Chemistry 0620

Grade nine
Unit 4: Structure and Bonding
(Syllabus: 2.4 – 2.7)
Syllabus

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The formation of ions:
An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the
loss or gain of electrons to obtain a full outer shell of electrons.

• Negative ions are called anions and form when atoms gain electrons.

• Positive ions are called cations and form when atoms lose electrons.

• All metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged

ions.

• All non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively

charged ions.
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Formation of a cation Formation of an Anion

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 What is Bonding?
Bond: is the force of attraction that combines two or more
atoms of an element so as a new compound in a chemical
reaction.

Types of bonds:
1. Ionic --> Metal with Non-metal (Ex: NaCl)
2. Covalent --> Non-metal with Non-metal or Non-metal
with semi-metal (Ex: H2O, CH4, HCl, CO2)
3. Metallic --> Between metals (Ex: Fe, Au, Ag, Cu, …)
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❑ Ionic Bonding:
• Is the attraction forces between positive ions and negative
ions. Forms when metals atoms react with non-metal atoms.

• Metal atoms lose their outer electrons which the non-metal

atoms gain to form positive and negative ions.

• The ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of

attraction between opposite charges known as an ionic
bond.
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Dot – and – cross diagrams:
• Dot and cross diagrams are diagrams that show the arrangement of
the outer-shell electrons (valence electrons only) in an ionic or
covalent compound or element.
• The electrons are shown as dots and crosses.
• In a dot and cross diagram:
- Only the outer electros are shown
- The charge of the ion is spread evenly which is shown using
brackets
- The charge on each ion is written at the top right-hand corner.

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8
 Transfer of electrons

The Sodium atom

loses an electron
to become a
positively charged
ion (Cation)

The Chlorine
atom gains an
electron to
become a
negatively
charged ion
(Anion)
 Ionic bonding

So when sodium reacts with chlorine, each sodium atom loses an

electron and each chlorine atom gains an electron.

Why would they form ions? They both form stable ions.
Properties of ionic compounds

Why? Because in Why? Because in solid state

molten or aqueous ions can vibrate but they can’t
state, ions are free to move from one place to
move another
Naming Ionic Compounds
 Rules for naming ionic compounds
• The names of metals don’t change.

• Changing the name of non-metals:

Element name + -ide = name of ion

Examples:
The name of chlorine’s ion: Chlor- + -ide = Chloride
The name of nitrogen’s ion: Nitr- + -ide = Nitride
Symbols of common ions
There are also ions that form after elements have shared
electrons. These ion are known as polyatomic ions, and
each polyatomic ion already has a name.

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16
How to deduce the formulas of ionic compounds
Practice:
• Draw the dot – and – cross diagram to show the electron
arrangement of the following ionic compounds:
1. Calcium with Oxygen (Calcium Oxide)

2. Aluminum with Chlorine (Aluminum Chloride)

3. Potassium with Oxygen (Potassium Oxide)

4. Aluminum with Oxygen (Aluminum Oxide)

5. Magnesium with Oxygen (Magnesium Oxide)

6. Calcium with Chlorine (Calcium Chloride) 18

1. Calcium with Oxygen (Calcium Oxide)

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2. Aluminum with Chlorine (Aluminum Chloride)

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3. Potassium with Oxygen (Potassium Oxide)

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4. Aluminum with Oxygen (Aluminum Oxide)

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5. Magnesium with Oxygen (Magnesium Oxide)

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6. Calcium with Chlorine (Calcium Chloride)

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Exam question - 5 marks
Mark your work
Exam question - 4 marks
Mark your work
Exam question - 4 marks
Mark your work
 Why do ionic compounds form crystals?
Ionic compounds such as sodium chloride, form crystals,
with a cubic shape. This is due to the structure of the ionic
lattice.

All ionic
compounds
form lattices
and crystals
when solid.
The lattice structure of ionic compounds
 Giant ionic lattice structure
In an ionic compound, millions and millions of ions are
packed together in a regular cubic arrangement, joined by
ionic bonds.
This forms a giant 3D structure
called an ionic lattice.
The ionic lattice will continue to
build in this way until there are no
more ions left to add.

The structure of the ionic lattice

affects the properties of the ionic
compound.

