XI CHEMISTRY MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - 2023

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K, 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM

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CHAPTER 1 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1. State and explain Law of definite proportion.
A chemical compound always contains the same elements combined together in the same
proportion by mass.
Example:- Carbon dioxide can be obtained by many methods.
Its formula → CO2 Mass ratio→ 12:32 Simple ratio →3:8
2. State and explain Law of multiple proportion .
When two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the different masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element, are in the small whole number
ratio.
Example:- (I) Water (H2O ) and Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) , (II) CO , CO2 (III) NO , NO2
3. Define Mole .
Mole is the amount of a substance which contain 6.022 x 10 23 particles (Avogadro’s number)
4. What are empirical formula and molecular formula?
Molecular formula is the actual formula of a compound.
Empirical formula is the simplest formula of a compound.
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula , Where n = 1,2,3,………
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒏=
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Examples :
EF of glucose ( C6H12O6 ) is CH2O
EF of ethane ( C2H6 ) is CH3
EF of benzene ( C6H6 ) is CH
EF of Hydrogen peroxide( H2O2 ) is HO
EF of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is CO2
EF of C6H6Cl6 is CHCl
5. What is Limiting reagent (limiting reactant) ?
The reactant that is consumed completely in a reaction is called Limiting reagent (limiting reactant ).
6. What are difference between molality and molarity
Molarity Molality
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑽(𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊) 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑾𝑨 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)

Molarity depends on temperature Molality does not depend on temperature

7. Define mole fraction.
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐧𝐁
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝑿𝐁 ) = =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐧𝐀 + 𝐧𝐁
Mole fraction is temperature independent.
 CHAPTER 2 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
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1. Explain Rutherford’s alpha ray scattering experiment . Give its important observations and conclusions.

Observations Conclusions
1 Most of the alpha particles passed through the Most of the space in an atom is empty.
gold foil without any deflections.
2 A few alpha particles were deflected through A heavy positive centre is present at the centre
small angles . of the atom called nucleus.
3 Very few alpha particles are deflected back (1800). Nucleus is very small in size.
2. What are the postulates of Rutherford atom model?
(I) Most of the mass and all positive charge is concentrated at the centre of the atom called nucleus.
(II) Most of the space inside the atom is empty.
3. What are the draw backs (failure) of Rutherford atom model?
(I) Failed to explain the stability of the atom.
(II) Failed to explain hydrogen spectrum.
4. Explain line spectrum of hydrogen. ( Hydrogen spectrum)
The spectral series of hydrogen spectrum are
Series Spectral region n1 n2
Lyman series Ultraviolet 1 2,3,….
Balmer series Visible 2 3,4,….
Pas4chen series Infrared 3 4,5,….
Brackett series Infrared 4 5,6,……
Pfund series Infrared 5 6,7,…….
Their wave number and wavelength is determined by the Rydberg equation.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝑 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 𝟏
𝝀 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
5. What are the postulates of Bohr atom model?
(I) The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits. These orbits have
definite energies called energy shells or energy levels.
(II) As long as electrons remain in a particular orbit, it does not lose or gain energy.
6. What are the merits of Bohr atom model?
(I) Bohr’s model can explain the stability of an atom.
(II) Bohr’s model can explain the atomic spectrum of hydrogen
7. What are the draw backs (Limitations) of Bohr atom model?
(I) It cannot explain de Broglie concept of dual nature of matter.
(II) It cannot explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
8. What is Dual nature of matter? Give de Broglie equation.
According to de Broglie, electron has particle character and wave character.
𝐡 𝐡
de Broglie equation is, 𝛌 = =
𝐦𝐯 𝐩
Wavelength ( λ) → Wave character.
Momentum (p) → Particle character.
For electron, wave character is significant. It is against Bohr model.
9. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Give its mathematical forms and its significance.
It is not possible to determine simultaneously both the position and velocity (or momentum) of a
microscopic moving particle such as electron with absolute accuracy.
𝒉
Mathematical form is ∆𝒙. ∆𝒑 ≥
𝟒𝛑
∆x = uncertainty in position. ∆p = uncertainty in momentum. h= plank’s constant
Significance:-This principle rules out the existence of definite paths (orbits) for moving electrons.
10. Draw the shapes of s- orbitals, p- orbitals, and d- orbitals.
S orbital – Spherical shape

