Introduction

to
Quantum Physics
First Edition

Rakesh Sohal
Rustamji Institute of Technology
BSF Academy Tekanpur, Gwalior, India
 Quantum Physics

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Rakesh Sohal received his doctorate at Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus,

Germany Assistant Professor at Rustamji Institute of Technology, Gwalior. He acquired
MTech from Indian prestigious institute IIT Kharagpur. He was also PhD scholar at IISc
Bangalore, the renowned institute. Dr. Sohal began his career in research at BTU Cottbus
Germany where he conducted research on semiconductor beyond silicon and dielectrics beyond
silicon oxide from 2003 to 2006. His second appointment was at IHP Microelectronics,
Frankfurt Oder, Germany as Postdoc Fellow. At this position, he worked on tailored oxide thin
films for resistive switching RAMs. He authored several research papers in high impact factor
journals in the field of experimental condensed matter physics. He began his career in teaching
at RJIT Gwalior where he developed courses of Engineering Physics and Principles of
Quantum Physics.

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 Quantum Physics

Table of Contents

1. Quantum Physics: An Introduction

2. What do we learn from black body radiation?
3. Compton Effect and its significance
4. Photoelectric Effect and the particle picture of wave
5. Louis de Broglie hypothesis: matter particles also possess wave like nature
6. Davisson Germer observed wave like nature of particles
7. How to represent particle in the form of wave
8. Classical & Quantum view of Particles and Waves
9. Phase velocity and group velocity, what exactly these are?
10. Phase velocity exceeds the velocity of light
11. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
12. Let’s derive well known Schrödinger wave equations
13. Let’s use Schrödinger wave equation
14. Born Interpretation of wave function

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 Quantum Physics

Quantum Physics: Introduction

Quantum mechanics deals with the behavior of matter and light and their interaction in detail
on atomic scale. It is based on the physical events which were beyond our understanding based
on classical physics. In 19th century, there were some experimental observations such as
spectrum of blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect, Compton effect, etc. in which
experimental results were beyond expectations or predictions based on classical physics.
Following are some conclusive remarks based on these observations.
a. Classical: In Physical universe, we determine the information with desired precision
But according to Modern Physics, at the scale of atomic particles we can just find the
probability of outcome of an experiment. We cannot predict exact results with certainty.
Uncertainty is an intrinsic property of matter at this level.

b. Classical: The ordinary matter was composed of particles and light consisted of waves
In Modern Physics, both light and matter particles show behavior of both particles and
wave which is termed as wave-particle duality

c. Classical: Physical quantities such as energy, momentum, etc. are continuous variables
In Modern Physics, some physical quantities are quantized that means these can have
only specific discrete values. Between any two consecutive values, no value is
permitted.

d. Classical: There exists an objective physical reality independent of any observer

In Modern Physics, it is apparent that the means of observation always affects the
experimental outcomes. It is impossible to disentangle the means of observation and
outcomes.

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 Quantum Physics

Let us discuss some of these experiments in detail.

Black body radiation

One of the most significant failures of classical mechanics was its inability to explain the
distribution of energy emitted by a blackbody. Any hot object emits electromagnetic radiation,
and the maximum in the emitted wavelength shifts to shorter wavelengths as the temperature
of the blackbody is raised.

A black body is the name given to a theoretical ideal emitter, an object capable of absorbing
and emitting all wavelengths of radiation equally. A black body emitter may be successfully
approximated by a small opening into a heated cavity. This small opening is considered as
black body. The radiation is absorbed and emitted through this blackbody that is this small
opening. The emission curves of a black body have the following form:

Figure 1: The emission curve of a blackbody, intensity vs wavelength, where T1 < T2 < T3.

The energy distribution, or spectral energy density, is the energy per unit volume of the cavity
that is emitted in the wavelength interval λ to λ + dλ. Note the total area under the curve
increases as the temperature increases, indicating that the hotter an object is, more energy it
radiates per unit volume.

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 Quantum Physics

The energy distribution was initially treated classically by considering the electromagnetic field
as a collection of oscillators of all possible frequencies. The presence of radiation of frequency
ν then signifies that the oscillator of that frequency has been excited. The classical equipartition
principle may then be applied to determine the average energy of each independent oscillator.
Based on this Rayleigh and Jeans formulated the following expression for spectral energy
density, ρ, known as Rayleigh-Jeans law:

8kT

4

This law is very successful at long wavelengths as energy density tends to vanish for larger
values of wavelengths, but it fails badly at short ones. The inverse dependence upon λ means
that as the wavelength gets shorter and shorter, the spectral energy density tends to infinity.
This result is obviously absurd, as it suggests that even at room temperature, objects should
radiate strongly in the short wavelength portion of the spectrum (gamma rays, x-rays and the
ultraviolet), which is clearly not the case. This failing of the classical Rayleigh – Jeans law
is termed as ultraviolet catastrophe.

Figure 2: Rayleigh – Jeans Law, ultraviolet catastrophe

The experimental observations may be accounted for by limiting the energy of electromagnetic
oscillators to discrete values. This is quite contrary to the classical view, in which all possible
energy values are allowed. This limitation imposed on possible values of energy is termed as
quantization.

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 Quantum Physics

This idea was originally proposed by Max Planck the German physicist, and he discovered that
the observed data were reproduced if he supposed that the energies of an oscillator of frequency
ν were limited to integer multiples of hν, where h was a fundamental constant which is now
known as the Planck constant. This assumption allowed him to derive the Planck distribution
function for spectral energy density:

8hc  1 

 5  hc kT
 e  1 

This expression provides a good agreement with experimental data, and the constant h, which
is an undetermined parameter in the original theory, may be adjusted to obtain the best fit. This
allows measurement of the value of h by experiment.

This expression is similar in form to the Rayleigh-Jeans law, the main difference being in the
exponential term in the denominator. At short wavelengths the exponential term is large, and
as the wavelength tends to zero, the exponential term tends to infinity faster than the 1/λ5 term
tends to zero. The upshot of this is that as the wavelength tends to zero, so does the spectral
energy density. Thus the ultraviolet catastrophe is avoided.

At long wavelengths, the Planck distribution reduces to the Rayleigh-Jeans law.

This is because the exponential term in the distribution is much smaller than one when the
wavelength is large, so it may be approximated by 1 + (hc / λkT), recall that ex ≈ 1+ x when x
is very small. Substitution of this approximation into the Planck distribution immediately gives
the Rayleigh-Jeans law.

The reasoning behind the success of the Planck distribution is as follows:

Rayleigh's approach failed because it assumed that the thermal motion of atoms in the walls of
a black body would excite all the electromagnetic oscillators equally; the ultraviolet catastrophe
is a result of the excitation of high frequency oscillators.

According to Planck's hypothesis, however, an oscillator cannot be excited unless it receives

an energy of at least hν (as the minimum amount of energy an oscillator of frequency ν may
possess above zero. It cannot have an amount of energy which is a fraction of hν, so it cannot
accept an amount of energy less than hν). For high frequency oscillators (large ν), the amount

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 Quantum Physics

of energy hν is too large to be supplied by the thermal motion of the atoms in the walls, and so
they are not excited.

