In terms of bonding, reference is often made to the noble gases, elements form ions with noble gas configurations.

Elements that do not form ins in their compounds may obtain an electronic structure similar to noble gases by sharing
electrons with other atoms.

In 1916, Kossel and Lewis realised that all the noble gases, except helium, had an outer shell containing eight
electrons. They suggested that this arrangement was responsible for the stability and inertness of noble gases.

“Thus, when elements form compounds, they either lose, gain or share electrons so as to achieve stable (low-energy)
electron configurations similar to the next higher of lower noble gas in the periodic table.”

Since Kossel and Lewis put forward their ideas in 1916, the noble gases have been shown to be more reactive than
expected and we now know of many compounds in which the elements do not have a noble gas structure, transition
metal ions or many covalently bonded compounds.

Nevertheless, the ideas suggested by Kossel and Lewis still form the basis of modern theories of bonding. These
theories help explain the formulas and structures of most compounds and the forces holding atoms and ions together.

Ionic Bonding
Ionic Bonding occurs between the ions of metals and non-metals. Metal and non-metals atoms have incomplete outer
electron shells, in order for atoms to gain a full outer shell, they need to either transfer their electrons to another atom, or to
receive electrons from another atom. The positive and negative ions formed are strongly to each other.

Ionic Bonding The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Electrostatic Attraction The force of attraction between opposite charged ions.
Metal atoms lose electrons, forming positive ions, and transfer electrons to another atom.
Non metal atoms gain electrons, forming negative ions, and receive electrons from another atom.
Remember that ionic compound have a neutral charge, just like an atom, the total positive and negative charges of the
oppositely charged ions must cancel out.

1. What is the electronic configuration of the Lithium atom?

2. How many electrons does Lithium lose when forming an ion?
3. What is the electronic configuration of the Lithium ion?
4. What is the electronic configuration of the Oxygen atom?
5. How many electrons does Oxygen gains when forming an ion?
6. What is the electronic configuration of the Oxygen ion?
7. What does isoelectronic mean?
8. Which noble gas has an electronic structure which is isoelectronic to the Li+ ion?
9. Which noble gas has an electronic structure which is isoelectronic to the O2- ion?
10. Why can two Li+ ions not react and form an ionic bond?
11. Why is it that the two lithium atoms react with only one oxygen atom to form Lithium Oxide?
12. Define the term “first ionisation energy”.
13. Explain what happens to first ionisation energies across a period.
14. Silicon does not bond ionically, explain, using knowledge from ionisation energies, why Silicon does not
form Si4+ ions.
The above diagram shows how the transfer of
electrons from sodium to oxygen in Sodium Oxide,
Na2O. The nucleus is represented by the symbol and
the dot/crosses the electrons in the valence shell. We
draw ions in square brackets with the charge in the
top right with the number before the charge.
15. State the formula and draw a dot-cross diagram for the formation of Magnesium Oxide.
16. State the formula and draw a dot-cross diagram for the formation of Magnesium Fluoride
17. State the formula and draw a dot-cross diagram for the formation of Sodium Phosphide.
18. State the formula and draw a dot-cross diagram for the formation of Aluminium Chloride.
19. In words, using the words atom, ion, electron and transfer, describe what occurs when sodium reacts with
chlorine to form sodium chloride.
20. The mass spectrum of rubidium consists of a peak at mass 85m/z and a peak at mass 87m/z. The relative
abundances are 72:28. Calculate the relative atomic mass of rubidium.
21. Define the term relative atomic mass.

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 When metals react with non-metals, the ions produced form ionic
crystals. An ionic crystal is a giant ionic lattice containing billions of
positive and negative ions packed together in a regular pattern.

Whilst ions with like charges repel each other, overall, there is a strong
electrostatic attraction between all ions in the lattice. The strength of
this electrostatic attractions between ions depends on the charges of
the ions and their radii.