P orbitals → Dumb bell shape

d-orbitals →Double dumb bell shape

11. Which are four Quantum numbers? Explain each.

(I) Principal quantum The main energy level or shell in which the n=1 first energy level,
number (n) electron is located. n=2 second energy level
Average distance of the orbital or electron
from the nucleus
(II) Azimuthal or Angular The sub shell in which electron is located in For a given value of n,
momentum quantum a shell l = 0 to n-1
number Shape of the orbital
(III) Magnetic quantum Different orientations (orbitals) in a sub For a given value of l ,
number (m) shell m= -l …..0……..+l
(IV) Spin quantum number(s) The spin orientation of electrons (+1/2) or (-1/2)
12. Which are rules for writing electronic configuration?
(I) Aufbau principle :- In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies. 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d <5p
(II) Pauli’s exclusion principle :- It states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set
of four quantum numbers. An orbital can accommodate maximum two electrons.
(III) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
This rule states that electron pairing in orbitals of same sub shell will not takes place until each
available orbital of that sub shell is singly occupied (with parallel spin).
N → 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1

13. Write the exceptional configuration of chromium and copper and give its reason
Chromium : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Copper : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Half filled and completely filled orbitals have more stability

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3 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

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1. State Modern periodic law

The properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.
Modern periodic law is proposed by Henry Moseley.
2. Long form of periodic table (Modern periodic table)
It is based on modern periodic law. There are seven periods and 18 groups
Each group constitutes a family of elements with similar properties.
In the modern periodic table, the period indicates the value of principal quantum number (n).
There are 4 blocks in the periodic table -s-block, p-block, d-block, and f-block.
3. Blocks of periodic table

Blocks Groups General electronic Main properties

configuration
s-block 1&2 ns1-2 They form mainly ionic compounds
p-block 13 to 18 ns2np1-6 Includes metals, nonmetal and metalloids.
d-block 3 to 12 (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2 They form coloured compounds.
They shows variable oxidation states.
f-block Lanthanoids 1-14 0-1 2 Within each series properties are similar.
(n-2)f (n-1)d ns
and Most of the actinoids are radioactive and man made
actinoids
4. Explain the variation of Atomic radius along a period and in a group.
In a period, from left to right, atomic radii decrease due to increase in nuclear charge
 In a group, from top to bottom, atomic radii increase due to increase in number of shells.
5. What are isoelectronic species? Give examples. Arrange them in the increasing order of size.
Atoms and ions which contain same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species.
N3- ,O2- , F- , Na+ , Mg2+ , Al3+ (These have different nuclear charge , But contain 10
electrons each)
3- 2- - + 2+ 3+
The order of decreasing size is N > O > F >Na > Mg > Al
Among the isoelectronic species, greater the nuclear charge , smaller the size.
6. What is Ionization energy? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated
gaseous atom is called ionization energy (ionization enthalpy).
In a period, from left to right ionization enthalpy increases due to increase in nuclear charge and
so valence electrons are more tightly held by the nucleus.
But some irregularities are observed. Beryllium has higher ionization energy than Boron due to
stable electronic configuration( 1s22s2) .
Similarly nitrogen has higher ionization energy than oxygen due to half filled stable electronic
configuration ( 1s22s22p3).
In a group, Ionization enthalpy decreases from top to bottom due to increase in atomic size.
7. What is electron gain enthalpy ( Electron affinity)? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
The amount of energy released when an electron is added to isolated gaseous atom is called electron gain
enthalpy.
In a period, from left to right electron gain enthalpy becomes more and more negative. It is due to
increase in nuclear charge.
In a group, Electron gain enthalpy decreases from top to bottom due to increase in atomic size.
8. Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less than that of chlorine .Why?
This is due to the very small size of fluorine atom. As a result, inter electronic repulsion in the 2p sub shell
of F is more than that in the relatively larger 3p sub shell in chlorine atom.
9. What is Eectro negativity? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
Electro negativity is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards it.
Halogens have highest electro negativity in their periods.
Fluorine is the most electro negative element.
Electro negativity increases from left to right in a period due to increasing nuclear charge.
Electro negativity decreases from top to bottom in a group due to increase in atomic size.
10. What are Anomalous properties?
The first element of each group in s and p blocks differs from the rest of the elements in many properties
are called anomalous properties.
It is due to the following reasons.
(i) Small size (ii) High charge/radius ratio.(I (iii) Non availability of d orbitals.
11. What is Diagonal relationship? What are the reasons for Diagonal relationship?
First element in any group shows similarities with second element in next group. This is called diagonal
relationship. For example, Lithium shows resemblance with Magnesium due to diagonal relationship
Reasons :- (i) similar size, (ii)similar ionization energy , ( (iii)similar charge/radius ratio
 CHAPTER 4 CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

