CHAPTER 7

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
AND THE
CHLOROPLAST Heart Fryle Joy Floro
Joel Cabañas
Ronelyn Dalisay
Stephany Ciudad
Objectives
at the the end of the lesson, the students should be able to;
1. Illustrate the chloroplast structure and give its function.
2. Discuss the absorption of light.
3. Identify the photosynthetic units and reaction centers of
chloroplast.
4. Explain the process of carbon dioxide fixation and
synthesis of carbohydrate.
LEAVES AND
LEAF
STRUCTURE
Why Leaves
are Green?
 Would a
plant grow
well in green
light?
Leaves and Leaf Structure
Plants are the only photosynthetic organisms to have leaves
(and not all plants have leaves). A leaf may be viewed as a
solar collector crammed full of photosynthetic cells.
The raw materials of photosynthesis, water, and carbon
dioxide, enter the cells of the leaf, and the products of
photosynthesis, sugar, and oxygen, leave the leaf.
Leaves and Leaf
Structure
Leaves and Leaf Structure
Water enters the root and is transported up to the leaves through
specialized plant cells known as xylem vessels.
Land plants must guard against drying out and so have evolved
specialized structures known as stomata to allow gas to enter and
leave the leaf.
Carbon dioxide cannot pass through the protective waxy layer
covering the leaf (cuticle), but it can enter the leaf through the stoma
(the singular of stomata), flanked by two guard cells.
Leaves and Leaf Structure
Leaves and Leaf Structure
Likewise, oxygen produced during photosynthesis can only pass
out of the leaf through the opened stomata.
Unfortunately for the plant, while these gases are moving
between the inside and outside of the leaf, a great deal of water is
also lost.
Cottonwood trees, for example, will lose 100 gallons (about 450
dm3) of water per hour during hot desert days.
Definition
chloroplast is derived from the Greek word chloros
meaning "green" and plastes meaning "the one who
forms".
discovered by Julius von Sachs (1832–1897)

Chloroplasts are the most important plastids found in

plant cells. It is the structure in a green plant cell in
which photosynthesis occurs.
Definition
These are green plastids because of the presence of
chlorophyll. Chloroplasts occur abundantly in green
leaves, and also to some extent in green parts of the
shoot.

The chloroplasts take part in the process of

photosynthesis and it is of great biological
importance.
 Structure
1.Chloroplasts found in higher plants are generally biconvex
or planoconvex shaped. In different plants chloroplasts have
different shapes, they vary from spheroid, filamentous saucer-
shaped, discoid or ovoid shaped.
2. They are vesicular and have a colorless center. Some
chloroplasts are in shape of club, they have a thin middle
zone and the ends are filled with chlorophyll. In algae a
single huge chloroplast is seen that appears as a network, a
spiral band.
 Structure
3. The size of the chloroplast also varies from species to
species and it is constant for a given cell type. In higher
plants, the average size of chloroplast is 4-6 microns in
diameter and 1- 0 microns in thickness.
 Structure
4. The chloroplasts are double membrane bound organelles and are the
site of photosynthesis. The chloroplasts have a system of three
membranes:
The Outer Membrane, The Inner Membrane and The Thylakoid
system.\
The outer and the inner membrane of the chloroplast enclose a semi-
gel-like fluid known as the Stroma.
This stroma makes up much of the volume of the chloroplast, the
thylakoids system floats in the stroma.
 Components
of
Chloroplast
Outer Membrane: It is a semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small molecules and ions,
which diffuses easily. The outer membrane is not permeable to larger proteins.

Intermembrane Space: It is usually a thin intermembrane space about 10-20

nanometers and it is present between the outer and the inner membrane of the
chloroplast.

Inner Membrane: The inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a border to the stroma. It
regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast. In addition of regulation
activity, the fatty acids, lipids and carotenoids are synthesized in the inner chloroplast
membrane.
Components of
Chloroplast
Stroma: Stroma is a alkaline, aqueous fluid which is protein rich
and is present within the inner membrane of the chloroplast. The
space outside the thylakoid space is called the stroma.
The chloroplast DNA, chloroplast ribosomes and the thylakoid
system, starch granules and many proteins are found floating
around the stroma.
Components of
Chloroplast

Thylakoid System: It is suspended in the stroma. The Thylakoid

system is a collection of membranous sacks called thylakoids.
The chlorophyll is found in the thylakoids and is the sight for the
process of light reactions of photosynthesis to happen.
The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as Grana. Each
granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids.
Functions of Chloroplast
1. In plants all the cells participate in plant immune response as
they lack specialized immune cells. The chloroplasts with the
nucleus and cell membrane and ER are the key organelles of
pathogen defense.

