VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

JNANA SANGAMA, BELAVAGI-590018

A REPORT ON

“INTERNSHIP”

Carried out at

Submitted in partial fulfilment for

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Submitted by

SOWMYA P 1OX20AU004

Under the Guidance of

Dr RAJU B R

Professor & HOD

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

THE OXFORD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Hosur road, Bommanahalli, Bengaluru-560068

2023-2024
 THE OXFORD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Hosur road, Bommanahalli, Bengaluru-560068

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the INTERNSHIP has been successfully completed at by

SOWMYA P (1OX20AU004), in partial fulfilment for the award of DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING of
VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, Belagavi, during academic year
2023-2024. It is certified that all corrections / suggestions indicted for internal assessment
have been incorporated in the report deposited in the departmental library. The Internship
report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of Internship
work prescribed for the said degree.

GUIDE HOD PRINCIPAL

DR RAJU B R DR RAJU BR DR N KANNAN

Professor & HOD Professor & HOD

Name of Examiners and Signature

1.

2.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my duty and privilege to acknowledgment the support I received from. Several people in
preparation of this report. It would not have been possible to prepare this report without their
valuable help and guidance.

First and foremost I Thank management and our beloved Principal DR N KANNAN, The
Oxford College Of Engineering, Bengaluru for his constant support and encouragement.

My sincere Thanks to my Guide, DR RAJU B R, Professor and Head Of Department of

Automobile Engineering, TOCE, for his valuable support and guidance.

Bearing in mind I am using the opportunity to thank Mr BALAJI who works as

of who inspite as being considerably busy with the duty
took time out to guide and keep us on the correct part and allowing us to carry out our
internship at the recognised organisation.

SOWMYA P(1OX20AU004)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SL. NO. CONTENTS

1 Introduction
2 Description of Organization
3 Departmental Details
4 General role and responsibilities
5 Description of various activities
6 Tools Knowledge
7 Job Card Entry
8 Helping in service
9 Visual Practice
10 Puncture
11 Wheel Balancing
12 Wheel Alignment
13 Battery
14 General Check-up
15 Bleeding
16 Oil Change
17 Air Filter, AC Filter
18 Tyre, Brake Pad, Caliper Greasing
19 Brake Disc, Drum
20 Front Bumper, Radiator
21 Rear, Tail Lamp
22 Head Lamp
23 Wiring
24 Door Panel
25 Sub Frames, Knuckle Pin
26 Suspension
27 Clutch Plate replacement, Dismantling
28 Gear Box
29 Engine
30 Differential
31 AC Blower, Compressor
32 Dashboard
33 Steering, Greasing
34 Fuse Box, Sensor
35 Check Lights
36 Maintenance
 INTRODUCTION

India stands the fifth largest Automobile all over the world. In FY21, India produced 22.65
million vehicles, with 13 million vehicles produced between April and October of that year.
Furthermore, the increased interest of businesses in investigating rural market boosted the
sector’s expansion. India is a major vehicle exporter, with excellent export growth prospects
in the near future. In addition, many initiatives by the Indian government and major vehicle
manufacturers are expected to propel India to the forefront of the global two-wheeler and
four-wheeler markets by 2022. India has 40 million passenger automobiles and generated
over 3.7 million motor vehicles in 2010 ( a 33.9% growth), making it world’s second fastest
growing automobile market. Annual automobile sales are expected to reach 5 million by
2015, and more than 9 million by 2020, according to Society of Indian Automobile
manufacturers. With about 611 million automobiles on the country’s roads by 2050, the
country is predicted to lead the globe in automotive volumes.
Chennai, popularly known as the ―Detroit of India‖, being home to the India operations of
major car manufacturing industry as well as large portion of India’s automotive
manufacturing industry. Chennai is responsible for 60% of the country’s automobile exports.
The Haryana cities of Gurgaon and Manesar are the manufacturing centres for all Maruti
Suzuki vehicles in India. General Motors, Volkswagen, Skoda, Mahindra and Mahindra,
TATA Motors, Mercedes Bens, Fiat and Force Motors all have manufacturing plants in the
Chaka corridor near Pune, Maharashtra. The presence of assembly plants in the vicinity.
Ahmadabad is home to the TATAA Nano plant, Halol is the home to GM, Aurangabad is
home to Audi, Kolkata is home to Hindustan Motors, and Noida is home to Honda.
DESCRIPTION OF ORGANISATION
ABOUT TATA
 PURPOSE OF TRAINING

As everyone says experience is important an internship helps in gaining that experience for
new people joining the company as everyone say you have contemplated, you have learned
and presently you are prepared to sort out whether or not the vacation way you’re on is the
right one for you. Doing a temporary job, whether you’re still in everyday schedule
previously graduated, is an extraordinary method for investigating the profession you’re keen
on. The reason for a temporary position is to give true experience that empowers you to set
all that you’ve learned in motion.

An internship can assist you with acquiring abilities that can be applied to future positions.
Temporary positions might be paid or neglected, and they will generally go on about the
length of a school semester or a late spring break. On the off chance that you are entering
another profession, there are many advantages to finishing an entry level position.

It likewise empowers you to see what the work setting resembles, and in the event that it’s a
spot you can picture spending your vacation doing. On the off chance that you will have a
temporary position at a news station, you will have the option to decide whether you like the
high speed and occupied climate of TV news programming. In the event that you’re interning
at an library, you might find the calm, singular work makes for a really long time of a day.
On the off chance that you don’t know whether a particular vacation is ideal for you, a
temporary job can assist you with sorting that out. In like manner, it can likewise affirm that
you’ve picked the right vacation way.

Most businesses maintain that you should have some insight before they will employ you. On
the off chance that you’ve never held a task, your resume may not engage numerous
businesses. Having a temporary job on your resume allows you an opportunity to acquire the
required insight and to construct your resume. Through a temporary position, you increment
your insight and abilities. Doing that gives more prominent certainly and a feeling of
achievement that futurebosses will be eager to see. While you are finishing your temporary
job, you can likewise expand your correspondence, hierarchical and collaboration abilities.
DEPARTMENT DETAILS
 GENERAL ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

As intern of TATA MOTORS I learnt a lot about cars lot Mr BALAJI

assigned me with the technicians.

 Starting days of the internship I was made to watch and help with the work by
handing the tools required for the work.
 Then technician assigned, made me to fix wheels with pneumatic gun after the
servicing.
 Slowly I learnt to change the engine oil, transmission oil, and replace oil and airfilters
clean the brake pads.
 Then, I was able to service a car b own after a few days with the technicians
monitoring me for mistakes and correct them.
 I with my friend together helped to dismantle the engine of TATA TIAGO, TATA
TIGOR, TATA NEXON. The engine had one of the damages cylinders and the oil
sump was broken, All the engine oil was lost, water flow inside the engine and engine
was seized due to this reason.
 Also, I learnt to do wheel balancing of both alloy wheel and traditional steel wheel on
wheel balancing machine.
 Wheel alignment is also learnt, it is done with the wheel alignment equipment which
consist of several sensors and software which tells us the angles of caste, toe and
camber angles.
 Learnt to remove the old and damaged clutch plate and replace it with new one.
 Learnt about many different parts of the vehicles and how they work and what might
be the problem if any of the part is not working.
 With the help of my friends we tested a radiator of TATA TIAGO
with water and pressurised air the radiator had leaks in it so it has to replace.
 We also changed the suspensions of the vehicle inspection and inspected several cars
of for refurbishment.
 Checked the car for everything marked all the scratches dents and checked air
conditioning system, steering system, oil level and several other things.
 DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS ACTIVITIES

TOOLS KNOWLEDGE

Automotive tools have been designed to make automotive repairs, modifications

and servicing easy, making them essential for use when working on vehicles.

Without the right tools on hand, you will find it difficult to complete the tasks you need
to perform without errors or delays. Coupled with the right equipment and skills,
automotive tools can help you solve almost every issue that a vehicle might experience.

Every automotive mechanic or technician should have a reliable set of essential

tools to service their cars or serve their customers.

Wrench / spanner sets

Ratchet and socket set

Screwdriver set

Pliers

Trolley jack

Hook and pick set

Battery analyser

Torch or work light

Hammer
JOB CARD ENTRY
Whenever you go to get your car serviced in authorised service stations, there is a
physical job card which is opened. In most cases you are given the green colour
customer copy while you hand over the car to them. This is made up of thin thickness
paper while a blue colour job card having more thickness which is a carbon copy of
the green customer copy is retained by the workshop.
Now, till your car is in the ASS, this job card is the most important document of yours
in the workshop for your car. It doesn't stay at one place. It hops from once place to
another. It has an interesting journey. It could slightly differ from workshop to
workshop or OEM to OEM but the journey is broadly the same.
The job card contains all the important details about your car like your car registration
number, VIN, Engine number, your address, mobile phone number, date of
registration, job card number etc.
There is also an inventory check sheet where dents and scratches in your car are
noted. Availability of Stepney, jack, toolkit, hazard triangle etc. is noted before the
customer copy is given to you.
Then comes the most important part, the job which is to be done. It is either printed or
hand written. 1st Free Service, 2nd Free Service, 3rd Free Service, Paid Service,
Running Repair, Body Shop, Repeat Complaint etc. are the broad categories. Service
Advisors and dealerships are a little reluctant to open job card under "Repeat
Complaint" as they don't want to show higher percentage of repeat complaints. After
that the service advisor is supposed to write what all work is required in the car as per
schedule. In case of additional complaints, service advisor notes down that as well.
They also note down if any Value Added Services are to done in the car. As discussed
before, they make incentives on it. It is very important for Service Advisor to note
down each and every complaint or requirement of customer in the job card, because
the same job card goes in the shop floor.
Step 1 - With Service Advisor : Once, taking sign off from customer, service advisor
should ideally note down the car details in his/her daily register/file and then hand it
over to the floor supervisor. The register is helpful to keep a track of how many cars
are in and out, mobile number is also noted so one can call customer if required, if a
customer calls to follow up, service advisor can look at the register and update
without going to the shop floor. It also helps to track the VAS services sold on which
incentives are to be made.
Step 2 - With Floor Supervisor : Service advisor then takes the Job card in the shop
floor and hand it over to floor supervisor. It is kept at a tray on Floor Supervisor desk
and he hands it over to the next available mechanic. If something is urgent or there are
special instructions, Service Advisor needs to inform the floor supervisor about it. It is
very important that Service Advisor has good relationship with Floor Supervisor so
that his car can be allotted to a technician fast as well as being allotted to a good
technician. Floor supervisor also maintains his daily register with status of all job
cards.

Step 3 - With Technician : Floor supervisor allots the job card to the technician who
gets available. The technician then goes to the parking lot with job card in hand. Finds
the car and gets it in his allotted bay. Reads the job card and starts the work written in
it. For the parts already mentioned in the job card by the Service Advisor (Eg. Oils,
Filters, Coolants etc.), the technician takes the job card to the parts issue counter and
gets the parts mentioned in the job card. There is an entry for these parts also done in
the job card. If technician sees that more parts are required to be changed or more
work is to be done, he makes a note of it in job card and gives it to the service advisor.

Step 4 - With Service Advisor for customer approval : An experienced service advisor
would mostly know the parts and labour costs of regular repairs like Clutch, Brakes,
Wipers, etc. For things for which they are not sure, the Service Advisor goes to the
spare parts department and asks the part cost as well as availability. To confirm the
labour costs, they can check it in labour chart or in the Dealer Management System. A
good service advisor would not blindly believe what technician says but would check
for himself, if whatever the technician is asking is actually required. Once, they get
the complete estimate of parts and labour, they call the customer to take their
approval. Customer is explained whatever is required to be done in the car and
approximate cost for it. Usually they keep 10-20% buffer so that in case a small
sundry part is required to be changed, it can be done. Also, it delights the customer if
actual bill is lesser than estimate. If Service Advisor over estimates the cost by a very
high margin, then customer might even deny to do the work. On basis of approval
received or not received, the Service Advisor takes the job card to technician and
informs him what to do and what not to do. Which work is approved and which is not
approved by customer is also mentioned in the job card by Service Advisor.

Step 5 - With the technician while doing approved work : The technician starts
working on the car for the jobs approved by the customer and confirmed by Service
Advisor. The job card is usually kept inside the car usually in the sunvisor. To issue
any additional parts, the technician takes the job card to the spare parts issue window
and gets them. Usually for every issue of parts, a receipt is stapled to the job card
which has details and quantities of parts issued. It is a carbon copy with original with
spare parts team.
Step 6 - During Test Drive : Assuming that there is no more work required to be done
and everything is done properly, the car is sent for a test drive to check if all
complaints are addressed. It is mostly taken for test drive by Final Inspector. In case
there are some critical things to be checked or if its a repeat complaint or a known
customer, or if he is getting bored in workshop, Service Advisor would also
accompany the Final Inspector. They might also tag along the technician at times. If
some issue is repeating again and again, then even Floor supervisor can come. It is
very important that job card is in the car during test drive. In case traffic police stops
and asks for papers, they can get away by just showing the job card and mentioning
that its a customers car for service in workshop.

Step 7 - Closing the job card at shop floor : Once the Final Inspector and Service
advisor gives okay, the job card is signed by Final Inspector, Technician and Floor
Supervisor. The car is sent for washing and job card is sent to the spare parts
department.

Step 8 - Spare part audit : One of the executives of spare parts department cross
checks each and every part entry in the job card with the ones in system and then
signs it. This is one of the bottle necks because all off a sudden in evening, lots of job
card gets closed and usually there is only one spare parts executive who does this
audit. Here also, the Service Advisor has to ensure that his job cards move fast and
put pressure on the parts executive to be quick.

Step 9 - With Billing Executive : This is another bottle neck. There is usually only
one billing executive in ASS. He/she gets lots of load during evening time. Billing
executive bills the customer for all the parts, labour and VAS. Service Advisor needs
to have a good relationship with this person so that their bills are made fast and the
executive doesn't get too adventurous adding lots of labour amount one after another!
In some dealerships Service Advisors themselves make the bills, but it can be a
"conflict of interest" as advisor might try to under bill if the amount is going above his
estimate.
Step 10 - Audit by Accounting team : Next the job card goes to the table of a
accounting team member. They would verify if there is no amount pending from this
customer. This thing happens quickly as its very rare that dealership would have
anything recoverable from customer in first place as they strictly don't give credit. If
its a corporate customer then they might have a credit policy with the dealership, the
account executive informs if they are close to their credit limit or have crossed it. If
crossed, then approval of Works manager is required to release the job card. They
would enter the bill amount as amount receivable from the customer in the system.
 Step 11 - With the service Advisor : Once bill is prepared and checked by the
accounts team, all the papers including bill, job card, feedback form etc. stays on the
tray of the Service Advisor waiting for customer.

Step 12 - Explaining the customer : Once the customer comes to collect the car, the
service advisor takes the set of the papers as explained above (bill, job card etc.) and
explains the work done and the bill to the customer. Ideally, this discussion should
happen near the car but its not possible for every customer, especially in evening
when load is high.

Step 13 - Cashier : Once customer is satisfied with the explanation done by the
service advisor, they are escorted by the Service Advisor to the cash counter to make
the payment. Even if there is zero bill, it is still taken to the cashier. Customer makes
the payment to the cashier, cashier enters in the system, makes the customer sign the
job card that he is satisfied with the work done and gives them the Gate Pass.

Customer shows the gate pass to the service advisor where customer is taken to his
car again by the advisor. Customer gives the gatepass to the security, security checks
it and then opens the gate for customer to leave.

Step 14 - Filing : Next day all the job cards with cashier are filed. Day wise file is prepared
and the physical file is kept in dealership for the records. In case of any complaint by the
customer, the physical job card can be retrieved to check if everything was done properly,
approvals taken, who was the technician, who was final inspector etc.