Ions with high charges and small ionic radii produce the strongest
electrostatic attractions.
22. Draw a diagram to represent the Magnesium 2+ ion.
23. Draw a diagram to represent the Calcium 2+ ion.
24. Which of the ions in the previous two questions has the smaller ionic radii?
25. Which of the above ions will form the stronger electrostatic attractions to an anion? Use the term ionic
radii in your answer.
26. Draw a dot-cross diagram for Potassium Chloride.
27. Draw a dot-cross diagram for Magnesium Oxide.
28. Explain which of the above ionic compounds you would expect to have the higher boiling point.
29. Two oxides have the following melting points: -1132oC and 2572oC. Predict which of the following oxides,
CaO and Na2O match the stated boiling point and explain why.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

High Melting and Boiling Temps Large amount of energy required to overcome the strong electrostatic
attractions of oppositely charged ions.
Do not conduct electricity when solid The ions within the ionic compound are not free to move.
Conduct electricity when molten or Ions are mobile and able to carry charge and conduct electricity.
dissolved in water
Soluble in Water (and other polar Ions dissociate (separate) and are able to be hydrated by polar ends of water
solvents) molecules.
Hard, Brittle Crystalline Substances When a force is applied to an ionic lattice; the like charges repel each other
causing the crystal lattice to break.

30. Sodium Fluoride has a high melting point, in terms of it’s structure and bonding, explain why.
31. In terms of electrons, how is NaF(s) formed?
32. Explain the difference between NaF(s) and NaF(aq).
33. Which one of the following NaF(s) and NaF(aq) will conduct electricity.
34. Explain your answer to the above question.
35. Explain the following trend in ionic radii: Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Be2+
36. Explain why Sodium Chloride cannot conduct electricity when solid.
37. Explain why NaCl is hard and brittle.
38. Explain why positive ions have a smaller ionic radius than the corresponding atom, using the term shielding
in your answer.
39. Explain why negative ions have a larger ionic radius than the corresponding atom, using the term shielding
in your answer.
40. Why does pure water not conduct electricity?
41. Which substance below is ionically bonded?
Substance Effect of heating, gently at first, then Effect of passing electricity through Effect of passing electricity
strongly solid through liquid
A Easily melts and then boils Does not conduct Does not conduct
B No change Does not conduct Conducts
C No change Conducts Conducts
42. Which substance below is ionically bonded?
Substance Melting Point (oC) Effect of passing electricity through solid Effect of passing electricity
through liquid
Maltose 102 Does not conduct Does not conduct
Nichrome 1400 Conducts Conducts
Pitchblende 700 Does not conduct Conducts
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Homework – Ionic Bonding Review
1. This question pertains to Magnesium Oxide which is an ionic compound, answer the following questions
below about Magnesium Oxide and similar compounds.
a. State the electronic configuration for Magnesium.
b. State the electronic configuration for Oxygen.
c. Explain why Oxygen has a higher first ionisation energy than Magnesium.
d. After which ionisation energy would Magnesium see a significant increase in the value, in kJ mol-1,
for the first ionisation energy?
e. Write the equation which corresponds to this ionisation energy in the previous question.
f. Draw a diagram to show the bonding in Magnesium Oxide.
g. What is the name for Magnesium Oxide’s structure?
h. Why are magnesium and oxygen ions attracted to each other?
2. Magnesium Oxide can react with an acid to form a salt and water as shown in the equation below:-
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) | 4g of Magnesium Oxide is reacted with 100cm3 of 0.4 mol dm-3
H2SO4.
a. Determine the limiting reagent in the reaction given the information above.
b. Determine the number of moles of MgSO4 formed in this reaction.
c. Calculate the theoretical mass of MgSO4 formed in this reaction.
d. Only 4g of MgSO4 is formed in this reaction, calculate the percentage yield of this reaction.
e. Calculate the atom economy of the major aqueous product in this reaction.
f. Sulfuric Acid is a Bronsted-Lowry Acid. Explain what this means.
g. Write the ionic equation for the equation above.
h. Explain why Magnesium Oxide does not conduct electricity.
i. Magnesium Sulfate is another example of an ionic compound, the product formed does conduct
electricity, explain why.
j. Both Magnesium Oxide and Magnesium Sulfate have high melting and boiling points, explain why.
3. Rubidium Bromide melts at 966K and strontium bromide melts at 916K.
a. Convert the above temperatures into oC.
b. Why is the above data surprising, explain in terms of ionic charge and ionic radii.
4. Elemental analysis of a crystalline salt X gave the following percentages by mass.
Silver: 71.05% Carbon: 7.89% Oxygen: _____%
The relative molecular mass of X is 304.
a. Determine the empirical and molecular formula of X.
b. When heated, 5.00g of X were decomposed completely to give a solid residue and 8.14 x 10-4 m3 of
carbon dioxide at 298K and 100kPa.
c. Calculate the number of moles of X decomposed and use the volume of carbon dioxide gas to
calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide produced.
d. Identify the solid residue. Write an equation for the thermal decomposition of X.