2. The most important function of chloroplast is absorption of

light energy and conversion of it into biological energy,
making food by the process of photosynthesis. Food is
prepared in the form of sugars. The chloroplast is very
important as it is the cooking place for all the green plants.
Functions of Chloroplast
3. During the process of photosynthesis sugar and oxygen
are made using light energy, water, and carbon dioxide.
Conversion of PGA (phosphoglyceric acid) into different
sugars and store as starch.

4. Like the mitochondria, Chloroplasts use the

potential energy of the H+ ions or the
hydrogen ion gradient to generate energy in
the form of ATP.
Functions of Chloroplast
5. Light reactions takes place on the
membranes of the thylakoids. Production
of NADPH2 and evolution of oxygen
through the process of photolysis of
water.
6. The dark reactions also known
as the Calvin cycle takes place in
the stroma of chloroplast.
Functions of Chloroplast
7. Enzymes for carbon dioxide fixation and other dark reactions are
present in the stroma and the enzymes for light reactions are
present in the thylakoids. Two separate ways for carbon dioxide
fixation are observed in higher plants which are broadly classified
into C3 and C4 plants.

8. Breaking of 6-carbon atom compound into two

molecules of phosphoglyceric acid by the utilization of
assimilatory powers (NADPH2 and ATP).
ABSORPTION
OF LIGHT
Light absorption by pigments
Photosynthetic cells contain special pigments that
absorb light energy. Different pigments respond to
different wavelengths of visible light.

Chlorophyll, the primary pigment used in

photosynthesis, reflects green light and absorbs red
and blue light most strongly.
 PHOTOSYNTHETIC UNITS
AND REACTION CENTERS OF
CHLOROPLAST
Chlorophyll A is the major pigment used in
photosynthesis, but there are several types of
chlorophyll and numerous other pigments that
respond to light, including red, brown, and blue
pigments.

These other pigments may help channel light energy

to chlorophyll A or protect the cell from photo-
damage.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis uses the energy of sunlight to
convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and
high energy sugars.

C6H12O6 = glucose (a simple sugar)

Plants use the sugars to produce complex

carbohydrates such as starches.
Stages of photosynthesis
When chlorophyll a absorbs light energy, an electron gains
energy and is 'excited'.

The excited electron is transferred to another molecule

(called a primary electron acceptor).

The chlorophyll molecule is oxidized (loss of electron) and

has a positive charge.
Stages of photosynthesis

Photoactivation of chlorophyll a results in the

splitting of water molecules and the transfer of
energy to ATP and reduced nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a two stage process.
The light dependent reactions,
a Light-dependent series of reactions which occur
in the grana, and require the direct energy of light
to make energy-carrier molecules that are used in
the second process
Photosynthesis
The light-independent reactions, a light-
independent series of reactions which occur in the
stroma of the chloroplasts
when the products of the light reaction, ATP and
NADPH, are used to make carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide (reduction); initially
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (a 3-carbon atom
molecule) is formed.
THE LIGHT-DEPENDENT
REACTION
The Light-Dependent Reaction
Produce oxygen gas and convert ADP and NADP+
into the energy carriers ATP and NADPH.
The Light-Dependent Reaction

When light energy is absorbed by a chlorophyll

molecule its electrons gain energy and move to
higher energy levels in the molecule
(photoexcitation).
Sufficient energy ionizes the molecule, with the
electron being 'freed' leaving a positively charged
chlorophyll ion. This is called photoionization.
The Light-Dependent Reaction
In whole chloroplasts each chlorophyll molecule is
associated with an electron acceptor and an electron
donor.
These three molecules make up the core of a photosystem.
Two electrons from a photoionized chlorophyll molecule
are transferred to the electron acceptor.
The positively charged chlorophyll ion then takes a pair of
electrons from a neighboring electron donor such as
water.
The Light-Dependent Reaction