Quantization of energy reduces the contribution to the emission curve of high frequency
oscillators, as the energy available with thermal motion of atoms is not sufficient to excite them.

Example: Show that for very large wavelengths λ, Planck’s formula for spectral radiance

8𝜋 1
𝜌(𝜆) =
𝜆5 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ℎ𝑐 ) − 1
𝜆𝑘𝑇

reduces to the Rayleigh Jeans formula,

8𝜋
𝜌(𝜆) = 𝑘𝑇
𝜆4

Solution: Planck’s radiation formula is given by

8𝜋 1
𝜌(𝜆) =
𝜆 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ℎ𝑐 ) − 1
5
𝜆𝑘𝑇
ℎ𝑐
Let 𝑥 = 𝜆𝑘𝑇. For very large value of λ, 𝑥 ≪ 1. So we can write it as

𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑥) ≈ 1 + 𝑥 + + ….
2! 3!
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1 = (1 + +⋯)−1 ≈
𝜆𝑘𝑇 𝜆𝑘𝑇 𝜆𝑘𝑇

Hence, the expression becomes,

8𝜋ℎ𝑐 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝜌(𝜆) =
𝜆5 ℎ𝑐
8𝜋
𝜌(𝜆) = 𝑘𝑇
𝜆4

It is the Rayleigh – Jeans formula.

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 Quantum Physics

Compton effect

Compton effect: When electromagnetic waves are

scattered by a charged particle at rest, it is been
observed that at an angle two different scattered
radiations appear, one with incident wavelength and
another with wavelength greater by ∆𝜆 = 0.024(1 −
cos 𝜃) Å, where θ is scattering angle

Figure 3: Compton shift depends on scattering angle

Figure 4: Compton effect showing the increase of wavelength of scattered e - m wave

This increase in wavelength of electromagnetic radiation after scattering from electron at rest
is known as Compton Effect.

Analytic treatment to Compton Effect

Let us consider that electromagnetic wave of energy hν and momentum hν/c collide with an
electron at rest and radiation is scattered by angle θ possess the energy hν´ and momentum
hν´/c and electron also recoils in ϕ angle with energy 𝑚𝑐 2 and momentum mv. Applying the
principle of conservation of energy and momentum along x and y directions. We get the
following expressions

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 Quantum Physics

Figure 5: Compton effect explained by particle nature of e - m radiation

Energy conservation: ℎ𝜈 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈 ´ + 𝑚𝑐 2 … … … . (1)

ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 ´
Momentum conservation (along x direction): 𝑐
+0= 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑚𝑣. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 … … … . (2)

ℎ𝜈 ´
Momentum conservation (along y direction): 0 + 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑚𝑣. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 … … … . (3)
𝑐

To eliminate ϕ from equation 1 & 2, rearrange equations

𝑚𝑣𝑐. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ´ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) … … … . (4)

𝑚𝑣𝑐. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = ℎ𝑣 ´ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … … … . (5)

Squaring and adding these two equations, we get

𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 (𝜈 2 − 2𝜈𝜈 ´ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜈 ´2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜈 ´2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)

𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 (𝜈 2 − 2𝜈𝜈 ´ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜈 ´2 ) … … … . (6)

From equation 1, we get

𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ´ ) + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 … … … . (7)

Squaring both sides in equation (7), we get

𝑚2 𝑐 4 = ℎ2 (𝜈 2 − 2𝜈𝜈 ´ + 𝜈 ´2 ) + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ´ )𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 … … … . (8)

Subtracting equation (6) from (8), we get

𝑚2 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = ℎ2 (𝜈 2 − 2𝜈𝜈 ´ + 𝜈 ´2 − 𝜈 2 + 2𝜈𝜈 ´ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜈 ´2 ) + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ´ )𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4

𝑚2 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = ℎ2 (−2𝜈𝜈 ´ + 2𝜈𝜈 ´ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ´ )𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4

𝑚2 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = −2ℎ2 𝜈𝜈 ´ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ´ )𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 … … … . (9)

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 Quantum Physics

Simplifying the LHS of equation (9)

2

𝑚0
𝑚2 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 )
√1 − 𝑣2
⁄𝑐 2
( )

𝑚02 𝑐 2
2 2 (𝑐 2
𝑚 𝑐 −𝑣 2)
= 2 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = 𝑚02 𝑐 4
(𝑐 − 𝑣 2 )

Put this value of LHS in equation (9), we get

𝑚02 𝑐 4 = −2ℎ2 𝜈𝜈 ´ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ´ )𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 … … … . (10)

2ℎ2 𝜈𝜈 ´ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ´ )𝑚0 𝑐 2 … … … . (11)

𝜈 − 𝜈´ ℎ
= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝜈𝜈 ´ 𝑚0 𝑐 2

1 1 ℎ
− = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝜈 𝜈 𝑚0 𝑐 2
´

𝜆´ 𝜆 ℎ
− = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑚0 𝑐 2

ℎ
𝜆´ − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) … … … . (12)
𝑚0 𝑐

In equation (12) 𝜆´ − 𝜆 is called Compton shift; as ℎ, 𝑚0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are constants, Compton shift
depends on scattering angle θ. From eq (12) the maximum value of Compton shift will be for
the θ value for which(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) takes maximum value, which happens at θ=180 degrees. As
θ varies from 0 to 180, wavelength of scattered photon varies from minimum value λ to
2ℎ
maximum value 𝜆 + 𝑚 𝑐 provided that the wavelength of the incident radiation is sufficiently
0

small, otherwise there will be no change in the wavelength.

After substituting the value of constants, the Compton shift is given by ∆λ=0.024(1-cosθ)Å;
the maximum Compton shift is just 0.048Å. If we use x-rays (λ=1Å), the maximum Compton
shift 0.048 Å is 4.8% of the wavelength being used, hence it is detectable.

Whereas, the maximum Compton shift 0.048Å is just 0.001% of wavelength 4800Å (visible),
hence it is insignificant to detect.

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 Quantum Physics

Example: X-rays of wavelength λ=0.200 nm aimed at a block of carbon. The scattered x-rays
are observed at an angle of 45° to the incident beam. Calculate the increased wavelength of the
scattered x-rays at this angle.

Solution: The shift in wavelength of the scattered x-rays is given by equation 12, i.e.

ℎ
𝜆´ − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑚0 𝑐

Taking θ=45°, we find the Compton shift

´
6.63 × 10−34 𝐽 ∙ 𝑠
𝜆 −𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠45°)
(9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔)(3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)

= 7.11 × 10−13 𝑚 = 0.000711 𝑛𝑚

Hence, the wavelength of the scattered x-ray at the angle of 45° is

𝜆 = 𝜆0 + Δ𝜆 = 0.200711 𝑛𝑚

Example: Why are the x-ray photons used in the Compton experiment, rather than visible light
photons? To answer this question, we shall first calculate the Compton shift for scattering angle
at 90° from graphite for the following cases: (1) Very high energy x-rays from cobalt, λ=0.0106
Å. (2) x-rays from molybdenum, λ=0.712 Å, and (3) green light from a mercury lamp λ=5461
Å.