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 Metallic Bonding
Metals are incredibly useful substances with a wide application of uses, studies show that atoms in metals are
packed together as closely as possible in a structure we call a Giant Metallic Lattice Structure.
Metallic The strong electrostatic attraction
Bonding between positive metal ions and
delocalised electrons

Delocalised Electron not fixed to one atom, and

Electrons can freely move through the metal
Only the outer shell electrons are
delocalised.

Structure Metals have a giant metallic lattice

structure.

Properties of Metallic Compounds

High Melting and Boiling Temps Large amount of energy needed to overcome electrostatic attraction between ions
and delocalised electrons.
Good Conductors of Electricity Delocalised electrons, can move through the structure, carrying charge.
Good Conductors of Heat Delocalised electrons, can move and transfer energy conducting thermal energy.
Malleable No rigid, directed bonds in a metal, so that layers of atoms can slide over each
other when a force is applied.
Ductile Metals can be hammered into differing shapes or drawn out into a wire.

Metallic Bonding Questions

1. What type of bonding would you expect to see in Magnesium?
2. Magnesium would have delocalised electrons, what do we mean by that term?
3. How many electrons does Magnesium have in it’s outer shell?
4. If only outer shell electrons are delocalised. How many delocalised electrons are there for each Magnesium
ion?
5. What type of bonding would you expect to see in Magnesium Chloride?
6. Draw a diagram to represent the bonding in Magnesium.
7. Explain, in terms of structure, why metals have a high melting and boiling point.
8. Copper is used for wires in circuits. Give two reasons why.
9. Explain why magnesium can conduct electricity.
10. Both ionic and metallic structures are giant, state the differences between Magnesium Chloride and
Magnesium.
11. A substance conducts electricity when solid, is it a metallic or ionic substance?
12. State the electronic configuration of the following:-
a. Sodium.
b. Magnesium
c. Aluminium.
13. Which block do each of the above elements belong to.
14. Explain why the electronic configurations of the ions of Sodium, Magnesium and Aluminium are
isoelectronic.
15. State the number of valence electrons in the atoms of:-
a. Sodium
b. Magnesium
c. Aluminium
16. State the charge on the ions of
a. Sodium
b. Magnesium
c. Aluminium
17. Use your answers Questions 14 – 16, to explain why the melting point of Aluminium is higher than that of
Sodium.
18. Use your answers Questions 14 – 16, to explain why the electrical conductivity of Aluminium is greater than
that of Magnesium and Sodium.
19. Magnesium has a melting point of 650oC, whilst Magnesium Oxide has a melting point of 2,852oC.
a. State the structure of each substance.
b. Explain the reason for the difference in the melting points.
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 Covalent Bonding
At GCSE, your teacher may have talked about covalent bonding in terms of shared electrons and non-metals
exclusively. This is partly true but our definition for covalent bonding differs, as you will encounter some
elements which bond covalently which are not non-metals.

