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XI CHEMISTRY QUICK NOTES 2023 (FOR DOUBLE PASS)

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K, 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM

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CHAPTER 1 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1. State and explain Law of conservation of mass
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products
Eg. C + O2 → CO2
12g 32 g 44 g
Total mass of reactants = 12+32=44 g Total mass of products =44 g
2. State and explain Law of definite proportion.
A chemical compound always contains the same elements combined together in the same
proportion by mass.
Example:- Carbon dioxide can be obtained by many methods.
Its formula → CO2 Mass ratio→ 12:32 Simple ratio →3:8
3. State and explain Law of multiple proportion .
When two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the different masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element, are in the small whole number
ratio.
Example:- Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form two compounds, water (H 2O ) and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).
More examples:- (i) CO , CO2 (ii) NO , NO2
4. State and explain Gay Lussac’s law of gaseous volume
When gaseous reactants combine to form gaseous products, there exist a simple whole number ratio
between their volumes.
Example :- H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl
Volume ratio of reactants and products → 1: 1: 2
5. Define Mole .
Mole is the amount of a substance which contain 6.022 x 10 23 particles (Avogadro’s number)
1 Mole = 22.4 L at STP (Molar volume at STP)
6. What are empirical formula and molecular formula?
Molecular formula is the actual formula of a compound.
Empirical formula is the simplest formula of a compound.
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula , Where n = 1,2,3,………
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒏=
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Examples :
EF of glucose ( C6H12O6 ) is CH2O
EF of ethane ( C2H6 ) is CH3
EF of benzene ( C6H6 ) is CH
EF of Hydrogen peroxide( H2O2 ) is HO
EF of butene ( C4H8 ) is CH2
EF of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is CO2
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EF of acetic acid [ CH3COOH ] is CH2O

EF of C6H6Cl6 is CHCl
7. What is Limiting reagent (limiting reactant) ?
The reactant that is consumed completely in a reaction is called Limiting reagent (limiting reactant ).
8. What are difference between molality and molarity
Molarity Molality
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑽(𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊) 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑾𝑨 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)

Molarity depends on temperature Molality does not depend on temperature

9. Define mole fraction.
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐧𝐁
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝑿𝐁 ) = =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐧𝐀 + 𝐧𝐁
Mole fraction is temperature independent.

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CHAPTER 2 STRUCTURE OF ATOM

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1. What are the properties of cathode rays and anode rays ?

Cathode rays : They start from cathode, and move towards anode .They travel in straight lines.
They are negatively charged particles
Anode rays : They are produced from the space between cathode and anode and move towards cathode.
They travel in straight lines. They are positively charged particles
2. Explain Rutherford’s alpha ray scattering experiment . Give its important observations and conclusions.

Observations Conclusions
1 Most of the alpha particles passed through the Most of the space in an atom is empty.
gold foil without any deflections.
2 A few alpha particles were deflected through A heavy positive centre is present at the centre
small angles . of the atom called nucleus.
3 Very few alpha particles are deflected back (1800). Nucleus is very small in size.
3. What are the postulates of Rutherford atom model?
(I) Most of the mass and all positive charge is concentrated at the centre of the atom called nucleus.
(II) Electrons are revolving around the nucleus with very high speeds.
(III) Most of the space inside the atom is empty.
4. What are the draw backs (failure) of Rutherford atom model?
(I) Failed to explain the stability of the atom.
(II) Failed to explain hydrogen spectrum.
5. What is Photoelectric effect? What are its characteristics?
When light falls on certain metals, electrons are emitted is called photoelectric effect.
(I) For the ejection of electrons, the incident light must have a minimum frequency called threshold
frequency (ν0). Corresponding minimum energy is called work function
(II) The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency of the incident radiation.
(III) The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light.
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6. Explain line spectrum of hydrogen.

The spectral series of hydrogen spectrum are
Series Spectral region n1 n2
Lyman series Ultraviolet 1 2,3,….
Balmer series Visible 2 3,4,….
Pas4chen series Infrared 3 4,5,….
Brackett series Infrared 4 5,6,……
Pfund series Infrared 5 6,7,…….
Their wave number and wavelength is determined by the Rydberg equation.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝑 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 𝟏
𝝀 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
7. What are the postulates of Bohr atom model?
(I) The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits. These orbits have
definite energies called energy shells or energy levels.
(II) As long as electrons remain in a particular orbit, it does not lose or gain energy.
(III) Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron in it moves from one orbit to other.
8. What are the merits of Bohr atom model?
(I) Bohr’s model can explain the stability of an atom.
(II) Bohr’s model can explain the atomic spectrum of hydrogen
9. What are the draw backs (Limitations) of Bohr atom model?
(I) It cannot explain de Broglie concept of dual nature of matter.
(II) It cannot explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
10. What is Dual nature of matter? Give de Broglie equation.
According to de Broglie, all microscopic particles in motion (e.g., Electron) has particle character and wave
character.
𝐡 𝐡
de Broglie equation is, 𝛌 = =
𝐦𝐯 𝐩
Wavelength ( λ) → Wave character.
Momentum (p) → Particle character.
For electron, wave character is significant. It is against Bohr model.
11. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Give its mathematical forms and its significance.
It is not possible to determine simultaneously both the position and velocity (or momentum) of a
microscopic moving particle such as electron with absolute accuracy.
𝒉
Mathematical form is ∆𝒙. ∆𝒑 ≥
𝟒𝛑
∆x = uncertainty in position. ∆p = uncertainty in momentum. h= plank’s constant =6.626 x 10 -34 Js
Significance:-This principle rules out the existence of definite paths (orbits) for moving electrons.
12. Draw the shapes of s- orbitals, p- orbitals, and d- orbitals.
S orbital – Spherical shape
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P orbitals → Dumb bell shape

d-orbitals →Double dumb bell shape

13. What are Quantum numbers? Which are four Quantum numbers? Explain each.
Quantum numbers are address of an atom.
There are four quantum numbers.
(I) Principal quantum number (n).
(II) Azimuthal or Angular momentum quantum number (l).
(III) Magnetic quantum number (m).
(IV) Spin quantum number(s)

Principal quantum number (n) The main energy level or shell in which n=1 first energy level,
the electron is located. n=2 second energy level
Average distance of the orbital or
electron from the nucleus
Azimuthal or Angular The sub shell in which electron is located For a given value of n,
momentum quantum number in a shell l = 0 to n-1
Shape of the orbital
Magnetic quantum number (m) Different orientations (orbitals) in a sub For a given value of l ,
shell m= -l …..0……..+l
Spin quantum number(s) The spin orientation of electrons (+1/2) or (-1/2)

14. Which are rules for writing electronic configuration?

(I) Aufbau principle :- In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies. 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d <5p
(II) Pauli’s exclusion principle :- It states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set
of four quantum numbers. An orbital can accommodate maximum two electrons.
(III) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
This rule states that electron pairing in orbitals of same sub shell will not takes place until each
available orbital of that sub shell is singly occupied (with parallel spin).
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N → 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1

15. Write the exceptional configuration of chromium and copper and give its reason
Chromium : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Copper : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Half filled and completely filled orbitals have more stability

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3 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

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1. State Mendeleev’s periodic law .

The properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic masses (atomic weights).
2. State Modern periodic law
The properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.
Modern periodic law is proposed by Henry Moseley.
3. Long form of periodic table (Modern periodic table)
It is based on modern periodic law. There are seven periods and 18 groups
Each group constitutes a family of elements with similar properties.
In the modern periodic table, the period indicates the value of principal quantum number (n).
There are 4 blocks in the periodic table -s-block, p-block, d-block, and f-block.
4. Blocks of periodic table

Blocks Groups General electronic Main properties

configuration
s-block 1&2 ns1-2 They form mainly ionic compounds
p-block 13 to 18 ns2np1-6 Includes metals, nonmetal and metalloids.
d-block 3 to 12 (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2 They form coloured compounds.
They shows variable oxidation states.
f-block Lanthanoids (n-2)f1-14(n-1)d0-1 ns2 Within each series properties are similar.
and Most of the actinoids are radioactive and man made
actinoids
5. What is Atomic radius? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
Atomic radius is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus of the atom to the outer
most shell of electrons.
In a period, from left to right, atomic radii decrease due to increase in nuclear charge
In a group, from top to bottom, atomic radii increase due to increase in number of shells.
6. What are isoelectronic species? Give examples. Arrange them in the increasing order of size.
Atoms and ions which contain same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species.
N3- ,O2- , F- , Na+ , Mg2+ , Al3+ (These have different nuclear charge , But contain 10
electrons each)
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3- 2- - + 2+ 3+
The order of decreasing size is N > O > F >Na > Mg > Al
Among the isoelectronic species, greater the nuclear charge , smaller the size.
7. What is Ionization energy? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated
gaseous atom is called ionization energy (ionization enthalpy).
In a period, from left to right ionization enthalpy increases due to increase in nuclear charge and
so valence electrons are more tightly held by the nucleus.
But some irregularities are observed. Beryllium has higher ionization energy than Boron due to
stable electronic configuration( 1s22s2) . Similarly nitrogen has higher ionization energy than
oxygen due to half filled stable electronic configuration ( 1s 22s22p3).
In a group, Ionization enthalpy decreases from top to bottom due to increase in atomic size.
8. What are the factors affecting ionization energy?
(i) Atomic size (ii) Nuclear charge (iii) Shielding effect or Screening effect of inner electrons
(iv) Electronic configuration.
9. What is electron gain enthalpy ( Electron affinity)? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
The amount of energy released when an electron is added to isolated gaseous atom is called electron gain
enthalpy.
X (g) + e− → X(g) − ∆H = ∆egH
In a period, from left to right electron gain enthalpy becomes more and more negative.
It is due to increase in nuclear charge.
In a group, Electron gain enthalpy decreases from top to bottom due to increase in atomic size.
10. Electron gain enthalpy of noble gases are zero or positive .Why?
Due to completely filled electronic configuration( ns2np6).
11. Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less than that of chlorine .Why?
This is due to the very small size of fluorine atom. As a result, inter electronic repulsion in the 2p sub shell
of F is more than that in the relatively larger 3p sub shell in chlorine atom.
12. What is Eectro negativity? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
Electro negativity is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards it.
Halogens have highest electro negativity in their periods.
Fluorine is the most electro negative element.
Electro negativity increases from left to right in a period due to increasing nuclear charge.
Electro negativity decreases from top to bottom in a group due to increase in atomic size.
13. What are Anomalous properties?
The first element of each group in s and p blocks differs from the rest of the elements in many properties
are called anomalous properties.
It is due to the following reasons.
(i) Small size (ii) High charge/radius ratio.(I (iii) Non availability of d orbitals.
14. What is Diagonal relationship? What are the reasons for Diagonal relationship?
First element in any group shows similarities with second element in next group. This is called diagonal
relationship.
For example, Lithium shows resemblance with Magnesium due to diagonal relationship
Beryllium resembles aluminium due to diagonal relationship.
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Reasons :- (i) similar size, (ii)similar ionization energy , ( (iii)similar

)similar charge/radius ratio

15. Notation for IUPAC nomenclature of elements

digit name abbreviation digit name abbreviation
0 nil n 5 pent p
1 un u 6 hex h
2 bi b 7 sept s
3 tri t 8 oct o
4 quad q 9 enn e
16. Write the IUPAC nomenclature of elements with atomic number from 101 , 120 , 109
101 → Unnilunium (Unu) , 120 →Unbinilium ( Ubn) , 109 →Unnilennium ( Une)
17. The atomic number of element with IUPAC name Ununbium is 112
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CHAPTER 4 CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

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1. What are the limitations of octet rule

rule?
(I) It cannot explain the formation of mole
molecules with incomplete octet (eg: BeF2 , BF3)
(II) It cannot explain the formation of molecules with expanded (super) octet (eg: PCl5, SF6)
2. What is resonance? Draw the resonance structure of ozone.
The properties of some compounds cannot be explained by single lewis structure. Such compound exist as
a combination of two or more structures. This phenomenon is called resonance. Its Characteristics are
(I) Resonance stabilizes the molecule.
(II) Resonance averages the bond characteristics as a whole.
Resonance structure of ozone are

3. The dipole moment of CO2 is zero. Why?

CO2 is linear molecule and the two equal bond dipoles are in opposite directions
and cancel each other. So the dipole moment of CO 2 is zero.
4. The dipole moment of BeF2 is zero. Why?

BeF2 is linear molecule and the two equal bond dipoles are in opposite
directions and cancel each other. So the dipole moment of BeF2 is zero.
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5. The dipole moment of H2O is not zero. Why?

Water molecule has bent structure. Two O-H bonds

nds are oriented at an
0
angle of 104.5 . The bond dipoles of two O-H
H bonds do not cancel each
other. So water molecule has net dipole moment.