Solution: In all cases, the Compton shift formula gives Δ𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆0 = (0.0243Å)(1 −

𝑐𝑜𝑠90°) = 0.00243 𝑛𝑚. That is, regardless of the incident wavelength, the same small shift is
observed. However, the fractional change in wavelength Δ𝜆⁄𝜆0 is quite different in each case:

Δ𝜆 0.0243 Å
In case of x-rays from cobalt: = 0.0106 Å = 2.29
𝜆0

Δ𝜆 0.0243 Å
In case of x-rays from molybdenum: : = = 0.0341
𝜆0 0.712 Å

In case of visible green light from mercury lamp:

Δ𝜆 0.0243 Å
: = = 4.45 × 10−6
𝜆0 5461 Å

Because both incident and scattered wavelength are simultaneously present in the beam, they
can be easily resolved only if Δ𝜆⁄𝜆0 is a few percent as in the case of x-rays.

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 Quantum Physics

(b) The so-called free electrons in carbon are actually electrons with a binding energy of about
4 eV. Why may this binding energy be ignored for x-rays with λ0=0.712 Å?

Solution: The energy of a photon with this wavelength is

ℎ𝑐 12400 𝑒𝑉 ∙ Å
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = = = 17400 𝑒𝑉
𝜆 0.712Å

Therefore, the binding energy of electron 4eV is negligible in comparison to the energy of
incident x-rays.

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 Quantum Physics

Photoelectric Effect

German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovered the

photoelectric effect in 1887. When a radiation incident on one of
the metal electrodes with voltage applied across them, a spark takes
place. This phenomenon is termed as photoelectric effect. Later in
1897, J J Thomson identified these sparks as light excited electrons
ejected out of the metal. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

Figure 6: Schematic of Photoelectric effect (left), KEmax vs frequency of radiation (right)

Following are the observations of this experiment:

1. There is no electron emission if the frequency of incident radiation is smaller than the
metal’s threshold frequency (fth) even if the radiation intensity is very high. This is
shown in figure 6 (right).
2. Even if the intensity of the incident radiation is very low, electrons ejected instantly if
the frequency of radiation exceeds the threshold frequency.

Figure 7: Photoelectron current increases with intensity of light

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 Quantum Physics

3. If the frequency is above threshold value, the number of electrons or the electron current
increases with the intensity of light but it does not change with frequency (depicted in
figure 7).

Figure 8: Observations of photoelectric effect

4. Kinetic energy of electrons increases linearly with the incident frequency (figure 8 left).
The kinetic energy remains constant with increase of radiation intensity (figure 8 right).

Based on the classical wave model of light, physicists predicted that:

Kinetic energy of photoelectrons should increase with intensity of radiation: According to

classical physics, any amount of energy can be exchanged with matter; if large number of
waves strike the electron, it would keep on absorbing energy of each wave until it gains
sufficient to be free from metal. That means radiation with any frequency and sufficient
intensity can free the electron from the metal. Therefore, larger the intensity of radiation larger
will be the kinetic energy of photoelectrons. This would also conclude that if the intensity of
radiation is weak, it would need long time for photoelectric effect to take place.

But, the observation was completely different; even if the radiation intensity is very low but
frequency is above threshold value, some electrons eject out instantly.

Photoelectric current should increase with the frequency of radiation: Physicists thought that
frequency means number of impulses, higher the frequency more will be the impulses. If more
number of impulses strikes the electrons, these would eject more number of electrons.

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 Quantum Physics

But, contrary to the predictions, the observations were very different as

explained above.

Therefore, the classical wave nature of light failed to explain the

experimental observations of photoelectric effect. In order to explain
these observations, new concept of light was needed. And that new
concept was proposed by Albert Einstein. He proposed that
photoelectric emission does not take place by continuous absorption of
energy from radiation. Radiation is made of small discrete units called
quata of energy. Max Planck later termed these quantum particles as photons. The energy of
photon is given by Planck’s equation E = hν. According to this equation, the energy of photons
is proportional to the frequency of radiation. When the radiation of energy equal to or greater
than the threshold energy incident on metal, electron absorbs the energy of photon and eject
out from metal with kinetic energy:

𝐸𝐾𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝑊 ⇒ ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈0 )

Where W represents the work function and 𝜈0 = 𝑊/ℎ is threshold frequency of metal.

This equation gives the proper explanation to the observation that the kinetic energy of
photoelectron increases linearly with the incident frequency. As the kinetic energy cannot be
negative, this shows why no electron can be ejected from the metal unless 𝜈 > 𝜈0. One electron
will be ejected by absorption of one photon. If more number of photons incident on metal
surface i.e. more intensity of radiation, more electrons will be ejected out. Thereby, the particle
picture of radiation also explains why photoelectron current increases with radiation density.
So, the photoelectron current is directly proportional to radiation density rather than on
frequency.

Example: When two ultraviolet beams of wavelengths λ1=80nm and λ2=110nm fall on a lead
surface, they produce photoelectrons with maximum energies 11.39eV and 7.154eV,
respectively.
a) Estimate the numerical value of the Planck constant.
b) Calculate the work function, the cutoff frequency, and the cutoff wavelength of lead.
Solution:
a) We can write the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons as
ℎ𝑐
𝐾1 = − 𝑊 due to λ1
𝜆1

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 Quantum Physics

ℎ𝑐
𝐾2 = 𝜆 − 𝑊 due to λ2
2

When we subtract these two equations, we get

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐(𝜆2 − 𝜆1 )
𝐾1 − 𝐾2 = − =
𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆1 𝜆2

So, the value of Planck’s constant will be

𝐾1 − 𝐾2 𝜆1 𝜆2
ℎ=
𝑐 (𝜆2 − 𝜆1 )

(11.39 − 7.154) × 1.6 × 10−19 (80 × 10−9 𝑚)(110 × 10−9 𝑚)

ℎ=
3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 (110 − 80)10−9 𝑚

ℎ ≈ 6.627 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠

This the value of Planck’s constant, we know.

b) The work function of the metal can be determined from the following equation
ℎ𝑐 6.627 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠 × 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑊= −𝐾 = − 11.39 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
𝜆1 80 × 10−9 𝑚
= 6.627 × 10−19 𝐽 = 4.14𝑒𝑉
𝑊 6.627×10−34 𝐽
The cutoff frequency is 𝜈0 = = 6.627×10−34 𝐽∙𝑠 = 1015 𝐻𝑧
ℎ

𝑐 3×108 𝑚𝑠 −1
The cutoff wavelength is 𝜆0 = 𝜈 = = 300 𝑛𝑚
0 1015 𝑠−1

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 Quantum Physics

Louis de Broglie hypothesis

So, by the explanation of blackbody radiation, photoelectric

effect and Compton effect, it is concluded that light also possess
the particle nature. Therefore, picture of “matter possess particle
nature and light possess wave nature” was changed by Einstein
to “matter possess particle nature and light possess wave as well
as particle nature’.

