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Sustainability in modular design and construction: a case study of ‘The Stack’

Article in International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development · October 2014
DOI: 10.1080/2093761X.2014.985758

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Sustainability in modular design and construction: a

case study of ‘The Stack’
a b
Yong Han Ahn & Kyoon-Tai Kim
a
School of Architecture & Architectural Engineering, Hanyang University ERICA, Ansan,
Republic of Korea
b
Construction Management & Economy Research Division, Korea Institute of Construction
Technology, Gyeonggi–Do, Republic of Korea
Published online: 06 Jan 2014.

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To cite this article: Yong Han Ahn & Kyoon-Tai Kim (2014) Sustainability in modular design and construction: a case study
of ‘The Stack’, International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development, 5:4, 250-259, DOI:
10.1080/2093761X.2014.985758

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 International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development, 2014
Vol. 5, No. 4, 250–259, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2093761X.2014.985758

Sustainability in modular design and construction: a case study of ‘The Stack’

Yong Han Ahna* and Kyoon-Tai Kimb
a
School of Architecture & Architectural Engineering, Hanyang University ERICA, Ansan, Republic of Korea; bConstruction
Management & Economy Research Division, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Gyeonggi – Do, Republic of Korea
(Received 4 November 2014; accepted 4 November 2014)

The goals of sustainability are to meet people’s basic needs and improve their quality of life while simultaneously ensuring
that the natural systems, resources, and diversity upon which they depend are maintained and enhanced, both today and for
future generations. Construction activities over a facility’s life cycle are also connected with the broader problems and issues
affecting the environment, including global warming, climate change, pollution and the depletion of valuable resources.
Built facilities significantly impact human health, comfort, and productivity. Modular building is becoming increasingly
popular in many countries due to its many benefits, including greater construction efficiency and productivity.
This study investigated how modular building can support sustainability goals in the built environment via a deep case study
of ‘The Stack’, a recently completed modular rental housing block in New York City. The building’s architect and
manufacturer were interviewed for the case study and the design, manufacturing and construction process analysed to
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examine how modular processes can contribute to achieving the goals of sustainability. The ultimate goal of this study is to
improve the processes involved in modular construction to help all stakeholders to achieve the goals of sustainability.
Keywords: modular design; modular fabrication; modular construction; sustainability; case study

Introduction weather conditions and relatively low profit margins.

The construction industry is one of the largest contributors To achieve sustainability and improve construction quality
to pollution and waste when a building’s entire life cycle is while simultaneously fulfilling the occupants’ need for
taken into account [1,2]. In the US, activities such as affordability, comfort, and flexibility, modular construc-
developing, maintaining and operating facilities in the built tion, where much of the work is completed off-site in a
environment are responsible for 17% of fresh water controlled factory environment and the resulting modules
withdrawals; 40% of the energy, 72% of the electricity and transported to the site for the final assembly, promises to be
50% of the fossil fuels consumed; 30 – 50% of the total a revolutionary new and innovative approach that will
waste generation; and 39% of all CO2 emissions [3 –5]. provide high value and quality for every part of the useful
Sustainability in the built environment is therefore rapidly lifespan of the building [8]. Modular construction offers
becoming a serious consideration in the construction many benefits compared to conventional construction
industry due to the widespread recognition of the many approaches including: 1) shorter overall project schedules,
negative environmental issues and problems associated 2) better product quality, 3) less need for skilled workers on
with its operations [2,6,7]. The concept of sustainability the site, 4) a reduction in the negative environmental impact
encompasses a wide range of goals, enabling people to caused by construction activities, 5) better onsite safety,
meet their basic needs and improve their quality of life, and 6) a reduction in overall construction costs [9 –12].
while at the same time ensuring that the natural systems, Reports in the literature clearly demonstrate that modular
resources, and diversity upon which they depend are construction can help the industry to achieve the goals of
maintained and enhanced, both for their benefit and for that sustainability alongside the many benefits listed above.
of future generations [2]. One of the best ways to achieve The purpose of this study is to examine how modular
sustainability is to implement sustainable design and construction can achieve the goals of sustainability by
construction practices such as energy efficient design and improving the efficient use of resources, boosting product
the reduction of construction waste throughout the quality, reducing the project duration, and lowering overall
building’s life cycle. Current practices in construction are construction costs. A case study of ‘The Stack’ building in
very labour intensive, with low productivity rates New York City is included as a practical example. The
compared to other industries, and are surrounded by study findings confirm that modular construction can
significant risks associated with the market, site and indeed improve the triple bottom line of sustainability.