So, as you can see the Job Card moves around the workshop while the car goes for service.
The owner of the job card is the Service Advisor and he/she has to ensure that it moves in
the correct direction for all the open job cards in their name. A good and proactive Service
Advisor would always ensure faster movement of the Job Card.

At times you would have reached the workshop in the evening to collect your car. The car
is ready but still it is taking time for you to make the payment and take the delivery, most
likely it is because the Job Card is stuck somewhere above in the bottle necks and Service
Advisor runs helter-skelter to move it!

PUNCTURE

A puncture is a small hole in a car tyre or bicycle tyre that has been made by a sharp
object. Tyre can be punctured because of nails or sharp objects piercing it, valve pin issues,
valve neck problems, rim bend problems, and even due to long halts. Vehicle tyre can be
punctured due to any of these reasons and they can be repaired with the help of experienced
mechanics.

Factors That Cause Tyre Puncture

 Sharp objects on the roads

 While riding, the tyres might get damaged due to sharp objects, like pieces of glass,
nails, screws or sharp stones. These objects can pierce into the tyre through its tread
patch, which is in contact with the surface.

 Worn-out tread patch

If you use the tyre beyond its life span or its tread patch has worn beyond the
recommended level, it becomes more prone to punctures. In addition, due to minute
hidden cracks, the tyre might suffer from continuous loss of air.

 Damaged valve stem

Both tube-type and tubeless tyres come fitted with a valve stem somewhere on their
inner circumference, from where you fill the air in the tyre. If that valve stem is
damaged, in the form of possible corrosion, blockage or breakage, the air retention
ability of the tyre reduces.

 Over-inflation of tyres

On inflating the tyre beyond the pressure levels recommended by the tyre-maker or
motorcycle maker, the possibility of the bursting of the tyre increases due to
continuous ride. It damages the tyre with a permanent bike tyre puncture and can
also be fatal, as it can lead to imbalance while riding.

 Air Leakage from tyre bead

There are chances that the air inside the tyre might leak out from the tyre bead, i.e.,
the side of the tyre resting along the circumference of the wheel. It usually happens
due to improper fitment of the tyre on the wheel.

 Breakage or bending of wheel

If you hit a big, deep pothole or meet with a collision or accident while riding, the
alloy wheel or the steel wheel may suffer a crack or bend from the area around the
tyre bead. Because of this, the air might start leaking out of the tyre. Such an instance
can lead to a possible tyre puncture.
Before you start

 Don’t try to fix a tyre on a motorway hard shoulder or at the side of the road.
 Turn off the road or pull over in a safe place away from traffic.
 Tell passengers to get out of the car and wait away from the vehicle and road.
 Read the instructions on the repair kit before you start. If it’s different to our advice,
always follow the instructions.

Step 1 - Get your car ready

Before you try to use the repair kit, make sure you and your passengers are in a safe place and
the car’s prepared:

 Switch off your engine.

 Turn on your hazard lights.
 Put the handbrake on, or
 Put the vehicle into 'P' if you’re driving an automatic.
 Make sure all passengers are out of the car and in a safe place.
 Get the repair kit out (usually found in the boot).

The puncture repair kit should include a can of sealant and a compressor. It may also include

warning stickers to place on the wheel and inside the car, to remind you to replace the tyre.

Step 2 - Find the puncture

You’ll need to look at the tyre carefully to find the puncture and check if it’s suitable for a
repair.

Don’t use the repair kit if:

 The puncture is more than 4mm in diameter.

 The wheel rim is damaged.
 The tyre has been flat or low pressure for an extended period.
 The puncture is outside of the main tread area.
If you spot something like a nail or piece of glass that’s pierced the tyre, don’t try to take it
out. That could make the hole bigger.

Step 3 - Position the wheel

Once you’ve found the puncture, you can re-position the wheel by driving forward a little to
make it easier to repair.

 Make sure the puncture is at the top of the tyre.

 Try to position the air valve in the top half of the tyre.

If you’ve moved your car, remember to put the handbrake or parking brake back on.

Step 4 - Connect the sealant and compressor

Your puncture repair kit will include a bottle of sealant and a compressor.

 You’ll usually need to insert the sealant into the tyre through the air valve. The kit
will explain how to do this.
 You may need to remove the valve first and/or manually squeeze in the sealant.
 You’ll then need to connect the compressor. This may connect to the tyre valve
directly or to the bottle of sealant to help pump the sealant in.
 Plug the compressor into your car’s 12v socket or cigarette lighter.

Step 5 - Inflate the tyre

You’ll need to use the compressor to re-inflate your tyre. It may also pump the sealant into
the tyre at the same time.

 Check your vehicle manual to find the right tyre pressure for your vehicle.
 Make sure your car is in neutral with the handbrake or parking brake on.
 Turn on the engine and switch on the compressor.
 The compressor will have a valve to show you the pressure level and may have a
button to check the pressure.
 Turn the compressor off and detach it once the tyre is at the right pressure.

Step 6 - Drive and re-check the tyre

Many sealant kits need you to drive a little way for the sealant to spread around the tyre. The
kit will explain if you need to do this.

 Drive as far as the repair kit recommends to spread the sealant.

 Stop in a safe place and put the handbrake or parking break back on.
 Check the tyre.
 If it looks damaged, you’ll need to call us out to help you.
 If the sealant has worked, you can drive to a garage. You may need to inflate the tyre
a bit more first, so check the instructions on the kit and the pressure in your handbook.

Step 7 - Replace the tyre

Once you’re satisfied that you’ve repaired the tyre using the kit, drive your car to the nearest
garage or tyre fitters to replace the tyre. A tyre that's been repaired with sealant will almost
always need replacing, however small the puncture was.

There's likely to be a restriction on how fast and how far you can drive on the repaired tyre.
This should be in the instructions but if in doubt, stick to a maximum of 50mph for 50 miles.
Make sure you drive carefully, especially when cornering and braking.
 WHEEL BALANCING AND ALIGNMENT

Wheel alignment refers to the adjustment of your car’s suspension – the system connecting
the wheels to the vehicle. It includes adjusting the angles at which the wheels and tyres are
positioned to make contact with the road. A wheel alignment mechanic checks the following
things when adjusting the wheels:

1. Camber – The inward and outward angle of the tyre when viewed from the front.
Negative or positive camber, that is the inward or outward tilt of the tyre, indicated
improper wheel alignment and needs to fixed. Worn bearings, ball joints, and other
suspension parts are majorly responsible for camber misalignment.
2. Toe – The toe alignment is the inward or outward turning of your car’s wheels when
viewed from above. To understand this, you can simply do a manual experiment with
your own feet. Look at them from above and see if your toes angle inward or outward.
If inwards, it’s a toe-in alignment and vice versa for toe-out alignment.
3. Caster – Steering axis that tilts towards the driver is called positive caster whereas a
tilt towards the front of the vehicle means negative caster. Caster angles help balance
the vehicle’s steering, stability and cornering.

Sudden impacts while driving at speed is among the most common causes of improper wheel
alignment. Since Indian road conditions are far from perfect and we frequently come across
potholes and bumps at speed, improper wheel alignment is not alien concept for Indian
drivers. Similarly, small collisions which do not cause visible damage, such as hitting the
curb or an object on the road, can also cause improper wheel alignment.

Symptoms of incorrect wheel alignment

The fact that improper wheel alignment is caused by non-visible damage to the car’s
suspension setup causes most drivers to ignore the issue completely. But misaligned wheels
can cause strain on your vehicle’s capabilities and lead to further damage to the suspension
and tyres. Here are the most common signs of improper wheel alignment:

 Car pulling to one side: If your vehicle pulls to either side when driven on a flat
surface, the wheels are in improper alignment.
 A vibrating steering wheel: Another sign of improper wheel alignment is slight to
major vibrations in the steering wheel, especially at higher speeds.
 Uneven tyre wear: Lastly, if your car tyres are wearing down improperly, that is a
clear sign of improper alignment. A caster misalignment can cause off-center wear of
tyres (inwards or outwards) and is easily detectable through visual inspection.

Wheel balancing is often clubbed with wheel alignment, but they are not the same.
Wheel balancing is required to ensure smooth driving, stability, and safety of your car
tyres. Tyre balancing refers to compensation for weight imbalances in the wheel and
tyre combo. Since wheel balancing is performed in conjunction with wheel alignment,
most people think of them as the same thing.

Wheel balancing should always be performed off the car with modern wheel balancer
machines that can calculate both dynamic
and static balance simultaneously. Have all four wheels balanced to sort out an out-of-
balance condition.

It is a good idea to have your wheels balanced whenever you install new tires or if
you notice any vibrations or wobbling while driving. If your vehicle is equipped with
alloy wheels, it's recommended to get them balanced every 5,000 to 7,000 kilometres
(3,000 to 4,000 miles) or during regular tire rotations.
Benefits of Regular Wheel Alignment and Balancing

Regular wheel alignment and balancing are essential maintenance practices that offer
numerous benefits for your vehicle and driving experience. Here are some key advantages of
keeping your wheels properly aligned and balanced:

 Improved Tire Life: Proper wheel alignment ensures that your tires wear evenly.
When your wheels are not aligned correctly, certain parts of the tires may experience
excessive wear, leading to premature tire replacement. Regular alignment helps
extend the life of your tires and maximizes your investment.
 Enhanced Fuel Efficiency: When your wheels are misaligned, your vehicle
experiences increased rolling resistance, causing it to work harder and consume more
fuel. Proper alignment reduces this resistance, leading to improved fuel efficiency and
cost savings over time.
 Smoother and Safer Ride: Properly aligned and balanced wheels provide a smoother
and more comfortable driving experience. You'll notice reduced vibrations and less
pulling to one side, ensuring better handling and control of your vehicle. This
contributes to overall driving safety, especially during challenging road conditions.
 Improved Handling and Stability: Wheel balancing ensures that each tire has an
equal distribution of weight, preventing vibration and wobbling at higher speeds. This
results in better stability and handling, allowing you to have more control over your
vehicle during cornering and braking.
 Reduced Mechanical Stress: Misaligned wheels can put unnecessary stress on
various vehicle components, such as suspension and steering parts. Regular alignment
reduces this stress, leading to fewer repair costs and longer-lasting components.
 Prevention of Uneven Tire Wear: Wheel balancing helps distribute weight evenly
among all tires, preventing uneven wear patterns. This avoids the need for premature
tire replacement due to uneven wear on individual tires.
 Minimized Vibrations and Noise: Balancing your wheels eliminates the annoying
vibrations and noise that can occur when your tires are not balanced correctly. This
results in a smoother and quieter ride, contributing to overall driving comfort.
 Cost-Effective Maintenance: Investing in regular wheel alignment and balancing
may seem like an added expense, but it can save you money in the long run. The
benefits of improved tire life, better fuel efficiency, and reduced repair costs outweigh
the initial investment.
 BATTERY

Types of Car Batteries

A car's battery is rather small in size but plays a huge role in running the vehicle
smoothly. It's even responsible for properly working all the features our modern cars
have. These include everything from power steering and power brakes to radio and
electrical sunroof. Of course, the battery is also responsible for the functioning of the
starter motor, which, in turn, is responsible to start the car.

Lead Acid Battery

1. These are the car batteries that require the lowest maintenance. In fact, due to this
property, they're even marketed as zero-maintenance batteries.
2. These batteries work in short bursts to send power to the starting motor.
3. If required, Lead Acid Battery can offer a high electric charge at a very high rate.
4. Lead Acid Battery is sealed and requires no topping up.
5. The spill-proof sealed construction of these batteries offers trouble-free and safe
operation.
6. These batteries last for anywhere between 3 to 5 years depending on the usage of the
vehicle.
7. As these batteries have a spill-proof construction that doesn't warrant any
maintenance from the user, they are highly safe. That said, lead acid batteries can lead
to a serious injury if they are not handled correctly. This happens due to the fact that
they are capable of churning out a high electric charge at a very high rate.

VRLA batteries
 1. Short for Valve Regulated Lead Acid, VRLA is one of the two lead-acid car battery
types.
2. It is a good choice for use in vehicles with small engine bays and with no provision of
ventilation.
3. As they're sealed, they can be conveniently stored. VRLA lead acid car battery doesn't
leak or release any sort of gas. Hence, it's considered the safest well cell lead acid car
battery.
4. The drawback of this battery type is that it's not serviceable as it's fully sealed.
5. The optimum temperature for these batteries is 25 degree Celsius. Increased
temperature reduces the performance drastically. Hence, it might not meet the higher
electric power demands.
6. Modern VRLA batteries are designed in a way that they last anywhere between 5 to
10 years depending on the usage.
7. Compared to flooded batteries, VRLA batteries are more vulnerable to thermal
runaway during abusive charging.

Lithium Ion Battery

1. Lithium Ion Batteries today power most electric vehicles and PHEVs.
2. They offer great high-temperature performance, thereby resisting a drop in
performance even in hot conditions.
3. They also have a low-self discharge.
4. These batteries are recyclable, which makes them a good option for the environment.
5. Lithium Ion batteries need routine maintenance and care in their usage and handling.
6. Lithium Ion Batteries have the highest energy densities of all car battery types. These
batteries can up to 3.6 Volts, which means these batteries can offer large amounts of
current for high-power demands.
7. Lithium Ion batteries are not non-spill able. Hence, they need to be handled carefully.
 8. These batteries can last two to three years or 300 to 500 charge

Sodium Ion Battery

1. Sodium Ion batteries are a new type of car batteries that have seen massive
development in recent times.
2. Unlike lithium, which is an expensive as well as a rate metal, sodium is freely
available.
3. Factors like groundwater loss and safety concerns are working in favour of the
development of Sodium Ion batteries.
4. Sodium Ion batteries don't require regular maintenance by the user.
5. Sodium Ion batteries are not non-spillable. Hence, they need to be handled carefully.
6. Even though this technology is still being developed, Sodium Ion batteries can last
even up to 10 years!
7. As these batteries are being developed to replace Lithium Ion batteries, they have a
high energy density and can meet the high power demands.
Solid State Battery

1. A solid-state battery is one of the more common car battery types.

2. They are currently being developed to power electric cars.
3. Like Lithium and Sodium Ion batteries, Solid State Batteries have a high energy
density and can meet the high power demands.
4. Solid State batteries don't require regular maintenance by the user.
5. There is no spillage in solid state batteries.
6. A Solid State battery can last for over 10 years or over 10,000 cycles.

GENERAL CHECK-UP/SERVICING
 In the servicing the service advisor takes the whole check-up of the vehicle
and they also take the complaints from the customer.
 Then the technician goes through the notes given by the service advisor and
starts to work on it as per the requirements.
 Also time and cost estimation of the service in given to the customer.
 In that time the technicians working on the car will make sure everything is in
good condition they check the levels of coolant, engine oil, transmission oil
and other fluids that are necessary.
  They check tyre pressure of all five wheels including the reserve tyre. Check
all the front headlights, back lights and indicators fix them if they are not
working.
 Air conditioning is checked for smooth air flow and the vents are cleaned and
finally the car is returned to its owner.
A service takes a little amount of time based on the work that had to be done
on the car. The time may vary from half an hour. When the above processes
are done the car is returned back to the customer.

BLEEDING

The process of removing air from the hydraulic brake system is called bleeding. Air is
compressible, and any air in the system will be compressed during brake application, causing
a spongy pedal. When bleeding brakes, using the proper sequence is recommended. It saves
time and ensures that the entire system is bled.

The usual RWD procedure is to bleed the components in the following sequence:

1. Master cylinder

2. Combination valve if equipped with a bleeder screw.

3. Wheel cylinders and calipers in succession, beginning with the longest brake line and
ending with the shortest. On most vehicles the sequence will be right rear, left rear, right
front, left front. This may or may not be correct for every vehicle; the best advise is to a
bleeding sequence manual. Doing so you may actually find the sequence to be.