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1. What are the limitations of octet rule

rule?
(I) It cannot explain the formation of mole
molecules with incomplete octet (eg: BeF2 , BF3)
(II) It cannot explain the formation of molecules with expanded (super) octet (eg: PCl5, SF6)
2. Ammonia (NH3) has higher dipole moment than NF3, even though F is more electronegative than hydrogen.
hydroge
Why?
Both have pyramidal structure. The individual
dipole moments do not cancel each other. So
they have net dipole moment.

But ammonia
mmonia has higher dipole moment
moment. It is due to the orbital dipole due to the lone pair is in the same
direction of three N-H bonds.
But in nitrogen tri fluoride, the resultant dipole of three N
N-FF bonds is in opposite direction to the orbital
dipole of lone pair. So partially cancelled and dipole moment is low.
3. What are the main postulates of valence shell electron pair re
repulsion
pulsion theory(VSEPR)
(I) The shape of the molecule depends on the number of valence electron pairs of the central
atom.
(II) The electron pairs repel each other. As a result, the electron pairs try to stay as far apart to
acquire a state of minimum energy or maximum stability.
(III) The repulsive interaction decreases in the order.
Lone pair-Lone
Lone pair > Lone pair
pair-Bond pair > Bond pair-Bond pair
4. Explain the shape of following molecules on the basis of VSEPR theory.
BeCl2
inear geometry. Bond angle 180 0
Two bond pairs around Beryllium. Linear

BF3
rigonal planar geometry. Bond angle 120 0
Three bond pairs around Boron. Trigonal

CH4
etrahedral geometry. Bond angle 109.5 0
Four bond pairs around Carbon. Tetrahedral
 PCl5
Five bond pairs around Phosphorus . Trigonal bipyramid geometry.
Bond angle 120 0 and 90 0

SF6

Six bond pairs around Sulphur. Octahedral geometry.

Bond angle 90 0

NH3
Bond angle 107 0 .
Geometry is trigonal pyramidal.