Covalent Bond Electrostatic attraction between two nuclei and the shared pair of electrons between
them.
Single Bond When 1 electron from each atom is shared. Represented by a single line
Double Bond When 2 electrons from each atom is shared. Represented by a double line
Triple Bond When 3 electrons from each atom is shared. Represented by a triple line
Covalent bonds when atoms share electrons, the atoms are held together by the strong attraction between the
positive charges off the nuclei and the shared electrons.
Covalent bonding, just like ionic, can be represented through the use of diagram. Covalent bonding diagrams
come in two forms, displayed formula and dot-cross diagrams.

Methane Oxygen Water

Displayed
Formula

Dot-Cross
Diagrams

Molecule A group of atoms bonded together (approx. 2 – 100 atoms). Can be an element or compound.
Bonding Pairs Pair of electrons involved in the formation of covalent bonds.
Lone Pairs Pair of electrons in the valence shell of one of the atoms in a molecule or ion which is not
involved in bonding.
In the diagram above.
 Methane only has bonding pairs between the carbon and hydrogen atoms
 Oxygen has bonding pairs between the oxygen atoms, and lone pairs on the valence shells of the oxygen
atoms.
Lone Pairs affect the shape of molecules and allow some molecules to form dative covalent bonds.
1. This question applies to the diagram of water shown below.
a. There are 1 electron supplied by both the hydrogen and oxygen
atoms, what type of covalent bond is formed here?
b. Draw the dot-cross diagram for water into your books
i. Circle the bonding pairs of electrons
ii. Circle the lone pairs of electrons.
c. Explain what a covalent bond is.
d. Explain why two oxygen atoms cannot bond using ionic bonding.
e. Will Lithium ever form covalent bonds?
f. What is wrong with the statement “Only non-metal exhibit covalent
bonding”.
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2. Complete the displayed formula and dot-and-cross diagram below.

Displayed Formula Molecule Dot and Cross Diagram

HCl

CO2

NH3

Cl2

C2H4

C2H6

C2H2

HCN

H2O2

HOCl

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 Dative Covalent Bonding
In a typical covalent bond, each atom provides one electron for the bond. However, in a few compounds, a bond
is formed by sharing of a pair of electrons which are provided by one atom.

Dative Covalent Bonding Bond in which two atoms share a pair of electrons, both the electrons being
(Covalent Bonding) donated by one atom.

Once the bond is formed there is no difference between a dative covalent bond and any other bond. As you can
see above, there is a difference in how we indicate the co-ordinate bond in a displayed formula, with an arrow
showing the pair of electrons donated to the atom.

Displayed Formula Molecule Dot and Cross Diagram

H3O+

NH3BCl3

CO

NO3-

Al2Cl6

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 Covalent Bond Strength
Covalent Bonds are formed from the overlap of electron orbitals. There are two types of bonds which you need to
be familiar with in this course. Sigma and Pi Bonds.

Electron Density Probability of finding an electron in a specific area between two nuclei.
Greater the electron density the greater the probability of electrons being present.
Sigma Bond Formed from the head-up overlap of atomic orbitals | Stronger than Pi Bonds
Pi Bond Sideways overlap of atomic orbitals which results in electron density above and below
the plane of the nuclei of the bonding atoms.

1. Define a covalent bond.

2. Which bond is stronger; a sigma or a pi bond?
3. Explain your answer to the question above.
4. Which bond has a greater electron density between two nuclei; a sigma or a pi bond?
5. Explain your answer to the question above.
6. Which bond has a greater electron density between two nuclei; a single or a double bond?
7. Explain your answer to the question above.
8. Draw a displayed formula diagram for ethene, C2H4.
9. Draw a dot-cross diagram for ethene, C2H4.
10. Identify the number of sigma bonds present between the two carbon atoms.
11. Identify the number of sigma bonds present between the carbon and hydrogen atoms.
12. Identify the number of pi bonds present between the two carbon atoms.

