Integration, regulation and

reproductive systems in the human

being
General functions of hormones
 Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate biological processes.

 They are molecules that act in minute concentrations to accelerate or inhibit the
activity of various organs.

 They are produced in internal secretion glands, called endocrine glands, and
travel through the blood until they reach the organ in which they exert their
action.

 This organ is called the "target organ", which means that it is the target of the
hormone, as if we were talking about a "bull's-eye".
Of all the endocrine glands, the most important,
sometimes called the "master gland," is the
pituitary gland, also known as the pituitary gland.
"the hypophysis, also known as the pituitary
gland, is the most important of all the endocrine
glands.

This gland is very small, about the size of a bean

and consists of two lobes: the anterior, or
adenohypophysis, and the posterior, or
neurohypophysis.
The hypothalamus has neurons with secretory
capacity and the release factors that put the
pituitary gland to work are produced there.

The hypothalamus can act in response to

environmental stimuli such as light, heat, sound,
smell, taste, touch or internal changes, whether
chemical, thermal or osmotic.
The secretory cells of the hypothalamus
also produce two hormones, oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone, which are stored in
the posterior lobe of the pituitary, called the
neurohypophysis, and from there are
secreted to their target organs.
Major glands and hormones in the body
 Gland Hormon Where it acts Function

Hypothalamus Releasing and inhibiting Anterior pituitary Regulates the secretion of

hormones hormones from the anterior
lobe of the pituitary gland.

Pituitary (anterior lobe) Thyroid stimulating hormone Thyroid  Stimulates the production
(TSH) of hormones secreted by
the thyroid gland

Adrenal cortex  Stimulates the production

Adrenocorticotropic of hormones from the
hormone (ACTH) adrenal glands

Hormone follicle stimulating Ovaries and testes  Regulates the

hormone (FSH) development of male and
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) female gametes.
Stimulates male
testosterone production.
Muscles, bones and other
Growth hormone (GH) or tissues  Stimulates growth by
somatotropin promoting protein
synthesis

Prolactin Mammary glands  Stimulates milk

production
 Gland Hormon Where it acts Function

Pituitary gland (posterior Oxytocin Uterus and mammary glands • Stimulates uterine
lobe) contractions in labor and
the secretion of milk.

Antidiuretic (ADH) or Kidneys • Stimulates water

vasopressin reabsorption and reduces
urine volume.

Thyroid Thyroxine tissues Raises metabolic rate;

essential for normal growth
and development
Ovaries Progesterone Uterus • Supplements the
preparation of the uterus
Estrogens (estradiol) Various tissues for pregnancy.

• Stimulates the growth of

sexual organs at puberty
and the development of
secondary sexual
characteristics (breast
development, pelvic
enlargement, fat
distribution).
 Gland Hormon Where it acts Function

Testicles Testosterone Various tissues Controls the development of

secondary sexual
characteristics and sexual
organs.

Stimulates sperm formation

Pineal Melatonin Hypothalamus Influences biological rhythms

and the onset of sexual
maturity
Timo Thymosin Blood cells called T During childhood stimulates
lymphocytes T-cell development and
participates in the immune
response
Endocrine System Disorders
 Hypothyroidism

 Hyperthyroidism

 Pituitary dwarfism

 Gigantism

 Diabetes Mellitus
Nervous system
 This system controls and coordinates the functions of the body, so that all the
organs work properly, in addition to favoring the survival of the organism by giving
it the capacity to respond to external and internal stimuli.

Neuron

 Neurons are highly specialized cells whose function is to capture and transmit
nerve impulses. In vertebrates these cells consist of three main parts
1. Cell body. It contains the nucleus and other organelles of the cell.

2. Dendrites. Arborescent terminals that capture the impulses that reach the
neuron.

3. Axon. A long, thin extension that carries the nerve impulse to other neurons. Its
size is variable and can be up to one meter long.