4. A FWD diagonally split system; sequence will be entirely different and will vary upon
manufacture.
GENERAL TIPS:

If a caliper has two bleeder screws, bleed the inboard section first and then the outboard
section. If a drum brake has two wheel cylinders, bleed the lower one first, followed by the
upper one. Most vehicles with ABS require a special bleeding procedure. Some are bled
manually, some by pressure bleeding, and some require a scan tool to activate the pump or
solenoids. Check the specific manufacturer’s recommendations.

These are the (4) most common methods used:

1. Gravity bleeding

2. Manual bleeding

3. Pressure bleeding

4. Vacuum bleeding

Gravity bleeding: The gravity method simply lets the fluid run down into the calipers and
wheel cylinders.

Manual bleeding is the most commonly used method. The master cylinder and brake pedal
are used as a pump to cause fluid to flow through an open bleeder screw. This fluid flow
should flush air out.

Manual bleeding should be performed smoothly so as not to create turbulence in the fluid,
which causes foaming. Foamy fluid contains tiny air bubbles that are very hard to remove.

Pressure bleeding normally uses a pressurized tank of brake fluid to cause fluid to flow
through the bleeder screws. Pressure bleeding has the advantage of being a one-man
operation, and is an effective method of removing air and flushing the hydraulic circuits.

Vacuum bleeding uses a pump to pull fluid and air out of the bleeder screw. It is fairly simple
and is an effective operation.

Brake Fluid: To ensure a maximum brake-fluid boiling point and to reduce corrosion, a
system that uses DOT 3 or DOT 4 brake fluid should have the fluid changed every two years.
This is a rather simple operation but one that is not commonly done. It is highly
recommended for two main reasons: safety and economics. Many FWD vehicles in heavy-
traffic situations will have brake fluid close to the boiling point; this will cause a low pedal as
the fluid boils. Quick-take-up master cylinders and ABS hydraulic modulators are very
expensive parts to replace, and old fluid can ruin them.

OIL CHANGE

 In this process engine oil from the oil sump is removed by opening the drain plug
present beneath the car.
 The used oil is collected in container for selling purposes.
 The drain plug is kept open for several minutes so that the oil is drained completely.
 Then the oil filter is changed before the addition of new oil. In the sameway the
transmission oil is also changed.
 In the same manner the transmission oil is also drained and collected in different
container.
 New engine and transmission oil are put back and checked for the levels of the oil.
 Then the technicians start the engine and once check for oil levels and indications of
oil leakage and fix if there are any.
AIR FILTER, AC FILTER

Just like human body requires oxygen to function and to survive, a vehicle’s engine needs
oxygen to control how much gasoline it can burn to power the engine. And the oxygen comes
from the air all around us. But the air needs to be cleaned before it enters the engine in order
to capture dirt, pollen and other pollutants from reaching its sensitive internals. An average
car has many different types of filters to prevent air, fuel, oil and water from contaminants
such as carburetor air filter, cabin air filter, crank base breather filter, ABS wheel/brake
filter, power steering filters, engine oil filters, fuel tank filter, transmission filters, and more.
The basic air filters in automobiles can be classified as the engine air filter and cabin air filter.
Air filters clean the air and prevent the impurities within the air, which is used by the engine
during combustion. It is located in the engine bay inside a sealed box. The air filter makes
sure the air is free from the contaminants before it enters into the engine. The cabin air filter
is yet another feature used in many vehicles today. It is a second air filter installed in the duct
system to filter out pollen and dust particles that enter a vehicle through its heating, air
conditioning and defrost systems. Both are fairly similar in what they do but their purposes
are slightly different.
Air filters, also goes by internal combustion air filters, as the name suggest, filter the air and
prevent the impurities within the air from entering the engine during combustion. The air
filters directly or indirectly protects the components of the engine from daily wear. They are
the vehicle’s first line of defense against the pollutants and contaminants from damaging your
engine. The air filters prevent bugs, dirt, debris and contaminants from entering the engine’s
delicate systems, thereby reducing emissions and improving the performance of the vehicle.
The idea is to block the larger particles from getting inside the engine intake and allow only
pure air in, in order to keep the vehicle operating in top condition. Dirty air can reduce the
efficiency of the engine and may cause damage to the engine, so it is always advisable to
 change the air filter every now and then to keep your vehicle in its best condition.

Car’s AC filter is quite an important feature in the car. It is in fact often overlooked by
vehicle component. One only checks the filter when the car is getting checked for an oil
change.
Here are 3 benefits of regularly changing your Car AC Filter :
Pollution:
Car Indoor Air pollution is a term most people are oblivious of. Pollution is one of the most
reason that requires you to change your cabin ac filter. The filter is basically the bridge
between an exterior air from the road and the interior air of your car. If the filter is blocked
due to excessive dust and dirt particles. It will stop functioning at its best. Which can become
an issue to building indoor car air problem! Hence it is important to regularly keep a check on
the AC filter.
Debris:
It is hard to imagine your cabin filter clogged with leaves and twigs. Since they are large
objects a lot of times, people assume the ac filter would hardly be blocked with such debris.
A lot of times, if the car is parked in areas which have a lot of trees or bushes around, the
filter sucks in these large or small particles. This can have a huge effect on the efficiency of
the HVAC system. Hence, it is important to remove the debris-clogged filter from your car.
Allergens:
Did you know besides pollutants and debris, what else does your car cabin air filter help in
curbing car indoor air pollution?
The cabin air filter can also help reduce the number of allergens residing inside your car.
Pollen, for instance, can easily get inside your vehicle without the air filter. The less you
change/replace the cabin filter, the greater the number of pollutants or allergens can grow
inside your car. This can lead to a number of health issues that can be worrying for a daily
commuting case.

BRAKE PAD AND CALIPER GREASING

Brake pads are a component of disc brakes used in automotive and other applications. Brake
pads are composed of steel backing plates with friction material bound to the surface that
faces the disc brake rotors.
Function[edit]

Brake pads convert the kinetic energy of a vehicle to thermal energy through friction. Two
brake pads are contained in the brake with their friction surfaces facing the rotor.[1] When the
brakes are hydraulically applied, the caliper clamps or squeezes the two pads together onto
the spinning rotor to slow and stop the vehicle. When a brake pad heats up due to contact
with the rotor, it transfers small amounts of its friction material onto the disc, leaving a dull
grey coating on it. The brake pad and disc (now both having the friction material), then
"stick" to each other, providing the friction that stops the vehicle.
In disc brakes, there are usually two brake pads per disc rotor, they both function together.
These are held in place and actuated by a caliper affixed to the wheel hub
or suspension upright. Racing calipers, however, can utilize up to six pads, with varying
frictional properties in a staggered pattern for optimum performance. Depending on the
properties of the material, the weight of the vehicle and the speeds it is driven at, disc wear
rates may vary. The brake pads must usually be replaced regularly (depending on pad
material). Most brake pads are equipped with a method of alerting the driver when this needs
to be done. A common technique is manufacturing a small central groove whose eventual
disappearance by wear indicates the end of a pad's service life. Other methods include placing
a thin strip of soft metal in a groove, such that when exposed (due to wear) the brakes squeal
audibly. A soft metal wear tab can also be embedded in the pad material that closes
an electric circuit when the brake pad wears thin, lighting a dashboard warning light.
There are numerous types of brake pads, depending on the intended use of the vehicle, from
very soft and aggressive (such as racing applications) to harder, more durable and less
aggressive compounds. Most vehicle manufacturers recommend a specific kind of brake pad
for their vehicle, but compounds can be changed (by either buying a different make of pad or
upgrading to a performance pad in a manufacturer's range) according to personal tastes and
driving styles. Care must always be taken when buying non-standard brake pads as
the operating temperature ranges may vary, such as performance pads not braking efficiently
when cold or standard pads fading under hard driving. In cars that suffer from
excessive brake fade, the problem can be minimized by installing better quality and more
aggressive brake pads.

The most important characteristics that are considered when selecting a brake pad material
are as follows:

 The material's ability to resist brake fade, caused by an increase in temperature the
material will experience from the conversion of kinetic energy into thermal energy.[5][6]
 The effects of moisture on brake fade. All brakes are designed to withstand at least
temporary exposure to water.
 The ability to recover quickly from increased temperature or moisture, and exhibit
approximately the same friction levels at any point in the drying or cooling process.
 The friction coefficient of modern brake pads should be low enough prevent locking of
the wheels but high enough to provide sufficient stopping power. Friction coefficients are
typically between 0.3 and 0.5 for brake pad materials.
 The ability to resist wear due to friction, but not to the extent that rotor wear occurs more
quickly than brake material is sacrificed.
 The ability of the material to provide smooth and even contact with the rotor or drum,
instead of a material that breaks off in chunks or causes pits, dents, or other damage to
the surface in contact.
 The ability to apply appropriate frictional force while also operating quietly.
Maintenance and Troubleshooting[edit]

Brake pads should be checked at least every 5,000 miles for excessive or uneven wear.
Although brake pad wear is unique to each vehicle, it is generally recommended that brake
pads be replaced every 50,000 miles.

Malfunctions with brake pads can have many effects on the performance of a vehicle. The
following chart outlines some common issues that can be caused by brake pad malfunctions:
Issue Possible Cause
Braking requires an abnormal amount of Worn brake pads, contaminated brake fluid,
force faulty brake caliper, faulty master cylinder,
loss of vacuum, loss of brake fluid
on brake pedal

Car pulls to one side when braking Faulty brake caliper, restriction in hydraulic
system, brake pad lining(s) contaminated
with oil or brake fluid, brake pads not
replaced in pairs, brake pad not fitted
correctly,
Poor braking performance Brake pad lining(s) soaked with water, oil, or

brake fluid; Overheated brake pad linings,

worn brake pads, faulty master cylinder,
brake fluid leak, air in brake fluid,
misadjusted brake shoes, boiling brake fluid
Sensitive braking Incorrect brake pad linings; Greasy brake pad
linings, faulty proportioning valve,
misadjusted master cylinder pushrod
Noisy braking (grinding or screeching sounds Extremely worn brake pads, brake pad(s) not
fitted correctly, faulty or missing brake pad
when braking)
shim, brake pad wear indicator

Vibration under braking Contaminated rotors or pads, warped rotors,

out of round drums, ABS activation
Now the big thing with a four piston caliper is that it’s mounted rigidly, It doesn’t move, it has
the four pistons the four pistons have to work in unison which means that periodically you have
to clean around the pistons because dirt can actually migrate through the seals and cause the
pistons bind. The other thing is if the pistons or the caliper doesn’t move and the pistons do,
that means that the pads move on the pins. So those pins have to be lubricated in order for the
pads to move smoothly, and if they don’t if one of these pistons is out of sync or if you don’t
move the pad properly you can wind up with what we have here. One end is like new the other
end is almost worn out. So, periodic cleaning and lubrication, very good idea.

Now over here we have a two piston caliper, now the pistons are side by side and the caliper
slides back and forth, now the thing with that is because it slides, these slide pins right here
have to be lubricated in order to keep the caliper moving smoothly and not rocking on its slides.
Again, you want to clean around the pistons and so on during a normal brake inspection.

And finally we have our old tried and true single piston caliper that again slides back and forth
on some type of mechanism. It, like all the others, needs to be lubricated so that it slides freely.
If you have uneven wear on a pad or something like that, suspect that there’s probably an issue
with the caliper or the sliding mechanism of the caliper. Now the thing here is that you should
be checking your brakes and lubricating all this stuff about every 12-15 thousand miles or once
a year. But, the product you use has to be designed specifically for brakes because of the
excessive heat, you can’t use normal grease because normal grease will melt and go away. It
also collects dirt and the dirt makes things bind up. So proper maintenance, pads will last
longer, brakes will work better.
DISC BRAKE AND DRUM BRAKE

Brakes are an important component of every car and we rely on it not only to stop but also
help us prevent a potential accident or collision. The car industry has progressed significantly
from the early days of woodblock brakes to today’s sophisticated drum and disc brakes.
Drum and disc brakes are the two most ubiquitous brake systems that you will find in today’s
cars and in many cases, you will find both used on the same car.
Drum Brakes

The first proper brakes on cars were the drum brakes, invented by French manufacturer Louis
Renault in 1902. A drum brake consists of a drum, a housing connected to the wheel, brake
shoes, which are fitted in the housing and a master cylinder that is connected to the brake
pedal. When the brake pedal is pushed the master cylinder causes the brake shoes to rub
against the inside of the rotating drum, creating friction and ultimately slowing down the
wheel to a complete stop. Drum brakes are used on many mass produced cars and on the rear
wheels on more premium car models.

Advantages of Drum Brakes

Durability: Since drum brakes have an increased friction contact area, they last longer.

Low Cost: Drum brakes are cheaper to manufacture, hence they are more widely used on
almost all types of vehicles.

Low Input Force: Some drum brakes require low input force to get them activated, meaning
less push on the brake pedal, this can be done through various means like hydraulic pressure.

Low maintenance: Due to better corrosion resistance, as they are inside of a housing, they
are slightly easier to maintain.
Disadvantages of Drum Brakes
Overheat: Drum brakes tend to overheat in high braking conditions like going down a hill or
frequent high speed braking, as they don’t have an outlet to cool themselves down. This
causes the brake shoes to glaze or smoothen out and produce no braking action.

Pushing The Brake Pedal Farther: When hard braking occurs, the drum expands slightly
due to a phenomenon called thermal expansion. So, to induce braking the driver must press
the brake pedal farther.

Grabbing: Grabbing in a drum brake occurs when the brake shoe becomes wet or is slightly
rusty. This causes it to offer more braking force than required and stays that way for a brief
moment of time. When a grab occurs, the tyres skid and keep on skidding even when the
pedal is released. This results in a loss of control of the car and is dangerous for the driver,
especially at high speeds.

Complex construction: A drum brake has many components, requiring an expert mechanic
for repairs.

Disc Brakes
Disc brakes were also introduced at the same time as drum brakes, but due to lack of proper
technology and higher costs these didn’t take off. The first disc brakes were installed on a
car called the Crosley Hot Shot, but then again due to insufficient research and reliability
issues these were not popular. However, in 1953, Jaguar used disc brakes on its racing car at
the Le Mans 24 hour racing event, and won the race, surprising everyone with its braking
capabilities. The disc brakes fitted on the Jaguar racing car outlasted the other cars having
drum brakes and thus made its winning debut. Since then disc brakes have been used in mass
produced cars.

A disc brake contains a disc or a rotor, a caliper housing the brake pads and a piston. When
the brake pedal is pushed, hydraulics force the piston in the caliper to push the brake pad on
one side while backward force of the piston is used to pull the brake pad on the other side of
the rotor. This produces a squeezing motion which pinches the disc at great force and hence
slows or stops the vehicle.

Advantages of Disc Brakes

Less Effort: Due to hydraulics as a standard on all disc brake systems, engaging a disc brake
requires less effort and produces greater braking force.

Heat Dissipation: Due to the large surface area of discs any heat produced by friction of the
brake pads on the disc dissipates into the atmosphere. This prevents overheating of the disc
and improves braking even in frequent hard braking situations.

Standard Performance In Any Weather: Disc brakes perform well even in wet conditions
and don’t slip or grab like their drum counterparts.

Easy Installation: A disc brake has a few components and hence very easy to install, even
you can learn how to change the brake pads on your discs.

Disadvantages of Disc Brakes

Expensive: Disc brakes are downright expensive and that is the reason why car
manufacturers opt for drum brakes on the rear wheels to bring down manufacturing costs.
Rotor Warping: In case of high speed braking there is a chance that the brake rotor might
warp. This can happen due to very high temperatures on the discs followed by immediate
cooling. Improper installation of the disc brake could also cause it to warp.

Brake Pad Wear Out: Brake pads on disc brakes tend to wear out faster than drum brakes,
this happens due to the powerful squeezing motion of the brake piston on the brake pads.
This provides better stopping power but reduced brake pad life.

Less Effective As Parking Brakes: The brake pads on discs tend to expand when heated and
contract when cold. Since parking does not produce heat, the disc brakes are less likely to
hold the wheels for a longer duration. This is the reason why high performance vehicles have
an extra drum brake in addition to four wheel discs.