6. The dipole moment of BF3 zero. Why?

BF3 has trigonal planar structure. Here the resultant of any
two bond
ond dipole is equal and opposite to third and the dipole
moments of these bonds cancel one another giving net dipole
moment equal to zero.

7. Ammonia (NH3) has higher dipole moment than NF3, even though F is more electronegative than hydrogen.
Why?
Both have pyramidal structure. The individual
dipole moments do not cancel each other. So
they have net dipole moment.

mmonia has higher dipole moment

But ammonia moment. It is due to the orbital dipole due to the lone pair is in the same
direction of three N-H bonds.
But
ut in nitrogen tri fluoride, the resultant dipole of three N
N-FF bonds is in opposite direction to the orbital
dipole of lone pair. So partially cancelled and dipole moment is low.
8. State Fajan’s rule regarding the partial covalent character of an ionic bond
bond.
Covalent character of ionic bond increases with (i) Small size of cation and large size of anion
(ii) Large charge on both the cation and anion.
Covalent character increases in the order :
(1) LiCl > NaCl > KCl (Here Lithium is small size cation)
(2) NaCl < MgCl2 < AlCl3 (Here Aluminium is small size cation)
(3) NaF < NaCl < NaBr < NaI (Here iodine is large size anion)
9. What are the main postulates of valence shell electron pai
pairr repulsion theory(VSEPR)
(I) The shape of the molecule depends on the number of valence electron pairs of the central
atom.
(II) The electron pairs repel each other. As a result, the electron pairs try to stay as far apart to
acquire a state of minimum energy or maximum stability.
(III) The repulsive interaction decreases in the order.
Lone pair-Lone
Lone pair > Lone pair
pair-Bond pair > Bond pair-Bond pair
10. Explain the shape of following molecules on the basis of VSEPR theory.
BeCl2
ometry. Bond angle 180 0
Two bond pairs around Beryllium. Linear geometry.
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BF3
rigonal planar geometry. Bond angle 120 0
Three bond pairs around Boron. Trigonal

CH4
etrahedral geometry. Bond angle 109.5 0
Four bond pairs around Carbon. Tetrahedral

PCl5
Five bond pairs around Phosphorus . Trigonal bipyramid geometry.
Bond angle 120 0 and 90 0

SF6

Six bond pairs around Sulphur. O

Octahedral geometry.
0
Bond angle 90

NH3
Nitrogen has three bond pairs and one lone pair
pair.
Bond pair-lone
lone pair repulsion is greater and bond angle is slightly
reduced from tetrahedral angle to 107 0 .
Geometry is trigonal pyramidal.
H 2O
Oxygen has
as two bond pairs and two lone pairs around it.
There are three type
pe repulsions.
Bond pair-bond pair repulsion < bond pair- lone pair repulsion < lone pair – lone
pair repulsion.
Due to these repulsions bond angle is reduced from tetrahedral angle to 104.5 0.
Geometry is bent shape
pe or inverted V shape.
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11. What are the difference between sigma bond and pi bond?
Sigma bond (σ bond) Pi bond (π bond)
Sigma bond is formed by the end to end (or axial ) Pi bond is formed by the side wise
overlap of atomic orbitals (or lateral ) overlap of atomic orbitals
This can be formed by overlap of s-s ,s-p ,p-p orbitals This can be formed mainly by overlap of p-p orbitals
Sigma bond is strong bond Pi bond is weak bond
Free rotation of atoms around sigma bond is Free rotation of atoms around pi bond is not possible
possible
Pz + Pz → sigma bond (σ) , Px + Px →pi bond (π) , Py + Py →pi bond (π)

12. What is Hybridization? Give their Characteristics

Inter mixing of atomic orbitals of same element with slightly different energies and different
shape to get orbitals of same energy and shape is called hybridisation.
13. Explain sp3 hybridisation
One s orbital + Three p orbitals → Four sp3 hybridized orbitals
Example:CH4 , Tetrahedral geometry. Bond angle is 109.50.
14. Explain sp2 hybridisation
One s orbital + Two p orbitals → Three sp2 hybridized orbitals
Example: BF3 . Trigonal planar geometry. Bond angle is 1200
15. Explain sp hybridisation
One s orbital + One p orbital → Two sp hybridized orbitals
Example: BeCl2 , Linear geometry , Bond angle is 1800
16. Explain sp3d hybridisation using PCl5 as example.
One s orbital + Three p orbitals + One d orbital → Five sp 3d hybridized orbitals
Trigonal bipyramid geometry. Bond angle is 120 0 and 90 0
17. Explain the geometry of PCl5 molecule and account for its high reactivity.
Hybridisation is sp3d . Trigonal bipyramid geometry.
There are three equatorial bonds and two axial bonds.
The axial bonds are slightly longer than equatorial bonds due to greater repulsion from equatorial bonds.
Due to different bond lengths, it is unsymmetric and highly reactive.
18. Explain sp3d2 hybridisation using SF6 as example.
One s orbital + Three p orbitals + Two d orbitals → Six sp3d2 hybridized orbitals
Octahedral geometry. Bond angle is 90 0.
19. What are the postulates of Molecular orbital theory(MOT)?
(I) Molecular orbitals are formed by the combination of atomic orbitals of same energy and
proper geometry.
(II) The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of combining atomic orbitals.
20. What are the differences between bonding molecular orbital and anti bonding molecular orbital?
BMO ABMO
BMO is formed by the addition (attraction) of ABMO is formed by the substraction (repulsion) of
atomic orbitals atomic orbitals
Its energy is less than the energy of atomic Its energy is more than the energy of atomic orbitals
orbitals
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21. Define bond order . How is bond order related to bond length and bond strength?
Bond order is defined as half of the difference between the number of electrons in the bonding molecular
orbitals and the number of electrons in the anti bonding molecular orbitals .
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ]
If the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
If the bond order is zero, molecule is unstable. Such molecule will not exist.
22. Explain the stability and magnetic property of H2 molecule (2 electrons)
Molecular orbital electronic configuration :- σ1s2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [2 - 0 ] = 1
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable. Bond order = 1 , single bond,
No unpaired electrons, diamagnetic.
23. Why He2 molecule will not exist? (4 electrons)
Molecular orbital electronic configuration :- σ 1s2 σ*1s2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [2 - 2 ] = 0
Here the bond order is zero , molecule is unstable. So it will not exist.
24. Electronic configuration of some diatomic molecules and their bond order
Molecule Electronic configuration Bond Stable/ No. of Diamagnetic/
order unstable bonds paramagnetic
Li2 σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 1 Stable 1 diamagnetic
Be2 σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 0 Unstable
B2 σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 π2px1 = π2py1 1 Stable 1 paramagnetic
C2 σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 π2px2 = π2py2 2 Stable 2 diamagnetic
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F2 σ1s σ*1s σ2s σ*2s σ2pz π2px = π2py 1 Stable 1 diamagnetic
π*2px2 = π*2py2
Ne2 σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 0 Unstable
π*2px2 = π*2py2 σ*2pz2
25. With the help of molecular orbitals , find bond order of N 2 and explain its stability(14 electrons)
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 π2px2 = π2py2 σ2pz2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 4 ] = 3
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 3 , triple bond.
Here all electrons are paired , the molecule is diamagnetic.
26. Calculate the bond order and predict the magnetic property of O 2 molecule (16 electrons)
Molecular orbital electronic configuration :-
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px1 = π*2py1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 6 ] = 2 ,
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 2 , double bond.
Here unpaired electrons are present in π*2px and π*2py , so oxygen molecule is paramagnetic.
27. What is hydrogen bond? Which are different type hydrogen bonds? Explain each
Hydrogen bond is defined as the attractive force between hydrogen atom bonded to fluorine, oxygen or
nitrogen and an electronegative atom of the same or adjacent molecule.
There are two types of hydrogen bonds
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(I) Inter molecular hydrogen bond ::- Hydrogen bond between different molecules of same type or
different type. It increases the boiling point.
e.g., H bonding in HF, …….H…….H-F……H-F…….H-F……..H-F…..
(II) Intra molecular hydrogen bond:
bond:- Hydrogen bond within the same molecule.
It decreases the boiling point.
e.g., Hydrogen bonding in Ortho nitro phenol
28. Ortho nitro phenol and para nitro phenol can be separated by steam distillation. Explain
Ortho nitro phenol →Intra molecular hydrogen bond → Boiling point is low and steam volatile.
Para nitro phenol → Inter
nter molecular hydrogen bonding →Boiling point is high and so it is not steam
volatile.
So these can be separated by steam distillation.
29. H2O is liquid ,H2S is gas at room temperature. Give reason

