ISSN 1519-6984 (Print)

ISSN 1678-4375 (Online)

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON NEOTROPICAL BIOLOGY

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY AND ENVIRONMENT

Original Article

Antimicrobial finishing of textiles using nanomaterials

Acabamento antimicrobiano de têxteis a partir da utilização de nanomateriais

U. Abdul-Reda Husseina, Z. H. Mahmoudb, K. M. Abd Alazizc, M. L. Alidd, Y. Yasine, F. K. Alib, A. N. Faisalf,

A. N. Abdb and E. Kianfarg,h* 
a
University of Al-Ameed, College of Pharmacy, Karbala, Iraq
b
University of Diyala, College of Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Diyala, Iraq
c
Al-Noor University College, Department of Pharmacy, Nineveh, Iraq
d
Al-Mustaqbal University College, Department of Dentistry, Babylon, Iraq
e
Al-Farahidi University, College of Medical Technology, Baghdad, Iraq
Mazaya University College, Department of Medical Technology, Dhi-Qar, Iraq
f

g
Islamic Azad University, Department of Chemical Engineering, Arak Branch, Arak, Iran
h
Islamic Azad University, Young Researchers and Elite Club, Gachsaran Branch, Gachsaran, Iran

Abstract
Metals, such as copper and silver, can be extremely toxic to bacteria at exceptionally low concentrations. Because
of this biocidal activity, metals have been widely used as antimicrobial agents in a multitude of applications
related with agriculture, healthcare, and the industry in general. A large number of microorganisms live in the
human environment. if the balance of these creatures in nature is disturbed, the health of the individual and
society will be threatened due to the production and emission of unpleasant odors and the reduction of health
standards. The presence of microorganisms on textiles can cause adverse effects such as discoloration or staining
on textiles, decomposition of fibrous materials, reduced strength, and eventually decay of textiles. Most fibers and
polymers do not show resistance to the effects of microbes and by providing growth factors for microorganisms
such as the right temperature and humidity, nutrients from sweat and fat from skin glands, dead skin cells as well
as materials used in the stage of finishing the textiles causes the rapid growth and spread of various microbes.
With the advent of nanotechnology, various industries and human daily life underwent changes. In recent years,
increasing research on nanoparticles has led to the production of textiles with greater efficiency and added
value. These modified textiles prevent the spread of unpleasant odors, the spread, and transmission of diseases.
This article reviews the basics and principles of antimicrobial tetiles, as well as a brief overview of antimicrobial
materials and nanostructures with antimicrobial properties.
Keywords: nanomaterials, antimicrobial, textiles, nanostructures, nanoparticles.

Resumo
Metais como cobre e prata podem ser extremamente tóxicos para bactérias em concentrações excepcionalmente
baixas. Devido a esta atividade biocida, os metais têm sido amplamente utilizados como agentes antimicrobianos
em uma infinidade de aplicações relacionadas à agricultura, saúde e indústria em geral. Muitos microrganismos
vivem no ambiente humano e, se o equilíbrio dessas criaturas na natureza for alterado, a saúde dos indivíduos e
da sociedade estará ameaçada devido à produção e emissão de odores desagradáveis e à redução dos padrões de
saúde. A presença de microrganismos em têxteis pode causar efeitos adversos, como descoloração ou manchas,
decomposição de materiais fibrosos, resistência reduzida e, eventualmente, deterioração. A maioria das fibras
e polímeros não apresenta resistência aos efeitos dos micróbios e fornecem fatores de crescimento para os
microrganismos, como temperatura e umidade adequadas, nutrientes do suor e gordura das glândulas da pele,
células mortas da pele, bem como materiais usados na etapa de acabamento causando crescimento e disseminação
de vários micróbios. Com o advento da nanotecnologia, diversas indústrias e o cotidiano humano passaram por
mudanças. Nos últimos anos, o aumento da pesquisa em nanopartículas levou à produção de têxteis com maior
eficiência e valor agregado. Esses têxteis modificados evitam a propagação de odores desagradáveis, a propagação
e a transmissão de doenças. Este artigo analisa os fundamentos e princípios dos têxteis antimicrobianos, bem
como uma breve visão geral dos materiais antimicrobianos e nanoestruturas com propriedades antimicrobianas.
Palavras-chave: nanomateriais, antimicrobianos, têxteis, nanoestruturas, nanopartículas.