FRONT BUMPER

A bumper is a shield made of steel, aluminum, rubber, or plastic that is mounted on the front
and rear of a passenger car. When a low speed collision occurs, the bumper system absorbs
the shock to prevent or reduce damage to the car. Some bumpers use energy absorbers or
brackets and others are made with a foam cushioning material.

The car bumper is designed to prevent or reduce physical damage to the front and rear ends
of passenger motor vehicles in low-speed collisions. Automobile bumpers are not typically
designed to be structural components that would significantly contribute to vehicle
crashworthiness or occupant protection during front or rear collisions. It is not a safety
feature intended to prevent or mitigate injury severity to occupants in the passenger
cars. Bumpers are designed to protect the hood, trunk, grille, fuel, exhaust and cooling
system as well as safety related equipment such as parking lights, headlamps and taillights in
low speed collisions.

Decades ago, a bumper was a solid metal component affixed to the front of a vehicle. But
nowadays, that’s not usually the case. While most people assume the bumper is the visible,
front fascia of a modern car, it’s actually a hidden structure behind the bumper cover. Only a
few applications, such as heavy-duty pickup trucks, still employ a visible bumper.
Bumpers of all varieties are designed to absorb some impact in a collision, which means they
act as a barrier between your vehicle and the other vehicle (or object) involved in the
accident. This ensures that some of the more important components under the hood receive
less of the impact, thereby mitigating your repair costs.
Modern bumpers, in particular, are designed to absorb minor dings and low-speed impacts.
Behind the bumper (also known as a bumper reinforcement), you’ll find energy absorbers.
On the other hand, the bumper cover (also known as the front fascia) is a visible, molded
body component that’s typically made out of either plastic or fiberglass. This is the part of the
front end that people often misidentify as the bumper itself.
The bumper cover sits in front of the actual bumper. Basically, the bumper cover is there to
provide a kind of aesthetic appeal that is unobtrusive. Bumper covers also enhance
aerodynamics and, thereby, improve fuel efficiency.
RADIATOR

A radiator is the key component of the engine’s cooling system. Its main role is to disperse a
mix of antifreeze and water throughout its fins, which releases some of the engine’s heat
while taking in cool air before continuing to pass the rest of the engine. Alongside the
radiator is the spur line, water pump, and fan clutch. Each of these plays a different role in
aiding the radiator to keep the engine cool. The spur line dispatches warm coolant to the
heater core to produce hot air when needed, while the water pump sends the coolant to flow
throughout the engine. Most importantly is the role of the fan clutch, which is to bring more
air into the radiator and help lower the temperature of the antifreeze and water mixture.

Parts and Operating Principles of a Radiator

Within the radiator itself, it has 3 main parts, known as the outlet and inlet tanks, the core,
and the pressure cap. Each of these 3 parts plays its own role within the radiator.

The main role of a radiator hose is to connect the engine to the radiator and allow the coolant
to run through the respective tank. The inlet tank is in charge of guiding the hot coolant from
the engine to the radiator to cool down, then it circles back out to the engine through the
outlet tank.

After the hot coolant comes in, it circulates through a huge metal plate that contains multiple
rows of thin metal fins that help cool down the incoming hot coolant, called the core. Then, it
 is returned to the engine through the outlet tank once the coolant is at the appropriate
temperature.

While the coolant undergoes such a process, there is also the pressure or radiator cap, whose
role is to tightly secure and seal off the cooling system to make sure it stays pressurized till a
certain point. Once it reaches that point, it will release the pressure. Without the pressure cap,
the coolant might overheat and cause an overspill. Thus, causing the radiator to work
inefficiently.
Just as with other parts of your vehicle, your radiator will also need to be checked and cared
for regularly. Here are some tips for maintaining the radiator of your vehicle.

 Take caution when checking the level of coolant and the radiator! Please bear in mind, you
should never open the radiator cap or the heater hose connector cap when the engine is
running, as hot coolant can erupt and cause burns and other injuries. When checking the
coolant, turn off the engine and wait for it to cool. Then, slowly and carefully open the cap
with a thick cloth.
 When refilling the coolant level during the freezing winter season, it is crucial to add
antifreeze and make sure they match at a 5:5 ratio. Otherwise, cool water can freeze within
the engine. In addition, adding antifreeze with coolant can prevent the radiator grille or
related parts from corroding.
 To prevent harmful particles or rust erosion, be sure to clear out the radiator at least once
every 30,000 kms or 12 months(It is recommended to check the owner's manual).

 Each time you change your oil, it is also recommended to take a look at your radiator hoses to
see if there are any noticeable cracks or leaks.

 Lastly, if any electrical work was done on your vehicle when installing your radiator or
heater, you should check to see if there are any stray currents as they can cause corrosion
which can lead to radiator failure.
HEAD, REAR AND TAIL LAMP

A motor vehicle has lighting and signalling devices mounted to or integrated into its front,
rear, sides, and, in some cases, top. Various devices have the dual function of illuminating
the road ahead for the driver, and making the vehicle visible to others, with indications to
them of turning, slowing or stopping, etc., with lights also indicating the size of some large
vehicles.

Many emergency vehicles have distinctive lighting equipment to warn drivers of their
presence.
Colour of light emitted

The colour of light emitted by vehicle lights is largely standardized by established

conventions, first codified in the 1949 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic and later
specified in the 1968 United Nations Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. With some
regional exceptions, lights facing rearward must emit red light, side-facing lights and all turn
signals must emit amber light, and lights facing forward must emit white or selective
yellow light. No other colours are permitted except on emergency vehicles.
Forward illumination

Forward illumination is provided by high- ("main", "full", "driving") and low- ("dip",
"dipped", "passing") beam headlights, which may be augmented by auxiliary fog lights,
driving lights, or cornering lights.

Headlight
Headlamp

Low beam (dipped beam, passing beam, meeting beam)

ISO symbol for low beam

Low beam (also called dipped beam, passing beam, or meeting beam) headlights provide
adequate forward and lateral illumination without dazzling other road users with excessive
glare. This beam is specified for use whenever other vehicles are present ahead.

UN ECE regulations for dipped beam headlights specify a beam with a sharp, asymmetric
cut-off; the half of the beam closest to oncoming drivers is flat and low, while the half of the
beam closest to the outside of the road slopes up and towards the near side of the roadway.
This permits a functional compromise where it is possible to substantially prevent glare for
oncoming drivers, while still allowing adequate illumination for drivers to see pedestrians,
road signs, hazards, etc. on their side of the road.

The United States and Canada use proprietary FMVSS / CMVSS standards instead of UN
ECE regulations. These standards contain regulations for dipped beam headlights that also
specify a beam with a sharp, asymmetric cut-off; the half of the beam closest to oncoming
drivers is also flat and low, but not as low as prescribed in UN ECE regulations. The half of
the beam closest to the outside of the road is also flat, but higher than the half closest to
oncoming vehicles. This results in substantially increased glare for oncoming drivers and also
poorer illumination of the near side of the roadway in comparison to headlights conforming
to UN ECE regulations.
High beam (main beam, driving beam, full beam)

ISO symbol for high beam

High beam (also called main beam, driving beam, or full beam) headlights provide an
intense, centre-weighted distribution of light with no particular glare control. Therefore, they
are only suitable for use when alone on the road, as the glare they produce will dazzle other
drivers.

UN ECE Regulations permit higher-intensity high-beam headlights than allowed under U.S.
and Canadian FMVSS / CMVSS standards.

Auxiliary lights
Driving lights

ISO symbol for long-range lights

Auxiliary high beam lights may be fitted to provide high-intensity light to enable the driver to
see at longer range than the vehicle's high beam headlights. Such lights are most notably
fitted on rally cars, and are occasionally fitted to production vehicles derived from or
imitating such cars. They are common in countries with large stretches of unlit roads, or in
regions such as the Nordic countries that receive fewer daylight hours during winter.

"Driving light" is a term hailing from the early days of night time driving, when it was
relatively rare to encounter an opposing vehicle. Only on occasions when opposing drivers
passed each other would the low (dipped or "passing") beam be used. The high beam was
therefore known as the "driving beam", and this terminology is still found in international UN
Regulations, which do not distinguish between a vehicle's primary (mandatory) and auxiliary
(optional) upper/driving beam lights. The "driving light" term has been supplanted in US
regulations by the functionally descriptive term "auxiliary high-beam light".

Many countries regulate the installation and use of driving lights. For example, in Russia,
each vehicle may have no more than three pairs of driving lights (including the original
lights), and in Paraguay, auxiliary driving lights must be off and covered with opaque
material when the vehicle is operated in urban areas.
Front fog lights

ISO symbol for front fog lights

Front fog lights

provide a wide, bar-shaped beam of light with a sharp cutoff at the top, and are generally
aimed and mounted low. They may produce white or selective yellow light, and were
designed for use at low speed to increase the illumination directed towards the road surface
and verges in conditions of poor visibility due to fog, dust or snow.

They are sometimes used in place of dipped-beam headlights, reducing glare from fog or
falling snow, although the legality of using front fog lights without low-beam headlights
varies by jurisdiction.

In most countries, weather conditions rarely necessitate the use of front fog lights and there is
no legal requirement for them, so their primary purpose is frequently cosmetic. They are
often available as optional extras or only on higher trim levels of many cars. Since as early as
the 2020s, several car manufacturers have noticeably omitted the front fog lights from many
of their latest models, as more recent high-tech lighting technologies such as DRLs and LEDs
connected to automatic high-beam systems negate the use of fog lights. However, some
manufacturers who still offer fog lights as standard equipment in certain model trims have
diversified its use to function also as an automatic lighting delay for vehicles, to light up
surroundings and roadside curbs after being parked.

An SAE study has shown that in the United States, more people inappropriately use their fog
lights in dry weather than use them properly in poor weather. Because of this, use of the fog
lights when visibility is not seriously reduced is often prohibited in most jurisdictions; for
example, in Australia:
The driver of a vehicle must not use any fog light fitted to the vehicle unless the driver is
driving in fog, mist or under other atmospheric conditions that restrict visibility.

The respective purposes of front fog lights and driving lights are often confused, due in part
to the misconception that fog lights are always selective yellow, while any auxiliary light that
makes white light is a driving light. Automakers and aftermarket parts and accessories
suppliers frequently refer interchangeably to "fog lights" and "driving lights" (or "fog/driving
lights").

Cornering lights

On some models, cornering lights provide steady-intensity white light for lateral illumination
in the direction of an intended turn or lane change. They are generally actuated in conjunction
with the turn signals, and they may be wired to also illuminate when the vehicle is shifted
into reverse gear. Some modern vehicles activate the cornering light on one or the other side
when the steering wheel input reaches a predetermined angle in that direction, regardless of
whether a turn signal has been activated. American technical standards contain provisions for
front cornering lights as well as rear cornering lights. Cornering lights have traditionally been
prohibited under international UN Regulations, though provisions have recently been made to
allow them as long as they are only operable when the vehicle is travelling at less than 40
kilometres per hour (about 25 mph).
Spot lights

Police cars, emergency vehicles, and vehicles competing in road rallies are sometimes
equipped with an auxiliary spot light, sometimes called an "alley light", in a swivel-mounted
housing attached to one or both A-pillars, aimed by a handle protruding through the pillar
into the vehicle.
Front
Front position lights

ISO symbol for position lights

Front position lights (known as parking lights in North America and front sidelights in the
UK) provide nighttime standing-vehicle conspicuity. They are designed to use little
electricity so they can be left on when parked for prolonged periods of time. Despite the UK
term, these are not the same as the side marker lights described below. The front position
lights on any vehicle must emit white light, with the exception of motorcycles, which may
have amber front position lights. In the US, Canada, Mexico, Iceland, Japan, New Zealand,
and Australia (only if combined with a side marker), South Korea, North Korea, Vietnam,
China, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and much of the Middle East, they may emit amber light
on any vehicle. The "city light" terminology for front position lights derives from the
practice, formerly adhered to in cities like Moscow, London and Paris, of driving at night in
urban areas using these low-intensity lights rather than the vehicle's headlights.

In Germany, the StVZO (Road Traffic Licensing Regulations) calls for a different function
provided by these lights: with the vehicle's ignition switched off, the operator may activate a
low-intensity white light at the front and red light at the rear on either the left or right side.
This function is used when parking in narrow unlit streets to provide parked-vehicle
conspicuity to approaching drivers. This function, which is optional under UN and US
regulations, is served passively in the United States by mandatory side marker retroreflectors.

Daytime running lights

Daytime running lamp

ISO symbol for daytime running lights

Installation

Some countries permit or require vehicles to be equipped with daytime running

lights (DRLs). Depending on the regulations of the country for which the vehicle is built,
these may be functionally dedicated lights, or the function may be provided by the low beam
or high beam headlights, the front turn signals, or the front fog lights.

Passenger cars and small delivery vans first type approved to UN Regulation 48 on or after 7
February 2011, and large vehicles (trucks and buses) type approved since August 2012, must
be equipped with DRLs. Functional piggybacking, such as using the headlights, front turn
signals, or fog lights as DRLs, is not permitted; the EU Directive requires functionally
specific daytime running lights compliant with UN Regulation 87 and mounted to the vehicle
in accord with UN Regulation 48.

Prior to the DRL mandate, countries requiring daytime lights permitted low beam headlights
to provide that function. National regulations in Canada, Sweden, Norway, Slovenia, Finland,
Iceland, and Denmark require hardwired automatic DRL systems of varying specification.
DRLs are permitted in many countries where they are not required, but prohibited in other
countries not requiring them.

Turn signals

ISO symbol for turn signals.

Direction indicator lights or turn signals, informally known as directional signals,

directionals, blinkers, or indicators, are blinking lights mounted near the left and right front
and rear corners of a vehicle, and sometimes on the sides or on the side mirrors of a vehicle
(where they are called repeaters). They are activated by the driver on one side of the vehicle
at a time to advertise intent to turn or change lanes towards that side, or used simultaneously
as a hazard warning signal to warn other drivers of a vehicle parked on the road.

For many years, turn signals' on-off operation was activated by a thermal flasher unit which
used a heating element, leaf spring, and a bimetallic strip. When activated by the stalk switch
on the steering column, the signal lights and heating element turned on. The heat caused the
bimetallic strip to bend such that it threw the leaf spring over centre, opening the circuit and
breaking power to the heating element and the signal lights. When the bimetallic strip cooled
down, it would pull the leaf spring back over centre in the other direction, closing the
contacts and again sending power to the lights and heating element. The cycle would repeat
until the power to the thermal flasher was switched off by the stalk switch.

Thermal flashers gradually gave way to electromechanical relays; one of many control
strategies with relay-type flashers is to use a relaxation oscillator chip to generate square
waves to the relay coil, causing the relay contacts to open and close.

Modern cars now use a relaxation oscillator and solid-state relay built into the body control
module to flash the lights, and use speakers to produce the distinctive clicking sound
associated with turn signals, which was previously made by a relay or the leaf spring in a
thermal flasher. If the stalk switch is not moved beyond the fixed left/right position and
allowed to flip back, the control module will only flash the lights three times.