In water , molecules are associated by inter molecular hydrogen bonds. So it exist

exists as liquid at room
temperature.
But in hydrogen sulphide , no hydrogen bond is possible. So it exists as alone and so gas.
30. HF is liquid while HCl is gas at room temperature. Give reason
In between HF molecules, inter molecular hydrogen bonds are possible and so liquid. But not in HCl
…….H-F……H-F…….H-F……..H-F…..

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CHAPTER 6 THERMODYNAMICS
1. What are state functions and path functions? Give examples for each.
A function or property that depends only on the initial state and final state of the system and not on
the path followed is called state function.
Examples :- Temperature(T)
ure(T) , Pressure (P)
A function or property that depends on the initial state and final state of the system and on the path
followed also is called path function.
Examples:- Heat(q) , work (w)
2. What are extensive and intensive properties? Give examples for each.
(I) Extensive properties :- These are properties which depend on the amount of matter present in the
system. Examples: - Mass (m) , Volume (V) , Length (l), Internal energy (U) ,
Enthalpy (H) , Entropy (S) , Gibbs free energy (G), heat capacity etc
(II) Intensive properties:- These are properties which are independent on the amount of matter
present in the system. Examples : - Temperature ,pressure, density , refractive index , viscosity ,
surface tension , specific heat , molar heat capacity
3. Explainn (a) isothermal process (b) isobaric process (c) isochoric process (d) adiabatic process.
Types of process Explanation Condition
Isothermal process A process which takes place at constant temperature ∆T= 0
Isobaric process A process which takes place aat constant pressure ∆P= 0
Isochoric process A process which takes place at constant volume ∆V= 0
Adiabatic process A process which takes place at constant heat d q= 0
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4. What is Internal energy (U)?

Internal energy is the total energy present within a substance.
It is a state function and extensive property.
5. State First law of thermo dynamics and give its mathematical form.
It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Mathematical form is ∆U = q + w
∆U = change in internal energy, q = heat, w = work
6. Define Enthalpy (H)
Enthalpy is the heat content of the system.
Enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy and pressure volume energy .
H = U + PV
It is a state function and extensive property.
7. Give the relation connecting ∆H and ∆U.
∆H = ∆U + P ∆V OR
∆H = ∆U + ∆n RT Where ∆n= nP − nR
8. The relation connecting q p and q v is q p = q v + ∆n RT
9. What are exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give its sign of ∆H.
Exothermic reactions Endothermic reactions
The reactions which takes by the liberation of The reactions which takes by the absorption of
heat is called exothermic reactions heat is called endothermic reactions
For exothermic reactions, ∆H = −ve. For endothermic reactions, ∆H = +ve.

10. Give the relation between Cp and Cv for an ideal gas.

Cp − Cv = R
Cp → Molar heat capacity at constant pressure. C v →Molar heat capacity at constant volume.
11. Enthalpy of reaction:
∆rH = Sum of enthalpies of products − Sum of enthalpies of reactants
12. Standard enthalpy change of a reaction =
Standard enthalpies of formation of products - Standard enthalpies of formation of reactants.
13. State and illustrate Hess’s Law of Constant Heat of Summation.
It states that the enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is the same
whether the reaction takes place in one step or several steps.

∆Hr = ∆H1 +∆H2 + ∆H3

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14. What is Lattice enthalpy ?