Classical picture Einstein’s picture

Entity Nature Entity Nature
→
Matter Particle Matter Particle
Light Wave Light Wave & Particle

Louis de Broglie looked at this picture and felt that something is missing; that was symmetry.
In order to provide symmetry, he proposed hypothesis that matter might also be described by
waves. The de Broglie hypothesis states that all moving particles possess the wave nature
similar to the radiation waves. These waves are termed as matter waves; its wavelength is given
by

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
where h is the Planck’s constant, m and v are the mass and velocity of the particle. This
expression is true for matter particles as well as for photons. This wavelength is known as de
Broglie wavelength.

The expression for de Broglie hypothesis can be easily obtained. We know that the energy of
photon is given by

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 =
𝜆

Where c is the velocity of light in vacuum and λ is the wavelength of photon.

According to the Einstein’s energy-mass relation, energy is also given as

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

Equating both the equations, we get

ℎ𝑐 ℎ
𝑚𝑐 2 = ⇒𝜆= 𝑜𝑟
𝜆 𝑚𝑐

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ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
So, this is the de Broglie equation, here p is the momentum associated with the photon.
The de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportion to the mass of the particle i.e. smaller the
mass of the particle, more significant will be the wavelength. If the mass is large, that means
particle will also be big and corresponding matter wave will be very small in comparison to its
size. This can be easily demonstrated by following examples.
The de Broglie wavelength of a cricket ball of mass about 163 g moving with a speed of 161.3
km/h is
ℎ 6.625 × 10−34 𝐽 ∙ 𝑠
𝜆= = = 9.07 × 10−35 𝑚
𝑚𝑣 0.163 × 44.8 𝑚/𝑠
And the diameter of a cricket ball is 7.26 × 10−2 𝑚; so the de Broglie wavelength of the wave
associated with the cricket ball is very insignificants. That is why, its wave nature cannot be
observed by any experiment.

Relation between the energy of the particle and the wavelength associated with it:
1 2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑝2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 = =
2 2𝑚 2𝑚
⇒ 𝑝 = √2𝑚𝐸
Substitute the value of p in de Broglie relation, we get

ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚𝐸
If an electron is accelerated by a potential of V voltage, then the electrical energy eV is gained
by the electron, here e is the charge on electron. This will be the kinetic energy of the electron.
So, we have the equation
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
1
⇒ 𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2𝑒𝑉
𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉 ⇒ 𝑝2 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
𝑆𝑜, 𝑝 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
We substitute the above expression for momentum p in de Broglie equation, we get

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 Quantum Physics

ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉

So, this equation gives the wavelength of wave associated to the electron moving in potential
V.

Example: An electron gun injects electrons with speed of 5X107m/s. What will be the de
Broglie wavelength associated with these electrons? (Mass of electron m=9.11X10-31kg)

Solution: Speed of electron, v=5X107m/s and mass of electron, m=9.11X10-31kg

ℎ 6.625×10−34
de Broglie wavelength 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 = 9.11×10−31 ×5×107 = 0.1454 × 10−10 𝑚 = 0.1454Å

de Broglie wavelength of the electron is λ=0.1454Å

Example: Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for a) a proton of kinetic energy 80 MeV and
b) a 100 g bullet moving at 900 m/s.

Solution:

a) The kinetic energy of proton is K=p2/2mp, its momentum is 𝑝 = √2𝐾𝑚𝑝 . The de Broglie

wavelength is 𝜆𝑝 = ℎ⁄𝑝 = ℎ⁄√2𝐾𝑚𝑝 . To calculate this quantity numerically, it is more

efficient to introduce the well known quantity ℎ𝑐 ≈ 197 𝑀𝑒𝑉 fm and the rest mass of proton
𝑚𝑝 𝑐 2 = 938.3 𝑀𝑒𝑉 where c the speed of light.

ℏ𝑐 ℏ𝑐 197 𝑀𝑒𝑉 𝑓𝑚
𝜆𝑝 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 = 3.19 × 10−15 𝑚
𝑝𝑐 √2𝐾𝑚𝑝 𝑐 2
√2 × 80 × 938.3 (𝑀𝑒𝑉) 2

b) For the bullet, its de Broglie wavelength is 𝜆𝑝 = ℎ⁄𝑝 = ℎ⁄𝑚𝑣

ℎ 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠
𝜆𝑏 = = = 7.4 × 10−36 𝑚
𝑚𝑣 0.1𝑘𝑔 × 900𝑚𝑠 −1

Clearly, the wave aspect of bullet lies beyond human observation abilities. Therefore, the bullet
will not exhibit any wave effects. The wave aspect of proton cannot be neglected; its de Broglie
wavelength of 3.19 × 10−15 𝑚 has the same order of magnitude as the size of a typical atomic
nucleus.

20
 Quantum Physics

Davison Germer experiment

Demonstration of wave nature of matter particle

Figure 9: Fraunhofer diffraction from single slit

We know that the wave nature of light was established due to the phenomena such as diffraction
and interference. Formation of minima and maxima in observed in diffraction pattern on screen,
as shown in figure 6, was successfully explained by Huygen’s wave theory of light. He
postulated that

1. Light travels in the form of wave fronts,

2. Every point on wave front acts like a light source known as secondary light source,
3. Each secondary light source generates the wave fronts.

These wave fronts interfere on the screen and form diffraction pattern. In this diffraction pattern,
maxima are formed due to constructive interference of these wavefronts and minima due to
destructive interference.

In the same way, if matter particles also form diffraction pattern when passed through such
small slit, then the wave nature of particles can be established or proved as suggested by de
Broglie hypothesis.

Davison and Germer came forward to demonstrate the wave nature of matter particles. They
took electrons as matter particles. They used the working principle of already developed
equipment in which light diffracts and form diffraction pattern, it was known as x-ray
diffraction. In x-rays diffraction, x-rays means light diffracts and forms diffraction pattern. In
x-rays diffraction machine shown in figure 7, x-rays is incident on crystalline sample and
diffracted x-rays from top layers of sample is detected. The maxima or the peaks are observed,

21
 Quantum Physics

which are in accordance with Bragg’s law i.e. nλ=2d.sinθ, where n is order of diffraction, λ is
wavelength of x-rays, d is inter-planar spacing in sample, θ is the angle at which diffracted
radiation is detected.

Figure 10: Equipment for X-rays diffraction and diffraction pattern

Davisson and Germer modified this equipment by replacing x-ray tube with electron gun. In
electron gun a filament is heated to high temperature and electrons are pulled out by applying
high positive voltage with a metal plate have pin hole. Through this pin hole a beam of electron
is ejected out and incident on the Nickel crystal sample. From nickel top layers electrons are
scattered out which are detected at different angles.

Figure 11: Schematic of Davisson Germer Experiment

22
 Quantum Physics

These so scattered electrons when detected at different angles and plotted, the plot was found
to be very similar to the one observed with x-rays diffraction pattern. The observed data plot is
shown in figure 9.

Figure 12: Electron diffraction data obtained at different excitation voltage

The electron scattering intensity pattern was found to be very similar to x-ray diffraction pattern
obeying the Bragg’s equation. As we saw that electrons show diffraction pattern, hence
electrons are behaving like waves.