Rear
Rear position lights (tail lights)

Conspicuity for the rear of a vehicle is provided by rear position lights (also called tail lights).
These are required to produce only red light and to be wired such that they are lit whenever
the front position lights are lit, including when the headlights are on. Rear position lights may
be combined with the vehicle's stop lights or be separate from them. In combined-function
installations, the lights produce brighter red light as stop lights and dimmer red light as rear
position lights. Regulations worldwide stipulate minimum intensity ratios between the bright
(stop) and dim (position) modes, so that a vehicle displaying rear position lights will not be
mistakenly interpreted as showing stop lights and vice versa.
Stop lights (brake lights)

Red steadily lit rear lights, brighter than the rear position lights, are activated when the driver
applies the vehicle's brakes and warn vehicles behind to prepare to stop. These are formally
called "stop lamps" in technical standards and regulations and in the Vienna Convention on
Road Traffic, though they are often informally called brake lights. They are required to be
fitted in multiples of two, symmetrically at the left and right edges of the rear of every
vehicle. International UN regulations No. 7 specify a range of acceptable intensity for a stop
light of 60 to 185 candela. In North America, where the UN regulations are not recognised,
the acceptable range for a single-compartment stop light is 80 to 300 candela
Emergency stop signal (ESS)

Emergency stop signalling is a lighting function wherein the vehicle's stop (brake) lights
and/or hazard/turn indicators flash in phase at 3 to 5 Hz under heavy or urgent braking. The
emergency stop signal is automatically activated if the vehicle speed is greater than 50 km/h
(31 mph) and the emergency braking logic defined by regulation No. 13 (heavy vehicles),
13H (light vehicles), or 78 (motorcycles) is activated; the ESS may be displayed when a light
vehicle's deceleration is greater than 6 m/s2 (20 ft/s2) or a heavy vehicle's deceleration is
greater than 4 m/s2 (13 ft/s2), and the ESS must be discontinued once the vehicle's
deceleration drops below 2.5 m/s2 (8.2 ft/s2).

Rear fog light

ISO symbol for rear fog lights, UNECE 121 symbol

Hazard warning signal

ISO symbol for hazard warning signal

The hazard warning signal (sometimes called "hazard warning flashers", "hazard warning
lights", "emergency lights", "4-way flashers", "hazards", or "flashers") is provided by
flashing all of a vehicle's left and right turn signals simultaneously and in phase. Hazard
warning signals first appeared as aftermarket accessories in the early 1950s; by the late
1960s, regulations around the world came to require all new vehicles to be so equipped.
Operation of the hazard flashers must be from a control independent of the turn signal
control, and an audiovisual tell-tale must be provided to the driver.

This function is meant to indicate a hazard such as a vehicle stopped in or near moving
traffic, a disabled vehicle, a vehicle moving substantially slower than the flow of traffic such
as a truck climbing a steep grade, the presence of stopped or slow traffic ahead on a high
speed road and/or the presence of stopped or slow traffic ahead on unpredictable natural
disasters like earthquakes.

In vehicles with a separate left and right green turn signal tell-tale on the dashboard, both left
and right indicators may flash to provide visual indication of the hazard flashers' operation. In
vehicles with a single green turn signal tell-tale on the dashboard, a separate red tell-tale must
be provided for hazard flasher indication. Because the hazard flasher function operates the
vehicle's left and right turn signals, a left or a right turn signal function may not be provided
while the hazard flashers are operating.

Apart from its use as emergency lighting, a single flash of the hazard lights is used to show
gratitude to yielding drivers in several countries.[

HOW TO CHANGE TAIL LIGHT BULBS

1. SAFETY FIRST

Safety is critical anytime you are working with bulbs and wires. Start by disconnecting
the car battery. This will reduce the risk of shock or electrocution. Once you have done this,
you’ll need to access the tail lights through the trunk or rear hatch. It will be helpful to do this
in a well-lit place, or you can grab a flashlight. There could be extra carpet or padding in the
way of the access point. Move these away until you can easily see the back of the taillights.
Some cars have a panel you’ll have to remove, so have your screwdriver handy.

2. REMOVE THE BULB HOLDERS

Once you can see and touch the taillights, remove the bulb holders from the rear side of the
lamp. You can do this by moving them clockwise. Remove the broken or burned-out bulbs;
be careful to not cut yourself if the bulbs are broken. Put on a pair of gloves and replace the
bulbs with the new ones. The gloves will help keep the bulbs clean, thus preserving their life
and effectiveness.
3. REMOVE THE ASSEMBLY

Your job isn’t quite done yet. Next, you need to remove the tail light assembly. Once you
find and take out the nuts, this shouldn’t be a problem. It may require you to use some grease
or oil to help free the nuts. The assembly should easily slide out at this point.

4. FINAL PROCESSES

When you’re ready to put the assembly back in the housing, first hand-tighten the bolts
before using a ratchet. It’s important to not tighten these too much, as they have a tendency to
crack or break the housing. Replace the bulb holders. These should look different than the
turn signal lights and brake lights. Finish up by replacing the carpet and any panels in the
trunk. Don’t forget to reconnect the car battery.

TEST THEM OUT

You may feel good about learning how to change tail light bulb, but your job isn’t quite done
yet. Before you put all your tools away and drive off, make sure you did everything correctly.
Turn on the lights and see if the taillights are working properly. This is also a good time to
check the turn signal lights and brake lights. If they are not, you may have skipped a step.
Retrace your steps and try again.

Tools and Materials You’ll Need to Adjust Your Headlights

 Your owner’s manual.

 A screwdriver.
 A measuring tape.
 Painters or masking tape.
 Dark fabric or cardboard to block light.
 A garage door or wall with 25 feet of space to back up.

Steps to Adjust Your Headlights

1. Consult your owner’s manual. Some vehicles don’t allow for headlight adjustments.
You’ll need to consult the owner’s manual to see if your particular make and model
allows for adjustment. You’ll also want to check the manual to show you the location
 of the adjusting screws. Some vehicles have leveling bubbles to help with headlight
adjustment, similar to a carpenter’s level. Your owner’s manual will show you the
type and location of the adjustment screws.
2. Park the car on level ground. Find level ground where you can shine the headlights
on the garage door or a flat wall. Make sure the car’s tires have the proper inflation,
the gas tank is at least half-full, and try to mimic the normal amount of weight you
normally carry in the vehicle. Push on all four corners of the car to help level out the
shocks, and turn the headlights on.
3. Create a center axis. This next step is best done at dusk or dawn. Park the car about
six feet away from the wall. Turn your headlights on low beam. Use the masking tape
to mark the horizontal and vertical lines of the beam’s center axis as it shines on the
wall. The position of the tape should create a cross.
4. Measure the difference between the two headlights. Take the measuring tape and
measure the lines to see if both headlights have the same measurement. If the
measurements don’t match, note the difference and lower the highest centerline to the
same height as the lowest centerline mark. Some vehicles have integrated crosshairs
within the headlight that help you find the center axis of the beam easily. Your
owner’s manual will have this information.
5. Back the car away from the wall. Using the measuring tape, measure the distance
recommended in your owner’s manual, roughly 25 feet. Keeping the surface level,
back the car so that the front wheels hit the 25-foot mark. Turn your headlights on and
note where the brightest part of the headlight’s beam hits the taped spot on the garage
wall.
6. Prepare for the adjustment.Prepare for the adjustment by taking off the ring or
bezel of the headlights, keeping the parts in a secure location. Make sure you have
your screwdriver and a piece of dark cloth or cardboard handy. Be familiar with the
location of both the vertical and horizontal adjuster screws. Having an assistant inside
of the car helps with the actual adjusting process.
7. Adjust the vertical field. As you stand in the front of the car, have the assistant turn
the headlights off. Next, put the dark cloth or cardboard over one headlight, and have
the assistant turn the headlights on. Find the adjusting screw and turn the screws
slowly clockwise to raise the height of the lights or counterclockwise to lower them.
 As you make your adjustment, make sure the most intense part of the headlight beam
hits at or just below the vertical centerline you taped on the wall.
8. Adjust the horizontal field. Turn the screws clockwise to adjust the headlight
inwards and counterclockwise to adjust
9. them outwards. The headlight beam should fall just to the right of the center tapeline.
Next, block out the adjusted headlight and do the same vertical and horizontal
adjustment on the other headlight.
10. Fine-tune the adjustments. Keep tweaking the vertical and horizontal adjustment
until the headlight beam’s center axis lines up with the tape marks on the wall. Once
you’re satisfied with the adjustments, take the car for a road test, and if one of the
headlights isn’t quite up to par, repeat the above instructions.

Check Local and the Manufacturers Specifications

Some states and counties have different specifications for headlight beam adjustments, so
check with them to make sure you’re in compliance with the laws. Also, manufacturers have
guidelines for the recommended distance between the center of the beam and the horizontal
centerline of the headlight. You can find this information in the owner’s manual or online.

We hope this information will help you adjust your headlights to help keep you and other
drivers safe. Do you have any other tips on adjusting headlights? If so, we’d love to hear
from you, so feel free to drop us a line. If you would like our professional service technicians
to adjust your headlights for you, contact us here at Wendle Ford.
WIRING

The electrical wiring in a car is a system of colour-coded wires called the loom. Where several
wires run side by side they are bound together with insulating tape or plastic sleeving.

Several modern cars have separate thin wires embedded in flat plastic strips. These strips are
very compact, and are used mainly for accessories and relay controls that require little power.

Wires and bundles of wires are clipped to the bodywork to keep them out of the way. Where
they run through a hole, the sharp edges are lined with a rubber grommet.

Sometimes the loom is divided into sections joined by multi-pin plugs and sockets, so that it
can be removed and refitted section by section.

Joins in individual wires are usually made with crimp connectors. The colour on the sleeve of
a connector denotes the size of wire it will take.

The bared ends of each wire are pushed into opposite ends of the metal-lined plastic sleeve,
and squeezed with crimping pliers. There are multiple sleeves or other special connectors
where a wire branches off.

Wires are usually connected to components by plastic-covered terminals which push on to a

blade on the unit called a spade terminal.

Nearly all types of terminals should be fitted to the wire with crimping pliers .

There are a few types such as the `Scotchlok' which are secured by clips.

For additional security, you can add solder to the wire.

Use a 25-65 watt iron for most work, and a 150-250 watt one for large cables, or an 8 oz (225
g) gas-heated iron.

Working safely

Disconnect both terminals of the battery before doing any work on wiring other than testing.

Whenever you work on the car, watch for any part of the loom coming loose from its clips, for
there is a risk of it getting trapped or burned. Always replace wiring in its clips.

Also look for grommets that have come out of their holes. The sharp edge of the hole will
soon chafe through wire insulation and cause a short circuit .

Whenever you pull a connection apart, look for corrosion which might cause bad contact.

If necessary, clean contacting metal surfaces with a fine file or emery cloth. But it is better to
replace the terminal once corrosion has destroyed the surface coating.
DOOR PANEL

Door panels serve as an interface between the interior of the car and the inner workings of the
door, and between vehicle occupants and the door. They are expected to meet a variety of
design specifications regarding safety, aesthetics, and functionality. In addition, they are
expected to continue the material theme of the dashboard and pillars while concealing
intricate electrical and mechanical components for operating locks, windows, and other
features. The door panel has evolved from a simple two-part system of latch and simple
winding mechanism to a more sophisticated enclosure. Doors currently have an inner full-
width panel consisting of electronic windows, central locking system, and speakers. These
panels typically consist of a foamed core covered with either textiles or
plastics. Fig. 30.6 shows a conventional car door panel.

Door panels are expected to meet one of the toughest sets of requirements among interior car
components. These panels should be designed to withstand and channel loads into the body
of the car while being thin (<2 mm). These loads could be horizontal and vertical in nature,
like the force applied on opening or closing doors while leaning/resting on them or when
stepping on the armrest to access the roof . An additional consideration is their ability to
protect occupants from injury during a side collision, where most injuries are inflicted on the
chest and pelvis as a result of crushing force of the door . Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
Standard No. 214 therefore sets forth directives to manufacturers in order to limit this injury .
It states that the Thoracic Trauma Index (TTI) should not exceed 85 g for a four-door or 90 g
for a two-door passenger car. This test is performed at impact velocity of 53 km/h, which
accounts for 90% of side impacts in North America .Materials used as door panels must have
high dent resistance.
SUB FRAMES
A subframe is a structural component of a vehicle, such as an automobile or an aircraft, that
uses a discrete, separate structure within a larger body-on-frame or unit body to carry certain
components, such as the engine, drivetrain, or suspension. The subframe
is bolted and/or welded to the vehicle. When bolted, it is sometimes equipped
with rubber bushings or springs to dampen vibration.
The principal purposes of using a subframe are, to spread high chassis loads over a wide area
of relatively thin sheet metal of a monocoque body shell, and to isolate vibrations and
harshness from the rest of the body. For example, in an automobile with its powertrain
contained in a subframe, forces generated by the engine and transmission can be damped
enough that they will not disturb passengers. As a natural development from a car with a full
chassis, separate front and rear subframes are used in modern vehicles to reduce the overall
weight and cost. In addition a subframe yields benefits to production in that subassemblies
can be made which can be introduced to the main bodyshell when required on an automated
line.
There are generally three basic forms of the subframe.

1. A simple "axle" type which usually carries the lower control arms and steering rack.
2. A perimeter frame which carries the above components but in addition supports the
engine.
3. A perimeter frame which carries the above components but in addition supports the
engine, transmission and possibly full suspension. (As used on front wheel drive cars)
A subframe is usually made of pressed steel panels that are much thicker than bodyshell
panels, which are welded or spot welded together. The use of hydroformed tubes may also be
used.

KNUCKLE PIN

A pin or rivet connecting the two parts of a knuckle joint.

SUSPENSION

Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects
a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the two.[1] Suspension systems
must support both road holding/handling and ride quality,[2] which are at odds with each
other. The tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It is important for
the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as possible,
because all the road or ground forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches
of the tires. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from
damage and wear. The design of front and rear suspension of a car may be different.
CLUTCH PLAT REPLACEMENT AND DISMANTLING

The clutch plate is the mechanical device that allows you to shift gears in a manual
transmission, and over time, it can wear down.

Clutch plates can be made out of organic, ceramic, and metallic materials. Organic materials
switch your gears smoother but wear down faster than metallic materials, and ceramic clutch
plates are an even mix of both. Choose a material that suits your needs and go with a full
clutch kit that also includes a pressure plate that matches your clutch so everything lines up
consistently.

 You can also customize your pressure plates, but it’s important that they’re designed to
fit over your clutch plate.
 For a simpler option, choose a clutch plate that’s the same as the one you’re replacing.
Lift the vehicle, remove the driveshaft, and support the transmission.Use a floor jack to
lift your vehicle and then place jack stands beneath the axles to keep the vehicle safely raised.
Drain the transmission oil and disconnect the driveshaft. Remove the electrical connections
and bolts holding the transmission and then use a transmission jack to move it out of the way
to access the clutch plate.

 It’s extremely important that you support the raised vehicle with the proper jack stands
so it doesn’t fall off.
Remove the pressure plate and pull off the old clutch plate.Once you’ve got the
transmission out of the way, you’ll see the pressure plate. Use a wrench or drill to remove
the bolts holding the pressure plate in place and remove it. Then, slide the clutch plate off
of the pilot bearing shaft.
Use a guide tool to fit the clutch plate onto the pilot bearing shaft.A clutch guide tool,
also known as a clutch alignment tool, is a cylindrically shaped metal tool with slots that fit
into the center of your clutch and a ring on 1 end. Insert the guide tool into the center of your
clutch, then push the thinner end of the tool into your drive shaft as far as it will go.

 The alignment tool is designed to hold your clutch at the perfect distance from the
transmission.
 You can find alignment tools at your local auto supply shop.
Always place the flat side of the clutch plate against the motor.Take a look at your
clutch plate. You’ll see springs that stick out more on 1 side, leaving the other side more or
less flat. The flat side faces against the transmission in the bell housing.
Replace the thrust bearing, pressure plate, and slave cylinder.Your thrust bearing helps
your clutch spin freely when you change gears and takes a lot of abuse over time. Your
pressure plate also has to deal with a lot of tension and can start to bend or crack. The slave
cylinder helps your clutch plate move when you press on the clutch pedal and can eventually
leak or seize. Since you’ll already be accessing the inner components when you change your
clutch plate, it’s a great time to also replace these parts.
 Additionally, many clutch kits come with matching clutch plates and pressure plates.
Replace both at the same time so they line up perfectly.
Install the pressure plate and torque the bolts in a criss-cross pattern.Cover the clutch
with the pressure plate and insert the holding screws into each of the slots by hand. Check
your the owner’s manual to find the torque specs for your specific vehicle’s pressure plate
and adjust your torque wrench to match. Torque 1 bolt, then torque the bolt directly across
from it. Continue torquing in a criss-cross or star-shaped pattern until all of the bolts are
tightened.