*e-mail: ehsankianfar775@gmail.com; ehsan_kianfar2010@yahoo.com

Received: June 13, 2022 – Accepted: November 10, 2022
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Abdul-Reda Hussein, U. et al.

1. Introduction 2005; Rai et al., 2009). These microorganisms weigh about

25 times the weight of all animals and in their environment
Non-essential metals, such as silver, can be toxic to
play an effective role in fermentation, production of
bacteria, having biocidal activities at exceptionally low
metabolic compounds, preparation of chemicals (lactic
concentrations, while essential metals, such as copper, can
acid and citric acid), finishing off the cycle of returning
also be lethal above some threshold despite their relevance
materials to nature, and adverse effects such as spoilage
in the biochemistry of organisms (Lemire et al., 2013).
(Geoprincy et al., 2011; Jia et al., 2012; Ramyadevi et al.,
Because of this biocidal activity, metals have been widely
2012). Foods, material degradation, commodity decay, and
used for centuries as antimicrobial agents in agriculture,
various diseases occur (Shinde et al., 2013; Paladini et al.,
healthcare, and industry in general. Metal, oxide, or salt
2014; Sundaresan et al., 2011; Al-Obaidi et al., 2023;
compounds based on copper and silver are among the
Kumar et al., 2013). Since textiles, in addition to providing
most widely applied antimicrobial agents in this context
(Gunawan et al., 2011). a suitable environment for the growth and multiplication
A large number of microorganisms live in the human of microbes, can cause the transmission and spread of
environment. If the balance of these creatures in nature is various diseases, therefore, research has been conducted to
disturbed, the health of the individual and society will be produce antimicrobial fibers and textiles with the following
threatened due to the production and emission of unpleasant objectives (Salimi et al., 2017a, b; Pirouzfar et al., 2014):
odors and the reduction of health standards (Lemire et al., • Prevent the adverse effects of microorganisms on
2013; Gunawan et al., 2011; Damm et al., 2008; Bokov et al., the functional properties of textiles
2022; Zhang et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2013). The presence Some fibers, especially cellulose fibers, are biodegraded
of microorganisms on textiles can cause adverse effects such by microbes. This action of microbes can change the
as discoloration or staining on textiles, decomposition of color and reduce the mechanical properties (abrasion
fibrous materials, reduced strength, and eventually decay of and tensile strength) of the fibers and cause the fabric
textiles (Giglio et al., 2013; Appendini and Hotchkiss, 2002; to rot. Microorganisms can also reduce the viscosity
Jasim et al., 2023; Prabhu and Poulose, 2012; Sintubin et al., and degrade materials used in various textile processes
2009; Ruparelia et al., 2008). Most fibers and polymers (Kianfar et al., 2017).
do not show resistance to the effects of microbes and by • Prevent unpleasant odors
providing growth factors for microorganisms such as the right Microbes need the right nutrients, moisture, and
temperature and humidity, nutrients from sweat and fat from temperature to grow and multiply. Sweat and dead skin