4. Myelin sheath. (produced by the Schwann cell) This sheath has a lipid
consistency and acts as if it were the rubber coating of an electrical cable. Its
function is to increase the speed at which nerve impulses travel through the cell.

 Ranvier's nodes

 Neurons are surrounded by glia cells, also known as neuroglia.

Nerve transmission: synapses and neurotransmitters
The nerve impulse is conducted by two means: electrical and chemical.

Electrical transmission of the nerve impulse

In the neuron, the electrical impulse travels through the cell from the dendrites to the
axon. The propagation of the impulse takes place through changes in the permeability
of the membrane to sodium and potassium ions, and is known as the action potential.

The minimum value that generates an action potential is known as the threshold level,
above which the neuron's response can occur.
Refractory period: When a neuron is depolarized (when performing an action
potential) it cannot respond to another stimulus.
Chemical transmission of the nerve impulse.

Between the membrane of one neuron and the membrane of another there is usually
a small space called a synapse. At this site the chemical transmission of the nerve
impulse takes place. chemical transmission of the nerve impulse
 What happens next to the
neurotransmitter that has been released
at the sinapsis?
 There are enzymes that break it down so that it separates from the dendrite
receptors and leaves them free to receive a new signal. receptors of the dendrite
and leaves them free to receive a new signal.

 The neurotransmitter molecules return to the vesicle from which they came out and
there they are prepared to be released again in case of a new stimulus.
 Neurotransmitter Effects
Acetylcholine Stimulates voluntary muscle contraction and
contributes to memory.
Noradrenaline Stimulates emotions and improves mood and
muscle coordination

Gamma butyric acid (GABA) Inhibitory transmitter that decreases neuron

activity.
Dopamine Improves muscle coordination. Its
concentration affects motivation and mood. It is
related to feelings of pleasure

Serotonin It is related to sleep. Calms the emotions

Substance P Conveys feelings of pain
Endorphins They produce a feeling of well-being and
eliminate pain. They are produced by exercise
Classification of the nervous system
 Nervous system

Peripheral Central nervous

nervous system system

Somatic Autonomic
nervous system nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system /Parasympathetic
nervous system
 Central Nervous System

The function of the central nervous system (CNS) is to receive and process
sensory information and to respond to the stimuli it receives.

This is where thoughts are generated and reality is interpreted. The CNS is made
up of the brain and the spinal cord.
 • Is located inside the skull and weighs approximately 1,500g. It comprises several organs:
Enc cerebrum, cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus and brain stem.
epha
lon

• The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum, which is the center of thought, memory,
language and consciousness. It receives sensory signals and controls motor functions. It
weighs about 1 100 g. ( cerebral cortex is the one that generates the ability to think and
Brai reason-is composed of neurons that lack myelin sheaths, so its color is gray.)
n
Gray matter.

Tissue of the nervous system containing cell bodies, dendrites, and

axons lacking myelin. It is found in the cerebral cortex and spinal cord.
 Sensory zone
•Receives information from the sensory organs

Motor zone
• Which controls voluntary movements

Association zone
• Encompassing the memory, thinking and learning centers, and connecting t
sensory and motor areas.

White matter. Tissue of the nervous system consisting of axons covered by

myelin sheaths. It is found in the brain and spinal cord.
Hypothalamus. Center that maintains the
homeostasis of the organism through the
release of hormones that it sends to the
pituitary gland. Among other functions, it
controls hunger, blood pressure, body
temperature, fat and sugar metabolism, as well
as sleep.

Cerebellum. It is responsible for coordinating

muscle movements and balance. Helps
maintain posture and muscle tone. Its shape,
when cut, resembles a cauliflower or a tree.
Brain stem. It comprises the structures
between the brain and the spinal cord. It is
formed by the midbrain, the pons and the
medulla oblongata.

The first two act as conduction systems and

as centers for some reflexes, such as those
of the pupil and other eye movements.

The medulla oblongata is involved in the

control of automatic actions of the body: it
controls breathing, heartbeat, swallowing
and the caliber of blood vessels.
Limbic system

It is an area of the hindbrain surrounding

the medulla oblongata. Its function is
related to emotional aspects of behavior,
sexual behavior, motivation and
biological rhythms.