How to represent a particle in the form of wave

So, we now know that particles also possess wave nature. How can we represent the particle in
the form of wave? If we represent the particle with a single wave. The amplitude of such de
Broglie waves represents the probability of finding the particle at given space and time. The
wave formula is given as

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

Figure 13: Representation of a single wave

Since this wave form describes a series of waves all with same amplitude A and hence leads to
same probability of finding the particle everywhere i.e. the position of the particle is lost. Hence
the single wave cannot represent the de Broglie waves or matter waves.

23
 Quantum Physics

Figure 14: Number of waves superimpose to form wave packet

So, we should take large number of waves to represent the moving particle, as shown in figure
11. Each wave moves with slightly different velocity and wavelength. So, there is relative
motion among these waves. They superimpose and form a wave packet in which the amplitude
is modulated as can be seen in figure 11. If we take intensity by squaring the amplitude, we
will obtain maximum at one position only. So the position of particle is now not lost while
representing the particle in the form of wave.

So, we can represent the particle in the form of wave by considering lots of waves which
superimpose and form wave packet; this wave packet represent the particle.

Classical vs Quantum view of Particles and Waves

Let us discuss about the contrast in particles and waves nature in classical and quantum physics.
For this purpose, we will use the double slit experiment in which double slits are placed in front
of a source. A screen equipped with counter is placed to observe whatever strikes on it.

Figure 15: Double slit experiment with particles.

24
 Quantum Physics

Classical view of particles and waves

Case I: S is source of bullets: Let us consider the three different experiments shown in figure
above. In these experiments the source S is shooting the bullets towards the slits. In first
experiment, only slit 1 is open. The intensity of bullets I1 is observed on the screen. In second
experiment, only slit 2 is open and intensity I2 is observed on the screen. In third experiment,
both the slits are open and the we must observe the sum of both the intensities i.e. I1+I2 on the
screen

Figure 16: Double slit experiment with waves

Case II: S is source of waves: Here again, in the first experiment, only slit 1 is open. The
intensity on the screen is I1 is observed. In second experiment, only slit 2 is open and intensity
I2 is observed. In third experiment, both the slits are open. As we know from the interference
of light waves, when two or more light sources incident on a screen, the phenomenon of
interference takes place. In interference the intensity on the screen is not just the sum of
intensities of both the sources. Instead of intensities, amplitudes will add-up i.e. 𝜓 = |𝜓1 + 𝜓2 |;
and intensity will be square of the amplitude i.e. 𝐼 = |𝜓1 + 𝜓2 |2 = |𝜓1 |2 + |𝜓2 |2 +
|𝜓1 ||𝜓2 |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 where 𝛿 is phase difference between two waves on screen. So, the resultant
intensity depends not only on I1 and I2, but also on the phase difference 𝛿. Resultant instensity
is maximum when 𝛿 is zero and minimum when 𝛿is 180 degree.
So, in classical physics, waves interfere and create interference pattern. But particles do not
interfere. Therefore, when two sources of particles shoot on same region, resultant intensity
will be the sum of two. When two wave sources allowed to incident on screen, the intensity of
resultant will not be sum of intensity of individual waves.

Quantum view of particles and waves

Now, we discuss the double slit experiment in which electrons source is taken instead of bullets.

25
 Quantum Physics

Figure 17: Double slit experiment with electrons

In the first case only slit 1 is open, in second case only slit 2 is open and in third case both the
slits are open. In first and second cases the smooth distribution of electrons is observed on the
screen. But in third case, when both the slits are open, the interference pattern with minima and
maxima is observed. The interference pattern is observed even when only one electron is
ejected from the source S. It means that single electron passes through both the slits. It is very
interesting that if an electron cannot be split, then how it can pass through both the slits? Here
both conditions, one that electron cannot be split and two that interference pattern is formed,
are true. The electron is mater particle; this is classical view. The electrons exhibit interference
pattern just because of its small size, this is quantum view.

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 Quantum Physics

Phase velocity and Group velocity

Phase velocity:

We know that a wave packet is formed by the superpose of large number of waves as shown
in figure 11. Each of these waves advances in the medium with different velocity. The velocity
of one of these component waves is called phase velocity. It is given by
𝜔
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑘

How do we get this expression?

Suppose, we have a wave 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

The quantity (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) is called phase of wavefunction. We observe the propagation of any
wave by the movement of its wave front which is the plane of constant phase i.e.

(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

If we differentiate this with respect to time, we get

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜔
𝜔 − 𝑘 𝑑𝑦 = 0 OR = 𝑣𝑝 =
𝑑𝑦 𝑘

So, the velocity with which the plane of constant phase advances in the medium is known as
phase velocity or wave velocity.

Group velocity: The velocity with which the wave-packet is formed due to superposition of
number of waves traveling with different velocities is called group velocity.

In simple words, we may also write that the velocity with which the wave packet advances in
the medium is known as group velocity.

To find the expression for group velocity, we will take two waves and superpose them and find
the velocity with which this wave packet is formed.

Suppose we take two waves propagating in a direction.

𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔1 𝑡 − 𝑘1 𝑥) and 𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔2 𝑡 − 𝑘2 𝑥)

Their superposition is obtained by the arithmetic sum of both the waves.

𝑦 = 𝐴[sin(𝜔1 𝑡 − 𝑘1 𝑥) + sin(𝜔2 𝑡 − 𝑘2 𝑥)]

𝜔1 − 𝜔2 𝑘1 − 𝑘2 𝜔1 + 𝜔2 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑦 = 2𝐴 cos ( 𝑡− 𝑥) sin ( 𝑡− 𝑥)
2 2 2 2

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 Quantum Physics

𝑦 = 2𝐴 cos(∆𝜔𝑡 − ∆𝑘𝑥) sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

So, this is the resultant wave which is formed due to superposition of two waves. As we observe
the wave packet due to the modulation of amplitude of the resultant wave, the speed of
formation of wave packet is given by the speed of amplitude modulation. It can be easily
obtained by differentiating the amplitude part i.e. ∆𝜔𝑡 − ∆𝑘𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 w.r.t. time. This
gives,

𝑑𝑥
∆𝜔 − ∆𝑘 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝜔
= 𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑘
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘

So, this is the velocity with which the amplitude of superposed wave is modulated to form the
wave packet is known as group velocity.

Group velocity = velocity of particle, so the wave packet represents the particle

Till here, we assumed that a wave packet is formed to represent the particle. Let us see, how is
it true?