skin glands, dead skin cells as well as materials used in the cells, moisture, and body temperature provide a good
stage of finishing the textiles causes the rapid growth and breeding ground for germs in textiles (Kianfar et al., 2018a, b
spread of various microbes (Karlsson et al., 2013; Xia et al., 2019a, b). Under these conditions, microorganisms produce
2006; Sondi and Salopek-SoNdi, 2004; Muñoz-Bonilla and volatile substances with unpleasant odors, including
Fernández-García, 2012). Therefore, due to the prevalence of fatty acids (acetic, propionic, butyric, valerian, caproic),
diseases and unwanted damage caused by microorganisms, methylamines, ammonia, aldehydes, sulfides, mercaptans,
much effort has been made to control the effects of these lactones, and aromatic compounds (Kianfar et al., 2018a,
organisms (Thomas et al., 2007; Ghasemzadeh and Ghanaat, 2019a, 2020b; Liu and Kianfar, 2021). In order to reduce
2014; Ren et al., 2009; Weickmann et al., 2005; Raya et al., the unpleasant odor caused by the presence of microbes
2022b; Fouda et al., 2013). In addition to providing a suitable on the textiles, methods such as clogging the pores of the
environment for the growth of microbes, textiles can cause skin, using micro and Nano capsules, converting odorous
the transmission of various diseases in health care centers, compounds into odorless compounds, and reducing the
so the use of antimicrobial textiles in these centers can volatility of unpleasant-smelling substances (Kianfar et al.,
prevent the spread of drug-resistant diseases and also 2018a, b). The use of antimicrobial compounds in the
the risk of disease in employees Reduce these centers and production or finishing of textiles is one of the most effective
the general public (Anita et al., 2014; Kasthuri et al., 2013; methods to eliminate unpleasant odors (Damm et al., 2008).
Liu et al., 2013; Viegi et al., 2003). on the other hand, the
use of chemicals with antimicrobial properties in textile 2.1. Cell structure of microorganisms
finishing has many disadvantages due to its toxicity and
The bacterial cell is made of a hard wall in which there
environmental problems (Yang et al., 2012; Dimapilis et al.,
is a flagellum or lashes that move
2018; Warheit et al., 2007; Tian et al., 2007). The use of
covers the cell and contains the material inside the
nanoparticles, especially metal and mineral nanoparticles,
cell (Kianfar et al., 2020a). Bacteria are divided into gram-
has provided a new arena in the finishing of antimicrobial
positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria in terms of
textiles (Lemire et al., 2013).
cell walls. Gram-positive bacteria have a relatively thick
wall, consisting of a large number of peptidoglycan layers
and only one plasma membrane; Gram-negative bacteria,
2. Principles of Antimicrobial Modification of
on the other hand, have a thinner layer of peptidoglycans
Textiles
than a more complex cell wall with two cell membranes
Microorganisms include fungi, bacteria, viruses, algae, (Mousavian et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020). Therefore, gram-
spores, etc., which are often expressed as microbes and are negative bacteria are more resistant to many chemical
found in the environment (Wijnhoven et al., 2009; Sun et al., agents than gram-positive bacteria.