 For example, if your owner’s manual says your pressure plate needs to be torqued
down to 24 foot-pounds (3.32 kilogram-meters), then set your torque wrench to match
it.
 You can find torque wrenches at hardware stores and auto supply shops.

GEAR BOX

A gearbox, also known as transmission, is a mechanical component that helps to transfer

power from the engine to the wheels by using different gear ratios. It is usually located
between the engine and the wheels, consisting of several gears, shafts and bearings. The
gearbox is connected to the engine’s crankshaft through a clutch, which allows the motor and
gearbox to be temporarily disengaged when changing gears. Its primary role is to churn out
the right amount of power and torque to the wheels at different speeds to achieve optimal
performance and mileage.
 Parts of a car gearbox
Here are the primary parts of a gearbox.
 Clutch shaft: It is also known as the drive shaft that uses the force from the engine and sends
the power to other parts. A clutch attaches the drive shaft to the engine and other components.
When you engage the clutch, the drive shaft starts to rotate.
 Counter shaft: It is the second most prominent gearbox part and includes various gears in
different sizes that can produce enough torque to propel the vehicle.
 Main shaft: It is also referred to as an output shaft. It offers mandatory torque to the vehicle.
It has ridges and teeth so the gears can move smoothly.
 Bearings: It supports the rotating shafts and minimises friction.
 Gears: These transfer power from one shaft to another. The torque transferred through the
gears depends on the number of ridges and teeth and the gear size.

Different types of gearboxes in cars

The primary types of car gearboxes are manual and automatic. The automatic gearbox is
further classified into Torque Converter, CVT (Continuously Variable Transmission),
Automatic Manual Transmission (AMT) and DCT (Dual Clutch Transmission). Here’s an
overview of car transmissions.
Manual gearbox
A manual gearbox allows the driver to get complete control and choose the gears manually,
operating both the gearstick and the clutch. Manual transmissions are affordable and easy to
maintain compared to automatic transmissions. The manual version is a predominant gearbox
option in Indian cars due to its low-cost factor and maintenance.
Automatic gearbox
An automatic gearbox is a type of gearbox that automatically shifts gears and doesn’t require
manual intervention. It uses electronic sensors to monitor the vehicle’s speed and shifts gears
with the help of an Electronic Control Unit (ECU). Automatic gearboxes are more
convenient and easier to use than manual transmissions but are more complex and expensive
to maintain and repair. Here is an overview of different types of automatic gearboxes in cars.
 Automated Manual Transmission (AMT)
An AMT gearbox is a type of gearbox that automates the manual gearbox by employing a
hydraulic to actuate the clutch pedal. It removes the manual effort of using the clutch
(physically) and gears since the AMT gearbox uses electronic sensors to perform the task.
The AMT gearbox in cars has revolutionised the car market in India, offering the option of
affordable automatic cars. Its biggest highlight is the lower cost factor since it has fewer
components compared to pure automatic gearboxes, thereby reducing the overall cost of the
vehicle.
 Torque Converter Gearbox
The Torque Converter Gearbox is an automatic gearbox that utilises fluid coupling to transfer
power from the engine to the transmission. This gearbox doesn’t require a clutch pedal to
shift gears like other automatic transmissions. The torque converter is one of the traditional
 gearboxes that has witnessed a decline in its popularity in recent times due to its low fuel
efficiency and high maintenance cost.
 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
A CVT gearbox is a type of automatic transmission that works via a pulley system. It uses
several intricate parts to shift between a range of preset gears. The CVT system includes
cones at each pulley linked through a belt and moves to increase or decrease the chain belt
diameter to change gear ratios. The CVT is reliable and offers higher fuel efficiency. It is
common in Japanese cars such as the Hondas, Nissans and Toyotas.
 Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT)
The DCT employs two clutches to shift gears, offering optimum performance. It uses two
separate clutches for odd and even gear sets, reducing gear shift lag. This allows for quicker
and smoother gear shifts compared to traditional gearboxes. While one of the clutches is
engaged, offering the required power, the other pre-selects the next gear, allowing for faster
transitions. DCTs are popular among high-performance and sports cars. However, it is fast
becoming one of the most preferred in the mass-market car segment. Brands such as
Volkswagen, Skoda, Audi and more are offering DCT in their Indian car portfolio.

Functions of the car gearbox

Here are some of the functions of the car gearbox.
 Change gear ratio: The gearbox changes gear ratio to match driving conditions. It allows the
driver to manually change the gear ratio as per the speed and road conditions.
 Transfer power to the wheels: The gearbox transfers the required amount of power from the
engine to the wheels at different speeds. This allows for optimising fuel efficiency and
performance.
 Control the speed: It controls the car's speed by allowing the driver to slow down or speed
up the car by selecting the appropriate gear.
 Offers torque: It multiplies the engine's torque output to offer more power to the wheels,
enabling the vehicle to drive through steep inclines.

How does a car gearbox work?

The gearbox in a car works by transferring power from the engine to drive the wheels by
employing a set of gears that can be shifted to change the speed and torque. The gears are
arranged in different patterns to offer different speeds while maintaining the engine
performance. A car gearbox is controlled by a lever or an electronic selector inside the
vehicle, and the driver physically selects the desired gear. In a manual transmission-equipped
car, the driver must shift the gears physically by moving the lever or the selector. In contrast,
in an automatic transmission-equipped vehicle, the gearbox employs electronic sensors to
change gears based on the car’s speed and load.
ENGINE

The engine is the heart of your car. It is a complex machine built to convert heat from
burning gas into the force that turns the road wheels.

The chain of reactions which achieve that objective is set in motion by a spark , which ignites
a mixture of petrol vapour and compressed air inside a momentarily sealed cylinder and causes
it to burn rapidly. That is why the machine is called an internal combustion engine . As the
mixture burns it expands, providing power to drive the car.

To withstand its heavy workload, the engine must be a robust structure. It consists of two basic
parts: the lower, heavier section is the cylinder block, a casing for the engine's main moving
parts; the detachable upper cover is the cylinder head .

The cylinder head contains valve-controlled passages through which the air and fuel mixture
enters the cylinders, and others through which the gases produced by their combustion are
expelled.

The block houses the crankshaft , which converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons
into rotary motion at the crankshaft. Often the block also houses the camshaft , which operates
mechanisms that open and close the valves in the cylinder head. Sometimes the camshaft is in
the head or mounted above it.

Different engine layouts

In-line engine

The simplest and most common type of engine comprises four vertical cylinders close together
in a row. This is known as an in-line engine . Cars with capacities exceeding 2,000cc often
have six cylinders in line.

V-8 engine
The more compact V-engine is fitted in some cars, especially vehicles with eight or 12
cylinders, and also some with six cylinders. Here the cylinders are arranged opposite each
other at an angle of up to 90 degrees.

Horizontally-opposed engine

Some engines have horizontally opposed cylinders . They are an extension of the V-engine,
the angle having been widened to 180 degrees. The advantages lie in saving height and also in
certain aspects of balance.

The cylinders in which the pistons operate are cast into the block, as are mountings for
ancillary equipment such as a filter for the oil which lubricates the engine, and a pump for the
fuel. An oil reservoir , called the sump , is bolted underneath the crankcase .

Some engines have horizontally opposed cylinders . They are an extension of the V-engine,
the angle having been widened to 180 degrees. The advantages lie in saving height and also in
certain aspects of balance.

The cylinders in which the pistons operate are cast into the block, as are mountings for
ancillary equipment such as a filter for the oil which lubricates the engine, and a pump for the
fuel. An oil reservoir , called the sump , is bolted underneath the crankcase .
DIFFERENTIAL

Every part on a car serves a purpose to keep it moving while on the road. The differential is
a key player that works to apply torque (a rotational force) to the drive wheels. Whether the
car is front-wheel drive, rear-wheel drive or all-wheel drive, the differential is needed.
How did the differential get its name? The root word of differential is different. The
differential is a system that allows the drive wheels to turn at different speeds, which is
required when the car is negotiating a turn. In a turn, the outside wheel must travel farther,
which means it must travel faster than the inside wheels.
Maybe you’ve heard the term before but are unsure about what this part does and how it
works. Keep reading to learn more about the different kinds of differential systems and why
they’re important.

How Does a Differential Work?

The differential is made up of many parts. The main components are the ring and pinion
gears. The ring gear is attached to the carrier assembly, and inside the carrier is a set of
smaller gears.
These smaller gears are often referred to as spider gears, which are made up of another set
of pinion gears and the side gears. It is this set of gears that supplies the differential action.
Following the power flow inside the differential, the pinion gear drives the ring gear, which
rotates the carrier.
The carrier then drives the smaller pinon gears, which in turn drive the side gears. The drive
axles are splined into the side gears, which then drive the wheels.
The differential is found in the front- or rear-axle assembly on all late-model cars and
trucks. In all-wheel drive (AWD) applications, there will also be a center differential
driving both front- and rear-axle assemblies.

What Is a Transaxle? Is It the Same Thing?

The differential can be located in various areas, depending on what drive system the vehicle
operates with.
When the differential is located inside the transmission housing, it’s called a transaxle. The
drive axles then plug directly into the transmission/transaxle. The difference between a
differential and transaxle is that the differential is a part on its own, whereas the transaxle
combines the differential and transmission into a single unit.
This type of housing is often found in front-wheel drive vehicles, although some sports cars
will have a rear transaxle. What is a rear differential? In this case, the differential is
separated from the transmission and connected by a drive shaft in rear-wheel-drive
applications.
AWD and four-wheel-drive vehicles often have a center differential. In an AWD vehicle,
both the front and rear axles turn at different speeds during a turn. Some electric or hybrid
vehicles often feature electronic all-wheel drive that eliminates the need for a differential,
as power can be delivered directly to the wheels via the electric motors.
Types of Differentials
There are a few different kinds of differential systems that are used in vehicles today. These
include:

Open Differential

Most differential systems have open designs, which are considered to be the most reliable
and simple. They feature a powered pinion gear that engages with a ring gear to send power
to both axles.
The only major issue with an open differential is the possibility of tires slipping in less -
than-ideal conditions. Engine torque will transfer regardless of whether a wheel has
traction, causing that tire to spin while the other tire does nothing.

Limited-Slip Differential

A limited-slip differential is similar to an open one, except it can transfer power to both
wheels if one wheel loses traction. A limited-slip differential contains a few extra parts to
allow this to occur. These parts (clutch packs) work to lock the left and right sides of the
axle together when traction is lost to one of the wheels.

Locking Differential

A locking differential system is most likely going to be found on off-road vehicles and
sometimes on performance models. It utilizes springs and clutches that activate locks,
ensuring the same amount of power is sent to each wheel regardless of traction.

Torque-Vectoring Differential

A torque-vectoring differential is the most advanced when it comes to differential

technology. It operates using a complex range of sensors and different electronics that pull
data from the steering system and more.
This allows the differential system to distribute power to each wheel as needed and helps
provide maximum traction, making this system great at increasing performance.
AC BLOWER AND COMPRESSOR

The ventilation blower is a part of the car A/C system. It propels the air into the cabin and
ensures air ventilation & heat transfer into the passenger cabin. The purpose of the blower is
to distribute fresh air at a comfortable temperature into the cabin and to prevent internal
fogging of the windscreen.
An electronic control device regulates the car blower's ventilation power and speed. All
vehicles are equipped with a blower, even those without air conditioning.
 How to know when your ventilation blower needs replacing?
 As soon as it produces irregular airflow, which reduces passenger comfort and safety
 When it generates excessive noise
While your vehicle’s air conditioning (A/C) system is comprised of different elements, the
A/C compressor serves as one of the central parts that creates the system’s necessary cycle.
Without it, your entire A/C system will be unable to perform its main function of creating
cool air inside the vehicle. Its primary role is to put the necessary amount of pressure on
(compress) the car’s refrigerant in order to activate its heat-transfer characteristics and change
temperatures. This enables you to remain cool in the warmer months and have a clear
windshield in the colder months. In this article, we delve deeper into the role your A/C
compressor plays in your vehicle’s air conditioning system.

The compressor is comprised of the following parts:

● Housing which contains the compressor’s section, oil fill, and valves
● Connecting points used for refrigerant pipe connections
● Pulley with electromagnetic (EM) clutch
There are different types and variations of compressors, including:
● Variable or fixed swash plate (the most common)
● Reciprocating
● Rotary (spiral and vane)
● Electrically-driven (used in hybrid vehicles)
How the A/C Compressor Works

To begin with, it is important to understand the relationship between your A/C compressor
and refrigerant. Freon is a commonly used refrigerant which is a kind of fluid that essentially
makes cold air out of hot air. This refrigerant and the compressor are a vital duo that works in
conjunction with each other. Your car’s engine propels the A/C compressor in its main role of
compressing the refrigerant used to absorb the heated air inside the cabin of your automobile.
As mentioned above, the most commonly used A/C compressor is the swash plate type. A
pulley and V-belt drives the compressor which is attached to the vehicle’s engine block. As
you switch on the A/C system, an electromagnetic clutch sets the belt drive in motion. The
swash plate oscillates six double-ended pistons that are responsible for intake as well as
compression. Note that the amount of refrigerant flow is controlled by reed valves. A thin
mist of oil then circulates and mixes with the refrigerant to provide proper lubrication to the
moving parts.
Next, the A/C compressor takes in gas from the refrigerant through the evaporator, causing
pressure to drop. Lowered pressure causes the refrigerant to evaporate at a low temperature
before the A/C compressor takes that cold vapor and compresses it. During this compression,
the refrigerant gas is warmed and pushed into the condenser through pipes. Here, it re-
liquefies and emits heat before moving into an area in order to cool. The refrigerant then
absorbs heat from the passenger compartment. It is returned to a gas state in the evaporator
before it is sucked in by the A/C compressor.

Maintaining Your A/C Compressor

Thankfully, maintenance of your A/C compressor is rather minimal and includes the
following:
● Regularly use the compressor in order to keep all of the elements of the system properly
lubricated.
● Charge your refrigerant to ensure the proper levels of pressure in the air conditioning
system.
● Clean and tighten the drive belts as necessary.
● Perform electrical checks on the switches and sensors, as well as the EM clutch’s fuse,
relay, and coil.
The most common reasons that an A/C compressor will fail are wear-and-tear due to age or
neglect. If you experience a compressor failure, you will need to replace it. It is important to
remember that if you use one that has been re-manufactured, you need a recovery machine in
order to protect your atmosphere while extracting the refrigerant. Note that while you can
replace certain EM clutches, there are some that are replaced only as an assembly, as with all
motor-driven compressors.
DASHBOARD

The car dashboard is one part of the car interior that is usually placed at the car's front. It
hosts various indicator panels of each part of the car and additionally becomes a divider
between the front of the car and the driver.

Dashboard designs vary widely, depending on the brand and features used—the more
sophisticated the application of its features, the better the quality of the dashboard.

A dashboard does have a significant role in a car because the car's appearance and
performance will look troublesome without a dashboard. If your car doesn't use the
dashboard, it would feel uneasy when driving.

The dashboard has lots of components that are interconnected and supporting each other.
Before you understand more about car components, you should first understand the details
on the car dashboard.

Car Dashboard Functions & Parts

1. Car Indicator Light
Car indicator lights are one of the components in a dashboard. The indicator light will
usually get special attention from drivers because it is positioned right in front of the rider

Indicator lights can show engine temperature, door, airbag indicator, brake, check engine,
RPM, speedometer, seat belt and odometer. All the indicators listed have different
functions.

2. Car Drawer

The car drawer is usually right at the front of the passenger and serves to store various
goods. Some items must be stored in a car drawer, but many car owners ignore them.

