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A PPLIED E LECTRICAL AND E LECTRONICS E NGINEERING
(A NALOG AND D IGITAL C IRCUITS )
Dr. P. Padmagirisan
Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Agartala
November 18, 2023
Dr. P. Padmagirisan AEEE - Analog and Digital Circuits November 18, 2023 1 / 83
Outline
Notes
D ISCLAIMER
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for
prescribed textbooks. The contents presented here is merely to serve as an additional tool
for the teaching-learning process. Various sources used to prepare this document are
mentioned then and there/at the reference section of the document. In addition freely
available materials from Internet were also used for preparing this document. The
ownership of the information lies with the respective authors or institutions.
Outline
Notes
O UTLINE
1 I NTRODUCTION
2 A MPLIFIER C IRCUITS
3 O PERATIONAL A MPLIFIER
4 SCR AND A PPLICATIONS
5 PC FUNDAMENTALS
6 DATA C ONVERSION
7 A SSIGNMENT-II
Intro. Amp. OP-Amp SCR & App. PC-Fund. Data Conversion Assign-II
Notes
C OURSE S YLLABUS
A SYNCHRONOUS M ACHINES
Three phase induction motor-Principle of operation Cage and Slip ring rotors. Torque-Slip
Characteristics-Equivalent circuit-Starting and speed control. Single phase induction
motor-Types-Applications-Universal Motor.
S ELECTION OF D RIVES
Electric drives-Individual and group drives- Factors governing selection of drives, Motors for
domestic uses. Cranes, Lifts, General Factory, Textile Mill, Paper Mill, Mining Work, Cement
Mill, Machine tools, Belt Conveyors, Ships, Refrigeration and Air conditioning.
A NALOG E LECTRONICS AND D IGITAL C IRCUITS

Amplifier Circuits-RC Coupled, Transformer coupled; direct coupled; Practice on RC Coupled
amplifier, OP Amp, Differential Amplifiers Inverting and Non-inverting amplifiers;
Differentiator- Multiplier-Divider, Comparator; VI and IV converter, SCR and Applications,
Power supply and regulator. D/A and A/D-Types; Sample and Hold Circuit-Multiplexers, De
multiplexers, Decoder and Encoders.
Notes
S INGLE S TAGE T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIER
When only one transistor with associated circuitry is used for amplifying a week signal,
the circuit is known as single stage transistor amplifier.
When a weak a.c. signal is given to the base of transistor, a small base current starts
flowing.
Due to transistor action, a much larger (β times the base current) a.c. current flows
through the collector load RC .
As the value of RC is quite high (4-10kΩ), therefore, a large voltage appears across RC
Thus, a week signal applied in the base circuit appears in amplified form in the collector
circuit.
Image Source: V. K. Mehta and Rohit Mehta. “Principles of electronics”, S Chand, 2008.
Notes
H OW T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIES ?
Suppose a change of 0.1V in signal voltage produces a change of 2mA in the collector
current.
Obviously, a signal of only 0.1V applied to the base will give an output voltage =
2mA × 5kΩ = 10V.
Thus, the transistor has been able to raise the voltage level of the signal from 0.1V to 10V
i.e. voltage amplification or stage gain is 100.
Notes
P RACTICAL C IRCUIT OF T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIER
The various circuit elements and their functions are described below :
Biasing Circuit: The resistances R1 , R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilisation circuit.
The biasing circuit must establish a proper operating point otherwise a part of the negative
half-cycle of the signal may be cut off in the output.
Input Capacitor Cin : An electrolytic capacitor Cin ( ' 10µF ) is used to couple the signal
to the base of the transistor. If it is not used, the signal source resistance will come across
R2 and thus change the bias. The capacitor Cin allows only a.c. signal to flow but isolates
the signal source from R2
Notes
P RACTICAL C IRCUIT OF T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIER
Emitter bypass capacitor CE : An emitter bypass capacitor CE ( ' 100µF ) is used in
parallel with RE to provide a low reactance path to the amplified a.c. signal. If it is not
used, then amplified a.c. signal flowing through RE will cause a voltage drop across it,
thereby reducing the output voltage.
Coupling capacitor CC : The coupling capacitor CC ( ' 10µF ) couples one stage of
amplification to the next stage. If it is not used, the bias conditions of the next stage will be
drastically changed due to the shunting effect of RC . This is because RC will come in
parallel with the upper resistance R1 of the biasing network of the next stage, thereby
altering the biasing conditions of the latter. In short, the coupling capacitor CC isolates the
d.c. of one stage from the next stage, but allows the passage of a.c. signal.
Notes
VARIOUS C IRCUIT C URRENTS

