evolution and divergent evolution are two types of evolutionary
processes that influence how organisms evolve over time.
● Analogous structures and homologous structures both have similar forms or
functions in different species, but there is a key difference in their evolutionary
origin.

26