The lattice enthalpy of an ionic compound is the enthalpy change when one mole of the ionic compound
dissociates in to its gaseous ions.
Born Haber cycle is used to calculate Lattice enthalpy.
15. Draw Born Haber cycle for the determination of lattice enthalpy.
(Construct an enthalpy diagram for the determination of lattice enthalpy of sodium chloride)

∆𝑯𝟎𝒇 = ∆𝑯𝒔𝒖𝒃 + 𝑰𝑬 + ∆𝑯𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔 + 𝑬𝑨 + 𝑼

𝑼 = ∆𝑯𝟎𝒇 − (∆𝑯𝒔𝒖𝒃 + 𝑰𝑬 + ∆𝑯𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔 + 𝑬𝑨)
16. What is spontaneous process and non spontaneous process?
Spontaneous process is a process that takes place without the help of any external agency.
E.g. Flow of water from high level to low level, flow of heat from hot body to cold body
Non spontaneous process is a process that takes place with the help of an external agency.
E.g. flow of water from low level to high level.
17. Define Entropy (S) ?
Entropy (S) is a measure of degree of disorder or randomness of the system .
18. Predict in which of the following entropy increases(∆S = +ve) entropy decreases(∆S = -ve)
(a) Melting of ice → entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(b) 2 N2O5(g) → 4 NO2(g) + O2(g) → entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(c) Condensation of steam in to water→ entropy decreases (∆S = −ve)
(d) Freezing of water in to ice→ entropy decreases (∆S = −ve)
(e) 2 NaHCO3 (s) → Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g) → entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(f) 4 Fe + O2 (g) →2 Fe2O3 (s) → entropy decreases (∆S = −ve)
19. State Second law of thermo dynamics and gives equation
It states that the entropy of the universe increases in the course of every spontaneous (natural) change.
∆Suniverse > 0
20. Define Gibb’s free energy (G)
Gibbs energy is defined as the maximum amount of available energy that can be converted to useful work.
G =H – TS
21. The relation connecting ∆G, ∆H, and ∆S is ∆G= ∆H −T ∆S.
22. Explain Gibb’s energy and spontaneity.
(i) If ∆G is negative, the process will be spontaneous.
(ii) If ∆G is zero, the process is in equilibrium.
(iii) If ∆G is positive, the process will be non spontaneous.
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CHAPTER 7 EQUILIBRIUM
================================================================

1. State Henry’s law and give its one application.

Henry’s law states that the mass of a gas dissolved in a given mass of solvent at a particular temperature is
directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solvent.
i.e., 𝒎 ∝ 𝒑 or m=kp
Example: Soda water.
2. What are reversible and irreversible reactions .
A reaction which takes place both in forward and backward directions under the same conditions is called
reversible reactions.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g)
A reaction in which the products do not react to give back the reactant is called irreversible reactions.
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
3. Explain the concept of chemical equilibrium.
At equilibrium, rate of forward reaction = rate of backward reaction
4. What are the characteristics of chemical equilibrium?
(I) Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature.
(II) Chemical equilibrium can be attained from either direction.
(III) Chemical equilibrium can be attained only in closed systems.
5. What is equilibrium constant?
Consider a general reversible reaction,𝒂𝑨 + 𝒃𝑩 ⇌ 𝒄𝑪 + 𝒅𝑫
[𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅
𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃
𝒑𝒄𝑪 𝒑𝒅𝑫
𝑲𝒑 = 𝒂
𝒑𝑨 𝒑𝒃𝑩
∆n
6. The relation between Kp and Kc is Kp = Kc (RT)
Kp = Equilibrium constant in terms of pressure. Kc = Equilibrium constant in terms of concentration.
∆n = No. of mole of gaseous products - No. of mole of gaseous reactants.
If ∆n =0 , Kp = Kc
7. What are the characteristics of equilibrium constant?
(I) The value of equilibrium constant is independent of initial concentration of reactants.
(II) For a reversible reaction, the equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction will be the reciprocal of the
equilibrium constant for the forward reaction.
8. What are the applications of equilibrium constant?
(I) Prediction of extent of reaction:- Larger the value of equilibrium constant , greater is the extent to
which the reactants are converted into the products.
If Kc > 10 3 , products predominates over the reactants.
If Kc < 10 -3 , reactants predominates over the products.
If Kc is between 10 3 and 10 -3 , appreciable concentration of reactants and products.
(II) Prediction of direction of reaction.
If Qc > Kc , the reaction will proceed in the backward direction .(in the direction of reactants)
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If Qc < Kc , the reaction will proceed in the forward direction. .(in the direction of products)
If Qc = Kc , the reaction will be in equilibrium.
9. State Le-chatelier principle.
If a system in equilibrium is subjected to change in concentration, temperature or pressure, the equilibrium
shifts in the direction that tends to reduce the effect of the change.
10. How do the effect of concentration, temperature and pressure affect of the rate of a chemical reaction?
(I) Effect of change of concentration:-
Concentration of reactants is increased→ Forward direction → More products
Concentration of the products is increased → Backward direction → More of the reactants
(II) Effect of change of temperature:-
Increase of temperature → Endothermic reaction (in the direction of absorption of heat).
Decrease of temperature → Exothermic reaction (in the direction of heat is produced).
(III) Effect of change of pressure:-
Increase of pressure will shift the equilibrium in the direction in which the pressure is reduced.
( decrease in the number of molecules).
11. Explain the effect of concentration, temperature and pressure in the following reaction.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g), ∆H = -92.4 kJ.
(I) Effect of concentration:- increase the concentration of N2 or H2 → forward direction → more NH3
(II) Effect of pressure:- Here forward reaction is accompanied by the decrease in the number of moles,
so high pressure will favour forward reaction and more NH3 is formed.
(III) Effect of temperature:- Here forward reaction is exothermic and so low temperature will favour
forward reaction. But at very low temperature, N2 and H2 will be less reactive and so optimum
temperature is used (500 0C).
12. Explain the effect of pressure in the following reactions.
(I) PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
Here forward reaction is accompanied by the increase in the number of moles, so low pressure
will favour forward reaction. High pressure will favour backward reaction.
(II) H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2 HI (g)
Here no change in number of molecules of reactants and products. So pressure has no effect.
13. Explain the effect of temperature in the following reactions.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2 NO(g), ∆H = 180 kJ.
Here forward reaction is endothermic, and hence increase in temperature will favour forward reaction.
14. Explain Arrhenius concept of acids and bases with examples
Arrhenius acid → Give hydrogen ion(H+) in aqueous solution. e.g., HCl, CH3COOH etc.
Arrhenius base → Give hydroxyl ion(OH-) in aqueous solution. e.g., NaOH, NH4OH etc.
15. Explain Bronsted Lowry concept of acids and bases with examples.
Bronsted acid → Proton(H+) donor.
Bronsted base → Proton(H+) acceptor.
CH3COOH + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO-
Acid Base Acid Base
16. What are conjugated acid base pairs with examples
Conjugated acid = Base + H+
Conjugated base = Acid − H+
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO-
Acid Base Acid Base
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Here CH3COO- is a conjugate base of acid CH3COOH .