Base Current: When no signal is applied in the base circuit, d.c. base current IB flows due
to biasing circuit. When a.c. signal is applied, a.c. base current ib also flows. Therefore,
with the application of signal, total base current iB is given by: iB = IB + ib
Collector Current: When no signal is applied, a d.c. collector current IC flows due to
biasing circuit. When a.c. signal is applied, a.c. collector current ic also flows. Therefore,
the total collector current iC is given by: iC = IC + ic
where IC = βIB = zero signal collector current; ic = βib = collector current due to signal.
Emitter Current: When no signal is applied, a d.c. emitter current IE flows. With the
application of signal, total emitter current iE is given by : iE = IE + ie
It is to be noted that:
IE = IB + IC
Ie = Ib + Ic
Now base current is usually very small, therefore, as a reasonable approximation, IE ' IC and
ie ' ic .
Notes
VOLTAGE G AIN
The basic function of an amplifier is to raise the strength of an a.c. input signal.
The voltage gain of the amplifier is the ratio of a.c. output voltage to the a.c. input signal
voltage.
Therefore, in order to find the voltage gain, we should consider only the a.c. currents and
voltages in the circuit. For this purpose, we should look at the a.c. equivalent circuit of
transistor amplifier.
The a.c. equivalent circuit of transistor amplifier is represented in Fig.
Notes
VOLTAGE G AIN
It is clear that as far as a.c. signal is concerned, load RC appears in parallel with RL .
Therefore, effective load for a.c. is given by :
RC ×RL
a.c. load ,RAC = RC k RL = RC +RL
Output voltage, Vout = ic RAC
Input voltage, Vin = ib Rin
ic RAC RAC
∴ Voltage gain, Av = Vout /Vin = ib Rin
=β× Rin
i2c RAC RAC
Incidentally, power gain is given by; Ap = = β2 ×
i2b Rin Rin
Notes
S INGLE S TAGE T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIER - N UMERICALS - VOLTAGE GAIN
1. In the circuit shown in Fig., find the voltage gain. Given that β=60 and input resistance
Rin = 1kΩ
S OLUTION :
To compute voltage gain of the circuit, we need RAC , β and Rin
RC ×RL 2×0.5
RAC = RC k RL = RC +RL
= 2+0.5
= 0.4kΩ
RAC
Voltage gain, Av = β × Rin
= 60 0.4kΩ
1kΩ
= 24
Notes
2. In the circuit shown in Fig., if RC = 10kΩ,RL = 10kΩ, Rin = 2.5kΩ, β = 100 find the
output voltage for an input voltage of 1mVr.m.s
S OLUTION :
RC ×RL 10×10
RAC = RC +RL
= 10+10
= 5kΩ
RAC 5kΩ
= 100 2.5kΩ = 200
Vout
Vin
= 200, V out = 200 × 1mV = 200mV
Notes
3. In a transistor amplifier, when the signal changes by 0.02V, the base current changes by 10µA
and collector current by 1µA. If the collector load RC = 5kΩ and RL = 10kΩ,find (i) current
gain (ii) input impedance (iii) a.c. load (iv) voltage gain (v) power gain.
S OLUTION :
4IB = 10µA, 4IC = 1µA, 4VBE = 0.02V, RC = 5kΩ, RL = 10kΩ
4IC 1mA
Current gain, β = 4IB
= 10µA
= 100
4VBE 0.02V
Input impedance, Rin = 4IB
= 10µA
= 2kΩ
RC ×RL 5×10
a.c. load, RAC = RC +RL
= 5+10
= 3.3kΩ
RAC 3.3
= 100 × 2
= 165
Power gain, Ap = current gain × voltage gain = 100 × 165 = 16500
Notes
A MPLIFIER - C LASSIFICATION
ACCORDING TO USE
Voltage amplifiers: It increases the voltage level of the signal.
Power amplifiers: It increases the Power level of the signal.
ACCORDING TO FREQUENCY CAPABILITIES

Audio amplifiers: It is used to amplify the signals lying in the audio range i.e. 20 Hz to 20
kHz.
Radio frequency amplifiers: It is used to amplify the signals having very high frequency.
ACCORDING TO COUPLING METHODS

R-C coupled amplifier
Transformer coupled amplifier
Direct coupled amplifier
ACCORDING TO MODE OF OPERATION