H 2O
Bond angle is 104.5 0.
Geometry is bent shape or inverted V shape.
5. Explain sp3 hybridisation
One s orbital + Three p orbitals → Four sp3 hybridized orbitals
Example:CH4 , Tetrahedral geometry. Bond angle is 109.50.
6. Explain sp2 hybridisation
One s orbital + Two p orbitals → Three sp2 hybridized orbitals
Example: BF3 . Trigonal planar geometry. Bond angle is 1200
7. Explain sp hybridisation
One s orbital + One p orbital → Two sp hybridized orbitals
Example: BeCl2 , Linear geometry , Bond angle is 1800
8. Explain sp3d hybridisation using PCl5 as example.
One s orbital + Three p orbitals + One d orbital → Five sp 3d hybridized orbitals
Trigonal bipyramid geometry.
Bond angle is 120 0 and 90 0
9. Explain the geometry of PCl5 molecule and account for its high reactivity.
Hybridisation is sp3d . Trigonal bipyramid geometry.
There are three equatorial bonds and two axial bonds.
The axial bonds are slightly longer than equatorial bonds due to greater repulsion from equatorial bonds.
Due to different bond lengths, it is unsymmetric and highly reactive.
10. Explain sp3d2 hybridisation using SF6 as example.
One s orbital + Three p orbitals + Two d orbitals → Six sp3d2 hybridized orbitals
Octahedral geometry.
Bond angle is 90 0.
11. What are the postulates of Molecular orbital theory(MOT)?
(I) Molecular orbitals are formed by the combination of atomic orbitals of same energy and
proper geometry.
(II) The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of combining atomic orbitals.
12. Define bond order . How is bond order related to stability?
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ]
If the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
If the bond order is zero, molecule is unstable. Such molecule will not exist.
13. Explain the stability and magnetic property of H2 molecule (2 electrons)
Molecular orbital electronic configuration :- σ1s 2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [2 - 0 ] = 1
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable. Bond order = 1 , single bond,
No unpaired electrons, diamagnetic.
14. Why He2 molecule will not exist? (4 electrons)
Molecular orbital electronic configuration :- σ 1s2 σ*1s2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [2 - 2 ] = 0
Here the bond order is zero , molecule is unstable. So it will not exist.
15. With the help of molecular orbitals , find bond order of N 2 and explain its stability(14 electrons)
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 π2px2 = π2py2 σ2pz2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 4 ] = 3
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 3 , triple bond.
Here all electrons are paired , the molecule is diamagnetic.
16. Calculate the bond order and predict the magnetic property of O 2 molecule (16 electrons)
Molecular orbital electronic configuration :-
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px1 = π*2py1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 6 ] = 2 ,
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 2 , double bond.
Here unpaired electrons are present in π*2p x and π*2py , so oxygen molecule is paramagnetic.
17. With the help of molecular orbitals , find bond order of F 2 and explain its stability(18 electrons)
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py2
Bond order = 1 Bond order is positive , molecule is stable
Diamagnetic
18. With the help of molecular orbitals , find bond order of Ne2 and explain its stability (20 electrons)
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py2 σ*2pz2
Bond order is zero , molecule is unstable
19. Which are different type hydrogen bonds? Explain each
(I) Inter molecular hydrogen bond :- Hydrogen bond between different molecules of same type or
different type. It increases the boiling point.
e.g., H bonding in HF, …….H-F……H-F…….H-F……..H-F…..
(II) Intra molecular hydrogen bond:- Hydrogen bond within the same molecule. It decreases the boiling
point. e.g., Hydrogen bonding in Ortho nitro phenol
 CHAPTER 6 THERMODYNAMICS
1. What are extensive and intensive properties? Give examples for each.
(I) Extensive properties :- These are properties which depend on the amount of matter present in the
system. Examples: - Mass (m) , Volume (V) , Length (l), Internal energy (U) , Enthalpy (H) , Entropy
(S) , Gibbs free energy (G), heat capacity etc
(II) Intensive properties:- These are properties which are independent on the amount of matter
present in the system. Examples : - Temperature ,pressure, density , refractive index , viscosity ,
surface tension , specific heat , molar heat capacity
2. What is Internal energy (U)?
Internal energy is the total energy present within a substance.
3. State First law of thermo dynamics and give its mathematical form.
It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Mathematical form is ∆U = q + w
∆U = change in internal energy, q = heat, w = work
4. Define Enthalpy (H)
Enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy and pressure volume energy .
H = U + PV
5. Give the relation connecting ∆H and ∆U.
∆H = ∆U + P ∆V OR
∆H = ∆U + ∆n RT Where ∆n= nP − nR
6. The relation connecting q p and q v is q p = q v + ∆n RT
7. State and illustrate Hess’s Law of Constant Heat of Summation.
It states that the enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is the same
whether the reaction takes place in one step or several steps.

∆Hr = ∆H1 +∆H2 + ∆H3

8. Define Entropy (S) ?

Entropy (S) is a measure of degree of disorder or randomness of the system .
9. State Second law of thermo dynamics and gives equation
It states that the entropy of the universe increases in the course of every spontaneous (natural) change.
∆Suniverse > 0
10. Define Gibb’s free energy (G)
Gibbs energy is defined as the maximum amount of available energy that can be converted to useful work.
G =H – TS

11. The relation connecting ∆G, ∆H, and ∆S is ∆G= ∆H −T ∆S.

12. Explain Gibb’s energy and spontaneity.
(i) If ∆G is negative, the process will be spontaneous.
(ii) If ∆G is zero, the process is in equilibrium.
(iii) If ∆G is positive, the process will be non spontaneous.
 CHAPTER 7 EQUILIBRIUM
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1. State Henry’s law and give its one application.