*Corresponding author. Email: yhahn@hanyang.ac.kr

q 2014 Taylor & Francis
 International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development 251

Background study/literature review boosting economic profits [2]. The underlying purpose of
To establish the background for this study, a literature sustainable practices is to protect and preserve land and
review was carried out to examine the current status of sites, enhance indoor environmental quality, reduce the
sustainability in the construction industry. The literature environmental impacts of materials, reduce construction
on modular building was also examined to identify waste, optimise energy performance and protect and
connections between sustainability in the built environ- conserve water [6,7,13,14]. Through implementing
ment and modular construction. sustainable practices in the built environment, it is
possible to achieve a wide range of social, environmental
and economic benefits, as shown in Table 1 [2,7,15].
By implementing sustainable practices, the construc-
Sustainability in the built environment
tion industry can meet the overall definition of sustain-
Construction activities, including developing, maintaining ability: ‘Meeting the needs of the present without
and operating facilities in the built environment, are major compromising the ability of future generations to meet
consumers of the nation’s fresh water, energy, electricity their own needs’ [16].
and fossil fuels as well as being responsible for creating a
significant fraction of its waste and CO2 emissions [3 –5].
Overall, the construction industry is one of the largest Modular construction
contributors to pollution and waste throughout the
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The term modularisation refers to construction processes

building life cycle, from the initial design phase through
that the industry has used for centuries, although this
construction and occupation to its final demolition [1,2].
approach has gained momentum as a result of the rise of
Construction makes a significant contribution to our
Building Information Modelling (BIM) and the increased
society and its economic prosperity. The implementation
popularity of green building techniques [17]. In this study,
of sustainable practice in all activities in the built
a ‘modular building’ is composed of a number of factory-
environment can thus have a major impact on efforts to
built volumetric units which are transported to the site on a
achieve the ‘three pillars of sustainability’ (the so-called
flatbed trailer and joined together at the job site to create a
Triple Bottom Line) that make up the three parts of the
larger structure [18]. The primary advantages of this
framework: social, environmental and financial.
modular building approach are:
In construction, sustainable practices can play a significant
role in mitigating the environmental problems associated . Economies of scale in manufacturing multiple
with construction activities while at the same time repeated units
contributing to a higher quality of life for clients and . Improved construction efficiency and productivity

Table 1. Environmental, social, and economic benefits.

Environmental Benefits Social Benefits Economic Benefits

† Protecting air, water, land ecosystems † Improving the quality of life for † Improving economic growth
individuals and society as a whole
† Conserving natural resources (fossil fuels) † Alleviating poverty † Reducing energy consumption
and costs
† Preserving animal species and genetic diversity † Satisfying human needs † Raising real income
† Protecting the biosphere † Incorporating cultural data † Improving productivity
into development
† Using renewable natural resources † Optimising social benefits † Lowering infrastructure costs
† Minimising waste production or disposal † Improving health, comfort, † Decreasing environmental
and well-being damage costs
† Minimising CO2 emissions and other pollutants † Having concern for † Reducing water consumption
inter-generational equity and costs
† Maintaining essential ecological † Minimising cultural disruption † Decreasing health costs
processes and life support systems
† Pursuing active recycling † Providing education services † Decreasing absenteeism in
organisations
† Maintaining the integrity of the environment † Promoting harmony among † Improving the Return on
human beings and between Investment (ROI)
humanity and nature
† Preventing global warming † Understanding the importance of social
and cultural capital
† Understanding multidisciplinary
communities
 252 Y.H. Ahn and K.-T. Kim