This classification depends on the portion of the input signal cycle during which collector
current is expected to flow.
Class A amplifier: Collector current flows for the entire a.c. signal.
Class B amplifier: Collector current flows for half-cycle of input a.c. signal.
Class C amplifier: Collector current flows for less than half-cycle of a.c. signal.
Notes
M ULTISTAGE T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIER
M ULTISTAGE T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIER
A transistor circuit containing more than one stage of amplification is known as multistage
transistor amplifier.
The purpose of coupling device is to i) transfer a.c. output of one stage to the input of the
next stage and ii) to isolate the d.c. conditions of one stage from the next stage.
Fig. shows the block diagram of a 3-stage amplifier.
Each stage consists of one transistor and associated circuitry and is coupled to the next
stage through a coupling device.
The name of the amplifier is usually given after the type of coupling used.
RC coupling: A capacitor is used as the coupling device.
Transformer coupling: A transformer is used as the coupling device. Transformer coupling
permits impedance matching.
Direct coupling or d.c. coupling: The individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so
designed that the two stages may be directly connected without the necessity for d.c.
isolation.
Notes
RC C OUPLED T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIER
This is most popular type of coupling since it is cheap and provides excellent audio fidelity
over wide range of frequency.
As the coupling from one stage to next is achieved by a coupling capacitor followed by a
connection to a shunt resistor, therefore, such amplifiers are called resistance-capacitance
coupled amplifier.
R1 , R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilization network.
The CE offers low reactance path to the signal, without it the voltage gain of each stage
would be lost.
The CC transmits a.c. signal but blocks d.c.
Notes
O PERATION
When a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it appears in the amplified
form across its collector load RC .
The amplified signal developed across RC is given to base of next stage through coupling
capacitor CC .
The second stage does further amplification of the signal.
In this way, the cascaded stages amplify the signal and the overall gain is considerably
increased.
The total gain is less than the product of the gains of individual stages. It is because when
a second stage is made to follow the first stage, the effective load resistance of first stage is
reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of second stage.
Notes
F REQUENCY RESPONSE
Frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifier is shown in Fig.
It is clear that voltage gain drops off at low (<50 Hz) and high (>20 kHz) frequencies
whereas it is uniform over mid-frequency range (50 Hz to 20 kHz)
Notes
A DVANTAGES
It has excellent frequency response. The gain is constant over the audio frequency range.
It has lower cost since it employs resistors and capacitors which are cheap.
The circuit is very compact as the modern resistors and capacitors are small and extremely
light.
D ISADVANTAGES
The RC coupled amplifiers have low voltage and power gain. It is because the low
resistance presented by the input of each stage to the preceding stage decreases the
effective load resistance(RAC ) and hence the gain.
They have the tendency to become noisy with age, particularly in moist climates.
Impedance matching is poor. It is because the output impedance of RC coupled amplifier
is several hundred ohms whereas the input impedance of a speaker is only a few ohms.
Hence, little power will be transferred to the speaker.
Notes
A PPLICATIONS
The RC coupled amplifiers have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.
Therefore, they are widely used as voltage amplifiers e.g. in the initial stages of public
address system.
If other type of coupling (e.g. transformer coupling) is employed in the initial stages, this
results in frequency distortion which may be amplified in next stages.
However, because of poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final
stages.
Notes
T RANSFORMER -C OUPLED A MPLIFIER
If the effective load resistance of each stage could be increased, the voltage and power gain
could be increased. This can be achieved by transformer coupling.
By the use of impedance-changing properties of transformer, the low resistance of a stage
(or load) can be reflected as a high load resistance to the previous stage.
Transformer coupling is generally employed when the load is small. It is mostly used for
power amplification. Fig. shows two stages of transformer coupled amplifier.
The primary P of this transformer is made the collector load and its secondary S gives
input to the next stage
Notes
O PERATION
When an a.c. signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it appears in the amplified
form across primary P of the coupling transformer.
The voltage developed across primary is transferred to the input of the next stage by the
transformer secondary as shown in Fig.
The second stage renders amplification in an exactly similar manner.
Notes
F REQUENCY RESPONSE
It is clear that frequency response is rather poor i.e. gain is constant only over a small
range of frequency.
The output voltage is equal to the collector current multiplied by reactance of primary.
At low frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall, resulting in decreased gain.
At high frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings acts as a bypass condenser
to reduce the output voltage and hence gain.
It follows, therefore, that there will be disproportionate amplification of frequencies in a
complete signal such as music, speech etc. Hence, transformer-coupled amplifier
introduces frequency distortion.
Notes
A DVANTAGES
No signal power is lost in the collector or base resistors.
An excellent impedance matching can be achieved in a transformer coupled amplifier. It is
easy to make the inductive reactance of primary equal to the output impedance of the
transistor and inductive reactance of secondary equal to the input impedance of next stage.
Due to excellent impedance matching, transformer coupling provides higher gain. As a
matter of fact, a single stage of properly designed transformer coupling can provide the
gain of two stages of RC coupling.
D ISADVANTAGES
It has a poor frequency response i.e.the gain varies considerably with frequency.
The coupling transformers are bulky and fairly expensive at audio frequencies.
Frequency distortion is higher i.e. low frequency signals are less amplified as compared to
the high frequency signals.
Transformer coupling tends to introduce hum in the output.
Notes
A PPLICATIONS
Transformer coupling is mostly employed for impedance matching.
In general, the last stage of a multistage amplifier is the power stage.
For maximum power transfer, the impedance of power source should be equal to that of
load.
Usually, the impedance of an output device is a few ohms whereas the output impedance
of transistor is several hundred times this value. In order to match the impedance, a
step-down transformer of proper turn ratio is used.
Notes
D IRECT-C OUPLED A MPLIFIER
There are many applications in which extremely low frequency (< 10 Hz) signals are to be
amplified e.g. amplifying photo-electric current, thermo-couple current etc.
The coupling devices such as capacitors and transformers cannot be used because the
electrical sizes of these components become very large at extremely low frequencies.
Under such situations, one stage is directly connected to the next stage without any
intervening coupling device.
This type of coupling is known as direct coupling.
Notes
O PERATION
Fig. shows the circuit of a three-stage direct-coupled amplifier. It uses complementary
transistors. Thus, the first stage uses npn transistor, the second stage uses pnp transistor
and so on.
The output from the collector of first transistor T1 is fed to the input of the second
transistor T2 and so on.
The weak signal is applied to the input of T1 . The amplified output is obtained across the
collector load RC of transistor T1 . This voltage drives the base of T2 and amplified output
is obtained across its collector load. In this way, direct coupled amplifier raises the
strength of weak signal.
Notes
A DVANTAGES
The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.
The circuit has low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling devices.
D ISADVANTAGES
It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.
The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
Notes
C OMPARISON OF D IFFERENT T YPES OF C OUPLING
S.No. Particular RC coupling Transformer coupling Direct coupling