Items that must be stored in a car drawer are usually cell phone chargers, flashlights, first
aid kits, manuals and car insurance document books. The availability of these items is
important, so you fill them up if you haven't already.

3. Ignition key

The ignition key is usually at the bottom right of the car steering wheel. You insert your car
key there to start the car.

4. Levers
Car levers are usually located on the left and right of the car's steering wheel. When turning
on the turn signal, the lever functions to turn on the headlights at night and turn on the fog
lights when the weather conditions are foggy.

The transmission lever used in a car is a lever that functions to shift gears in the car's
transmission system. With the transmission lever, you can increase or decrease the car's
speed by shifting gears.

5. Head Unit

In general, the head unit becomes the entertainment center of a car. With the head unit, you
can play music or connect to a cellphone to make a call. If the car is not equipped with a
head unit, the nuances in the car will be boring.

The head unit on the market has 2 sizes, namely 1 DIN or single DIN and 2 DIN or double
DIN sizes. In that sense, DIN stands for Deutsche Institut fur Normung which is the
standard measure in manufacturing head unit products.

6. Car Features Control Center

STEERING AND GREASING

Steering is the control of the direction of locomotion or the components that enable its
control Steering is achieved through various arrangements, among them ailerons for
airplanes, rudders for boats, tilting rotors for helicopters, and many more.
A conventional automotive steering arrangement allows a driver to control the direction of
the vehicle by turning the direction of the front wheels using a hand–operated steering
wheel positioned in front of the driver. The steering wheel is attached to a steering column,
which is linked to rods, pivots and gears that allow the driver to change the direction of the
front wheels. Other arrangements are sometimes found on different types of vehicles; for
example, a tiller or rear-wheel steering. Tracked vehicles such as bulldozers and tanks usually
employ differential steering, where the tracks are made to move at different speeds or even in
opposite directions, using the clutch and brakes, to achieve a change of direction.
Common steering system components include

 Steering wheel
 Steering column
 Steering box
 Pitman arm
 Idler arm
 Tie rod ends
 Rack and pinion
 Power steering pump
 Power steering fluid
 Steering linkage
 Steering knuckle
 Ball joints
 Steering dampers
Geometry
The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired directions to
move the vehicle as required. This is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots,
and gears. One of the fundamental concepts is that of caster angle. Each wheel is steered with
a pivot point ahead of the wheel, which tends to make the steering self-centering towards the
direction of travel.
The steering linkages connecting the steering box and the wheels usually conform to a
variation of Ackermann steering geometry, to account for the fact that in a turn, the inner
wheel travels a path of smaller radius than the outer wheel, so that the degree of toe suitable
for driving in a straight path is not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels make with the
vertical plane, known as camber angle, also influences steering dynamics as do the tires.
Steering wheel turning is often measured in terms of number of full 360-degree turns to
go lock-to-lock. This is when the steering input mechanism is restrained at its mechanical
limit from the full right-turn stop to the left-turn stop.
Rack and pinion, recirculating ball, worm and sector
Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an Ariel Atom sports car chassis, atypical of

contemporary production automobiles Non-assisted steering box of a motor vehicle

Many modern cars have a steering mechanism called a rack and pinion. The steering wheel
turns a pinion gear, which moves a rack back and forth to steer the wheels. This mechanism
converts the circular motion of the steering wheel to linear motion, which is applied to the
wheels of the car via tie rods and a steering knuckle.
Rack and pinion steering has several advantages, such as a direct steering "feel". This means
that the driver can feel the road better and have more precise control over the car's movement.
BMW was one of the first manufacturers to adopt rack and pinion steering systems in the
1930s, with many other European manufacturers following suit. American automakers began
using rack and pinion steering in the 1974 Ford Pinto.
Older designs use two main principles: the worm and sector design and the screw and nut.
Both types were enhanced by reducing the friction; for screw and nut it is the recirculating
ball mechanism, which is still found on trucks and utility vehicles. The steering column turns
a large screw, which meshes with the nut by recirculating balls. The nut moves a sector of a
gear, causing it to rotate about its axis as the screw is turned; an arm attached to the axis of
the sector moves the pitman arm, which is connected to the steering linkage and thus steers
the wheels. The recirculating ball version of this apparatus reduces the considerable friction
by placing large ball bearings between the screw and the nut. At either end of the apparatus,
the balls exit from between the two pieces into a channel internal to the box, which connects
them with the other end of the apparatus. Thus, they are "recirculated".
The recirculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater mechanical advantage,
so that it was found on larger, heavier vehicles while the rack and pinion was originally
limited to smaller and lighter ones; due to the almost universal adoption of power steering,
however, this is no longer an important advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack and
pinion on newer cars. The recirculating ball design also has a perceptible lash, or "dead spot"
on center, where a minute turn of the steering wheel in either direction does not move the
steering apparatus; this is easily adjustable via a screw on the end of the steering box to
account for wear, but it cannot be eliminated because it will produce excessive internal forces
at other positions and the mechanism will wear very rapidly. This design is still in use in
trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important
than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage.
The worm and sector was an older design, used for example in Willys and Chrysler vehicles,
and the Ford Falcon (1960s). To reduce friction, the sector is replaced by a roller or rotating
pins on the rocker shaft arm.
Generally, older vehicles use the recirculating ball mechanism, and only newer vehicles use
rack-and-pinion steering. This division is not very strict, however, and rack-and-pinion
steering systems can be found on British sports cars of the mid-1950s, and some German
carmakers did not give up recirculating ball technology until the early 1990s.
Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Children's toys and go-
karts often use a very direct linkage in the form of a bellcrank (also commonly known as a
pitman arm) attached directly between the steering column and the steering arms, and the use
of cable-operated steering linkages (e.g. the capstan and bowstring mechanism) is also found
on some home-built vehicles such as soapbox cars and recumbent tricycles.
Power steering
Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of its engine power to
assist in swiveling the steered road wheels about their steering axes. As vehicles have become
heavier and switched to front-wheel drive, particularly using negative offset geometry, along
with increases in tire width and diameter, the effort needed to turn the wheels about their
steering axis has increased, often to the point where major physical exertion would be needed
were it not for power assistance. To alleviate this, auto makers have developed power
steering systems, or more correctly power-assisted steering, since on road-going vehicles
there has to be a mechanical linkage as a fail-safe. There are two types of power steering
systems: hydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also possible.
A hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven
pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. Electric power steering (EPS) is
more efficient than hydraulic power-steering, since the electric power-steering motor only
needs to provide assistance when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump
must run constantly. In EPS, the amount of assistance is easily tunable to the vehicle type,
road speed, and driver preference. An added benefit is the elimination of the environmental
hazard posed by leakage and disposal of hydraulic power-steering fluid. In addition, electrical
assistance is not lost when the engine fails or stalls, whereas hydraulic assistance stops
working if the engine stops, making the steering doubly heavy as the driver must now turn
not only the very heavy steering—without any help—but also the power-assistance system
itself.
Speed-sensitive steering
A development of power steering is speed-sensitive steering, where the steering is heavily
assisted at low speed and lightly assisted at high speed. Auto makers perceive that motorists
might need to make large steering inputs while maneuvering for parking, but not while
traveling at high speed. The first vehicle with this feature was the Citroën SM with
its DIRAVI system,[6] although rather than altering the amount of assistance as in modern
power steering systems, it altered the pressure on a centering cam which made the steering
wheel try to "spring" back to the straight-ahead position.
Modern speed-sensitive power steering systems reduce the mechanical or electrical assistance
as the vehicle speed increases, giving a more direct feel. This feature is gradually becoming
more common. For example, it was used on a production pickup truck, the Tesla Cybertruck,
in 2023.

GREASING

As mechanics, we're no strangers to the importance of lubrication in keeping vehicles running

smoothly. And when it comes to lubricants, automotive grease is a vital tool in our arsenal.
It's the unsung hero that keeps gears, bearings, joints, and other moving parts operating
seamlessly, reducing friction, preventing wear and tear, and extending the lifespan of
components.

Without proper grease, the metal-on-metal contact can cause excessive heat, friction, and
premature failure of crucial vehicle parts, leading to costly repairs and downtime. That's why
understanding the different types of automotive grease and knowing how to choose and apply
the right one for each application is essential for mechanics.

Automotive grease not only ensures optimal performance but also protects against corrosion,
contamination, and moisture, which can cause rust and damage over time. Grease is essential
to keeping a smooth and effective vehicle operation, whether it's a light passenger car or a
large commercial truck.

So, the next time you're working under the hood or beneath a vehicle, remember the unsung
hero that keeps everything moving smoothly - automotive grease. It's the silent guardian that
keeps our wheels turning and our customers' vehicles running like a well-oiled machine. In
the following sections, we'll explore the different types of automotive grease in detail, So you
can keep those wheels spinning for miles to come!
In the world of vehicle maintenance, automotive grease keeps gears turning, bearings rolling,
and joints gliding smoothly. But what exactly is grease, and why is it so crucial in lubricating
moving parts?

At its core, grease is a semi-solid lubricant made by mixing a base oil with a thickening agent
and additives to enhance its performance. It is made to remain in place and offer long-lasting
lubrication, even in demanding operating circumstances when oil would not be appropriate.
Automotive grease's main function is to lessen friction between moving parts and stop wear
and tear. It forms a protective barrier that separates metal surfaces, minimizing contact and
reducing heat generation, which can lead to premature failure of components. Moreover,
grease aids in sealing out impurities like moisture, dirt, and dust so they can't harm sensitive
parts by getting inside.

Wheel Bearings: Lithium grease is commonly used for wheel bearings, providing high-
temperature resistance, water resistance, and excellent lubrication properties that are essential
for smooth and reliable wheel operation.
Chassis Components: Lithium grease is used for lubricating various chassis components,
such as ball joints, tie rod ends, control arm bushings, and suspension components, to reduce
friction and wear, and improve performance.
Hinges and Latches: Lithium grease is used to lubricate door hinges, hood latches, boot
latches, and other moving parts in automotive doors, bonnets and boots to ensure smooth
operation and prevent rust and corrosion.
Gears and Splines: Lithium grease is used for lubricating gears, splines, and other
transmission components, providing excellent lubrication and protection against wear and
corrosion, thus extending their service life.
Universal Joints: Lithium grease is commonly used in universal joints, which are used in
driveshafts and other parts of the drivetrain, to reduce friction and wear, and ensure smooth
rotation.
CV Joints: Lithium grease is used in constant velocity (CV) joints, which are used in front-
wheel drive and all-wheel drive vehicles, to provide lubrication and protection against wear
and damage.
Brake Caliper Slide Pins: Lithium grease is used to lubricate brake caliper slide pins, which
allow the calipers to slide freely, ensuring proper brake operation and preventing uneven
wear on brake pads.
Bearings and Bushings: Lithium grease is used in various bearings and bushings such as
engine bearings, suspension bushings, and steering column bearings, to provide lubrication
and reduce friction and wear.

FUSE BOX AND SENSOR

Cars have various electrical components that require a fuse to protect against short circuits.
There are two fuse boxes, one located near the engine or under the hood and the other is
located near the driver seat.
The car fuse box under the hood protects engine components including engine control unit
(ECU), cooling fan, ABS motor and battery. Whereas the fuse box near the dashboard
protects cabin components like power windows, interior lights, radio or infotainment
system and turn signals.

A car fuse box has a series of different fuses, relays and diodes to protect the electrical
circuits from overload or short circuit. The fuse box is powered directly by the battery. The
wires from the fuse box connected to the vehicle components that need protection.

The fuses consist of a wire conductor that breaks when the current exceeds the ampere
limit. The ampere limit is usually defined on each fuse along with different colour codes.
Placing the right fuse with the correct ampere is integral for protection.

EMPTY SPACES IN THE FUSE BOX

Fuse boxes in car usually have empty fuse sockets for future features. Even fully
accessorised cars may have empty sockets for features that may be added later by the
manufacturers. Since these sockets are not connected to any circuits, you can use them to
store spare fuses. However, take caution and use the fuse box diagram when pulling out
spare fuses.

SENSOR
Sensors are installed in the car to detect various functions in real time, and to identify and
solve possible problems, such as repairs, maintenance, etc. A variety of sensors are used in a
car to detect and respond to the changes inside and outside the car, which can improve
driving comfort, efficiency and safety.
The intelligence of the car comes from the sensitive perception of the sensor. Next, we will
introduce 8 kinds of car sensors that are very important in daily driving for people:

Crankshaft Position Sensor CKP

1. Basics

The function of the CKP sensor is to determine the angle of rotation of the crankshaft and the
engine speed. The crankshaft position sensor of the car is installed on the clutch housing of
the gearbox, and is generally fastened with two bolts to adjust the depth of the sensor.

A car engine fires at the end of the compression stroke, so how does it know which cylinder
to fire? In fact, it is calculated by the signals of the CKP, so that it can know which cylinder
piston is at the top dead center and whether it is in the compression stroke.

2. Applications

1) Detect the engine speed, determine the fuel injection volume and ignition advance angle,
and avoid the phenomenon of fuel injection volume reduction.

2) Detect the position of the reference cylinder of the engine and distinguish the cylinder
sequence.

3) Detect the angle of rotation of the crankshaft, determine any position of the piston and the
ignition time and fuel injection time, which is helpful for the best time of ignition of the car.

4) In addition to controlling fuel injection and ignition, this sensor is also used for idle speed
control, fuel evaporation control, etc.
Crankshaft Position Sensor

3. Types

There are three main types: magnetoresistive sensor, Hall-effect sensor, and optical sensor.

1) Magnetoresistive Sensor

They are installed in the distributor in upper and lower layers. The sensor consists of a
permanent magnetic induction detection coil and a rotor (timing rotor and speed rotor), which
rotate together with the distributor shaft. The timing rotor has one, two or four teeth and other
forms, and the speed rotor has 24 teeth. The permanent magnetic induction detection coil is
fixed on the distributor body. If the rotational speed signals are known, as well as the working
sequence of each cylinder, the crankshaft position of each cylinder can be known. What’s
more, the magnetoresistive sensor and the rotor signal disc can be mounted on the crankshaft.

2) Hall Effect Sensor

It is a signal generator using the Hall effect. The sensor is installed in the distributor, coaxial
with the distributor, and fixed on the distributor plate as a whole by the packaged Hall chip
and permanent magnet. The number of notches on the trigger impeller is the same as the
number of engine cylinders. When the blade on the trigger impeller enters between the
permanent magnet and the Hall element, the magnetic field of the Hall trigger is bypassed by
the blade, at this time no Hall voltage is generated, and the sensor has no output signal; when
the notch on the trigger impeller enters the permanent magnet, and when it is between the
sensor and the Hall element, the magnetic line of force enters the Hall element, the voltage
rises and outputs.

3) Optical Sensor

It is generally installed in the distributor and consists of a signal generator and a signal plate
with a light hole. The signal disc rotates with the distributor shaft, and there are 360
lithographic slits on the outer ring of the signal disc, which generate a signal with a crank
angle of 1°; and there are 6 light holes evenly spaced at intervals of 60° inside, which
generate a signal with a crank angle of 120°, where 1 light hole is wider to generate a signal
relative to 1 cylinder top dead center. In addition, the signal generator is installed on the
distributor housing and consists of 2 light-emitting diodes, and 2 photosensitive diodes in the
circuit. Where the light-emitting diodes are facing the photodiodes, and the signal disc is
between them.

Since there is a light hole on the signal disc, the phenomenon of alternating light transmission
and light shading occurs. When the LED light beam shines on the photodiode, the diode
generates a voltage; when the light beam is blocked, the diode voltage is 0. After these
voltage signals are reshaped and amplified by the circuit part, the signals at the crank angles
of 1° and 120° are sent to the electronic control unit, and the electronic control unit calculates
the engine speed and crankshaft position based on these signals.