Mass of a gas soluble is directly proportional to the pressure
i.e., 𝒎 ∝ 𝒑
Example: Soda water.
2. What is equilibrium constant?
Consider a general reversible reaction,𝒂𝑨 + 𝒃𝑩 ⇌ 𝒄𝑪 + 𝒅𝑫
[𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅
𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃
𝒑𝒄𝑪 𝒑𝒅𝑫
𝑲𝒑 = 𝒂
𝒑𝑨 𝒑𝒃𝑩
∆n
3. The relation between Kp and Kc is Kp = Kc (RT)
Kp = Equilibrium constant in terms of pressure. Kc = Equilibrium constant in terms of concentration.
∆n = No. of mole of gaseous products - No. of mole of gaseous reactants.
If ∆n =0 , Kp = Kc
4. What are the characteristics of equilibrium constant?
(I) The value of equilibrium constant is independent of initial concentration of reactants.
(II) For a reversible reaction, the equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction will be the reciprocal of the
equilibrium constant for the forward reaction.
5. State Le-chatelier principle.
If a system in equilibrium is subjected to change in concentration, temperature or pressure, the equilibrium
shifts in the direction that tends to reduce the effect of the change.
6. Explain the effect of concentration, temperature and pressure in the following reaction.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g), ∆H = -92.4 kJ.
(I) Effect of concentration:- increase the concentration of N2 or H2 → forward direction → more NH3
(II) Effect of pressure:- Here forward reaction is accompanied by the decrease in the number of moles,
so high pressure will favour forward reaction and more NH3 is formed.
(III) Effect of temperature:- Here forward reaction is exothermic and so low temperature will favour
forward reaction. But at very low temperature, N2 and H2 will be less reactive and so optimum
temperature is used (500 0C).
7. Explain the effect of pressure in the following reactions.
(I) PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
Here forward reaction is accompanied by the increase in the number of moles, so low pressure
will favour forward reaction. High pressure will favour backward reaction.
(II) H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2 HI (g)
Here no change in number of molecules of reactants and products. So pressure has no effect.
8. Explain the effect of temperature in the following reactions.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2 NO(g), ∆H = 180 kJ.
Here forward reaction is endothermic, and hence increase in temperature will favour forward reaction.
9. Explain Arrhenius concept of acids and bases with examples
Arrhenius acid → Give hydrogen ion(H+) in aqueous solution. e.g., HCl, CH3COOH etc.
Arrhenius base → Give hydroxyl ion(OH-) in aqueous solution. e.g., NaOH, NH4OH etc.
10. Explain Bronsted Lowry concept of acids and bases with examples.
Bronsted acid → Proton(H+) donor.
Bronsted base → Proton(H+) acceptor.
CH3COOH + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO-
Acid Base Acid Base
11. What are conjugated acid base pairs with examples
Conjugated acid = Base + H+
Conjugated base = Acid − H+
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO-
Acid Base Acid Base
-
Here CH3COO is a conjugate base of acid CH3COOH .
H3O+ is a conjugate acid of base H2O
Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base
+
H2O H3O OH-
–
HCO3 H2CO3 CO3 2–
HSO4 – H2SO4 SO4 2–
+
NH3 NH4 NH2 –
12. Explain Lewis concept of acids and bases with examples.
Lewis acids → Electron pair acceptors. e.g. , BF3 , AlCl3 , Mg2+ , Co3+ , H+
Lewis bases → Electron pair donors. e.g. , NH3 , H2O , OH- , Cl-
13. Define PH
PH is defined as negative logarithm of hydronium concentration. PH = − log[H3O+ ]
For acidic solution PH is less than 7.
For basic solution PH is greater than 7
For neutral solution PH is 7
14. What is Buffer solution? Which are two types? Explain each
Buffer solution is a solution which resists the change in pH value by the addition of small amount of acid or
base.
Blood is an example of natural buffer.
These are two types
(I) Acidic buffer:- It is mixture of weak acid and its salt with strong base. eg. , solution of acetic acid
and sodium acetate.
(II) Basic buffer:- It is mixture of weak base and its salt with strong acid. eg. , solution of ammonium
hydroxide and ammonium chloride.
15. Define Common ion effect and give examples.
Common ion effect is defined as the suppression of dissociation of weak electrolyte by the addition of
strong electrolyte containing common ion.
e.g. The ionisation of ammonium hydroxide is suppressed by adding ammonium chloride.