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 Antimicrobial finishing of textiles using nanomaterials

2.2. Living conditions of microorganisms • Non-toxicity for the consumer of goods and the
The best way to prevent and minimize microbial damage environment.
is to disrupt the growth and reproduction conditions of • Possibility of selective effect on a wide range of bacteria
these organisms (Gao et al., 2021). Due to their close contact and lack of effect on skin flora (effective skin bacteria)
with the body, clothing provides the best environment for and lack of compatibility against microorganisms.
the growth and multiplication of fungi, bacteria, and yeasts • Availability and fast performance.
(Kianfar, 2020a, b). The following are suitable conditions • Lack of effective color and smell on the fabric.
for the growth of microorganisms: At present, ideal materials with all the mentioned
• Nutrients properties are not known and often different antimicrobial
Dust, fat and food stains, dead skin cells, body substances are used depending on the type and final use
perspiration, fat from skin glands, and some natural of the product (Farshad et al., 2015b; Kianfar, 2019b).
substances used in the process of completing textiles
can provide the necessary conditions to feed microbes. 2.5. antimicrobial material affect microorganisms
• Water In general, antimicrobials with effect on the cell
All microorganisms need a thin layer of water to grow, wall, inner membrane, or cytoplasm and disrupt protein
which is the amount of moisture on the skin and textiles. synthesis, blocking nucleic acids, oxidation of SH-containing
• Oxygen groups, reaction with amino groups, accelerating the
The oxygen required by microbes is easily present in penetration of low molecular weight substances such as
their environment. potassium salts and amino acids Inside the cell, swelling and
• Heat bursting of the cell, etc. (Hajimirzaee et al., 2022; Kianfar,
Most fungi and bacteria grow at a temperature of 2021a) cause inactivation and death of germs (Figure 1).
10-20 degrees Celsius and some microbes prefer a warmer Antimicrobial compounds such as antibiotics,
environment than the skin such as clothing and sheets. formaldehyde, heavy metal ions such as silver, copper, etc.,
quaternary ammonium salt (with long hydrocarbon chains),
2.3. Common definitions and terms in antimicrobials phenols, oxidizing agents such as chlorine, chloramine,
hydrogen, ozone, etc., which are by methods Physically or
Antimicrobial modification prevents the rapid growth
chemically lead to the effect on microbes (Huang et al., 2021;
of bacteria, fungi, and algae on textiles. These antimicrobial
Kianfar, 2021b). Antibiotics have been reported to inactivate
textiles are not germ-free or sterile, but they can prevent
bacteria by inactivating cellular enzymes. Quaternary
the growth of microorganisms or kill them by using one
ammonium salts and phenol compounds damage cells and
or more active ingredients.
slow down bacterial activity by affecting the membrane
Antimicrobials are divided into two main categories:
properties of microorganisms (Kianfar, 2021a; Syah et al.,
• Biostatic or bactericidal inhibitory substances:
2021; Isola et al., 2022). Oxidizing compounds can rapidly
These substances bind to DNA chain amino acids in
inactivate microorganisms through chemical reactions with
bacteria and prevent DNA replication and thus bacterial
some vital agents, but most of these compounds are toxic and
proliferation and thus keep the cause constant. The
allergenic. Oxidizing agents, including aldehydes, halogens,
number of bacteria increases.
and peroxide compounds, act on the cell membranes of
• Bactericidal or bactericidal substances: These
microorganisms and, when they enter the cytoplasm, on
substances cause bacterial death by disrupting the
enzymes within the cell. Radical compounds such as halogens
metabolism of the bacterium or stopping it completely.
are highly active due to their free electrons and react with
These substances inactivate the necessary and vital
organic structures. Chlorine-releasing agents and peroxidation
enzymes in biological reactions (Gunawan et al., 2011).
agents are effective against viruses and in some cases primates
If a substance has a negative effect on the life of
and a variety of bacteria and fungi. The antimicrobial effect
microorganisms, it is known as an antimicrobial agent.
of cationic compounds has been attributed to the reaction
The term antibacterial or antimitotic refers to substances that
of cations with anionic phospholipids in the microbial cell
limit the activity of bacteria and fungi (Gunawan et al., 2011).
wall, which increases permeability and ultimately cell death
(Kianfar, 2021b; Syah et al., 2021). The surface of cationic
2.4. Properties of a suitable antimicrobial agent activities has antibacterial properties due to the strength
In order to modify the antimicrobial of textiles, the of the strong electrostatic bond with the anionic wall of
antimicrobial agent must have suitable properties, some the bactericidal cell (Majdi et al., 2021; Bokov et al., 2021;
of which are (Kianfar and Gas, 2020; Mehran et al., 2016): Ansari et al., 2022; Chupradit et al., 2022). The formation of
• Ability to use simple in common complementary anion/cation bonds leads to the hydrophobicity of the cell wall
methods. and prevents the absorption of water (one of the vital factors
• Stability against washing, drying, and durability during of the microorganism) and ultimately the multiplication and
use. growth of bacteria. The cell wall may be physically damaged,
• Having antibacterial properties against undesirable which will kill the bacteria (Aldeen et al., 2022; Suryatna et al.,
microorganisms. 2022; Abdelbasset et al., 2022; Zaid et al., 2021). Metallic
• Ability to transfer moisture properly. compounds inhibit the activity of enzymes and disrupt cell
• Compatibility with product color and other fuel (Zaid et al., 2018; Zaid et al., 2018; Kaduim et al., 2021).
complementary materials. The antimicrobial action of these compounds lasts several