H3O+ is a conjugate acid of base H2O
Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base
H2O H3O+ OH-
–
HCO3 H2CO3 CO3 2–
HSO4 – H2SO4 SO4 2–
+
NH3 NH4 NH2 –
17. Explain Lewis concept of acids and bases with examples.
Lewis acids → Electron pair acceptors. e.g. , BF3 , AlCl3 , Mg2+ , Co3+ , H+
Lewis bases → Electron pair donors. e.g. , NH3 , H2O , OH- , Cl-
18. What are Amphoteric substances?
Substances which can act as both acid and base. E.g., H2O , HCO3- , HSO4-
19. Define PH and calculate the PH of neutral solution.
PH is defined as negative logarithm of hydronium concentration.
PH = − log[H3O+ ]
For acidic solution PH is less than 7.
For basic solution PH is greater than 7
For neutral solution PH is 7
20. What is Buffer solution? Which are two types? Explain each
Buffer solution is a solution which resists the change in pH value by the addition of small amount of acid or
base.
Blood is an example of natural buffer.
These are two types
(I) Acidic buffer:- Its pH is less than 7. It is mixture of weak acid and its salt with strong base.
eg. , solution of acetic acid and sodium acetate.
(II) Basic buffer:- Its pH is more than 7. It is mixture of weak base and its salt with strong acid.
eg. , solution of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride.
21. Define Common ion effect and give examples.
Common ion effect is defined as the suppression of dissociation of weak electrolyte by the addition of
strong electrolyte containing common ion.
e.g. The ionisation of ammonium hydroxide is suppressed by adding ammonium chloride.
22. Define Solubility product.
Solubility product is the product of concentration of ions in saturated solution.
For AgCl salt , Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-]
For BaSO4 salt , Ksp = [Ba2+][ SO42-]
For PbCl2 salt , Ksp = [Pb2+][ Cl-]2
For Al(OH)3 salt , Ksp = [Al3+][ OH-]3
For Ca3(PO4)2 salt , Ksp = [Ca2+]3[ PO4 3- ]2
23. Give the relations connecting solubility product and solubility.
Solubility product is used to calculate solubility of sparingly soluble salts.
For AB type salt , , Ksp = S2
For AB2 type salt , , Ksp = 4 S3
For AB3 type salt , , Ksp = 27 S4
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24. What is Salt hydrolysis ? Explain.

Salt on hydrolysis with water give acidic or basic solution is called salt hydrolysis.
(i) Salt of a strong acid and weak base gives acidic solution. Examples : NH 4Cl , FeCl3 , CuSO4
(ii) Salt of a weak acid and strong base gives basic solution. Examples : CH 3COONa ,Na2CO3 , KCN
(iii) Salt of a strong acid and strong base gives neutral solution. Examples : NaCl, NaNO 3 , KCl

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UNIT 8 REDOX REACTIONS

================================================================

1. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of electronic concept

Oxidation: Removal of electrons. Zn→ Zn2+ + 2e-
Reduction: Addition of electrons. Cu2+ + 2e-→ Cu
2. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of oxidation number concept
Oxidation: Increase in oxidation number.
Reduction: Decrease in oxidation number.
-2 0 -1 0
H2S + Cl2→ 2HCl + S
Here the oxidation number of sulphur in H2S is -2, it is increased to zero (oxidation ).
Here the oxidation number of chlorine in Cl2 is 0, it is decreased to -1 (Reduction ).
H2S is reducing agent (reductant), Cl2 is oxidizing agent (oxidant).
3. Which is the substance undergoing oxidation, reduction, oxidant and reductant in the reactions.
0 +4 +2
Pb + PbO2 +2 H2 SO4 → 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O
Pb undergo oxidation , PbO2 undergo reduction, PbO2 is oxidizing agent, Pb is reducing agent.
4. Explain the different types of redox reactions with examples.
(I) Combination reactions:-A reaction in which one element combines with another
element or compound to form product is called combination reactions.
2 H2 + O2→ 2H2O
(II) Decomposition reactions:- A reaction in which a compound breaks down to form two
or more components in which one of the product should be in the elemental state.
2KClO3 →2KCl +3 O2
(III) Displacement reactions:-A reaction in which an atom or ion in a compound is replaced
by another atom or ion.
CuSO4 + Zn →Cu + ZnsO4 (metal displaces a metal)
(IV) Disproportionation reactions:-A reaction in which the same species undergo
simultaneous oxidation and reduction is called disproportionation reaction.
The element should be in the intermediate oxidation state.
-1 -2 0
H2O2 →2H2O +O2
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5. Balance the following equation using oxidation number method. Cu +NO3− → NO2+ Cu2+
(I) Write skeleton equation and assign oxidation number.
0 +5 +4 +2
Cu +NO3− → NO2+ Cu2+
(II) Find out increase and decrease of Oxidation Number and equalize Cu +2 NO3− → NO2+ Cu2+
(III) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen. Cu +2 NO3− →2 NO2+ Cu2+
(IV) Equalize the charge on both side by adding H+ ( since it is in acidic medium)
Cu +2 NO3− + 4 H+ →2 NO2+ Cu2+
(V) Balancing hydrogen atom by adding H2O and check the number of oxygen atoms.
Cu +2 NO3− + 4 H+ →2 NO2+ Cu2+ +2 H2O
6. Stock notations :- (a) Mn(IV)O2 (b) HAu(III)Cl4 (c) Fe(II)O

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CHAPTER12. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY- SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

================================================================

1. Write the IUPAC names of the following compounds :

CH3
(i) CH3 – CH2 – CH─CH – CH2 – CH3
CH2-CH3
3-Ethyl-4-methylhexane
(ii) HO─CH2─CH2─CH2-CH(CH3)─CH(CH3)─CH3
4,5-Dimethylhexan-1-ol
(iii) CH3─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH2─CH3
OH CH3
6-Methyloctan-3-ol
(iv) CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-COOH
Hex-3-en-1-oic acid
2. Give the structural formula of the following compounds:
i) 2,4,7 – Trimethyloctane
ii) 2-Chloro-4-methylpentane
iii) Pent-4-en-2-ol
iv) 6-Hydroxyheptanal
Ans:
CH3 CH3 CH3
(i) CH3─CH─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH3
(ii) CH3─CH─CH2─CH─CH3
Cl CH3
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OH
(iii) CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH– CH3
(iv) CH3─CH─CH2─CH2─CH2─CH2─CHO
OH
3. What is Structural isomerism? Which are four types of structural isomerism ?
Structural isomers have same molecular formula but different structural formula.
(i) Chain isomerism : They have same molecular formula but different carbon chains.