In covalent bonds, bond strengths are related to the length of the covalent bond.
Bond length is the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule. It depends on the size of
atoms involved and the number of pairs of electrons shared.
 Larger atoms form longer bonds due to more electrons which increases shielding.
 Single Bonds form longer bonds than double bonds which form longer bonds than triple bonds.
The stronger the attraction, the higher the bond enthalpy and the shorter the bond length
Bond C-C C=C C≡C
-1
Average Bond Enthalpy (kJ mol ) +347 +612 +838
Bond length (nm) 0.154 0.134 0.120
Bond Cl-Cl Br-Br I-I
Average Bond Enthalpy (kJ mol-1) +243 +193 +151
Bond length (nm) 0.199 0.228 0.267

13. In terms of atomic structure, why is the Cl-Cl bond a shorter length than the Br-Br bond?
14. In terms of atomic structure, explain why the bond enthalpy for the Cl-Cl bond is greater than the Br-Br
bond.
15. State the number and type of bonds present in the C-C bond.
16. State the number and type of bonds present in the C=C bond.
17. Using the term electron density in your answer, explain why the C=C bond is stronger than the C-C bond.
18. Challenge: Despite containing a double bond, the O=O bond (Bond Enthalpy = 498 kJ mol-1) has a similar
strength to the O-H bond (464 kJ mol-1). Considering the structure and size of both Oxygen and Hydrogen
atoms, explain why.
19. This question pertains to Lithium and Sodium Fluoride.
a. Draw a dot and cross diagram for Lithium Fluoride.
b. Would you expect Sodium Fluoride to have a higher or lower melting point than Lithium Fluoride,
explain your answer.
c. 10g of Sodium reacts with 1.2dm3 of Fluorine gas at room temperature and pressure. Calculate the
maximum mass of Sodium Fluoride that would be produced in this reaction.
d. 4g of Sodium Fluoride is formed, calculate the % yield in this reaction.
20. AlCl3 forms Al2Cl6 molecules when it sublimes.
a. How many valence electrons does Aluminium have?
b. Explain why Aluminium, when it bonds covalently, cannot fulfil the octet rule.
c. Explain why Aluminium, when it bonds covalently, could form dative covalent bonds.

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 Properties of Covalent Substances
Within covalent bonding, when the atoms (remember they have no charge so aren’t ions) come together they can
either form a giant covalent substance or a simple molecular substance. These substances have significantly
differing properties. Most covalent substances are simple molecular substances.

Properties of Simple Covalent (Molecular) Compounds

Low Melting and Boiling Points Simple covalent molecules have weak intermolecular forces between the
molecules, so do not require as much energy to overcome
Do not conduct electricity as Simple covalent molecules have no charged particles or ions which move through
solids, liquids or gases. their structure.
Soluble in Non-Polar Solvents Can form intermolecular forces (London forces) with non-polar solvents.
Insoluble in Polar Solvents Cannot form hydrogen bonds with polar solvent like water.

1. Explain what a molecule is.

2. Chlorine (Cl2) is a comprised of two non-metal atoms bonded to each other.
a. Explain what structure Chlorine has.
b. Explain what type of bonding is seen in Chlorine.
c. Explain why Chlorine is a gas at room temperature.
d. Explain why Chlorine does not conduct electricity.
3. This question pertains to Sulfur and Phosphorus.
a. What period are both Sulfur and Phosphorus found in?
b. State what happens to ionisation energy across a Period.
c. Explain your answer to the previous question.
d. P4 has a lower melting and boiling point than S8, for the sake of simplicity, when writing chemical
equations, phosphorus and sulfur are written as S and P. Explain why Sulfur has a higher melting
point than Phosphorus.
e. Explain why Sulfur has a lower first ionisation energy than Phosphorus does.
f. Explain why neither Phosphorus nor Sulfur conduct electricity.
4. This question is about Oxygen Dichloride (OCl2).
a. One oxygen atom shares one pair of electrons with a chlorine atom in Oxygen Dichloride (OCl2).
Complete a dot-cross diagram for this molecule showing the outer shell electrons only.
b. Oxygen Dichloride has a melting point of -224oC and a boiling point of -146oC. What is the state of
oxygen dichloride at room temperature. Explain your answer in terms of structure and bonding.
c. Explain why Oxygen dichloride doesn’t conduct electricity in any state but Magnesium Chloride
(MgCl2) does when aqueous.
d. Draw the dot-cross diagram for MgCl2.
Properties of Giant Covalent Structures
Giant covalent substances have billions of atoms all joined up together by covalent bonds. These substances
have a giant covalent lattice structure.