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Abdul-Reda Hussein, U. et al.

Figure 1. Different functions of antimicrobial agents (Abdelbasset et al., 2022).

minutes. Among metals, the toxicity of cadmium is more than • Mineral salts;
other metals and the antimicrobial properties of silver, brass, • Copper fatty acids or naphthalic acid;
copper, mercury, etc. are reduced, respectively. But metals • Copper oxycholate;
such as platinum, iron, and aluminum have no antimicrobial • Chlorophenols;
effect (Salahdin et al., 2022; Isola et al., 2022). • Salicylic anilides;
• Organic compounds of mercury;
• Cationic compounds.
3. Common Compounds Used to Modify
Antimicrobial Textiles 3.3. Classification of emerging antimicrobial agents
Emerging antimicrobial agents can be divided into four
3.1. Introduction of antimicrobial materials used for groups (Figure 2):
textiles
Antimicrobial active ingredients that have been used 3.3.1. Modified chemical compounds with antimicrobial
for a long time are: effect
• Minerals such as gallium, silver sulfate, silver nitrate, At least four main antimicrobial agents can be
copper sulfate, zinc sulfate, zinc nitrate; considered for this group (Fatla et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2022;
• Organic materials such as orthochlorophenol, Sallal et al., 2021; Siswanto et al., 2021)
pentachlorophenol; • Inorganic ion exchange materials: Intermediate metal
• Organic-metallic materials that have a direct bond salts such as silver and copper with mineral carriers
between carbon and metal, such as tetramethyl tin. (zeolites) used in synthetic fibers. By controlling the
The following are some examples of antimicrobials: release of silver ions by a suitable mineral carrier, the
their fourth type of hexamethylenediamine derivatives in antimicrobial properties and possible negative effects
laundry solvents for disinfection of clothing, halogenated on the fiber are controlled. This method prevents
gandinium salts such as chlorhexidine for children’s discoloration, discoloration, or reduced mechanical
clothing, hexapyrimidine for penicillin bandages, elite strength of the fibers. Mineral substrates such as zeolites,
Amine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) is used to make antibacterial titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, etc. are used for this purpose;
sanitary napkins (Lemire et al., 2013). • Mineral hydroperoxides: Manganese acetate
Chemical compounds used in antimicrobial modification tetrahydrate and hydrogen peroxide, which show
include metal and organometallic salts, iodine compounds, antimicrobial activity in most fibers, but have higher
phenols and thiophenols, ammonium type IV and other chemical stability in cotton;
cationic salts, antibiotics, heterocyclic compounds, • Ammonium salts type IV: Phosphorus polymer salts
nitro compounds, urea, and most amine-based have been reported as antimicrobial agents for cotton
structures, aldehydes (Al-Madhhachi and Smaisim, 2021; fibers. These materials have strong cationic properties
Smaisim et al., 2016; Zaid et al., 2019). and react covalently in acrylic fibers with dye site stains,
Lactic acid is a good antibacterial against Escherichia while they are not suitable for polyester and polyamide
coli due to its organic acids. fibers due to their dissolution in water. This material
is widely used in the production of home textiles with
3.2. Antifungal and antibacterial industrial materials anti-allergy and anti-asthma properties;
Antifungal and bacterial industrial materials can be • Hydroperoxy Acetate and Magnesium Dihydroperoxy:
classified as follows (Smaisim, 2017; Zaid et al., 2021): These materials have less pollution and better

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 Antimicrobial finishing of textiles using nanomaterials

Figure 2. Classification of emerging antimicrobial agents (Ahamad et al., 2022).

biocompatibility compared to mineral peroxides based 4.1. Inorganic, metal nanostructures and nanocomposites
on zinc and zirconium (Gunawan et al., 2011). These include titanium dioxide nanoparticles and
nanocomposites, silver and zinc oxide nanostructures,
3.3.2. Modified compounds to reduce, prevent microbial silicon dioxide, copper nanocrystals, aluminum, and
growth and biofilm formation iron compounds, metal oxides and hydroxides, carbon
In this method, the formation of biofilms or microbial nanotubes, and nanotubes (Smaisim et al., 2022b;
processes is reduced by changing the surface of the polymer. Abderrahmane et al., 2023; Younis et al., 2022; Xiao and
For this purpose, acrylic acid is bonded to the polyurethane Smaisim, 2022; Mourad et al., 2022).
layers by heat or plasma, thus reducing bacterial adhesion
from 5% to 1% (Alharbi et al., 2022; Hussien et al., 2018; 4.2. Loaded nanostructures in organic carriers
Zaid, 2019; Jiang et al., 2022). Therefore, by changing the This group includes microcarriers and mineral-carrying
surface energy and creating acidic factors on the surface, nanocapsules in which Inorganic nanostructures are
the connection of microbes to the surface is prevented. loaded as guests in the organic host bed. In some cases,
zeolites are used as carriers, but due to the compatibility
3.3.3. Materials used to modify the irritated surface of organic-mineral systems with polymer substrates and
through external factors surfaces and textiles, more organic carriers are used.
Intelligent materials that respond reversibly to external Polymeric substrates such as nanoparticles, nanoparticles
stimuli. Dicotetrahydroglyceride (Hydantoin) can show and microcapsules, dendrites and lipid carriers such as
intelligent antimicrobial properties by binding to cotton nanoparticles and microliposomes, and molecules such
fibers and being activated by bleach (Mozafarifard et al., as cyclodextrins are used as organic carriers of inorganic
2022; Smaisim et al., 2022a; AbdulHussein et al., 2022; nanostructures (Figure 3).
Wang et al., 2022).