Excellent in the audio
1 Frequency response Poor Best
frequency range
2 Cost Less More Least
3 Space and weight Less More Least
4 Impedance matching Not good Excellent Good
For amplifying extrtemely
5 Application For voltage amplification For power amplification
low frequencies
Notes
N UMERICAL - RC C OUPLED T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIER
4. Fig. shows two-stage RC coupled amplifier. If the input resistance Ri n of each stage is 1kΩ,
find : (i) voltage gain of first stage (ii) voltage gain of second stage (iii) total voltage gain.
S OLUTION :
Rin = 1kΩ; β = 100; RC = 2kΩ
The first stage has a loading of input resistance of second stage.
∴ Effective load of the first stage, RAC = RC k Rin = 2×12+1
= 0.66kΩ
∴ Voltage gain of first stage = β × RAC /Rin = 100 × 0.66/1 = 66
The collector of the second stage sees a load of only RC (=2k Ω) as there is no loading
effect of any subsequent stage. ∴ Voltage gain of second stage =
β × RC /Rin = 100 × 2/1 = 200
Total voltage gain = 66 × 200 = 13200
Notes
N UMERICAL - RC C OUPLED T RANSISTOR A MPLIFIER
5. A single stage amplifier has collector load RC = 10kΩ; input resistance Rin = 1kΩ and
β = 100. If load RL = 100Ω find the voltage gain.
S OLUTION :
Effective collector load, RAC = RC k RL = 10kΩ k 100Ω = 100Ω
Voltage gain = β × RAC /Rin = 100 × 100/1000 = 10
Notes
O PERATIONAL A MPLIFIER
I NTRODUCTION
Operational amplifier (OP-Amp) was designed to perform mathematical operations such
as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation - hence the name operational
amplifier.
An operational amplifier is a multistage amplifier and consist of a i) differential amplifier
stage, ii) a high-gain CE amplifier stage and iii) class B push-pull emitter follower.
OP-Amp is an integrated circuit (all components such as transistors, resistors etc. are
fabricated on a single chip) which is widely used in computers, as video and audio
amplifiers in communication electronics.
With the addition of suitable external feedback components, the modern day op-amp can
be used for a variety of applications. such as ac and dc signal amplifications, active filters,
oscillators, comparators, regulators, etc,.
Notes
B LOCK DIAGRAM OF AN OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An OP-Amp is a multistage amplifier.
Three stages are differential amplifier input stage followed by a high-gain CE amplifier
and finally the output stage.
A differential amplifier (DA) can accept two input signals and amplifies the difference
between these two input signals.
An OP-Amp has very high input impedance (ideally infinite) and very low output
impedance (ideally zero). High input impedance - effect - draw a very small current
(ideally zero) from the signal source. Very low output impedance - effect - will provide a
constant output voltage independent of current drawn from the source.
An OP-Amp has very high open-loop gain (ideally infinite);typically more than 200,000.
The OP-Amp are almost always operated with negative feedback.
Notes
D IFFERENTIAL A MPLIFIER (DA)
A differential amplifier is a circuit that can accept two signals and amplify the difference
Notes
Basic circuit of differential amplifier.
Notes
Input signal can be applied in two ways i) single-ended input arrangement (signal is
applied to one input of DA and other input is grounded) ii) double-ended input
arrangement (signals are applied to both inputs of DA).
Notes
Input signal can be applied in two ways i) single-ended input arrangement (signal is
applied to one input of DA and other input is grounded) ii) double-ended input
arrangement (signals are applied to both inputs of DA).
Output signal can be taken in two ways i) single-ended output arrangement (output is taken
from one of the output terminal and ground) ii) double-ended output arrangement (output
is taken between two output terminals). Generally, DA is operated for single-ended output.
Notes
O PERATION OF D IFFERENTIAL A MPLIFIER
Signal is applied to input 1 and input 2 is grounded - Transistor Q1 can operate in two
ways: i) common emitter amplifier (input 1 will appear at collector Q1 - as amplified
inverted signal) ii) common collector amplifier (input 1 will appear at emitter Q1 - in
phase with the input and only slightly smaller). Since the emitters of Q1 and Q2 are
common, the emitter signal becomes input to Q2. Therefore Q2 function as common base
amplifier (signal on emitter of Q2 will appears on output 2)
Notes
Signal is applied to input 2 and input 1 is grounded.
Notes
Signal is applied to input 2 and input 1 is grounded.
When only one output terminal is available, the phase of the output of single-ended input
DA depends on which input received the input signal.
Notes
Integrated Circuit 741.
Image Source: https://www.ti.com/product/LM741/part-details/LM741CN/NOPB
Notes
Pin configuration.
Image Source: Subrata, Ghoshal. 8051 Microcontroller: Internals, Instructions, Programming & Interfacing. Pearson Education India
Notes
Pin configuration.
Pin Function.
Notes
Pin configuration.
Pin Function.
Specification - Absolute maximum ratings
Notes
I DEAL O PERATIONAL A MPLIFIER
The ideal operational amplifier is a differential input and single-ended output device.
The ideal op-amp produces an output in response only to the difference between the input
signals V1 and V2 . Thus, it maintains an ideal zero output signal for V1 = V2 . When
(V1 − V2 ) 6= 0, there exists a common-mode input signal, in response to which the ideal
op-amp produces an output signal.
The op-amp consists of transistors biased in the active region with the voltages V + (or
+VCC ) and V − (or +VEE ). Therefore the output voltage is limited by the output voltage
levels.
The ideal op-amp identifies the difference between two input signals that are applied at the
inverting and non-inverting terminals and amplifies the difference so obtained to produce
an output signal.
Image Source: S Salivahanan, V S Kanchana Bhaaskaran “Linear Integrated Circuits”, McGraw Hill Education(India) Private Limited, 2015.
Notes
C HARACTERISTICS OF AN I DEAL O PERATIONAL A MPLIFIER

Infinite input resistance, Ri = ∞
Zero output resistance, Ro = 0
Infinite voltage gain, Av = ∞
Infinite bandwidth, BW=∞
Infinite common-mode rejection ratio, CMRR=∞
Infinite slew rate, SR=∞
Zero offset,i.e. when V1 = V2 , Vo = 0
Characteristics do not drift with temperature
Notes
O PEN - LOOP OP - AMP CONFIGURATIONS
Open-loop differential amplifier
Notes
Inverting amplifier
Notes
Inverting amplifier
Non-inverting amplifier
Notes
L IMITATIONS OF O PEN - LOOP OP - AMP CONFIGURATIONS