This system includes the amygdala, the

hippocampus, parts of the pre-frontal
cortex and areas in the thalamus and
hypothalamus.

It influences the endocrine system and

the autonomic nervous system.

The amygdala is the main center of

emotions.
Peripheral nervous system
 Is formed by the nerves that connect
the spinal cord and the brain with the
arms and legs, and in general with all
parts of the body, including the internal
organs.

It consists of many ganglia, 31 pairs of

spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial
nerves.

This system is formed by motor and

sensory neurons.
 Autonomic nervous system
• . Regulates the body's
internal environment, i.e.,
Somatic system. maintains the body's
homeostasis through
• Helps the organism to
changes in heart rate or
adapt to the external digestive activity, as well
environment. as through reactions of
• It comprises the cranial various internal organs.
nerves, which are related
to the different sensations
(sight, hearing, smell,
touch and taste), and to
motor responses such as
the voluntary movement
of the eyes, the muscles
of the face, tongue or
shoulder.
 Sympathetic nervous system:
which acts in situations of alarm or stress

Parasympathetic nervous system:

which acts when there is no danger and is in a normal situation.
.

-
Addictions and their effects on the
nervous system
Drugs, by acting on the cerebral cortex, alter the ability to think and make decisions,
but also affect the limbic system, which is in charge of emotions, and the brain stem,
which controls basic functions such as breathing, heartbeat and sleep.
 Effect Name Physiological and psychological effects

Stimulants
Nicotine It is found in tobacco. It binds to receptors of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and
increases alertness. It is highly addictive and
smoking increases the risk of cancer,
emphysema and cardiovascular problems.
Amphetamines Stimulate the synthesis of excitatory
transmitters (serotonin). They produce
impaired judgment, euphoria and stimulation.
They also accelerate heart rate and increase
blood pressure.

Methamphetamines (crystal) Most powerful form of amphetamine that is

produced in the form of crystals, acts directly
on the brain and is highly addictive and
harmful.
Cocaine It reduces the absorption of neurotransmitters
(dopamine) in nerve terminals. Produces
euphoria, alertness and addiction, but in high
doses causes convulsions and death by
overdose.
 Effect Name Physiological and psychological effects

Narcotics Opium, morphine and heroin They act as central nervous system
depressants, i.e., they induce muscle
relaxation. In excessive doses they cause
death
Depressants Barbiturates They interfere with the synthesis of
neurotransmitters (serotonin and
noradrenaline). Produce sleepiness and
impaired judgment
Tranquilizers Bind to GABA receptors, induce skeletal
muscle relaxation. Produce drowsiness
Alcohol It acts on the cerebral cortex (executive
functions), the hippocampus (memory and
learning) and the cerebellum (coordination of
movements). Damages the brain and other
organs
Hallucinogens Marijuana Alters short-term memory, ability to
concentrate and coordination. Increases
heart rate and may increase the risk of
psychosis in vulnerable people.
Ecstasy (MDMA) Stimulation, sensation of pleasure, elevates
heart rate, may cause panic attacks and
seizures, as well as cognitive impairment..
Lysergic acid (LSD) Overexcitation, dilates pupils, increased heart
rate, psychosis
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 The sex cell-producing organs
are the testicles

 The bag that holds them is the

scrotum, which is responsible for
moving them closer to or further
away from the body according to
the ambient temperature
conditions.
Spermatozoa are the smallest cells in the
human organism.

They consist of only a nucleus and a collar

of mitochondria that provides them with the
energy to move their flagellum and reach
their destination.

The quantity produced averages 30 to 150

million spermatozoa per mL of semen.
Spermatozoa, produced in the testes by
processes of spermatogenesis, travel
through the seminiferous tubes to the
epididymis, where their maturation is
completed and they are stored.