. Improved quality and accuracy in manufacture depth semi-structured interviews with representatives
. Reductions in both costs and budgets from the architecture firm responsible for the project
. Improvements in construction workers’ safety (architect & CM) and the module manufacturer.
. Greener building methods and reduced waste (lower The authors developed an interview guide that listed the
job-site environmental impacts) [17,19,20]. questions and topics to be covered during the interview.
These questions covered the overall goals of the project;
Modular buildings are also relatively easy to dismantle
the relationships among stakeholders; the modular design,
and reuse, thereby maintaining their asset values and
manufacture, and assembly processes; the challenges
preserving the planet’s overall resources [19].
associated with these processes; and sustainability
practices and modularisation. The resulting case study of
‘The Stack’ in New York City, presented below, illustrates
Sustainability and modular construction how building modularisation can help achieve the goals of
Although sustainability is not yet a major driver for the sustainability in the built environment.
adoption of modularisation techniques [17], modular
building inherently achieves the goals of sustainability in
the built environment (Table 2). Case study of ‘The Stack’
According to a report by McGraw-Hill, 72% of Project description
contractors surveyed believe that using modularisation
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The Stack project is located in Inwood, New York City,

shortens project schedules by more than a week, with over NY. The Stack is the first of New York City’s affordable
one third (37%) believing that usage can cut schedules by buildings to utilise the modular building approach. The
more than four weeks. In addition, 74% of the contractors project was developed by Jeffrey Brown of Brown Hill
surveyed believe that modularisation can help decrease Development, Huntingdon, PA, and Kim Frank, the owner
project budgets and 37% believe that this process improves of the real estate finance company MCA, working with a
site safety. Finally, more than 83% of the contractors design team and construction manager from the architec-
surveyed believe that modularisation reduces onsite waste ture firm Gluck þ and the module manufacturer Deluxe
and 66% also believe that modularisation reduces the Building Systems in Berwick, PA (Figure 1). The Stack is
amount of materials used on a project [17]. The evidence composed of 28 housing units (6 studios, 6 one-bedroom,
published in the literature thus confirms that modularisa- 14 two-bedroom and 2 three-bedroom units), with retail
tion does indeed contribute to efforts to achieve the goals of spaces on the first floor. In total, the building is 37,710 sq.ft,
sustainability during the building construction phase. which includes 26,138 sq.ft of modular spaces assembled in
In addition, concepts such as BIM and Lean Construction the form of 56 modules. The Stack is a mixed residential
also support the benefits of modularisation for construction development that provides 22 rental housing units and 6
stakeholders by facilitating the building process [1,17,20]. affordable housing units for low- and medium-income
citizens, allocated via a lottery. The new building addresses
New York City’s severe lack of affordable housing units, as
Research methods and objectives the price of housing in the city continues its dramatic rise.
The primary objective of this study was to determine
whether the modularisation of buildings can play a role in
achieving the goals of sustainability. To achieve this Modular design process
objective, a qualitative research method was adopted that One of the first steps in the building procurement process
utilised the case study research method via a series of in- is to choose a project delivery system, which is the system

Table 2. Sustainability and modularisation.

Triple Bottom Line Benefits Modular Building Processes

Economic † Increased efficiency and productivity † Manufactured in a controlled space (Over 60%)
† Compressed project schedules † Modules assembled at the site
† Reduced construction costs † Reduced requirement for on-site material storage
† Improved product quality † Option to disassemble modules and re-use them
Social † Increased worker safety (fewer accidents) † Work with all stakeholders
† Healthier lifestyle for workers † Stream construction process
Environmental † Reduced construction wastes
† Reduced air and water pollution, dust
and noise, and overall energy costs
† Reduction in quantity of materials
† Reduction in site disturbances
 International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development 253

• Owner/Developer: Jeffery Brown and Kim Frank

• Designer/Construction Manager: Gluck +
• General Contractor: Jeffrey M Brown and
Associates

• Manufacturer: Deluxe Building Systems

• Building square Footage: 37,710 Sq. Ft
• Modular Square Footage: 21,160 Sq. Ft
• Housing Unit Mix (Monthly Charge)

o Studio (6): 484 Sq. Ft ($1755)

o One Br (6): 682 Sq. Ft ($2400)
o Two Br (14): 875 Sq. Ft ($2850)
o Three Br (2): 1160 Sq. Ft ($3990)