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 UNIT 8 REDOX REACTIONS
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1. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of electronic concept

Oxidation: Removal of electrons. Zn→ Zn2+ + 2e-
Reduction: Addition of electrons. Cu2+ + 2e-→ Cu
2. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of oxidation number concept
Oxidation: Increase in oxidation number.
Reduction: Decrease in oxidation number.
-2 0 -1 0
H2S + Cl2→ 2HCl + S
Here the oxidation number of sulphur in H2S is -2, it is increased to zero (oxidation ).
Here the oxidation number of chlorine in Cl2 is 0, it is decreased to -1 (Reduction ).
H2S is reducing agent (reductant), Cl2 is oxidizing agent (oxidant).
3. Which is the substance undergoing oxidation, reduction, oxidant and reductant in the reactions.
0 +4 +2
Pb + PbO2 +2 H2 SO4 → 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O
Pb undergo oxidation , PbO2 undergo reduction, PbO2 is oxidizing agent, Pb is reducing agent.
4. Explain the different types of redox reactions with examples.
(I) Combination reactions:-A reaction in which one element combines with another element or
compound to form product is called combination reactions. 2 H 2 + O2→ 2H2O
(II) Decomposition reactions:- A reaction in which a compound breaks down to form two or more
components in which one of the product should be in the elemental state.
2KClO3 →2KCl +3 O2
(III) Displacement reactions:-A reaction in which an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by another
atom or ion.
CuSO4 + Zn →Cu + ZnsO4 (metal displaces a metal)
(IV) Disproportionation reactions:-A reaction in which the same species undergo simultaneous oxidation
and reduction is called disproportionation reaction.
The element should be in the intermediate oxidation state.
-1 -2 0
H2O2 →2H2O +O2
5. Balance the following equation using oxidation number method. Cu +NO3− → NO2+ Cu2+
(I) Write skeleton equation and assign oxidation number.
0 +5 +4 +2
Cu +NO3−→ NO2+ Cu2+
(II) Find out increase and decrease of Oxidation Number and equalize Cu +2 NO 3− → NO2+ Cu2+
(III) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen. Cu +2 NO3− →2 NO2+ Cu2+
(IV) Equalize the charge on both side by adding H + ( since it is in acidic medium)
Cu +2 NO3− + 4 H+ →2 NO2+ Cu2+
(V) Balancing hydrogen atom by adding H2O and check the number of oxygen atoms.
Cu +2 NO3− + 4 H+ →2 NO2+ Cu2+ +2 H2O
6. Stock notations :- (a) Mn(IV)O2 (b) HAu(III)Cl4 (c) Fe(II)O
 CHAPTER12. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY- SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES
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1. Write the IUPAC names of the following compounds :

CH3
(i) CH3 – CH2 – CH─CH
─CH – CH2 – CH3
CH2-CH
CH3
3-Ethyl-4-methylhexane
methylhexane
(ii) HO─CH2─CH2─CH2-CH(CH
CH(CH3)─CH(CH3)─CH3
4,5-Dimethylhexan-1-ol
ol
(iii) CH3─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH2─CH3
OH CH3
6-Methyloctan-3-ol
(iv) CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH
CH2-COOH
Hex-3-en-1-oic
oic acid
2. Give the structural formula of the following compounds:
i) 2,4,7 – Trimethyloctane
ii) 2-Chloro-4-methylpentane
iii) Pent-4-en-2-ol
iv) 6-Hydroxyheptanal
Ans:
CH3 CH3 CH3
(i) CH3─CH─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH3
(ii) CH3─CH─CH2─CH─CH3
Cl CH3
OH
(iii) CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH– CH3
(iv) CH3─CH─CH2─CH2─CH2─CH2─CHO
OH
3. Which are four types of structural isomerism ?
(i) Chain isomerism : They have same molecular formula but different carbon chains.