From there they pass into the abdominal

cavity through the vas deferens.
The seminal vesicles discharge a secretion rich in fructose and other nutrients into the
vas deferens.

The prostate produces an alkaline secretion that counteracts the acidity of the vagina.

An alkaline secretion is produced in the prostate that counteracts the acidity of the
vagina.

The penis has in the terminal part a widened area called glans penis, covered by a layer
of skin called foreskin.
The penis has in its interior a spongy body
and two cavernous bodies, which, when
filled with blood, produce erection and the
subsequent ejaculation of semen into the
vagina.

During sexual arousal, the bulbourethral or

Cowper's glands release a mucous
lubricating secretion that facilitates the
movement of sperm into the urethra and
aids penetration of the penis into the
vagina.
In the female, eggs grow and develop inside the
ovaries.

They produce estrogens and progesterone,

hormones that are very important in the
reproductive process.

Ovogenesis (egg production) begins before birth,

so when a girl is born

Each month, an egg, which is enveloped in a

follicle, matures and is released from the ovary. The
release of an egg is called ovulation.

The released egg is in the abdominal cavity, but is

quickly carried by cilia or fimbriae of the fallopian
tubes.

The uterus has an inner layer of highly vascularized

tissue called the endometrium. endometrium.
In the uterus there is also an outer muscular
layer called the myometrium that contracts
during labor to expel the baby.

The cervix is the cervix, which connects the

uterus to the vagina.

The vagina has a dual function: it acts as an

entryway that receives the penis and the
semen it deposits, and as a birth canal at the
time of birth.

The external genital organs of the female are

collectively known as the vulva, which
comprises the labia majora, labia minora,
clitoris and Bartholin's glands.
Menstrual cycle
 Menstruation consists of the loss of a small amount of blood as a result of the
shedding of the endometrium, which is a tissue that forms to receive the fertilized egg.

 If fertilization does not occur, the endometrium detaches and causes bleeding.

 The cycle is initiated by the action of hormones from the pituitary gland: LH (luteinizing
hormone) and FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), which interact with the ovaries in the
production of estrogen and progesterone, resulting in the formation of the
endometrium, follicle maturation and egg release.
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
 Once fertilization has taken place, embryonic development begins.

 Through the process of segmentation, the zygote divides first into two cells, then
into four, and so on, until it forms a mass of cells called a morula.

 Afterwards, it undergoes some changes in its shape and the differentiation of the
cells begins according to the functions they are going to perform, and the blastocyst
is formed.
The placenta is the organ that nourishes the embryo throughout its development. It
is a disc of spongy material tightly attached to the inner wall of the uterus.

The placenta carries out all the exchanges between the woman and the fetus: it
receives the woman's blood, filters it and passes it to the umbilical cord, which
sends the nutrients to the fetus and the fetus's waste to the placenta.

The fetus is enveloped in a fluid-filled sac, known as the amniotic sac, which
protects it from sudden movements and possible infections.
When the fetus reaches term, approximately 270 days after fertilization, labor or birth occurs.
fertilization, labor or birth occurs. It consists of three stages: dilation, expulsion and delivery.

The first stage

can last up to 24 hours. During this stage, the first contractions occur and the cervix
opens to a maximum of 10 cm.

The second stage

•is usually rapid and is the moment of birth as such.

The last stage

•consists of the expulsion of the placenta and the membranes enveloping the fetus.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
DISEASES
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are caused by viruses, bacteria or protists.

Human papillomavirus

(HPV) is highly contagious and can be present in people who have already begun
sexual activity without having experienced symptoms.

It sometimes causes warts on the vulva or cervix in women and on the penis, scrotum
or groin in men.
 HSV-2

 Genital herpes is an STD caused by two types of viruses – herpes simplex virus
type 1 (HSV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2).

 The blisters break and leave painful sores that may take a week or more to heal.
Flu-like symptoms (e.g., fever, body aches, or swollen glands) also may occur
during the first outbreak.