3.3.4. Natural antimicrobials 5. Inorganic and Metal Nanostructures and

Research has shown that natural antimicrobial agents are Nanocomposites
a good solution for biocidal bacteria. Chitosan is a natural
antimicrobial that is obtained by deacetylating chitin (Cai et al., 5.1. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles
2022; Wu et al., 2022). It is a naturally occurring amino acid Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have been considered for
that is found in abundance. The antimicrobial properties of this their stability, safety and health, antimicrobial properties,
substance depend on its molecular weight. The antimicrobial and self-cleaning.
properties of chitosan are due to the amine group, which is
converted to ammonium salt in an acidic environment and 5.1.1. Performance of titanium dioxide against microbes
adheres to the negatively charged microbial cell membrane,
causing the cell wall to rupture and the material to escape, Atomic force microscopy (AFM) examinations showed
eventually killing the microbial cell (Tian et al., 2022a, b; that the photocatalytic degradation of TiO2 nanoparticles
Abed et al., 2022). This polycation can also bind to cell DNA in the outer layer of Escherichia coli caused the death of
and inhibit protein synthesis by the cell. the bacterium (Figure 4). Cell death of this bacterium
occurs after ultraviolet irradiation of a thin layer of
titanium dioxide nanoparticles through the destruction
of the primary cell wall and subsequent decomposition
4. Antimicrobial Inorganic Nanostructures
of the cell membrane wall (Tan et al., 2023; Mir et al.,
Antimicrobial Inorganic nanostructures can be used 2023; Ruhani et al., 2022; Li et al., 2022). Damage to cell
directly or by loading in carrier systems to modify textiles. membranes leads to the leakage of minerals, proteins, and
Nanostructures can be classified into two groups. genetics, resulting in cell death.

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Abdul-Reda Hussein, U. et al.

5.1.2. Photocatalytic performance of titanium dioxide hydroxyl radicals are more active and therefore have less
When light energy greater than or equal to the energy stability and longevity, while superoxide ions are more
required to separate an electron hits the TiO2 surface, free stable but cannot penetrate the cell membrane due to
electrons and cavities are produced, which can lead to their negative charge.
an oxidation and reduction reaction at the TiO2 surface.
This generated cavity can produce highly active OH o 5.1.3. The effect of the crystalline structure of titanium
hydroxyl radicals in the presence of H2O or OH on the dioxide on photorealistic properties
surface of TiO2. Electrons released by oxygen in the air The crystal structure of TiO2 has a significant effect
also produce superoxide ions (O2o). In this way, by side on its photocatalytic properties. So that the structure of
reactions, hydroxyl ions HO2o and H2O2 and other active anatase has stronger photocatalytic properties and wider
species produce oxygen (Abed et al., 2022; Hai et al., 2022; applications than the structure of rutile. Anatase is a
Smaisim et al., 2022a). Finally, these active species can semi-stable form of titanium dioxide at low temperatures
oxidize the organic compounds of the microorganism cell and converts to rutile as the temperature rises. In order
and lead to its death. Among the active groups produced, to increase thermal stability, the addition of silicon and
zirconium ions to the crystal structure of anatase is used.
The excitation energies of rutile and anatase are 25.3 and
75.3 electron volts, respectively.
It has been reported that the catalytic activity of
TiO2 nanoparticles is increased by the following three
methods:
• Adding metal ions;
• Mixing with other nanocrystals;
• Application of an electric field on particles: An electric
field enhances the photocatalytic properties of TiO2 by
decomposing air and water molecules into positive and
negative ions and free radicals.
Research has shown that in the finishing of cotton
textiles with titanium dioxide, due to the photocatalytic
properties of TiO2, it is possible to convert the crosslinking
acidic groups of succinic acid into active aldehyde groups
(Smaisim et al., 2022b; Brontowiyono et al., 2023; Tian et al.,
Figure 3. Antimicrobial modification of textiles using Inorganic 2022a). The aldehyde groups are produced to bind to the
nanostructures (Abed et al., 2022). hydroxyl group of cotton and bond to free radicals in

Figure 4. Atomic force microscopy (AFM)/ TiO2 (Gunawan et al., 2011).