They have molecular formula C5H12

(ii) Position isomerism : They have same molecular formula but differ in the position of functional
group.
 OH
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2OH , CH3 CH2 CHCH3 Molecular formula : C4H10O
Butan-1-ol Butan-2-ol
(iii) Functional group isomerism : They have same molecular formula but different functional groups.
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2OH , CH3 CH2O CH2 CH3 Molecular formula : C4H10O
(iv) Metamerism : It arises due to different alkyl groups on either side of the same functional group.
CH3 CH2O CH2CH3 , CH3 OCH2CH2 CH3 Molecular formula : C 4H10O
4. Fission of a covalent bond
Homolysis or homolytic
molytic cleavage Heterolysis or heterolytic cleavage
Covalent bond breaks in such a way that , Covalent bond breaks in such a way that the
each of the bonded atom gives one electron shared pair of electrons remains with one of
each. the parts.
Free radicals are produced by homolysis Carbo cations (carbonium ions) and
carbanions are produced by heterolysis
5. What are nucleophiles and electrophiles ? Give examples for each.
Nucleophiles:- Nucleus loving species. Eg: OH- , Cl- , CN- - , NH3 , H2O (molecules having lone pair)
lectron loving species. Eg:- H+ , Cl+ , BF3, AlCl3 (electron deficient molecules)
Electrophiles:- Electron
6. Explain the different types of electron displacement effects in covalent bonds.
(I) Inductive effect:- It is the permanent polarization of a sigma bond due to the presence of polar
group. It is a permanent effect.

(II) Electromeric effect:- It is a temporary effect .It is complete transfer of pi electrons of multiple bond in
the presence of attacking
ing reagent. When attacking reagent is removed, shift back to its original
condition.

7. Purification techniques:
Purification When it is used Examples
techniques
Distillation To separate (1) volatile liquids from Chloroform (bp. 334K) and
non volatile impurities (2)the liquids Aniline(bp. 457 K)
having sufficient difference in their
boiling points
Fractional distillation To separate liquids having close Crude oil, toluene
tol and
boiling points cyclohexane, ethanol and water
Distillation under reduced To purify liquids which decompose at Glycerol can be separated from
pressure or below its boiling points spent lye.
Steam distillation To separate substances which are Aniline water mixture
steam volatile and are immiscible with
water
8. Which are different types of chromatography?
(I) Adsorption chromatography (II) Partition chromatography ( Paper chromatography).
9. Name two types of chromatographic techniques based on adsorption.
(I) Column chromatography
(II) Thin layer chromatography
10. Detection of nitrogen, sulphur and halogen: Lassaigne’ s test
It is done using sodium fusion extract (Lassaigne’ s extract) .
It is prepared by heating organic compound with sodium in a fusion tube. When red hot, it is plunged in
to water taken in a china dish. The solution is boiled and filtered. Filtrate is called sodium fusion extract
(Lassaigne’ s extract) .
No. Experiment Observation Inference
1 Extract + Ferrous sulphate + Prussian blue colour Presence of nitrogen
Concentrated sulphuric acid
2 Extract + Sodium nitro prusside Violet colour Presence of sulphur
3. Extract + Nitric acid + Silver nitrate White precipitate (AgCl) Presence of chlorine
Pale yellow (AgBr) precipitate Presence of bromine

Yellow precipitate(AgI) Presence of iodine

11. Ferriferrocyanide:- The blue coloured compound in the Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen.
12. In the Lassaigne’s test for halogen, they are precipitated as silver halide( AgX )
13. Explain different methods for the estimation nitrogen in an organic compound.
(I) Dumas method : Nitrogen containing organic compound is converted to molecular nitrogen (N 2) .
From the volume of nitrogen gas collected, we can determine the percentage of nitrogen.
(II) Kjeldahl’s method : Organic compound containing nitrogen is converted to ammonia gas.
From the volume of ammonia gas collected, we can determine the percentage of nitrogen.