Clipping of the output waveform can occur when the output voltage exceeds the saturation
level of op-amp. This is due to the very high open-loop gain of the op-amp. Signals of
very high magnitudes are susceptible to noise and the amplification for those applications
is almost impossible to obtain in the laboratory.
The open-loop gain of the op-amp is not a constant and it varies with changing
temperature and variations in power supply.
The bandwidth of most of the open-loop op-amps is negligibly small. This makes the
open-loop configuration of op-amp unsuitable for ac applications. The open-loop
bandwidth of the widely used IC 741 is approximately 5 Hz. But in almost all ac
applications, the bandwidth requirement is much larger than this.
Due to this reason, the open-loop op-amp is generally not used in linear applications.
However, the open-loop op-amp configurations find use in certain non-linear applications
such as comparators, square-wave generators and astable multivibrators.
Notes
C LOSED - LOOP OP - AMP CONFIGURATIONS

The op-amp can be effectively utilized in linear applications by providing a feedback from
the output to the input, either directly or through another network.
If the signal fed-back is out-of-phase by 180° with respect to the input, then the feedback
is referred to as negative feedback or de-generative feedback.
If the feedback signal is in-phase with that at the input, then the feedback is referred to as
positive feedback or regenerative feedback.
Notes
The four different basic types of configurations using an amplifier A and feedback circuit
are shown in Fig.
Notes
are shown in Fig.
Voltage-series feedback (Non-Inverting)
Notes
are shown in Fig.
Voltage shunt feedback (Inverting)
Notes
are shown in Fig.
Current series feedback
Notes
are shown in Fig.
Current series feedback
Current shunt feedback
Notes
BASIC CONFIGURATION OF O P - AMP
1 The basic configuration of Op-amp is shown in Fig.
2 The resistors Ri and Rf are the input and feedback resistors, respectively.
3 Noninverting input of the amplifier - common zero of power supply; Inverting input -
Voltage V with respect to common zero of power supply.
4 Let the currents in the input and feedback resistors be ii and ip as shown.
5 Assuming high input resistance, current ii may be neglected.
6 Applying Kirchoff’s current law, ii + if = 0.
7
Vi −v
Ri
+ Vo −v
Rf
= 0; For this configuration, Vo = −Av v = −V /A o
8 ∴
Vi +Vo /A
Ri
+
Vo +Vo /A
Rf
= 0, If A is large, (Vo /A) 0. ∴ + = 0; or V
Vi
Ri
Vo
Rf o
R
= (− Rf )Vi
i
Fig. Basic configuration of Op-amp
Notes
I NVERTING AMPLIFIER
The input signal drives the inverting input of the op-amp through resistor R1
The op-amp has an open-loop gain of A, so that the output signal is much larger than the
error voltage.
Because of the phase inversion, the output signal is 180° out-of-phase with the input
signal. This means that the feedback signal opposes the input signal and the feedback is
negative or degenerative.
Notes
I NVERTING AMPLIFIER -E XPRESSION FOR THE CLOSED - LOOP VOLTAGE GAIN
Since the inverting input is at virtual ground, the input impedance is the resistance between
the inverting input terminal and the ground. i.e. Zi = Ri . Therefore, all of the input
voltage appears across R1 and it sets up a current through R1 that equals I1 = RVi
1
This current must flow through Rf , because the virtual ground accepts negligible current.
The left end of Rf is ideally grounded and hence the output voltage appears wholly across
R
it. Therefore Vo = −I2 Rf = − R f Vi
1
Vo R
The closed-loop voltage gain Av is given by Av = Vi
= − Rf
1
Notes
N ON - INVERTING AMPLIFIER
The input signal applied to the non-inverting input and the output voltage fed-back to the
inverting input, i.e. in voltage-series mode.
The op-amp provides an internal gain A. The external resistors R1 and Rf form the
feedback voltage divider circuit with an attenuation factor of β.
Since the feedback voltage is at the inverting input, it opposes the input voltage at the
non-inverting input terminal, and hence, the feedback is negative or de-generative.
Notes
N ON - INVERTING AMPLIFIER –E XPRESSION FOR THE CLOSED - LOOP VOLTAGE GAIN
Since node a is at the same voltage as that of the non-inverting input terminal, the
differential voltage Vid at the input of the op-amp is zero. Rf and R1 form a potential
divider Vi = R R+R1
× Vo
1 f
Vo R1 +Rf Rf
Vi
= R1
=1+ R1
Vo Rf
Hence, the voltage gain for the non-inverting amplifier is given by Av = Vi
=1+ R1
R1
Alternatively, by the feedback factor of the feedback voltage divider network β = R1 +Rf
1 R1 +Rf Rf
Therefore, closed-loop gain is Av = β
= R1
=1+ R1
Notes
A DDITION
1 Fig. shows operational amplifier that adds together four separate input voltages.
If = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4