We obtained the expression for group velocity as

𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝜔
We will calculate the value of as follows:
𝑑𝑘

We know that the value of angular frequency 𝜔 is given by

𝐸 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 = 2𝜋 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑐2
ℎ ℎ ℎ 𝑣2
√1 − ⁄𝑐 2

2𝜋 𝑚0
⇒𝜔= 𝑐2
ℎ 2
√1 − 𝑣 ⁄ 2
𝑐

Differentiate w.r.t. v, we get

3
2𝜋 2 −
2 1 2𝑣
𝑑𝜔 = 𝑚0 (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) (− ) (− 2 ) 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑣
ℎ 2 𝑐

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 Quantum Physics

2𝜋 2
⇒ 𝑑𝜔 = 𝑚0 (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) 𝑣𝑑𝑣
ℎ

We know that the value of wave number 𝑘 is given by

2𝜋 2𝜋𝑚𝑣 2𝜋 𝑚0
𝑘= = = 𝑣
𝜆 ℎ ℎ 2
√1 − 𝑣 ⁄ 2
𝑐

2𝜋 𝑚0
⇒𝑘= 𝑣
ℎ 2
√1 − 𝑣 ⁄ 2
𝑐

Differentiate w.r.t. v, we get

2𝜋 2 −3/2 𝑣 2 −1/2
𝑑𝑘 = 𝑚0 [(1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) + (1 − 𝑣 2⁄ ) ] 𝑑𝑣
ℎ 𝑐2 𝑐2

2𝜋 2 −1/2 2 −1 𝑣 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑘 = 𝑚0 (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) [(1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) + 1] 𝑑𝑣
ℎ 𝑐2

2𝜋 2 −1/2 𝑣2
⇒ 𝑑𝑘 = 𝑚0 (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) [ 2
+ 1] 𝑑𝑣
ℎ (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) 𝑐 2

2𝜋 2 −1/2 𝑣 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑘 = 𝑚0 (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) [ 2
] 𝑑𝑣
ℎ (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) 𝑐 2

2𝜋 𝑣 2 −1/2 𝑐2
⇒ 𝑑𝑘 = 𝑚 (1 − ⁄𝑐 2 ) [ ] 𝑑𝑣
ℎ 0 2
(1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) 𝑐 2

2𝜋 2 −3/2
⇒ 𝑑𝑘 = 𝑚0 (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) 𝑑𝑣
ℎ
2𝜋 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑚0 (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) 𝑣𝑑𝑣
ℎ

The expression for group velocity can be obtained by substituting the values for 𝑑𝜔 and 𝑑𝑘,
we get

2𝜋 2
𝑑𝑤 𝑚0 (1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 ) 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑣𝑔 = = ℎ =𝑣
𝑑𝑘 2𝜋 2 −3/2
𝑣
𝑚 (1 − ⁄𝑐 2 ) 𝑑𝑣
ℎ 0

Hence, group velocity is equal to the particle velocity. It proves that the wave packet represents
the particle in the form of wave.

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Quantum Physics

30
 Quantum Physics

Relation between phase velocity vp and group velocity vg

We know that the phase velocity is given by

𝜔
𝑣𝑝 = ⇒ 𝜔 = 𝑣𝑝 𝑘
𝑘

And group velocity is given by

𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘

Here, we substitute the value of ω, wet get

𝑑
𝑣𝑔 = (𝑣 𝑘)
𝑑𝑘 𝑝

𝑑𝑣𝑝
⇒ 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑘
𝑑𝑘

The value of k is given by

2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆
2𝜋
⇒ 𝑑𝑘 = − 𝑑𝜆
𝜆2

We substitute the values of k and dk in equation for vg, we get

2𝜋 𝑑𝑣𝑝
⇒ 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 +
𝜆 − 2𝜋 𝑑𝜆
𝜆2

2𝜋 𝑑𝑣𝑝 𝜆2
⇒ 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 −
𝜆 2𝜋𝑑𝜆

𝑑𝑣𝑝
⇒ 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 − 𝜆
𝑑𝜆

𝑑𝑣𝑝
This is relation between group velocity and phase velocity. Here is the rate of variation of
𝑑𝜆

𝑣𝑝 with wavelength. From this relation we may conclude as follows:

𝑑𝑣𝑝
1. In dispersive medium, the value of will be a non-zero. Hence the group velocity is
𝑑𝜆

less than the phase velocity in dispersive medium.

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 Quantum Physics

𝑑𝑣𝑝
2. In non-dispersive medium, the value of is zero, and hence the group velocity is
𝑑𝜆

equal to phase velocity on such medium.

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 Quantum Physics

How the phase velocity exceeds the velocity of light?

We know that the phase velocity is given by

𝜔
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑘

We will calculate the values of ω and k separately:

ω = 2πν

we will extract the value of ν from E=hν as ν=E/h and substitute in the equation above, we get

𝐸
ω = 2π
ℎ

we know that the energy can be written as E=mc2, substitute the value of E, we get

mc 2
ω = 2π
ℎ

value of m in relativistic theory is

𝑚0
𝑚=
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

After substituting the value of m, we get

𝑚0
c2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐2
ω = 2π
ℎ

let us now calculate the value of k in the form of particle’s velocity

2π
We have k = 𝜆

ℎ
From de Broglie hypothesis 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣, after substituting this value, we get

2πmv
k=
ℎ

again substitute the relativistic mass value

𝑚0
2π v
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
k=
ℎ

33
 Quantum Physics

Now, we can substitute the calculated values of ω and k in the expression for phase velocity vp

We get
𝑚0
c2
√1 − 𝑣2
2π 𝑐2
𝑣𝑝 = ℎ
𝑚0
2π v
𝑣 2
√1 − 2
𝑐
ℎ

After cancelling the common terms, we get

c2
𝑣𝑝 =
v

As v is the velocity of a matter particle, its velocity can never be greater than the velocity of
light, so from above expression we can conclude that velocity of matter wave is greater than
the velocity of light.

Conceptualization of Uncertainty principle using de Broglie hypothesis

The de Broglie hypothesis states that all moving particles possess the wave nature similar to
the light. These waves are termed as matter waves; its wavelength is given by

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣

This expression is true for matter particles as well as for light particles (photons).

The mathematical expression for a wave is given as

𝑦 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

Figure 18: A single wave moving with velocity v

The square of the amplitude of such de Broglie waves represents the probability of finding the
particle at given space and time. Since this wave form describes a series of waves all with same

34
 Quantum Physics

amplitude A and hence leads to same probability of finding the particle everywhere i.e. the
position of the particle is lost.

So, if we use only one wave to represent particle in the form of wave then this wave have single
velocity, that is 𝑣 = 𝜔/𝑘 with which it is advancing in the medium. So the momentum mv is
very precisely known for it. Hence error in momentum Δp is zero. But, the information about
the position is lost. Hence error in position Δx is infinite.

Now let us represent the moving particle with large number of waves. Each of these waves
travel possess different wavelength and velocity. These waves superimpose to form a pulse of
wave packet, so position of particle is known very precisely.

Figure 19: A pulse of wave packet formed by superposition of very large number of waves

So, when we took the matter waves of particle with different waves having different momenta
and superpose them, it formed a matter wave known as wave packet that was spatially localized
i.e. the position of particle is known very precisely. That means error in finding the position
Δx is zero, but now the error in momentum Δp is very large because this set of number of waves
turns out to contain all possible values of momenta.

So, with these two extremities, either we have a matter wave with a definite momentum but all
possible positions; or we have matter wave with a definite position but all possible momenta.
Therefore, both the situations are not practical. Hence free, moving particle in quantum theory
are represented by an intermediate case, a wave packet as shown below.