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acid and cellulose to form a network bond. The decrease The antimicrobial properties of single-walled carbon
in tensile strength of the product has been attributed to nanotubes were first reported in 2007 against Escherichia
stress concentration due to crosslinking as well as fiber coli. Carbon nanotubes damage the cell membrane by direct
damage due to optical reduction (Gunawan et al., 2011). contact with the bacterium, killing it. The antimicrobial
properties of single-walled nanotubes have been reported
5.1.4. Titanium dioxide polymer nanocomposites to be greater than the antimicrobial effect of single-walled
Nanocomposites made from 2% by weight of titanium carbon nanotubes (Gunawan et al., 2011).
dioxide nanoparticles that were added directly to
the molten polypropylene have good mechanical and 5.3. Silver nanoparticles
antimicrobial properties and also have a higher flowability Silver nanoparticles have been prepared by various
than pure polypropylene. Increased conductivity has been methods such as electrochemical reduction, photocatalytic
reported due to the degradation of polymer chains by reduction, ultrasound reduction, biochemical reduction, and
oxidizing TiO2 nanoparticles. biological reduction by microorganisms including bacteria
and fungi (Lemire et al., 2013). In the present study, the
5.1.5. Titanium dioxide nanocomposites antibacterial properties of silver nanoparticles in various
The synthesis of various titanium dioxide nanocomposites fields of pharmaceutical, medical, textile, sanitary ceramics,
with the addition of metals such as silver, gold, and water treatment, color, agriculture, animal husbandry,
platinum may improve the photocatalytic activity of TiO2. and polymer composites for industrial applications and
The addition of some metals to semiconductors due to the household water filters were studied. The re-emergence
reduction of semiconductor energy distances can affect of MDR microbes is facilitated by drug and/or antibiotic
the photocatalytic properties by changing the reaction resistance, which is the acquired way of microbes for their
products or increasing the reaction rate. It has also been survival and multiplication in uncomfortable environments.
reported that metal nanoparticles are more stable in the Therefore, development, modification, or searching the
TiO2 substrate. This stability has been attributed to the antimicrobial compounds having bactericidal potential
formation of surface bonds between oxygen TiO2 and against MDR bacteria is a priority area of research. One of
metal nanoparticles. the areas of application of Nanobiotechnology use of silver
The core-shell nanocomposite is made of carbon nanoparticles in the treatment of microbial infections is
nanotubes and titanium dioxide by activating carbon for a new strategy. Microbial properties of silver have
nanotubes and then coating them by sol-gel process. been known since ancient times in the form of various
This nanocomposite has many photocatalytic properties, compounds used to treat bacterial infections. But recently
which is due to the very high specific surface area for due to its construction as nanoparticles, surface-enhanced
photocatalytic reactions and the very common surface antimicrobial activity of over 99%. Silver nanoparticles new
area for trapping electrons. Although graphite layers
hope for the treatment of human pathogenic bacteria that
are ideally inactive and neutral, the presence of some
have developed resistance to antibiotics.
structural defects in carbon nanotubes allows them to
be functionalized for chemical reaction with titanium
5.4. Mechanism of action of silver nanoparticles against
dioxide in the sol-gel process (Smaisim et al., 2022a, b;
microorganisms
Sharba et al., 2022).
Silver has a strong antimicrobial effect against certain
5.2. Carbon nanotubes species of microorganisms and acts selectively, so it has
little toxic effect against other microorganisms. Different
Carbon nanotubes are composed of tubular graphite
mechanisms have been reported for the antimicrobial
plates with carbon hexagonal structures that are available
action of silver. The three main mechanisms that are
in single and multi-walled types with different structures.
most cited are:
Different types of functionalized carbon nanotubes with
the aim of improving compatibility with polymer and • Destruction of the cell membrane of the microorganism.
fiber substrates, reactivity, adsorption power Different • Reacting with SH groups on enzymes and disrupting
chemicals and ... have been developed. The presence of cell metabolism.
carbon nanotubes in polymer and fibrous composites has • Production of reactive oxygen species.
been considered by researchers due to their properties such Silver possibly causes the microbial cell membrane
as good conductivity, dye absorption, increase in hardness to interact, ultimately stopping the cell from absorbing
and resistance, deceleration properties, UV protection phosphate, and it can also react with the negative charge
properties, and antimicrobial properties. However, their on the microbial surface or with enzymes and bind to the
use on an industrial scale is limited due to their serious -SH groups. Silver ions are involved in the electron transfer
safety and health risks. The toxicity and carcinogenicity process of a chain. These compounds are generally effective
of carbon nanotubes have been confirmed in various in against bacteria and have less effect on yeasts and molds
vivo and in vitro tests. Semiconductor carbon nanotubes (Gunawan et al., 2011). Research has shown that the size of
with a bandgap energy of 0 to 5 EV have photocatalytic nanoparticles has a significant effect on the antimicrobial
properties similar to titanium dioxide nanoparticles properties of silver. In a study examining the sensitivity
and electron pairs and holes are formed on its surface of rabbit skin cells to silver nanoparticles, these particles
(Doss et al., 2022) are not harmful, and also smaller particles show more

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Abdul-Reda Hussein, U. et al.