2 Vout = −Rf × Rv1 + Rv2 + Rv3 + Rv4
1 2 3 4
3 If all five resistors are identical, then vout is a simple summation of the four input voltages.
4 vout = −(v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 )
Image Source: https://chem.libretexts.org/
Notes
S UBTRACTION
1 When more than two voltages are involved, the voltage adder circuit can be used to include
subtraction.
2 The voltage that needs to be subtracted is passed through the inverting amplifier as shown
in Fig.
3 vout = −(v4 + v3 + v2 − V1 )
Notes
M ULTIPLICATION AND D IVISION BY CONSTANT
1 The inverting amplifier shown in Fig. has an output voltage, vout given by,
Rf
vout = −vin ×
Rin
2 The amplifier gives the output voltage vout that multiplies the input voltage by an amount
that depends on the ration of the resistors Rin and Rf
3 Multiplication takes place when Rf > Rin
4 Division takes place when Rin > Rf
Notes
I NTEGRATOR
1 Integrator/ Integration amplifier - The output voltage waveform is the integral of the input
voltage waveform.
2 Circuit can be obtained by using a basic inverting amplifier configuration if the feedback
resistor RF is replaced by a capacitor CF .
3
Kirchoff’s current equation at node v2 i1 = IB + IF .
4 ∼ iF ; current through CF
Since IB is negligibly small, i1 = C (d
F dt )(V2 − Vo )
5
Vin −V2
R1
= CF ( dtd )(V2 − Vo ); IfA is very large, V1 = V2 ∼
=0
Vin
R1

= CF dtd (−Vo )
6 Integrating both sides w.r.to. to time
R t Vin Rt d
0 R dt = CF 0 dt (−Vo )dt
1
∴ Vo = − R 1C 0t Vin dt + C
R
7
1 F
Fig. Integrator circuit

Notes
D IFFERENTIATOR
1 Kirchoff’s current equation at node v2 i C = IB + IF .
2 ∼ 0, iC = iF
∵ IB =
V2 −Vo
3 Therefore C1 dtd (Vin − V2 ) = RF
4 But, V1 = V2 ∼
= 0, ∵ A is very large.
5 ∴ C1 Vdtin = Vo
RF
6 or Vo = −RF C1 dVdtin
Fig. Basic differentiator
Notes
C OMPARATOR
1 Comparator
Image Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/
Notes
C OMPARATOR
1 Comparator Reference Voltage
Notes
C OMPARATOR
1 Positive Voltage Comparator
Notes
C OMPARATOR
2 Negative Voltage Comparator
Notes
C OMPARATOR
2 Negative Voltage Comparator
3 Window Voltage Comparator
Notes
C URRENT TO VOLTAGE C ONVERTER
1 This converter produces a voltage that is proportional to the applied input current.
2 The resistor Rf is floating (not connected to ground) in this I-V converter circuit.
3 It is used where we need to measure the output current but measuring instrument is
capable of measuring voltages only.
4 Application: To measure light intensity using a photodiode sensor. The output of a
photodiode sensor is current which changes proportional to the light intensity.
Image Source: https://electricalvoice.com/
Notes
C URRENT TO VOLTAGE C ONVERTER -A NALYSIS
1 According to virtual ground concept V− = V+ = 0 volt.
2 Current entering both terminals of the op-amp are zero since the op-amp is ideal.
I = 0−0 =0
I
R
0−V0
3 Applying KCL at node Q, Ii = 0 + If f = Ii = Rf
= − VR0
f
4 Ii = − VR0
f
V 0 = −Rf Ii
5 The voltage produced at the output is proportional to the applied input current.
Notes
VOLTAGE T O C URRENT C ONVERTER
1 Floating load voltage to current converter circuit is shown in Fig.
2 This converter creates a current that is proportional to the applied input voltage.
3 It maintains the load current at a value that is independent of the load impedance variation.
4 The resistor RL is floating in this converter.
5
Notes
VOLTAGE TO C URRENT C ONVERTER -A NALYSIS
1 According to virtual ground concept V− = V+ = Vi volt.
2 Current entering both terminals of the op-amp are zero since the op-amp is ideal.
I = Vi R−0 = VRi
3 Applying KCL at node Q, IL = 0 + I I = I I L L = Vi
R
4 If the input voltage Vi and resistance R is fixed, then the load current IL is independent of
the load resistance RL
Notes
SCR/T HYRISTOR -I NTRODUCTION
PNPN D EVICES
The schematic diagram of PNPN, P-gate type device is shown in Fig.
It consist of four regions.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) - Two stable states
Conducting state - very low resistance
Non-conducting state - very high resistance
Switching - non-conducting state conducting state - very rapid - very little power is
required.
Used mainly for switching and power control eg. controlled rectifier.
A brief signal (positive-charge or holes) into the base P-gate causes current to flow - self
sustaining.
The anode current continues to flow (SCR is ON) even after removal of gate pulse.
A reverse signal to the gate (negative) can make the thyristor OFF.
Image source: Rao, Sunil S. Switchgear Protection and Power Systems:(theory, Practice and Solved Problems). Khanna, 2007.
Notes
T HYRISTOR T RIPPING C IRCUIT

The schematic diagram of thyristor tripping circuit shown in Fig.
SCR is employed in the output stage of static relays as illustrated in Fig.
The measuring circuit of relay sends a pulse to gate of thyristor when threshold condition
is reached.
The thyristor triggers and the current from the battery flows through trip coil of the circuit
breaker.
The circuit breaker opens and the auxiliary switch also opens as it is interlocked with the
circuit breaker and thereby the thyristor is turned OFF.
Image source: Rao, Sunil S. Switchgear Protection and Power Systems:(theory, Practice and Solved Problems). Khanna, 2007.
Notes
T YPES OF THYRISTORS
Reverse blocking thyristor
Bidirectional thyristor
Turn off thyristor
P-Gate thyristor etc.
P-G ATE THYRISTOR