Do you think the melting point would

be high or low? Why?
 Melting and boiling points
1) The electrostatic forces between oppositely
charged ions act in all directions and are very
strong.
2) It takes a lot of energy to break up a giant ionic
lattice (to break lots of strong bonds).
3) So they have high melting and boiling points.

strong ionic
bonds hold
ions
together
 Why are ionic compounds brittle?
Brittle = hard but liable to break or shatter easily.

force
repulsion

When the lattice is hit, a layer These like charges

of ions is shifted so that ions repel each other and
with the same charges are so split the lattice,
lined up together. causing it to shatter.
 Conducting electricity
What is electricity?

What does a substance need in order to conduct?

Do you think an ionic compound would conduct? Why?

How can ionic compounds conduct electricity?

As solids, ionic compounds

cannot conduct electricity
because their ions cannot move.

When liquid (molten), the ions

can move. The ions are
charged particles and so can
carry an electric current.

Ionic compounds are usually soluble in water because water

molecules have a slight electrical charge and so can attract the
ions away from the lattice. When dissolved, the ions are free to
move and can carry an electric current.
 Movement of ions and conductivity
As ionic compounds are made of CHARGED IONS, they
can CONDUCT ELECTRICITY but ONLY if the ions can MOVE
(are in solution).

If it is MOLTEN the If it is DISSOLVED

ions can move the ions can move
MELT DISSOLVE
- + -
+ - +
- + -
+ - + - + + - + + - + -
+
- + - - + + -
+ - + - + - + -
800°C 20°C H2O
 Properties of ionic compounds
● High melting and boiling points - due to lots of strong electrostatic attractions
(ionic bonds) that need to be broken, lots of energy is needed to break these
bonds.
● Soluble (dissolve) in water - because water molecules have a slight electrical
charge and so can attract the ions away from the lattice.
● Can conduct electricity when molten or in solution - because the ions are free
to move.
● Brittle - because when a force is applied, layers slide over each other and like
charges repel, splitting the compound apart.
❑ Covalent Bonding:

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The atoms are held together by electrostatic
attractions between the electrons of one atom and the
nucleus (protons) of the other atom.
 Covalent
Substances

Giant (Macromolecules)
Simple

Silicon
H2O-Br2- Graphite Diamond
(IV)oxide
CO2-H2-N2
 Properties of covalent compounds:
1)They can be found as a gas such as CO2 H2 N2.
2)They can be found as a liquid such as H2O Br2
3)They can be found as solids (graphite, silicon IV oxide, diamond, and
Iodine I2
4) Most of covalent compounds are insoluble in water (but some are soluble
such as sugar, and ethanol)and soluble in organic solvents.
5) Simple covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points, while
giant covalent compounds have high melting and boiling points.
6) Covalent substances do not conduct electricity except for some substances
example: graphite
Dot – and – cross diagrams:

• Electrons from one atom are represented by a dot, and the

electrons of the other atom are represented by a cross.
• The electron shells of each atom in the molecule overlap and
the shared electrons are shown in the area of overlap.
• The dot-and-cross diagram of the molecule shows clearly
which atom each electron originated
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Diagram to show the formation of a covalent bond
 Single covalent bonds
• Many simple molecules exists in which two adjacent atoms
share one pair of electrons, also known as a single covalent
bond (or single bond)
Common Examples of simple Molecules:

Hydrogen Chlorine water

Covalent bonds in complex covalent molecules
Practice:
• Draw the dot – and – cross diagram to show the electron arrangement of
the following covalent compounds:
1. Hydrogen (H2)
2. Chlorine (Cl2)
3. Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
4. Water (H2O)
5. Methane (CH4)
6. Ammonia (NH3)
7. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

8. Oxygen (O2) 52
Hydrogen Chlorine
Methane Water
Methane Ammonia
Carbon dioxide Oxygen
 Draw dot and cross diagrams for:

• Hydrogen fluoride (HF)

• Fluorine (F2)
• Ethene (C2H4) (Be careful – this has double bonds)
• Nitrogen (N2) (be careful - difficult)

• Challenge - how the properties of a double bond

could be different to the properties of a single
covalent bond.
Hydrogen Fluoride Fluorine
Ethene Nitrogen
 Ionic or covalent bonding?
8.) CH4
1.) CaCl2
9.) SO3
2.) CO2
10.) LiBr
3.) H2O
11.) Mg3(PO4)2
4.) Sr3(PO4)2
12.)
5.) K2O
(NH4)2HPO4
6.) NaF
13.) C12H22O11
7.) Al2(CO3)3
14.) H2O
In simple molecules the forces of attraction between
molecules are weak therefore it can be easily broken.