Oxygen Sensor

Oil Pressure Sensor

Mass Flow Sensor

Tire-pressure Monitoring System TPMS

Vehicle Speed Sensor

Coolant Temperature Sensor

Fuel Temperature Sensor

CHECK LIGHTS
Not every symbol that appears on your dashboard is a warning light. Some have to do with
vehicle features (like lights and cruise control) or safety (like blind-spot monitoring and lane
departure warnings) or mechanical issues (like low tire pressure and engine temperature
warnings).

When it comes to dashboard lights, colors matter! Green or blue lights simply let you know
that a system is on or operating. Orange/yellow warning lights generally signify that your
vehicle needs to be serviced or repaired soon. These warnings are less urgent than if you have
a red and/or flashing light.
A red light means that you should take action immediately! Some red dashboard lights are
safety warnings (like a seat belt reminder) and others are mechanical (like the engine
overheating). If a red mechanical light appears, pull over as soon as possible and figure out
what’s going on. Your vehicle will likely stop working or become damaged if you continue to
drive.

18 Common Warning Lights on Your Car’s Dashboard

1. Oil Pressure Warning Light
2. Tire Pressure Warning Light
3. Engine Temperature Warning Light
4. Traction Control Alert Light
5. Anti-lock Brake System Warning Light
6. Traction Control Malfunction Light
7. Engine Warning Light (Check Engine Light)
8. Battery Alert Light
9. Low Fuel Indicator Light
10. Automatic Shift Lock or Engine Start Indicator Light
11. Seat Belt Reminder Light
12. Airbag Warning Light
13. Security Indicator Light
14. Fog Lamp Indicator Light
15. Washer Fluid Indicator Light
16. Brake Warning Light
17. Lane Departure Warning Light
18. Transmission Temperature Warning Light

1. Oil Pressure Warning Light

What It Means: This old-fashioned oil can symbol indicates that there is an issue with your
car’s oil pressure system. Either you’re running low on oil or your oil pump isn’t circulating
enough fluid to properly lubricate the surfaces inside your engine. (NOTE: Some car
dashboards will display the word ―OIL‖ instead of this symbol.)
What To Do: Poor engine lubrication can cause major engine damage, so this is an important
warning to pay attention to! Pull over as soon as it is safe, turn off the vehicle, and check the
oil! Look around the engine bay for obvious oil leaks, and then pull out the oil dipstick to
check the fluid level.
If the oil level is low, then the light may go off when you add oil. If it has enough oil but the
engine is running noisy, it might an issue with the oil pump. If the oil level is okay and the
engine is running smoothly, your oil pressure sensor may be malfunctioning. In any case, it’s
important to bring your vehicle in ASAP to let a mechanic take a look and address whatever
is causing the low oil/low oil pressure.

2. Tire Pressure Warning Light

What It Means: Also known as the Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS) symbol, this
image signals an issue with your tire pressure or the TPMS.
If the TPMS symbol is solid, then the pressure in one or more of your tires is too low or too
high. If the TPMS symbol flashes for 60-90 seconds when you turn on your vehicle and then
stays illuminated, even if your tires are properly inflated, then something is wrong with
your TPMS sensors.
What To Do: Driving on low- or high-pressure tires is unsafe and can cause damage to your
tires. We recommend stopping as soon as possible to inflate or deflate your tires to the correct
pressure.
If your light turns on when you’re near a Virginia Tire & Auto, drop on by! We have free air
available at all our stores, or one of our team members can repair or replace your tire in no
time.
We can also look at your TPMS sensors to find any issues and provide a quote for repair. A
malfunctioning TPMS will not affect your tires’ performance, but it will keep the system
from alerting you when your tires are low.

3. Engine Temperature Warning Light

What It Means: If you see this symbol pop up, it means that your engine is overheating.
This most likely has to do with your coolant (also called antifreeze), but it can happen for a
variety of reasons.
What To Do: First, try turning off the A/C and turning the heater on to redistribute heat to
the passenger compartment. If that doesn’t work after a couple of minutes, pull over as soon
as it is safe and turn off the vehicle. Allow the engine to cool for at least 15 minutes, and do
not pop the hood! Opening the hood while the engine is hot could result in burns/injuries
from spewing steam or smoke.
While you wait for the car to cool down, you should figure out a plan for what to do next. It’s
a good time to call a roadside assistance service to get your coolant topped off or to get a tow
to a nearby repair shop.

(All Virginia Tire & Auto car care services come with 365 days of complimentary Roadside
Assistance coverage of up to $200.)

4. Traction Control Light

What It Means: This car symbol indicates that your vehicle’s traction control system is
activated. The traction control system uses your anti-lock brake system (ABS) to determine if
one wheel is spinning faster than the others. If it detects that a wheel is slipping, it applies the
brakes until the car regains traction. This is most helpful if you’re driving in rain or snow.
What To Do: Continue driving, but be aware of slippery conditions.

5. Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) Warning Light

What It Means: When you brake hard, like on slick roads, the ABS pulses the brakes to
prevent your wheels from locking up. If the ABS warning light is illuminated, it means that
something is wrong with the system.
What To Do: Since this is such an important safety feature, it’s important to have a
mechanic diagnose the issue as soon as possible.

6. Traction Control Malfunction Light

What It Means: This light indicates that your vehicle’s traction control system might have a
broken or damaged sensor or some other malfunction. In some cars, the same control module
operates the ABS and the traction control system, so sometimes this dashboard light comes
on when there are problems with your ABS.
What To Do: While this won’t affect your everyday driving, you should get it checked soon
to make sure your vehicle will operate safely in inclement conditions.

7. Engine Warning Light (Check Engine Light)

What It Means: Your check engine light may appear for a variety of reasons. Sometimes it
is triggered by an open, loose or cracked gas cap, which causes fuel to evaporate. But
sometimes it indicates a serious issue, like low oil pressure or overheating! (NOTE: Some car
dashboards will display the words ―CHECK ENGINE‖ instead of this symbol.)
What To Do: If you haven’t noticed a change in the way the car drives and you don’t notice
any unusual sounds or smells, you can continue driving a moderate distance (preferably back
home or to your local Virginia Tire & Auto).
If the check engine light is red and/or flashing, you should stop driving immediately! In most
vehicles, a flashing check engine light signals that you have a major problem that could cause
serious damage to your engine if you ignore it.

In either case, make sure to get the light checked and the problem repaired as soon as
possible.

8. Battery Alert Light

What It Means: This light signifies a problem with the vehicle’s charging system. Possible
culprits include a loose or damaged battery cable, a bad alternator, or another electrical fault.
You may notice your clock light fading or your headlights dimming. Or, in some cases, your
car may not start at all.
What To Do: Our experts can help diagnose any battery-related or electrical issues, and if
you need a new battery, we offer America’s No. 1 battery replacement—Interstate Batteries.
Don’t wait too long to get it checked out or you may have to jump-start your car to get it to
the shop!

9. Low Fuel Indicator Light

What It Means: You’re likely familiar with this dashboard light (maybe a little too
familiar!). It simply means your vehicle is running low on fuel.
What To Do: If you still have a ways to go, don’t push your luck! You never know how
weather or traffic patterns will play out, so it’s best to stop at the nearest gas station and fill
up.
Bonus tip: Most vehicles have a triangle-shaped arrow next to the gas pump icon on your fuel
gauge. This arrow indicates which side of the vehicle the fuel tank is on!

10. Automatic Shift Lock or Engine Start Indicator Light

What It Means: If you see this dashboard symbol, you’re most likely trying to shift gears or
start your ignition without engaging the brake. The automatic shift lock will lock your vehicle
in park or neutral until you engage the brake.
What To Do: Press the brake pedal, then shift gears or start the ignition, whichever you are
wanting to do.
11. Seat Belt Reminder Light

What It Means: This car light simply reminds you or your passenger to fasten your seatbelts.
It is usually accompanied by a repetitive dinging noise.
What To Do: Buckle up! According to the CDC, seat belts decrease serious crash-related
injuries by about 50%.

12. Airbag Indicator Light

What It Means: The airbag warning light signals that something is wrong with one of your
airbags or the entire airbag system.
What To Do: You should get your car checked out immediately! Your car’s airbags keep
you safe during accidents, so it’s important to make sure they are working properly.

13. Security Indicator Light

What It Means: If your vehicle has an anti-theft system, then this symbol will blink steadily
when the security system is armed. If it is solid and the car will not start, then the
immobilization system has activated due to a security threat or malfunction. If it is solid and
the car is running normally, then the security system is malfunctioning and needs to be fixed.
What To Do: If the vehicle is immobilized, follow your vehicle’s guidelines for how to
deactivate the security system. If it’s a malfunction, your security system will not work
correctly until you have it repaired.

14. Fog Lamp Indicator Light

What It Means: This symbol shows that your fog lights are on.
What To Do: Fog lights should only be used if your visibility is less than 100 yards. If you
turn them on unnecessarily, they can make it difficult for other drivers on the road to see.

15. Washer Fluid Indicator Light

What It Means: Imitating the motion of your windshield wipers, this dashboard symbol
means that you’re low on windshield washer fluid.
What To Do: Fill up the reservoir with fluid as soon as you can.

16. Brake Warning Light

What It Means: If you see this symbol on your dashboard or the word ―BRAKE‖ in red,
then either the parking brake is engaged or there’s a problem with your braking system.
What To Do: First, stop and check to see if your parking brake is engaged. Try setting and
releasing the brake while your vehicle is in park. If the light is still on even when the parking
brake is unengaged, have your car towed to the nearest Virginia Tire & Auto for service.

17. Lane Departure Warning Light

What It Means: Most cars produced today come with a lane departure warning safety
feature. It activates this light on your dashboard and makes a beeping noise when it detects
that your vehicle is drifting out of your lane.
What To Do: Correct your steering, if needed. (The light may come on when you are
purposefully changing lanes.)

18. Transmission Temperature Warning Light

What It Means: If this symbol appears on your dashboard, it means that your transmission is
overheating. This could be caused by low transmission fluid, worn transmission parts, heavy
towing or something else.
What To Do: Pull over as soon as it’s safe and turn off the vehicle. Wait for the vehicle to
cool down before attempting to drive again and get to a repair shop as soon as possible. If the
light won’t go off and you have a ways to go, it’s best to call for a tow.
MAINTENANCE

Inspect your vehicle critically and regularly

Get thorough with different warning car light indicators
Check your tyres regularly
Check all the fluid levels
Check the engine air filter
Always use the right fuel
Check the working condition of the brakes
Check the battery
Check the exhaust system
Check wipers

Here’s a general car maintenance checklist you can use:

 Check lights everyday: check all lights including headlights, brake lights, reverse
lights and interior lights to make sure they’re functioning correctly
 Car wash every two weeks: regular car washing prevents paint damage from dirt
 Check fluid levels every month: regularly check your car’s oil levels, brake fluid,
power steering fluid and coolant and top up if necessary. Your vehicle’s manual will
provide you with details on how to top these up
 Tyre pressure check every month: proper tyre pressure ensures better handling, fuel
efficiency and tyre longevity
 Car waxing every six months: to maintain the shine and protect the paint
 Windscreen wiper replacement every six to twelve months: if your wipers are
leaving streaks or not clearing the windshield effectively, it’s time to replace them
 Battery check every three to five years: check your battery terminals for corrosion
and clean them if necessary
 Engine oil and filter change every 3,000 to 7,000 miles: the frequency depends on the
type of oil you use and your driving habits. Some modern vehicles can even go up to
10,000 miles on synthetic oil
 Tyre rotation and balance every 5,000 to 7,500 miles: this ensures even tyre wear,
leading to longer tyre life and better mileage
 Brake pads inspection every 10,000 miles: inspect your brake pads for wear and
replace them if necessary to ensure safe stopping
 Air filter replacement every 12,000 to 15,000 miles: a clean air filter helps your car’s
engine run more efficiently and extends its lifespan
 TECHNICAL TAKEAWAY

I saw and studied how the workshop operates at full capacity while working in the workshop.
Pace and attain the objective as rapidly as possible in order to match the needs and
expectations of clients.

When the automobile arrives at workshop, the technician submits a repair order for the
customer, in which the customer describes the problem with the car or requests a general
repair. After the service consultant assessed the vehicle and informed the technician of his
finding in the first phase, the technician thoroughly checks the vehicle and every part of it,
noting the findings on the work card. In general, the firm offers four free general services,
during which mechanic or expert inspects the engine oil, lubricating oil, water, air filter, air
conditioner filter and other electrical components, and if discovers a problem that could
reduce the car’s efficiency, it will be notified to the services consultant , who will then call
the costumer and inform him other defects. If the customer agrees to have the problem fixed,
the service consultant will inform the mechanic, who will then fix the problem so the car runs
smoothly.

Defective cars are categorised and assigned to a certain category depending on their flaws. In
a service shop, general maintenance or repairs are frequently performed. Servicing or any
other issue involving internal mechanics engine and so on. This business offers engine oil
changes, brake oil changes, clutch oil changes, transmission oil changes and filters
replacement.
 PROFESSIONAL TAKEAWAY

Since as inter, my first notice was the distinction between the university setting and the
workplace environment, as they are two whole different games. I have also seen that safety is
of utmost importance and can readily be recognised as the major priority of all employees,
not just technicians. Because company-wide, equipment and safety instructions have always
been put or made available in crucial areas. Escorting customer service centres to reception
areas is a master class. Despite the fact that the labour was frequently regarded unclean, they
were always urged to be as tidy as possible in their attire and in the performance of their
tasks.

This was also made easier by paying technicians who followed the guideline to the letter.

 The quality of customer service was exceptional, with clients being handled with
great care ad respect. From giving free breakfasts and lunches to providing short in-
house training, customers of the free medical check-up felt at ease at all times.
 Communication between employees in a section for departments that interact with
other departments in the organization, as well as clients with corporate people, has
been essential, the majority of works that have been returned or are problematic are
the consequence of a miscommunication between the parties.
 MANAGERIAL TAKEAWAY
The six step technique was taught to interns at TATA MOTORS in order to improve
management quality. Its critical to underline the need of being systematic at this point.
The six step approach to diagnostic work is a basic yet effective method.
 Ensure consistency as everyone understands the approach to be taken.
 The use of data helps eliminate bias and preconceptions, leading to greater
objectivity.
 This helps eliminate disagreements and encourages teamwork.
 Do not allow the problem solving groups to diverge on different issues.
 It also helps problem solving groups reach consensus.
 Eliminate the confusion that occurs when people use different problem solving
methods on the reach consensus.
 Facilities the decision making process.
 Offers a reasonal solution.

Following the six steps method can be viewed as a method for organising issue solutions in
general. Some of the stages are recursive, as you can see here. That is, prior actions may be
required as you get to the answer.

 Collective evidence
 Analyse the evidence
 Find the fault
 Find the cause of the failure and eliminate it
 Correct the error
 Test the system to make sure the repair was successful

The six-step method provides a focused procedure for the problem solving team.
 CONCLUSION

1. This is the internship report based on the 1 month internship program that
successfully completed in BALAJI TATA MOTORS, Attibele from 14-08-2023 to
27-09-2023 as a requirement for our VTU s being completely new in practical,
corporate world setting, Every hour spent in the workshop gave us some amout
experience all the time. The workers gave us a good learning environment which
otherwise would not possible to learn so much.
2. We have worked in all departments and had plenty of experience by knowing the
various inner parts of the vehicles which are all seen in the report. This helped us to
improve our knowledge and skills in working and also to gain knowledge about
BALAJI TATA MOTORS.
3. We were able to work and gain experience o the different parts of the vehicles and
why and where the problem occurs in the vehicles.
4. We now have the ideas and knowledge how the industry works and the parts as well
as what and where are all the problems raised in the vehicle parts and how to solve the
problems.
5. This internship has given all the basic information to b known in the vehicles and
different parts and its functions.
6. We, hereby draw the conclusion that above report has the effective information about
the organization and can be used for the further studies.
REFERENCES

1. www.tatamotors.com
2. www.tata.com
3. en.wikipedia.org