They have molecular formula C5H12

(ii) Position isomerism : They have same molecular formula but differ in the position of functional
group.
OH
(a) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2OH , CH3 CH2 CHCH3 Molecular formula : C4H10O
Butan-1-ol Butan-2-ol
(iii) Functional group isomerism : They have same molecular formula but different functional groups.
(a) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2OH CH3 CH2O CH2 CH3 Molecular formula : C4H10O
(iv) Metamerism : It arises due to different alkyl groups on either side of the same functional group.
CH3 CH2O CH2CH3 , CH3 OCH2CH2 CH3
Molecular formula : C4H10O
4. Fission of a covalent bond
Homolysis or homolytic
molytic cleavage Heterolysis or heterolytic cleavage
Covalent bond breaks in such a way that , Covalent bond breaks in such a way that the
each of the bonded atom gives one electron shared pair of electrons remains with one of
each. the parts.
Free radicals are produced by homolysis Carbo cations (carbonium ions) and
carbanions are produced by heterolysis
5. Which are reaction intermediates? Explain each
(i) Carbo
arbo cations (carbonium ion)
ion): The groups containing
ng positively charged carbon is called carbocation.
Carbocation is trigonal planar and sp2 hybridised.
The stability order is 10 < 20 <30

(ii) Carbanions: The groups containing negatively charged carbon is called carbanion. It is sp3 hybridised.
The stability order is 30 <20 < 10
(CH3)3C- < (CH3)2CH CH- < CH3CH2- < CH3-
(iii) Free radicals: The groups containing unpaired electron. The stability order is 10 <20 <30
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6. What are nucleophiles and electrophiles ? Give examples for each.

Nucleophiles:- Nucleus loving species. A reagent that brings an electron pair is called nucleophile.
Eg: OH- , Cl- , CN- , RCOO- , carbanions (negative ions) , NH 3 , H2O (molecules having lone pair)
Electrophiles:- Electron loving species. A reagent that takes away an electron pair is called an
electrophile. Eg:- H+ , Cl+ , carbocations (positive ions), BF3, AlCl3 (electron deficient molecules)
7. Explain the different types of electron displacement effects in covalent bonds.
(I) Inductive effect:-
It is the permanent polarization of a sigma bond due to the presence of polar group.
It is a permanent effect.

(II) Electromeric effect:-

It is a temporary effect .It is complete transfer of pi electrons of multiple bond in the presence of
attacking reagent. When attacking reagent is removed, shift back to its original condition.

(III) Resonance effect (Mesomeric effect): It is the charge produced in the molecule by the interaction of
two π- bonds or between a π- bond and lone pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom.

(IV) Hyper conjugation: It is a permanent effect.

Here the sigma electrons of C-HH bond of alkyl group enter in to partial conjugation with the unsaturated
system or with the unshared p orbital.
The hyper conjugative
jugative structures of ethyl carbocations are

8. Purification techniques:
Purification When it is used Examples
techniques
Sublimation It is used to separate sublimable Naphthalene, iodine, camphor
compounds from non sublimable
impurities
Crystallisation It is based on the difference in the A mixture of benzoic acid and
solubilities of the compound and the naphthalene can be separated
impurities in a suitable solvent. from hot water in which benzoic
acid dissolves but naphthalene
does not
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Distillation To separate (1) volatile liquids from Chloroform (bp. 334K) and
non volatile impurities (2)the liquids Aniline(bp. 457 K)
having sufficient difference in their
boiling points
Fractional distillation To separate liquids having close Crude oil, toluene and
boiling points cyclohexane, ethanol and water
Distillation under reduced To purify liquids which decompose at Glycerol can be separated from
pressure or below its boiling points spent lye.
Steam distillation To separate substances which are Aniline water mixture
steam volatile and are immiscible with
water
Differential extraction When an organic compound is present
in aqueous solution, it is separated by Benzoic acid from water is
shaking it with an organic solvent in extracted by using benzene
which it is more soluble than in water
9. Which are different types of chromatography?
(I) Adsorption chromatography (II) Partition chromatography ( Paper chromatography).
10. Name two types of chromatographic techniques based on adsorption.
(I) Column chromatography
(II) Thin layer chromatography
11. How will you detect the presence of carbon and hydrogen in an organic compound?
Organic compound is heated with cupric oxide. Carbon is converted to carbon dioxide which turns lime
water milky. Hydrogen is converted to water which turns anhydrous copper sulphate to blue.
12. Detection of nitrogen, sulphur and halogen: Lassaigne’ s test
It is done using sodium fusion extract (Lassaigne’ s extract) .
It is prepared by heating organic compound with sodium in a fusion tube. When red hot, it is plunged in
to water taken in a china dish. The solution is boiled and filtered. Filtrate is called sodium fusion extract
(Lassaigne’ s extract) .
No. Experiment Observation Inference
1 Extract is treated with ferrous sulphate Prussian blue colour Presence of nitrogen
and concentrated sulphuric acid
2 To extract sodium nitro prusside is Violet colour Presence of sulphur
added
3. To extract nitric acid and silver nitrate White precipitate (AgCl) Presence of chlorine
is added Pale yellow (AgBr) precipitate Presence of bromine

Yellow precipitate(AgI) Presence of iodine

13. Ferriferrocyanide, Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3:- The blue coloured compound in the Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen.
14. In the Lassaigne’s test for halogen, they are precipitated as silver halide( AgX )
15. Explain Leibig’s method for the estimation of carbon and hydrogen.
Organic compound is heated with copper (II) oxide, carbon is converted to carbon dioxide and
hydrogen to water. From the weight of carbon dioxide, percentage of carbon is calculated. .
From the weight of water, the percentage of hydrogen can be calculated .
16. Explain different methods for the estimation nitrogen in an organic compound.
(I) Dumas method : Nitrogen containing organic compound is converted to molecular nitrogen (N 2) .
From the volume of nitrogen gas collected, we can determine the percentage of nitrogen.
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(II) Kjeldahl’s method : Organic compound containing nitrogen is converted to ammonia gas. From the
volume of ammonia gas collected, we can determine the percentage of nitrogen.
17. Estimation of halogen : Carius method:- Halogen containing organic compound is heated with nitric
acid and silver nitrate. Halogen is precipitated as silver halide (AgX).
From the weight of silver halide, we can determine the percentage of halogen.
18. Estimation of sulphur :Carius method:
Sulphur is precipitated as barium sulphate (BaSO4) by adding barium chloride.
From the weight of BaSO4, we can determine the percentage of sulphur .