Properties of Giant Covalent Structures

High Melting and Boiling Points Giant covalent structures are held together by lots of strong covalent bonds in the
giant covalent lattice, requires a lot of energy to break.
Do not conduct electricity as Giant covalent structures have no free electrons or charged particles which can
solids, liquids or gases. move through their structure.
Hard, strong substances Lots of strong covalent bonds between atoms.
Insoluble in Water Cannot form hydrogen bonds with water.
Giant Covalent Structure Questions
1. This question pertains to Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)
a. Silicon dioxide has a giant covalent structure. What would you expect its properties to be?
b. Silicon dioxide is used to make moulds for pouring liquid metal into. Explain why silicon dioxide is
used for this based on it’s properties.
c. Silicon Dioxide has similar bonding to Carbon Dioxide. Draw a displayed formula for SiO2.
d. Draw a dot-cross diagram to represent the bonding in SiO2.
e. How many electrons are there in one SiO2 compound?
f. How many electrons are there in 5 moles of SiO2?
2. This question pertains to Silicon carbide.
a. Silicon carbide is a giant covalent substance. Explain why it has a high melting and boiling point.
b. Silicon carbide is a giant covalent structure. Explain why it cannot conduct electricity.
3. Aluminium iodide has a giant structure. Will it have a giant ionic, metallic or covalent structure?
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 4. Explain your answer to the previous question.
5. Aluminium has a giant structure. Will it have a giant ionic, metallic, or covalent structure?
6. Explain your answer to the previous question.
7. A student has a sample of two substances. One has a giant ionic lattice and the other is giant covalent.
a. Why can the student not use their melting points to work out which is which?
b. How could the student work out which one is which?
c. What other differences are there between giant ionic and covalent structures.
8. In this question we compare different bonding and structures.
a. Would you expect Magnesium Oxide to have a high or low melting point?
b. What type of structure does Magnesium Oxide have?
c. Write the balanced equation for the formation of Magnesium Oxide from its constituent element
including state symbols.
d. If 145.8g of Magnesium is reacted with 256g of Oxygen, what is the limiting reagent?
e. What mass of MgO would be produced in the equation above? Give your answer to an appropriate
number of significant figures.
f. What mass of Oxygen would be left in the reaction vessel at 744K?
g. What volume of Oxygen would be left in the reaction vessel at 744K and 101kPa in m3, , give your
answer to an appropriate number of significant figures?