Figure 1. Project description of The Stack in New York. (Courtesy of Gluck þ )

used by an owner to organise the design, manufacturing, modular manufacturer in Pennsylvania, at the design stage.
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and construction services for a building. As a modular The major criteria for selecting the modular manufacturer
building, the procurement process for The Stack was was their experience with steel modular manufacturing,
different from that for conventional custom-design and their specialisation and expertise in modular engineering,
construction projects. Developers Jeffrey Brown and Kim their financial strength, the location of the manufacturing
Frank hired the innovative architecture firm Gluck þ to facility, and references from other design and development
deliver this project using a modular building approach, firms. Since Deluxe Building Systems was selected at a
seizing the opportunity to create an existing design for relatively late stage of the design process, the collaboration
living while enjoying the benefits and efficiencies of between architects, clients, and modular manufacturer was
controlled, offsite fabrication. The Stack is designed with necessarily limited, but once they joined the project team,
both elegance and durability in mind. The residential units Deluxe collaborated with the design team in pricing the
feature stained concrete floors, high performance alu- manufacturing process, value engineering, logistics
minium windows and tenant-controlled heat and air between the plant and the job site, any structural and
conditioning. Kitchens are equipped with solid surface engineering issues involved in the modular construction,
Corian countertops with under-mounted stainless steel prototyping/mock-ups, construction documents, shop
sinks, maple cabinetry with stainless steel pulls, GE drawings, lean approaches for fabrication, material
stainless steel appliances and WaterSense fixtures, while procurement, and module erection. Gluck þ and Deluxe
the bathrooms offer contemporary vanities with storage and adopted the modular system shown below in Figure 2.
mosaic tiled walls. In addition, all residents have access to a
common outdoor terrace; 10 of the units have additional
private terrace space. Upon entering The Stack, residents The modular manufacturing process
are greeted by a ‘virtual doorman’ to ensure safety. When All the project stakeholders, consisting primarily of the
developing the overall design for The Stack, the developers architects, engineers and module manufacturer, collabo-
and Gluck þ collaborated with Deluxe Building Systems, a rated in the design of The Stack. In addition, Deluxe

• Structural steel frame – point load system

• Light gauge infill framing
• 4.5” composite concrete floor deck
• Structural columns that are typically
buried within the wall framing

Figure 2. The modular system at The Stack. (Image source: Deluxe Building Systems)
 254 Y.H. Ahn and K.-T. Kim

Figure 3. Steel slab frame and poured concrete on the slab form. (Courtesy of Deluxe Building System)

Building Systems developed shop drawing packages for laser and water jet (Figure 4). Bending was performed by
the manufacture of the modules for the 28 residential units hammering with press brakes and similar tools. The steel
at their factory in Pennsylvania. The shop drawing chassis was assembled by manual and robot welding
packages included the details for each part being produced (Figure 4). Since the metal fabrication was completed at
and a bill of materials for the project. Deluxe Building the factory with efficient tools and expert welders, it was
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Systems also adopted lean fabrication practices to improve possible to increase the process efficiency and reduce steel
the module production efficiency and reduce potential waste.
waste during production. The production began with The internal walls were assembled using cold-formed
framing a steel slab frame with a metal deck (Figure 3). steel (CFS) made by rolling or pressing the correct gauge of
Since the concrete slab was poured at the factory, it was sheet steel. CFS walls in the module were created by
possible to eliminate much of the construction waste working the sheet steel using stamping, rolling, or presses to
normally created in conventional construction methods. deform the sheet into a usable product. Figure 5 shows the
The cured concrete slabs were stacked at the yard ready to cutting and rolling process using a CNC cutting machine and
install in the steel chassis of each module when needed. cold-formed steel channel forming machine. Using those
The members of each module’s steel chassis were cut tools can significantly improve the production efficiency
via computer numerical control (CNC) cutters using a compared to those available for field production. The more

Figure 4. Cutting and assembling a steel chassis. (Image sources: Deluxe Building Systems)