Sulfur (S8)
 Giant Covalent (Macromolecules)
• Giant substances can be found in a form of an element such as
graphite, and diamond or in form of compound such as silicon
IV oxide.
• Allotropes:
• Allotropes: are different forms/structures of the same
element, therefore have different physical properties due to
the arrangement of the carbon atoms
Diamond and graphite are allotropes(made up of carbon , but
they have different structures).
 Giant macromolecule: Diamond
A) Diamond
• Is a giant atomic covalent structure.
• made up of carbon only.
• each carbon is surrounded by 4 carbon atoms (bonded).
• Structure: it has a tetrahedral shape.
Properties of diamond:

1) Hard and strong.

2) Diamond has a very high melting and boiling points.
• Due to the strong forces of attraction between carbon
atoms (strong covalent bonds)
3) Doesn’t conduct electricity (no mobile electrons )
4) Shiny , reflects light.

• Uses : Jewelry, Drilling (Stone, and glass cutter)

 Giant macromolecule: Graphite
B) Graphite :
• is a giant atomic covalent structure.
• made up of C atoms only.
• Each C is surrounded (covalently bonded) by 3 other carbon
atoms, and the fourth electron is not bonded( Delocalized
electrons).
• It has a hexagonal structure(six –sided rings) arranged in layers.

(Intermolecular
forces)
Properties of graphite:
1. Has high melting and boiling points ( Strong forces of attraction between
the carbon atoms).
2. Soft (feels slippery) because of the weak forces of attraction between
layers, so they can slide over each other.
3. Conduct electricity because it has mobile or delocalized electrons.

Uses of graphite:
• Lubricant.
• In pencils.
• To make rod in electrical circuits(electrolysis).
Diamond Vs. Graphite
 Giant macromolecule: Silicon (IV) Oxide (SiO2
C) Silicon (IV)Oxide (Silica)
• Is a giant molecular covalent structure.
• each Si is surrounded(bonded) by 4 oxygen
atoms, and each O is surrounded by 2 Si
atoms.
• found in quartz (hard crystalline mineral).
• Structure: it has a tetrahedral shape.
1Si → 4O
1O → 2Si
Si2O4 → SiO2
 Properties of Silicon (IV) Oxide:
1. Has high melting and boiling points due to the strong force
attraction forces between the atoms so it requires energy to
overcome the forces.
2. Does not conduct electricity (no mobile electrons )
• Uses in making glasses
❑ Metallic Bond:
• Metallic bond is the force of attraction between the nuclei of the positive ion and
negative sea of mobile or delocalized electrons.
• Electrostatic forces of attraction between positive ion and cloud or sea of electrons
(valence e-)
• Atoms of metals are arranged in regular layer.(Solid lattice arrangement).
• Bond combines similar atoms of the same metal.
 Properties of metallic bond:
1) Solid except Mercury (Hg)
2) Conducts electricity because of the mobile electrons.
3) Conducts heat due to the movement of delocalized electrons which
carry heat.
4) Malleable and ductile (physical change)
(Malleable means capable to be hammered or pressured into shapes,
while ductile means the ability of being stretched into wires).
Since they are arranged in layers, layers slide over each other when
force is applied without repulsion(shape is changed)
 Metals are malleable and ductile.

• Metallic bond increases as the number of valence electrons increases

Na · Mg ·· Al ···
→
• Metallic bond decreases as the size of the ion increases (down the group the metallic
bond decreases)
• Na 2)8)1
• K 2)8)8)1
• Distance between the valence electrons to the positive ion increases, therefore less
attraction forces, the lower the melting and boiling points.
Type of bond Particle Forces of attraction Electrical conductivity

Solid liquid

Metal and non-metal Strong forces of attraction between positive ion No Yes
Ionic and negative ion
(High melting and boiling points) no free ions are
moving free to move
Ions

Non-metal+ non-metal Strong forces of attraction between positive No No

Covalent Semi metal +non-metal nucleus and negative shared electrons no mobile electrons
Simple Giant except graphite it has mobile
Low Mp & Bp high Mp&Bp electrons

Metal of the same element Forces of attraction between delocalized Yes Yes
Metallic electrons and nuclei of positive ions
(high melting and boiling points) Has mobile electrons
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