Graphite – The Exception

Graphite is a giant covalent structure made entirely of carbon atoms like diamond.
However, its atoms are arranged differently to diamond meaning it has different
properties.
Graphite and Diamond are allotropes of carbon, different forms of the same element
in the same physical state.
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three others. The spare electron is
delocalised and occupies the space in between the layers.
All atoms in the same layer are held together by strong covalent bonds, and the
different layers are held together by intermolecular forces.
Properties of Graphite
High Melting and Boiling Points Lots of strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms in layers.
Conducts Electricity Delocalised electrons can carry charge through it’s structure.
Soft and Slippery Different layers of graphite can slide over each other.
9. This question pertains to the differing allotropes of carbon.
a. What does allotrope mean?
b. What type of bonds, sigma or pi are formed between carbon atoms in graphite and diamond.
c. Which bonds are stronger, a sigma or pi bonds, explain why.
d. How many covalent bonds are there per carbon atom in diamond.
e. Draw a dot-cross diagram to represent this bonding in diamond, between one central C atom, and
its neighbouring atoms.
f. Draw a dot-cross diagram to represent the bonding in graphite.
g. Explain why diamond cannot conduct electricity but graphite can conduct electricity.
h. Why is graphite used in pencils?
i. Diamond is a poor electrical conductor but an excellent thermal conductor, used in drill tips.
Explain why
10. Carbon and Silicon can bond with metals and non-metals, such as Oxygen and Fluorine.
a. State the electronic configuration of Oxygen.
b. State the electronic configuration of Fluorine.
c. Explain why Oxygen has a larger ionic radius than Fluorine.
d. Explain why Fluorine has a greater first ionisation energy than Oxygen.
e. Both Oxygen and Fluorine are diatomic, what does this mean?
f. What type of structure would fluorine and oxygen have/
g. Silicon carbide is a giant covalent substance. Explain why it has a high melting and boiling point.
Silicon carbide is a giant covalent structure. Explain why it cannot conduct electricity.
11. Boron Nitride, BN, has a similar structure to graphite but cannot conduct electricity.
a. Draw a dot cross diagram for the covalent substance Boron Nitride, BN.
b. Suggest why Boron Nitride does not conduct electricity despite having a similar structure to
graphite.
c. Some compounds of Boron can form dative covalent bonds with ammonia. Draw a dot-cross diagram
to show the bonding in BF3NH3.

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 Factors Allotropes of Carbon and Molecular Solids
Two further allotropes of carbon you may be familiar with from your GCSE studies are graphene, fullerenes and
carbon nanotubes.

Graphene Fullerenes Nanotubes

Structure Giant Covalent Lattice Simple molecular Structure Giant Covalent Lattice
Single Layer of Graphite Hollow cage of Carbon Hollow Tube of Carbon Atoms
Atoms
Bonding Covalent Bonding Covalent Bonding Covalent Bonding
3 Bonds per carbon atom
Properties High melting and boiling point. Not so High Melting and High Tensile Strength due to
Strong and Light Boiling Points lots of covalent bonds.
Conduct Heat. High Surface Area.
Conducts electricity – has delocalised Does not conduct electricity - Resistant to
electrons which can move through Has delocalised electrons but breaking/stretching
structure. they cannot move from one
Flexible. molecule to another.
Uses Electronics Drug delivery for medical Composite Material like Tennis
Advanced Material like Composites applications Rackets.
Lubricants
Catalyst Delivery
Diagram

1. Explain why graphene can conduct electricity.

2. In graphene each carbon is bonded to how many other carbon atoms?
3. Explain why Fullerenes, like Buckminsterfullerene, cannot conduct electricity.
4. Why are fullerenes excellent for drug delivery in medical applications?
5. What does the term “nano” tell you about the carbon nanotubes?
6. Like graphite, each carbon atom is joined to three other carbon atoms. Explain why the carbon nanotube
can conduct electricity.
7. Explain why fullerenes are good electrical insulators despite having 3 covalent bonds per carbon atom.
8. Explain the main differences between graphite and graphene.
9. Elemental phosphorus can exist in several allotropes, the most common of which are white and red solids.
White phosphorus exists as P4 molecules made up of atoms in a tetrahedral structure. It can be produced
using several methods but the main equation which is given below:
2Ca3(PO4)2 + 6SiO2 + 10C → 6CaSiO3 + 10CO + P4
a. Would you expect P4’s boiling point to be high or low?
b. Draw a dot-cross diagram for Carbon Monoxide
c. Explain why SiO2 has such a high melting point in terms of structure.
d. Calcium Phosphate is an ionic substance, explain what structure it has.
e. Explain why particles make up its structure in terms of ions.
f. 20kg of Calcium Phosphate is reacted with 10kg of Silicon Dioxide.
g. Calculate the mass of Phosphorus produced in this reaction.
h. Calculate the volume occupied by the CO produced at 1773K and 101kPa.
i. What volume would the CO occupy at room temperature and pressure.
j. Suggest a reason why the CO occupies a larger volume at 1773K.

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