An electron transfer system (a series of chemical

reactions) carries the two electrons to and from across
the thylakoid membrane.
The energy to drive these processes comes from two
photosystems:
Photosystem II (PSII) (P680)
Photosystem I (PSI) (P700)
The Light-Dependent Reaction
It may seem confusing, but PSII occurs before PSI. It
is named because it was the second to be discovered
and hence named second.
The energy changes accompanying the two sets of
changes make a Z shape when drawn out. This is why
the electron transfer process is sometimes called the
Z scheme. Key to the scheme is that sufficient energy
is released during electron transfer to enable ATP to
be made from ADP and phosphate.
TELELESSONS
THE LIGHT-INDEPENDENT
REACTION
The Light-Dependent Reaction

also known as Dark Reaction/Calvin Cycle/Calvin–

Benson cycle

part of photosynthesis that makes glucose

carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or water for

aquatic/marine organisms) is captured and
modified by the addition of hydrogen to form
carbohydrates.
The Light-Dependent Reaction

NADPH and ATP generated in light dependent

reactions run the Calvin Cycle

depends on light reactions even though it happens

in light and dark
The Light-Dependent Reaction
The incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic
compounds is known as carbon fixation. The energy
for this comes from the first phase of the
photosynthetic process.
Plants use the energy that ATP and NADPH contain
to build high-energy compounds (carbohydrates!)
that can be stored for a long time.

many cycles produce glucose

 Calvin cycle has three main steps:

1. Carboxylation/Carbon Fixation
In this process CO2 fixation takes place.
Enzyme RUBP carboxylase oxygenase or RuBisCO catalyses
the carboxylation of RUBP to form PGA(phosphoglycerate)
-the most abundant protein on Earth
 Calvin cycle has three main steps:

2. Reduction
Formation of carbohydrate or glucose takes place by
reduction.
ATP and NADPH formed during light reaction are used in the
process. 2 ATP and 2 NADPH are used per cycle.
ATP, NADPH provide energy to reduce 3-phosphoglycerate
into sugar.
 Calvin cycle has three main steps:

3. Regeneration
Regeneration of RUBP(CO2 acceptor) is an important step for
the cycle to continue, 1 ATP molecule is used for
phosphorylation.
RuBP is prepared to receive next CO2
Calvin cycle
Carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-
biphosphate (RuBP). A six-carbon sugar forms but is unstable.
Each molecule breaks down to form two glycerate 3-phosphate
(GP) molecules.
These glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) molecules are phosphorylated
by ATP into glycerate diphosphate molecules
These are reduced by NADPH to two molecules of glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate (GALP).
Of each pair of GALP molecules produced:
one molecule is the initial end product of
photosynthesis; it is quickly converted to glucose and
other carbohydrates, lipids or amino acids
one molecule forms RuBP through a series of chemical
reactions.
TELELESSONS
FACTORS AFFECTING
THE RATE OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The main factors are water supply, light intensity, carbon
dioxide concentration and temperature, known as limiting
factors.

The main factors are water supply, light intensity, carbon

dioxide concentration and temperature, known as limiting
factors.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. light intensity
As light intensity increases, the rate of the light-
dependent reaction, and therefore photosynthesis
generally, increases proportionately.
As light intensity is increased however, the rate of
photosynthesis is eventually limited by some other
factor.
Figure: The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
2. carbon dioxide concentration

An increase in the carbon dioxide concentration

increases the rate at which carbon is incorporated into
carbohydrate in the light-independent reaction and so
the rate of photosynthesis generally increases until
limited by another factor.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
2. carbon dioxide concentration

An increase in the carbon dioxide concentration

increases the rate at which carbon is incorporated into
carbohydrate in the light-independent reaction and so
the rate of photosynthesis generally increases until
limited by another factor.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
3. temperature
Photosynthesis is dependent on temperature. It is a
reaction catalysed by enzymes.
As the enzymes approach their optimum temperatures
the overall rate increases.
Above the optimum temperature the rate begins to
decrease until it stops. Some of the enzymes function
best between 0-35 degrees Celsius.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
4. Water
Water availability can function as a limiting factor in
photosynthesis and plant growth.
Besides the requirement for a small amount of water in
the photosynthetic reaction itself, large amounts of
water are transpired from the leaves; that is, water
evaporates from the leaves to the atmosphere via the
stomata.
Summary of stages of photosynthesis
Summary of stages of photosynthesis
Thank You