Figure 20: A wave packet formed by superposition of large number of waves

We obtain a wave packet by considering matter waves with a small range of momenta i.e. ∆p
has some finite value. The resulting packet occupies a range of positions in space ∆x is also

35
 Quantum Physics

ℎ
finite. So, we arrive at conceptualization of Δ𝑥Δ𝑝𝑥 ≥ 4𝜋 , which is Heisenberg uncertainty

principle.

Derivation of Uncertainty Principle

Let us consider a particle moving with velocity v, the wave group or the wave packet associated
with the moving particle consists of two components Ψ1 and Ψ2 with equal amplitudes and
having slightly different frequencies ω and 𝜔 + Δ𝜔 and wave numbers k and 𝑘 + Δ𝑘. Hence
we can represent the wave functions as
Ψ1 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
Ψ2 = 𝐴 cos[(𝜔 + Δ𝜔)𝑡 − (𝑘 + Δ𝑘)𝑥]
Then the resultant of two components may be given as
Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ2 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) + 𝐴 cos[(𝜔 + Δ𝜔)𝑡 − (𝑘 + Δ𝑘)𝑥]
1 1
= 2𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) cos ( Δ𝜔𝑡 − Δ𝑘𝑥)
2 2
(as 2𝜔 + Δ𝜔 ≈ 2𝜔 and 2𝑘 + Δk ≈ 2𝑘)

The uncertainty in the position of particle will be equal to the distance between two consecutive
nodes of the resultant wave. Now, the nodes in the resultant wave will be obtained, when

1 1 𝜋
(2 Δ𝜔𝑡 − 2 Δ𝑘𝑥) = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 where 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2 … ..

Thus if x1 and x2 represent the position of two consecutive nodes, e.g. for 𝑛 = 0 and 𝑛 = 1,
then we can write

1 1 𝜋
Δ𝜔𝑡 − 2 Δ𝑘𝑥1 = for 𝑛 = 0
2 2

1 1 3𝜋
Δ𝜔𝑡 − 2 Δ𝑘𝑥2 = for 𝑛 = 1
2 2

1
Δ𝑘(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) = 𝜋
2

1
Δ𝑘Δx = π
2

Δ𝑘Δx = 2π

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 Quantum Physics

Here, Δx is the uncertainty in the measurement of the position of the particle.

2𝜋 ℎ
Now, 𝑘 = and 𝜆 = 𝑝, the de Broglie wavelength; p being the momentum of the particle.
𝜆

2𝜋 2𝜋𝑝 2𝜋Δ𝑝
𝑘= = i.e. Δ𝑘 =
𝜆 ℎ ℎ

Putting the value of Δk in the expression Δ𝑘 ∙ ∆𝑥 = 2π we get

2𝜋
Δ𝑝∆𝑥 = 2𝜋 ⇒ ∆𝑥 ∙ Δ𝑝 = ℎ
ℎ

Δ𝑝 is the uncertainty in measuring the momentum of the particle

The above expression has been derived considering only two components Ψ1 and Ψ2 of the
wave group or wave packet. If we consider a large number of components of wave packet
having different frequencies, the above expression may be reduced to

ℏ
∆𝑥 ∙ Δ𝑝 ≥
2

This is Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Applications of Uncertainty Principle

Nonexistence of the electron in the nucleus: The radius of the nucleus of any atom is of the
order of 10-14 m. If the electron do exists in nucleus, then uncertainty in finding its position
must be greater than the diameter of nucleus. According to the uncertainty principle

ℏ
∆𝑥 ∙ Δ𝑝 ≥
2

where ∆𝑥 is the uncertainty in position and ∆𝑝 is that of momentum

ℎ 6.623 × 10−34
Δ𝑝 ≈ = = 5.275 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
4𝜋∆𝑥 4 × 3.14 × 10−14

The momentum of the electron must be at least comparable with its magnitude.

𝑝 = 5.275 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠

The kinetic energy of the electron of mass m is given by

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 Quantum Physics

𝑝2 (5.275 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠)2 (5.275 × 10−21 )2

𝐸𝑘 = = = 𝑒𝑉
2𝑚 2 × 9 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔 2 × 9 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−19

𝐸𝑘 = 9.7 × 107 𝑒𝑉 = 97𝑀𝑒𝑉

So, if electron resides in the nucleus, its kinetic energy must be of the order of 97 MeV. But
the experiments show that the beta particles possess energy of the order of not more than 4
MeV. So, conclusion is that electrons do not exist in nucleus.

Existence of the neutrons, protons and α-particles in the nucleus: The rest mass of neutrons
and protons is of the order of 1.67× 10−27 𝑘𝑔. From the uncertainty principle, we can write

ℏ2
∆𝑝 =
2∆𝑥

The radius of the nucleus of the atom is 10-14 m, therefore

∆𝑥 = 2𝑟 = 2 × 10−14

∆𝑝 = 5.275 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠

So, the corresponding kinetic energy will be

𝑝2 (5.275 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠)2 −15

8.4 × 10−15 𝐽
𝐸= = = 8.4 × 10 𝐽 = = 52𝑘𝑒𝑉
2𝑚 2 × 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶

The rest mass of α-particle is approximately four times the proton mass, thus α-particle should
have a minimum kinetic energy of 13 keV. Since the minimum energy carried by protons or
neutrons is of the order of 52keV and for α-particle of the order of 13 keV, thus these particles
can exist in the nuclei.

Schrödinger wave equation

We understood that matter particles such as electrons also have wave nature. So, we learnt that
every entity in this universe possess particle as well as wave nature, known as wave particle
duality. In order to study the particles, we must have the wave function of these particles. With
the help of wave function, we can find information such as position, energy, momentum of the
particle. The wave function of a free particle of total energy E and momentum p moving in +x
direction is given by

𝑖
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡]
ℏ

Now, we will obtain the fundamental differential equation for Ψ, which can be later solved for
Ψ for specific situation.

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 Quantum Physics

We begin by differentiating Ψ w.r.t. x, which gives

𝑑Ψ 𝑖
= 𝑝Ψ
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
𝑑Ψ
⇒ 𝑝Ψ = −iℏ
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
⇒ p̂ = −iℏ 𝑑𝑥 is momentum operator, represented by p cap

Now, differentiating Ψ w.r.t. t, which gives

𝑑Ψ 𝑖
= − 𝐸Ψ
𝑑𝑡 ℏ
𝑑Ψ
⇒ 𝐸Ψ = iℏ
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
⇒ Ê = iℏ 𝑑𝑡 is energy operator, represented by E cap

At small speeds, the total energy E of a particle is the sum of its kinetic energy and potential
energy V,

𝑝2
𝐸= +𝑉
2𝑚

The function V represents the influence of the rest of the universe on the particle. As in quantum
physics the above terms are considered to be operators; so, applying these operators on Ψ, gives

p̂ 2
ÊΨ = Ψ + 𝑉Ψ
2𝑚

Now, substitute the values of E-operator and p-operator from above equations to obtain the
time dependent form of Schrödinger equation:

𝑑Ψ ℏ2 𝑑 2 Ψ
iℏ =− + 𝑉Ψ
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

To obtain the time independent Schrödinger equation, we resolve the wave function in
position and time dependent factors.