14. Estimation of halogen : Carius method:- Silver halide (AgX).

15. Estimation of sulphur :Carius method: barium sulphate (BaSO4)

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CHAPTER 13 HYDROCARBONS
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1. Explain Wurtz reaction ( How will you prepare alkanes?)

Alkyl halides react with metallic sodium in dry ether to form alkanes with even number of carbon atoms.
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑹 − 𝑿 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑿 − 𝑹 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑹 − 𝑹 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑿

𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓
Bromo methane Ethane
2. What are different types of conformations of ethane? Compare their stability.
Ethane has staggered ,eclipsed and skew conformations.
Staggered conformation is more stable. This is because hydrogen atoms of two carbon atoms are at
maximum distance and repulsion is minimum and stability is maximum.
 Sawhorse projections of ethane Newman projections of ethane

3. How will you prepare alkenes?

𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑿 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐
4. What is meant by geometrical isomerism?
The isomerism arises due to restricted rotation about carbon- carbon double bond is called
geometrical isomerism.
For geometrical isomerism, the groups attached to each carbon must be different.
If the same group same side is called cis isomer.
If the same group opposite side is called trans isomer.
Cis isomer is more polar.
Trans isomer is more stable
5. Draw the geometrical isomers of 2-butene

6. State and explain Markownikkoff’s rule

When unsymmetrical reagent is added to unsymmetric alkene, the negative part of the addendum (adding
molecule) gets attached to the carbon containing lesser number of hydrogen atoms.
When HBr is added to 1-propene, the major product is 2-bromopropane
Br
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓
1- propene 2- bromopropane (Major) 1-bromopropane (Minor)
7. What is peroxide effect or kharasch effect or anti markownikkoff’s rule? Give an example.
In the presence of organic peroxides, addition of HBr to unsymmetric alkene takes place
against Markwnikkoff’s rule. Only HBr shows peroxide effect.
𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓

1-Bromo propane (Major product )

8. Give the preparation of acetylene (ethyne)

From calcium carbide.:- Calcium carbide on treatment with water gives acetylene(ethyne)
𝑪𝒂𝑪𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐
9. How will you convert s acetylene to benzene?

When acetylene (ethyne) is passed through red

hot iron tube, benzene is formed.

10. Explain the structure of benzene.

(i) The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 .
(ii) Kekule structure of benzene is

(iii) Even though benzene contain three double bonds, benzene is stable :- In benzene, each carbon is in sp 2
hybridised state. Each carbon has one unhybridised p orbital. So continuous overlap is possible. So pi
electrons are delocalized. These delocalized pi electrons are responsible for the stability of benzene.
11. State huckel’s rule aromaticity.
A cyclic , conjugated , planar system is aromatic if it contains (4n +2) pi electrons in the ring.
Where n = 1,2,3 etc

Benzene Cyclopentadienyl anion Cyclohepta trienyl cation

These are planar molecules, complete delocalization of pi electrons in the ring is possible,
Huckel rule obeys. So these are aromatic. 4n +2 = 6 (here n=1)
12. How will you prepare benzene ?
From Phenol :- When phenol is heated with zinc dust benzene is formed

13. Give examples for Electrophilic substitution reaction of benzene

(i) Nitration: Benzene is converted to nitrobenzene in the presence of nitrating mixture(Mixture of
concentrated nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid)
 (ii) Friedel –Craft alkylation (Benzene to Toluene) :-

14. What happens when excess chlorine is added to benzene in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride?

Benzene + Excess chlorine → Hexachlorobenzene (C6Cl6 )

15. Give example for addition reaction of benzene ( How will you convert benzene to cyclohexane?)

16. What is Gammexane or BHC ? Give its preparation.

Benzene hexa chloride ( C6 H6Cl6) → Gammexane (BHC) . It is used as an insecticide.

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PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K, 9947444175 , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) , KASARAGOD (DT)

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