Application of positive voltage to gate with respect to cathode terminal.
Setting up a displacement current in P-type region, by means of a pulse-positive with
respect to cathode, to the gate. This method is used in the output stage of static relays.
Thyristor applications - controlled rectifiers, motor control circuits, temperature control
devices, a.c./d.c. switch circuits, inverters etc.
Thyristor - Range of rated forward current - a few amperes to several hundred amperes.
Thyristor - can be trigged by a momentary pulse (4 µ sec) of a few milliamperes gate
current.
When used in a.c. circuits, the gate current pulse can be timed so as to fire the SCR at the
desired angle with each positive half cycle, thereby producing phase control.
Notes
M ICROPROCESSOR - I NTRODUCTION
Microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable, clock-driven, register-based electronic
device that reads binary instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary
data as input and processes data according to those instructions, and provides results as
output.
A typical programmable machine can be represented with four components:
microprocessor, memory, input and output, as shown in Fig.
These four components work together or interact with each other to perform a given task;
thus they comprise a system.
The physical components of this system are called hardware.
A set of instructions written for the microprocessor to perform a task is called a program,
and a group of program is called software.
Image source: Gaonkar, Ramesh. Microprocessor Architecture, Programming, and Application with the 8085. Fifth edition.
Notes
The microprocessor operates in binary digits, 0 and 1, also known as bits. Group of bits
called the word.
These bits are stored in a register. These registers are arranged in a sequence called
memory. These registers are grouped together in powers of two. (210 = 1024).
A group of 1024 8-bit registers on a semiconductor chip is known as 1K byte of memory.
The block diagram representation of a traditional computer is presented below.
It consists of four components: memory, input, output, and the central processing unit
(CPU), which consist of arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) and the control unit.
The CPU contains various registers to store data, the ALU to perform arithmetic and
logical operations, instruction decoders, counters and control lines.
The CPU reads instructions from the memory and performs the tasks specified.
The timing of the communication process is controlled by the group of circuits called the
control unit.
Notes
Due to the advent of integrated circuit technology, it became possible to build the CPU on
a single chip; this came to be known as microprocessor.
A computer with microprocessor as CPU is known as a microcomputer.
The term microprocessor and microprocessor unit (MPU) are often used synonymously.
Microcontroller - An entire computer on a single chip.
MP 8085 - upward software compatible with the 8080.
Notes
Intel Microprocessor: Historical Perspective
Source: Gaonkar, Ramesh. Microprocessor Architecture, Programming, and Application with the 8085. Fifth edition.
Notes
O RGANIZATION OF A MICROPROCESSOR - BASED SYSTEM
The simplified but formal structure of a microprocessor-based system or a product is
represented in Fig.
It includes three components: microprocessor, I/O (input/output) and memory.
These components are organized around a common communication path called a bus.
The term peripheral is used for input/output devices.
The registers are primarily used to store data temporarily during the execution of a
program and are accessible to the user through instructions. These are identified by letters
such as B, C, D, E, H, and L.
The system bus is a communication path between the microprocessor and peripherals.
The timing is provided by the control unit.
Source: Gaonkar, Ramesh. Microprocessor Architecture, Programming, and Application with the 8085. Fifth edition.
Notes
M ICROPROCESSOR & M ICROCONTROLLER
I NTRODUCTION
General-purpose microprocessor
Notes
M ICROPROCESSOR & M ICROCONTROLLER
I NTRODUCTION
General-purpose microprocessor
Microcontroller
Notes
D/A C ONVERTER (DAC)
DAC is used to convert a digital input to its proportionate analog form.
Schematic of 8-bit DAC R-2R ladder network is represented.
The resistors used must be accurate. Conversion time of this type of DAC is very less (few
ns)
Generalised R-2R DAC equation
VD0 + 2VD1 + 4VD2 + .... + (2n /2)VDn−1

Vout =
2n
Addition reference on R-2R DAC
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/combination/r-2r-dac.html
Notes
4- BIT R-2R D/A C ONVERTER O UTPUT
Digital Inputs Vout Expression Vout

D C B A (8*VD + 4*VC + 2*VB + 1*VA )/16 in Volts
0 0 0 0 (0*5 + 0*5 + 0*5 + 0*5)/16 0
0 0 0 1 (0*5 + 0*5 + 0*5 + 1*5)/16 0.3125
0 0 1 0 (0*5 + 0*5 + 2*5 + 0*5)/16 0.6250
0 0 1 1 (0*5 + 0*5 + 2*5 + 1*5)/16 0.9375
0 1 0 0 (0*5 + 4*5 + 0*5 + 0*5)/16 1.2500
0 1 0 1 (0*5 + 4*5 + 0*5 + 1*5)/16 1.5625
0 1 1 0 (0*5 + 4*5 + 2*5 + 0*5)/16 1.8750
0 1 1 1 (0*5 + 4*5 + 2*5 + 1*5)/16 2.1875
1 0 0 0 (8*5 + 0*5 + 0*5 + 0*5)/16 2.5000
1 0 0 1 (8*5 + 0*5 + 0*5 + 1*5)/16 2.8125
1 0 1 0 (8*5 + 0*5 + 2*5 + 0*5)/16 3.1250
1 0 1 1 (8*5 + 0*5 + 2*5 + 1*5)/16 3.4375
1 1 0 0 (8*5 + 4*5 + 0*5 + 0*5)/16 3.7500
1 1 0 1 (8*5 + 4*5 + 0*5 + 1*5)/16 4.0625
1 1 1 0 (8*5 + 4*5 + 2*5 + 0*5)/16 4.3750
1 1 1 1 (8*5 + 4*5 + 2*5 + 1*5)/16 4.6875
Notes
I NTERFACING D/A C ONVERTER
Pin diagram of National 0808 DAC.
Notes
Circuit diagram of DAC interfaced with 8051.
Notes
Data input line A1 (MSB) - A8 (LSB), Op-Amp is necessary to supply sufficient current at
the o/p stage.
Notes
Data input line A1 (MSB) - A8 (LSB), Op-Amp is necessary to supply sufficient current at
the o/p stage.
Resistors-metal flim resistors of accurate values. Biploar power supply is necessary.
Notes
A/D C ONVERTER (ADC)
ADC - successive approximation, dual slope and flash conversion (almost instant
conversion) method.
Notes
conversion) method.
Simplified Schematic of SAR type ADC.
Notes
conversion) method.
Analog i/p is compared with o/p of internal DAC, whenever the output matches, EoC is
generated and data becomes available at the o/p port.
Notes
conversion) method.
A register (SAR) keeps on sending digital values generated by continuous increments,
starting from 0.
Notes
conversion) method.
starting from 0.
Start conversion - initiate the whole process; Read - read the data.
Notes
conversion) method.
starting from 0.
The whole process depends on sequential logic demanding a clock signal.
Notes
conversion) method.
starting from 0.
The whole process depends on sequential logic demanding a clock signal.
Sample and Hold unit.
Notes
ADCs may accept single/multiple analog input and the output may be collected through
the interrupt.
Notes
the interrupt.
Pin diagram of National 0809 ADC. Accepts 8 i/ps and converts to digital o/p at a typical
rate of 100 microsecond/channel.
Notes
the interrupt.
3 address input lines - to select any one of the 8 i/p channels, ALE- to latch the channel
number.
Notes
the interrupt.
number.
Start conv.is applied through START i/p. EoC o/p is interfaced with a interrupt i/p of MC.
Digital o/ps may be collected through the output enable (OE).
Notes
the interrupt.
number.
Start conv.is applied through START i/p. EoC o/p is interfaced with a interrupt i/p of MC.
Digital o/ps may be collected through the output enable (OE).
Notes
A SSIGNMENT-II
A SSIGNMENT-II
1 Write the advantages and disadvantages of each and every number system.
2 What is universal gate? Design all the basic gates, XOR and XNOR gates by using
universal gates.
3 Write the significance and importance of analog and digital circuits in electrical and
electronics applications.
4 Write the difference between microprocessor and microcontroller.
5 Find the decimal equivalent of the following binary numbers:
(a) (1111)2 (b) (10100)2 (c) (11011001)2 (d) (10011001)2 (e) (10.011)2
6 Convert the following decimal numbers into their binary equivalents:
(a) (25)10 (b) (125)10 (a) (0.85)10
7 Convert the following octal numbers to decimal and binary
(a) (35)8 (b) (6421)8
8 Convert the following decimal numbers to octal
(a) (1359)10 (b) (7777)10
9 Convert hexadecimal number A6 to binary and decimal
10 Convert decimal number 23 to hexadecimal, binary and octal
Notes
R EFERENCE B OOKS
R EFERENCE B OOKS
1 Electric Machinery Fundamentals by Stephen Chapman.
2 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives by G. K. Dubey.
3 Modern Digital Fundamentals by Floyd
4 Electric Drives N.K. De and P.K. Sen.
5 Electric Drives: Concepts And Applications by Vedam Subrahmanyam
6 Electrical Machine Design by A.K. Sawhney
7 Theraja B.L., Theraja A.K., “ A Textbook of Electrical Technology: Volume 2 AC and DC
Machines: AC and DC Machines - Vol. 2”, S. Chand.
8 Huges, “Electrical and Electronics Technology”, Pearson.
9 Smarajit Ghosh“ Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering”, PHI.
10 Parekh, Rakesh. ”AC induction motor fundamentals.” Microchip Technology Inc
DS00887A (2003): 1-24.

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A PPLIED E LECTRICAL AND E LECTRONICS E NGINEERING

(A NALOG AND D IGITAL C IRCUITS )

November 18, 2023

4 SCR AND A PPLICATIONS

A NALOG E LECTRONICS AND D IGITAL C IRCUITS

VARIOUS C IRCUIT C URRENTS

ACCORDING TO FREQUENCY CAPABILITIES

ACCORDING TO COUPLING METHODS

ACCORDING TO MODE OF OPERATION

S.No. Particular RC coupling Transformer coupling Direct coupling

Image Source: https://www.ti.com/product/LM741/part-details/LM741CN/NOPB

C HARACTERISTICS OF AN I DEAL O PERATIONAL A MPLIFIER

L IMITATIONS OF O PEN - LOOP OP - AMP CONFIGURATIONS

C LOSED - LOOP OP - AMP CONFIGURATIONS

Fig. Basic configuration of Op-amp

Image Source: https://chem.libretexts.org/

Image Source: https://chem.libretexts.org/

Image Source: https://chem.libretexts.org/

Fig. Integrator circuit

Fig. Basic differentiator

Image Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

Image Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

Image Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

Image Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

Image Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

Image Source: https://electricalvoice.com/

Image Source: https://electricalvoice.com/

Image Source: https://electricalvoice.com/

Image Source: https://electricalvoice.com/

T HYRISTOR T RIPPING C IRCUIT

P-G ATE THYRISTOR

Intel Microprocessor: Historical Perspective

VD0 + 2VD1 + 4VD2 + .... + (2n /2)VDn−1

Digital Inputs Vout Expression Vout

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