compatibility with the skin. As you know, many medical properties as soon as they are absorbed by light, and for
antimicrobials are not able to kill bacterial biofilms. this reason, they are used for antimicrobial modification
of textiles and their antimicrobial properties increase due
5.4.1. Silver nanocomposite fibers to radiation (Figure 5).
Silver nanoparticles are one of the most suitable
nanoparticles for use in the process of spinning man- 5.5. Copper nanoparticles
made fibers due to their high thermal resistance. Copper nanoparticles have also been considered for
In research, organic/inorganic nanocomposite fibers their conductivity and antimicrobial properties. However,
were designed with two parts of core-shell made of they have weaker antimicrobial properties than silver. In a
pure polypropylene and a nanocomposite of Nanosilver study comparing the antimicrobial properties of three
with different percentages of pure polypropylene for different samples of activated carbon fibers with silver,
stable antimicrobial properties (Hussein et al., 2021; copper, and their combinations, the researchers found that
Bahadoran et al., 2022). The fibers containing silver copper-activated fibers showed the lowest antimicrobial
particles in the core part have no antimicrobial activity, properties, even when consumed many times more than
while the fibers containing silver particles in the shell silver (Gunawan et al., 2011).
part, even with a very low percentage of silver, have
shown excellent antibacterial properties. 5.6. Zinc/copper oxide composite
Zinc oxide nanoparticles are less excited by visible
5.4.2. Silver / SiO2 nanocomposite
light due to the high gap band. Thus, in the last decade,
The use of silver nanoparticles coated on metal oxides carbon / nitrogen-mixed ZnO has been increasingly
and semiconductors is one of the valuable solutions to proposed due to its better photocatalytic activity under
increase the effective level of silver by consuming less of it. visible light. Also, ZnO nanomaterials doped with Fe2O3,
In addition, electronic exchanges can lead to augmentation
WO3, CdS, Cu2O, CuO create a narrower gap band, so it
and increase functional properties. Bonding of this
shows better photocatalytic properties with visible light.
nanocomposite on the surface of wool fibers has led to
CuO / ZnO-functionalized membranes under visible light
significant antimicrobial properties (Gunawan et al., 2011).
show better photocatalytic and antimicrobial activity than
pure ZnO membranes.
5.4.3. Zinc oxide nanoparticles
Zinc oxide, like semiconductor titanium dioxide, has 5.7. Clay nanofilms
similar photocatalytic properties; The difference is that
Clay is a generic name for the family of laminated
the difference in excitation energy levels of titanium
aluminosilicates. The use of this substance in
dioxide ev3.2 and zinc oxide ev3.37 is estimated. Among
pharmaceutical applications has been started in 2002.
semiconductor metal oxides, only titanium dioxide and zinc
Clay was used as an ointment on the coated infection
oxide are stable in the excited state. When an ultraviolet
and a greater rate of healing was observed for clay-
metal oxide is excited with energy equal to or greater than
coated wounds. These observations may be due to the
the particle gap band, the formation of an electron-hole pair
reduces the probability of electron transfer to the valence antimicrobial properties of clay. Of course, the mechanism
band, resulting in rearrangement of the electron and the of action and bactericidal action of this substance are
empty orbital. This causes stability in the aroused state. still not completely clear. Studies have shown that in
These nanoparticles are non-toxic and have significant addition to the physical absorption of toxins, mineral
antimicrobial properties in the absence of light and in clay can kill some bacteria and viruses, possibly through
neutral conditions. Zinc oxide nanoparticles are superior specific chemical reactions, and reduce bacterial colonies.
to silver nanoparticles in terms of price, whiteness, Research suggests that some types of artificial clay soils
and UV protection. These particles show photocatalytic can have antimicrobial properties similar to metals
(Lemire et al., 2013).
In the preparation of antimicrobial composites from
clay, the amount required for this material to achieve the
desired functional properties is significantly higher than
nanostructures such as silver. In a study, silver nanolayers
containing silver were prepared by the ion-exchange
process by calcination and mechanical operation. Silver-
modified clay nanotubes showed good antimicrobial
properties against Escherichia coli (Gunawan et al., 2011).
Alternatively, the polymer nanocomposite was produced in
a silver-chitosan, silver-chitosan-clay and then the silver-
chitosan-clay-stepwise method in polydimethylsiloxane
with excellent antimicrobial properties and drug release
capability for medical use. The antimicrobial properties of
this composite were improved compared to silver nitrate
Figure 5. Antimicrobial properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles. as well as chitosan.

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