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CHAPTER 13 HYDROCARBONS
================================================================

1. How will you prepare alkanes?

(I) By Wurtz reaction : Alkyl halides react with metallic sodium in dry ether to form alkanes with even
number of carbon atoms. This reaction is known as wurtz reaction
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑹 − 𝑿 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑿 − 𝑹 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑹 − 𝑹 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑿

𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓
Bromo methane Ethane
(II) By decarboxylation of sodium salt of carboxylic acid with soda lime, one carbon less alkane is
formed. Soda lime is a mixture of caustic soda (NaOH)and quick lime(CaO).
𝑪𝒂𝑶 , 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑹𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑹𝑯 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
When sodium acetate (sodium ethanoate) is heated with soda lime, methane is formed.
𝑪𝒂𝑶 , 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
2. What is isomerisation ? Give example
Normal alkanes on heating with anhydrous aluminium chlorideand HCl, branched chain alkanes are formed
is called isomerisation.
𝑨𝒏𝒉𝒚.𝑨𝒍𝑪𝒍𝟑 /𝑯𝑪𝒍
CH3 (CH2)4CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3 – CH - CH2 - CH2 -CH3 + CH3 - CH2 – CH - CH2 -CH3
CH3 CH3
n- Hexane 2- methyl pentane 3- methyl pentane
3. Explain aromatization or reforming with example.

Normal alkanes having six or more carbon atoms on

heating at high temperature and pressure in the
presence of catalyst like chromium oxide, benzene and
its homologues are formed.
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4. What are different types of conformations of ethane? Compare their stability.

Sawhorse projections of ethane Newman projections of ethane

Ethane has staggered ,eclipsed and skew conformations.

Staggered conformation is more stable. This is because hydrogen atoms of two carbon atoms are at
maximum distance and repulsion is minimum and stability is maximum.
5. How will you prepare alkenes?
𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑿 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐
6. What is meant by geometrical isomerism?
The isomerism arises due to restricted rotation about carbon- carbon double bond is called
geometrical isomerism.
For geometrical isomerism, the groups attached to each carbon must be different.
If the same group same side is called cis isomer.
If the same group opposite side is called trans isomer.
Cis isomer is more polar.
Trans isomer is more stable
7. Draw the geometrical isomers of 2-butene

8. State and explain Markownikkoff’s rule

Markownikkoff’s rule :- It states that “ when unsymmetrical reagent is added to unsymmetric alkene,
the negative part of the addendum (adding molecule) gets attached to the carbon containing lesser
number of hydrogen atoms.
When HBr is added to 1-propene, the major product is 2-bromopropane
Br
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓
1- propene 2- bromopropane (Major) 1-bromopropane (Minor)

9. What is peroxide effect or kharasch effect or anti markownikkoff’s rule? Give an example.
In the presence of organic peroxides, addition of HBr to unsymmetric alkene takes place
against Markwnikkoff’s rule. Only HBr shows peroxide effect.
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𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓

1-Bromo propane (Major product )

10. What is Ozonolysis ?

Alkenes react with ozone molecule give ozonide which on reduction with zinc dust and water give
aldehydes and ketones .
𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝑶
1-propene Ethanal Methanal
O O
11. Give the preparation of acetylene (ethyne)
From calcium carbide.:- Calcium carbide on treatment with water gives acetylene(ethyne)
𝑪𝒂𝑪𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐
12. How will you convert s acetylene to benzene?

When acetylene (ethyne) is passed through red

hot iron tube, benzene is formed.

13. 1-alkynes are acidic. Give reason. Give example

In 1-alkynes,triple bonded carbon is ‘sp’ hybridized state. It is more electronegative due to 50 % s
character. Hence carbon can attract the shared electron pair of C-H bond. So hydrogen can release as
proton. So 1-alkynes are acidic.
Examples: 1-alkynes react with active metals gives hydrogen gas.
14. Explain the structure of benzene.
(i) The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 .
(ii) Kekule structure of benzene is

(iii) Even though benzene contain three double bonds, benzene is stable.
In benzene, each carbon is in sp2 hybridised state. Each carbon has one unhybridised p orbital.
So continuous overlap is possible. So pi electrons are delocalized. These delocalized pi electrons
are responsible for the stability of benzene.
15. State huckel’s rule aromaticity.
A cyclic , conjugated , planar system is aromatic if it contains (4n +2) pi electrons in the ring.
Where n = 1,2,3 etc
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Benzene Cyclopentadienyl anion Cyclohepta trienyl cation

These are planar molecules, complete delocalization ooff pi electrons in the ring is possible,
Huckel rule obeys. So these are aromatic. 4n +2 = 6 (here n=1)
16. With the help of huckel’s explain 1,4
1,4- hexadiene and 1,3-butadiene
butadiene are not aromatic.

1,3-butadiene
No. of pi electrons = 4 (2 π bonds x 2 e -1 )

4n +2 = 4 ( n = 0.5) Hence the value of n is 0.5. So it does not obey Huckel rule and is not aromatic.

17. Naphthalene is aromatic. Explain using Huckel rule.

Naphthalene is planar, complete delocalizatio

delocalization
n of pi electrons are possible.
-1
No. of pi electrons = 10 (5 π bonds x 2 e ) 4n +2 = 10 ( n = 2)
Hence the value of n is 2. So it obeys Huckel rule and is aromatic.
18. How will you prepare benzene ?
(I) From Phenol :- When phenol is heated with zinc dust benzene is formed

(II) From sodium benzoate ::-

Benzene is formed by the decarboxylation of sodium benzoate with soda lime.

19. Electrophilic substitution reaction :--

(i) Nitration: Benzene is converted to nitrobenzene in the presence of nitrating mixture(Mixture of
concentrated nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid)
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(ii) Friedel –Craft alkylation (Benzene to Toluene) :-

(iii) Fridel-Craft acylation ( Benzene to Aceto phenone)

20. What happens when excess chlorine is added to benzene in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride?

Hexachlorobenzene (C6Cl6 ) is formed.

21. How will you convert benzene to cyclohexane?

Benzene add three molecule of hydrogen give cyclohexane.

22. What is Gammexane or BHC ? Give its preparation.

Under ultra violet light, three chlorine molecule is added to benzene to produce benzene hexa chloride
( C6 H6Cl6) . It is known as gammexane (BHC) . It is used as an insecticide.

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM