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ESDEP WG 3

FABRICATION AND ERECTION

Lecture 3.3: Principles of Welding

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE

To present an overall view of the implications of making joints by welding.

PREREQUISITES

Lectures 3.1: General Fabrication of Steel Structures

RELATED LECTURES

Lecture 3.4: Welding Processes

SUMMARY

This lecture describes the basic principles involved in making a welded joint. It discusses the structure and
properties of both the weld metal and the heat affected zone. It explains the necessity for edge
preparations when butt welding, and gives examples of the types used. It outlines how the welding
procedure can be varied to meet the needs of the particular joint being made.

ABBREVIATIONS

MAG Metal Active Gas Welding (sometimes referred to as MIG Metal Inert Gas Welding)
MMA Manual Metal Arc Welding
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
HAZ Heat Affected Zone

1. INTRODUCTION
Welding offers a means of making continuous, load bearing, metallic joints between the components of a
structure.
In structural work, a variety of welded joints are used; these can all be made up from the basic
configurations shown in Figure 1, which are classified as follows:
 butt joints.
 tee joints.
 lap joints.
 corner joints.
As illustrated in Figure 2, a welded joint is made by fusing (melting) the steel plates or sections (the parent
metal) along the line of the joint. The metal melted from each member at the joint unites in a pool of
molten metal which bridges the interface. As the pool cools, molten metal at the fusion boundary
solidifies, forming a solid bond with the parent metal, see Figure 3. When the solidification is complete,
there is continuity of metal through the joint.
2. METHODS OF MAKING A WELDED JOINT
Two types of weld are in common use: butt welds and fillet welds. In the former the weld metal is
generally contained within the profiles of the welded elements; in the latter, deposited weld metal is
external to the profile of the welded elements.
Obviously the complete length of joint cannot be melted simultaneously. In practice a heat source is used
to melt a small area and is then moved along the joint line, progressively fusing the parent metal at the
leading edge of the weld pool, as shown in Figure 4. At the same time, the metal at the trailing edge of the
pool solidifies. The most commonly used heat source, in structural work, is a low voltage (15 to 35 volt),
high current (50 to 1000 amp) arc. As shown diagrammatically in Figure 5, the arc operates between the
end of a steel electrode (rod) and the work piece. It melts both the parent metal and the electrode; molten
metal from the electrode is thereby added to the weld pool.
The molten steel in the pool will readily absorb oxygen and nitrogen from the air, which could lead to
porosity in the solidified weld and possibly to metallurgical problems. Figure 6 shows how this is avoided
by covering the pool with a molten flux, as in Manual Metal Arc (MMA) and Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW), or by replacing the air around the arc by a non-reactive gas, as in Metal Active Gas (MAG)
Welding or cored wire welding.
3. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WELDS
The solidified weld metal has a cast structure and has properties characteristic of cast steel, i.e. higher
ratio of yield to ultimate strength than structural steel. The weld metal is a mixture of parent metal and
steel melted from the electrode. In structural work the composition of the electrode is usually chosen so
that the resultant weld metal is stronger than the connected elements. Occasionally, specific conditions
may override this chocie. For example, when joining stainless steel to carbon-manganese steel, a highly
alloyed electrode must be used to avoid cracking in the weld metal.
When the weld pool is cooling and solidifying, the majority of the heat flows through the parent metal
alongside the joint. The steel is thus subjected to heating and cooling cycles similar to those experienced
in heat treatment practice. As shown in Figure 7, the structure of the steel will be changed in this region
(called the heat affected zone, HAZ). This must be taken into account in the design in terms of notch
toughness (Charpy value), etc.

The structure of the HAZ will be controlled by:

 the composition of the steel (carbon equivalent).
 the cooling rate in the HAZ.
In turn the cooling rate is determined by:
 arc energy, i.e. heat input to the joint.
 type of joint.
 thickness of steel.
 temperature of steel plate or section prior to welding, e.g. preheat.

A method of determining the interaction of these factors in relation to the avoidance of cracks in the HAZ
is given in the sample chart shown in Figure 8.

In addition to its effect on the cooling rate, preheat is used to:

 Disperse hyrodgen from the weld pool and HAZ. Hydrogen in the HAZ increases the risk of
cracking if hardening has occurred. The hydrogen comes principally from the flux. An appropriate
electrode, correctly stored, will reduce the risk of hydrogen pick-up.
 Remove surface moisture in high humidity conditions or on site.
  Bring the steel up to 'normal' ambient conditions (20C).

4. EDGE PREPARATION FOR BUTT WELDS

For square edge preparations the depth of melting into the plate is called the Depth of Penetration, see
Figure 9a. As a very rough guide, the penetration is about 1mm per 100 amp. In manual welding the
current is usually not more than 350 amp; more commonly 150-200 amp. This means that the edges of the
plate must be cut back along the joint line for continuity through the thickness to be achieved (Figure 9b).
The groove so formed is then filled with metal melted from the electrode (Figure 9c). Various edge
profiles are used and are illustrated in Figure 10; the edges may be planed, sawn, guillotined or flame cut.

The first run to be deposited in the bottom of the groove is called the root run. The root faces must be
melted to ensure good penetration, but at the same time the weld pool must be controlled to avoid
collapse, as seen in Figure 11. This task requires considerable skill. The difficulties can be eased by using
a backing strip.
The choice of edge preparation depends on:
 type of process.
 position of welding (Figure 12).
 access for arc and electrode.
 volume of deposited weld metal which should be kept to a minimum.
 cost of preparing edges.
 shrinkage and distortion (Figure 13).
5. WELDING PROCEDURES
The term welding procedure is used to describe the complete process involved in making a weld. It covers
choice of electrode, edge preparation, preheat, welding parameters (voltage, current and travel speed),
welding position, number of weld runs to fill the groove, and post-weld treatments, e.g. grinding or heat
treatment. Welding procedures may be devised to meet various needs, e.g. to minimise costs, control
distortion, avoid defects or achieve good impact properties. Specific aspects of the weld procedure are
worth detailed comment.

5.1 Current

The current controls heat input. The minimum value is fixed by the need to fuse the plate and to keep the
arc stable; the specified minimum, however, may be higher to avoid HAZ cracks. The maximum current
depends on operating conditions. Usually, as high a current as possible is used to achieve faster welding,
and hence lower costs. The use of maximum current may be restricted by position; in the overhead
position, for example, currents above 160 amps cannot be used. High currents usually give low impact
properties. Note that the current used is chosen to match the electrode diameter.

5.2 Welding Position

The effect of position on current is noted above. Welding in the overhead position requires greater skill to
avoid defects, such as poor profile, and should only be used when absolutely necessary. Vertical welding
is slower than welding in the flat position but requires less skill than the overhead position.

5.3 Environment

If on site welding is necessary the following points must be considered:

 in cold weather the steel may need to be heated to bring it up to 20C.
 overnight condensation and high humidity can lead to porosity.
 care must be taken to ensure the electrodes are kept dry in the stores.
 it is often difficult to achieve accurate fitting of the joint; variable and/or large gaps may result in
defective welds, distortion and increased costs.

6. SHRINKAGE
During cooling, the hot metal in the weld zone contracts, causing the joint to shrink. The contraction is
restrained by the cold metal surrounding the joint; stresses are set up which, being in excess of the yield
stress, produce plastic deformation. This can lead to the distortion or buckling shown in Figure 13.
Distortion can be reduced by choice of edge preparation and weld procedure; examples are shown in
Figure 14.
When the plastic deformation has ceased, the joint is left with the residual stress pattern of Figure 15 with
tension in the weld metal and HAZ, and compression in the surrounding steel. The significance of these
residual stresses is discussed in other lectures.

7. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
 A welded joint is made by fusing parent metal from both components being joined, usually with
added weld metal.
 The properties of both the weld metal, which has melted and solidified, and the surrounding heat
affected zone may differ from those of the parent metal.
 Welding procedures should be properly specified to give a satisfactory welded joint. The major
parameters are: welding position, electrode type, edge preparation, preheat, voltage, current, travel
speed, number of runs and post-weld heat treatments.
 Hot metal in the weld zone contracts during cooling causing residual stresses. Distortion will occur
if appropriate control is not exercised.

8. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Hicks, J. "Welding Design", Granada.
  details of joints and welds.

 strength of welded joints.

 effects of welding on metallurgical structures, heat affected zones, HAZ cracking.

 edge preparation.

 welding positions - definitions and comments.

2. Gourd, L. M. "Principles of Welding Technology", Edward Arnold, 1980.

 formation of a weld.

 types of heat source.

 strength of welded joints.

 effects of welding on metallurgical structure, heat affected zones, HAZ cracking.

 edge preparation.

 comments on residual stresses.

 control of distortion.

3. Milner, D.R. and Apps, R. L. "Introduction to Welding and Brazing", Pergamon.

 effects of welding on metallurgical structure, heat affected zones, HAZ cracking.

 control of distortion.

4. Pratt, J. L. "Introduction to the Welding of Structural Steelwork",

Steel Construction Institute - Publication No 014.

5. British Standard BS 5135: 1986, "Metal Arc Welding of Carbon and Carbon Maganese Steels",
British Standards Institution, London.

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