 People who experience an initial outbreak of herpes can have repeated

outbreaks, especially if they have HSV-2.
 HIV

 This virus weakens the immune system and increases susceptibility to various
infections, some serious, which in most cases lead to death.

 When a person becomes infected with this virus, symptoms are usually very mild
or none at all.

 The infected person can infect others without knowing it until years later when the
disease manifests itself.

 HIV is transmitted through unprotected sex, contaminated blood and needles, and
from mother to newborn.
 Gonorrhea

 Is caused by a bacterium (Neisseria gonorrhoeae) that is sexually transmitted.

 The bacterium penetrates the membranes lining the urethra, anus, cervix, uterus
and fallopian tubes.

 Men who become infected experience painful urination and pus discharge from the
penis and in women there is vaginal discharge, and scar tissue accumulation may
occur in the tubes, leading to infertility.

 Damage can reach the cardiac (heart) valves and the meninges, which are the
membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.
 Syphilis

Is caused by a bacterium( Treponema pallidum) that penetrates the mucous

membranes of the genitals or mouth through a small lesion in the skin.

It begins with the formation of a small ulcer called a primary chancre at the site of
infection, followed by generalized itching and flu-like symptoms and may produce very
infectious scaly lesions.

Subsequently, the bacterium enters a latent state that can last up to 20 years and
finally lesions are produced in the liver, brain, spleen, kidneys, etc., sometimes with
fatal results.

The disease can be transmitted to the embryo during pregnancy and cause severe
damage to the child's skin, bones, liver and central nervous system.
 Chlamydia

 Is a common sexually transmitted disease (STD).

 It is caused by bacteria called Chlamydia trachomatis. Anyone can get chlamydia. It

often doesn't cause symptoms, so people may not know that they have it.

 Antibiotics can cure it. But if it's not treated, chlamydia can cause serious health
problem

 You can get chlamydia during oral, vaginal, or anal sex with someone who has
chlamydia. A pregnant person can also pass chlamydia to the baby during childbirth.
 Trichomonas

 is caused by a protozoan (Trichomonas vaginalis) that can affect the urinary

tract and genitals of men and women.

 Symptoms include itching, burning sensation, and sometimes discharge from the
penis or vagina.

 Prolonged infections can cause sterility.

PREGNANCY PREVENTION METHODS
For a couple beginning their sexual life, it is important to consider that there is a
possibility of pregnancy.
classification method description and mode of annual pregnancy rate
action

Oral contraceptives The pills contain estrogen 0.3 a 8%

and/or progesterone and
inhibit ovulation. They are
taken daily

Hormonal contraceptives Injectable contraceptives Injection of synthetic 0.3 a 8%

progesterone that blocks
ovulation. Administered
every three months
Contraceptive patch 0.3 a 8%
Skin patch containing
synthetic estrogen and
progesterone. Renewed
weekly.
classification method description and mode of annual pregnancy rate
action

Male condom Latex sheath that 2 a 15%

mechanically prevents
sperm from penetrating the
vagina

Female condom Polyurethane sac to be 5 a 21%

Mechanical barrier inserted into the vagina
before copulation

Diaphragm Reusable rubber barrier to 6 a 14%

be placed at the entrance of
the uterus just before
copulation.
classification method description and mode of annual pregnancy rate
action

Chemical barrier Eggs, foams and spermicidal They contain substances that 18 a 29%
gels chemically kill sperm. They
can be used in combination
with mechanical barriers to
increase their effectiveness.

Solomon E., Berg L. y Martín D. Biología. México: Cengage Learning, 2013. Audesirk T., Audesirk G. y Byers, B.
Biología. México: Pearson, 2017.
ASSISTED REPRODUCTION
 Assisted fertilization techniques. The most common procedure, which was
developed first, consists of administering substances that stimulate ovulation.

Artificial insemination. In this case, the partner's semen is injected directly into the
cervix or into the uterus through a catheter.

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF). which consists of extracting some eggs from the mother
and fertilizing them in the laboratory with sperm from the couple or from a donor.