𝑖
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡]
ℏ

Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = Ψ(x)ϕ(t)

Where Ψ(x) and ϕ(t) are position dependent and time dependent parts of wave function.

Substitute the resolved wave function in time-dependent Schrödinger wave equation

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 Quantum Physics

𝑑 ℏ2 𝑑 2
iℏ [𝛹(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡)] = − [Ψ(x)ϕ(t)] + 𝑉[Ψ(x)ϕ(t)]
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑 ℏ2 𝑑 2
𝛹(𝑥)iℏ [𝜙(𝑡)] = −ϕ(t) [Ψ(x)] + 𝑉[Ψ(x)ϕ(t)]
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

Divide both sides by 𝛹(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡),

1 𝑑 1 ℏ2 𝑑 2
iℏ [𝜙(𝑡)] = − [Ψ(x)] + 𝑉
𝜙(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 Ψ(x) 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

Since the RHS is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy, so its equal to total energy E
of the particle. Therefore, we can write

1 ℏ2 𝑑 2
− [Ψ(x)] + 𝑉 = 𝐸
Ψ(x) 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

Rearranging the above equation, we get

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− Ψ(x) + 𝑉Ψ(x) = 𝐸Ψ(x)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

ℏ2 𝑑 2
⇒− Ψ(x) + (𝑉 − 𝐸)Ψ(x) = 0
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 2𝑚
⇒ Ψ(x) + (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ(x) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

This is one dimensional time-independent Schrödinger wave equation.

Application of Schrödinger wave equation, particle in a potential well

Determine the eigen function and energy eigen values of a particle trapped in an infinitely
deep potential well with the width L.

Let us consider a free particle in one dimensional box of width L. The particle has a mass ‘m’
and is restricted to move along x-axis. The particle is present in the range 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿 and not
available outside the box i.e. 0 > 𝑥 > 𝐿.

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 Quantum Physics

Figure 21: Particle trapped in a potential well

As the system is time independent and one dimensional, so we apply 1-D time independent
Schrödinger wave equation
 2 2m
 ( E  V )  0
x 2  2

In region 0  x  a the potential V=0, so the equation becomes

 2 2m
 E  0
x 2  2
 2 8 2 m
 2 E  0
x 2 h
 2 8 2 mE
Or  k 2  0 where  k2
x 2
h 2

The general solution of this equation is given by

 x  Asin kx  B cos kx
Where A and B are constants which can be obtained by applying boundary conditions
At x=0, wave function   0
Putting x=0 in equation for wave function we get B=0.
Hence wave function becomes  x  A sin kx
Now at x=L, wave function   0 therefore 0  Asin kL
𝑛𝜋
Since, we can’t take A to be zero it does not yield any solution. So, kL=nπ or 𝑘 = 𝐿

Hence, the only permissible solutions of the wave equation are

 n 
 n x   A sin  x
 L 
Still the value of A is yet to be determined. The value of A can be determined by applying the
normalization condition in the region the particle is present.
2
 n x  dx  1
a
0

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 Quantum Physics

 nx 
 A2  sin 2 
a
dx  1
0
 L 
A 2 .L 2
Or 1 A
2 L
2 𝑛𝜋
So, the eigen function will be 𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) = √𝐿 sin ( 𝐿 ) 𝑥. So, this is the wave function for the

particle trapped in a potential well.

8 2 mE
And value of energy from equation is  k2
h2
n
Putting the value of k  , we get
L

n2h2
En  2
8L m
This equation shows that energy level E n depends upon the value of n. Each value of E n is

called Eigen value and each value of  n is called Eigen function. Now let us draw the wave

functions 𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) and probability density|Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 for different energy values as shown in
Figure 13.

Figure 22: Energy eigen values, eigen functions and probability density

Here we obtained two differences between Quantum and Classical Physics:

1. Lowest energy level cannot be zero: The lowest energy level cannot be zero, because
energy is zero only when we put n=0. But if we put n=0 in the above expression for

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 Quantum Physics

wave function, it will also become zero i.e. it will vanish. It means the particle is not
present in the given region whereas it is present. So the value n=0 is not acceptable.
ℎ2
And therefore, the lowest energy will be 𝐸1 = 8𝐿2 𝑚 and not zero.
ℎ2
2. Energy levels are quantized: the energy levels are 𝐸1 = 8𝐿2 𝑚, 𝐸2 = 4𝐸1 , and there

will no allowed energy level between E1 and E2. That means energy levels are not
continuous but these are quantized. But, in classical physics all energy levels are
allowed, non is forbidden. It is clear, from figure, the energy levels of a particle in box
are discrete and they are not continuous.

Example: Let us compare the ground state energy of an electron confined in a box of
length 1.0Å with that of a 50g golf ball confined in a box of length 50cm. Hence, infer the
significance of nano dimensions in quantum mechanics.

Solution: Energy eigen value of a particle is given by

𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝐿2 𝑚

For an electron, m=9.1x10-31kg, L=1.0x10-10m; ground state energy can be obtained by putting
n=1.

12 (6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠)2

𝐸1 = −10 2 −31
= 0.604 × 10−10 𝐽
8(1.0 × 10 𝑚) 9.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔

For a golf ball, m=50g, L=50cm

12 (6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠)2

𝐸1 = = 4.5 × 10−66 𝐽
8(50 × 10−2 𝑚)2 0.5 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔

Thus, it can be easily seen that energy eigen value in nano dimensions is of significant level;
whereas in macroscopic dimensions, energy eigen value is very insignificant and not
measurable.

Born Interpretation of wave function Ψ

In Quantum Physics, a matter wave represented by the wave function Ψ is associated with any
particle. This wave function contains all information about the particle. The wave function can

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 Quantum Physics

be obtained by solving the Schrödinger wave equation for the particle of interest, for example
the particle trapped in a potential well.

According to Born interpretation, we can extract information from the wave function of the
particle. For example, the probability of finding the particle in a given space can be obtained
as follows:

The probability that a particle will be found in the infinitesimal space 𝑑𝑥 about the point 𝑥,
denoted by (𝑥) is given by:

𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥

𝑃(𝑥) = |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 is probability density function

𝑃(𝑥) is probability per unit length

i. From this definition, in Quantum Physics, it is clear that we cannot specify with
certainty the location of a particle! we can only specify the probability!

ii. Ψ(x,t) itself is NOT a measurable quantity but |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 is measurable and equal to the
probability per unit length (probability density) of finding the particle in the interval 𝑑𝑥
about the point 𝑥.

iii. 𝑃(𝑥) = |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 =ΨΨ* where Ψ* is the complex conjugate of Ψ.

iv. Ψ(x,t) must be single-valued and continuous function of x and t.

v. Because the particle must be somewhere along the x-axis, the sum of the probabilities
over all values of x must add up to 1:
+∞ +∞
a. ∫−∞ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫−∞ |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1

vi. |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 → 0 fast enough as x→ ±∞ so that the normalization condition holds valid.

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