Figure 5. Cold-formed steel wall manufacturing. (Image sources: Deluxe Building Systems)
 International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development 255

precise cutting and forming procedures made possible by fitted on the wall and ceiling. In addition, Heating,
these precision tools also reduces construction waste. Ventilation, Air Conditioning (HVAC) ducts and sprinklers
Gypsum board was cut by an automatic gypsum board and fire-extinguisher pipes were installed before the drywall
cutting machine (Figure 6). The pre-cut gypsum board was was installed on the other side of the CFS walls.
nailed to the cold-formed steel walls using the fully Once all the module’s walls were assembled, windows
automatic drywall board manufacturing machine shown in and doors were installed and crew members completed the
Figure 6. These tools significantly improved production interior finishes and installed the cabinets, fixtures
efficiency, with minimal waste due to precise cutting and and appliances (Figure 8). The crew members also tiled
nailing. As these procedures were all conducted inside a the bathroom at this point (Figure 9). Once the inspector
factory building, there was also no danger that the gypsum had inspected the quality and signed off on each module,
board would suffer from water damage due to exposure to the certified third party issued the complete certification.
the elements, which is often a problem on conventional After passing this inspection, the module was ready for
building sites. delivery to the job site. Note that it was deemed vital to
The preassembled walls were assembled into the provide temporary weatherproofing for each module at this
structural chassis using a crane (Figure 7), after which point since it would be exposed to weather for the first time
insulation, plumbing pipes and electricity conducts were during transportation.
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Figure 6. Drywall board manufacturing and installation machines. (Image sources: Deluxe Building Systems)

Figure 7. Assembling walls and HVAC ducts. (Image sources: Deluxe Building Systems)

Figure 8. Window and cabinet installation in a module. (Image sources: Deluxe Building Systems)
 256 Y.H. Ahn and K.-T. Kim

Figure 9. Tiling a bathroom and weatherproofing the module for transport. (Image sources: Deluxe Building Systems)

The modular construction process to eliminate ‘muda’, the Japanese word for waste, i.e. any
A modular construction process starts in the same way as a activity that wastes time and effort. Once they arrived at the
conventional construction project with digging the job site, the modules were assembled by a crane and
foundation of the new building (Figure 10). In general, experienced crews who were highly qualified in module
erection. All modules were lifted directly from the flatbed
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conventional construction methods are utilised up to the

first floor slab construction, which provides a base for trailer into their final location. The use of highly skilled and
laying the first floor modules (Figure 10). specialised work crews significantly reduced errors and
Once the first floor slab is ready, the modules are mistakes in the module assembly process and achieved a
transported from the factory to the jobsite for module very tight tolerance in modular construction. For The Stack
erection. In this project, the modules were manufactured project, the crew assembled the 56 modules into a 7-storey
at Deluxe Building Systems’ factory in Berwick, PA, building within 19 days. This could have been reduced to
and then transported to the job site in (Figure 11). The 10 days if government regulations had allowed more
transportation of the modules was crucial for the efficiency modules to be delivered each day; there was a government-
of the module assembly and erection procedure at the job imposed limit for the delivery of modules to the job site as
site as continuous erection processes were implemented. part of the city’s effort to reduce traffic congestion.
Deluxe Building Systems adopted a lean concept for just in Once all modules had been erected to create the
time delivery and production that allowed the project team main building structure, only minimal field finishing was

Figure 10. Conventional construction for the foundation and first floor slab. (Image sources: Deluxe Building Systems)

Figure 11. Module transportation and installation. (Image sources: Deluxe Building Systems)
 International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development 257

required. Applying as much of the finishes as possible in First, the first pillar of the triple bottom line is
the factory ensured a high value-to-volume ratio and economic prosperity. The Stack’s shorter project duration,
maximised the financial benefits of modular construction, 30% faster than a conventional construction project would
but some field work was still required in order to cover have been, was achieved due to modularisation and off-
the interfaces between the modules and the mate-lines. site construction. This reduction in the construction period
In The Stack, the following tasks were required to due to high efficiency and productivity contributes to the
complete the modules (Figure 12): economic pillar of sustainability via the cost savings from
the project’s indirect and financing costs. In addition, as
. HVAC systems
the modules were manufactured at the factory, it was
. Plumbing and sprinklers
possible to improve worker efficiency via easier access to
. Electrical connections
tools, fewer material deliveries, and better sequencing of
. Mate wall carpentry and drywall trim out
crews. Since over 50% of the project was completed in the
. Floor finishes across the mate line
factory, this supported the provision of high quality
. Corridor and common areas completion
housing units to the occupants that will considerably
. Exterior skin.
reduce the energy consumption of each unit over the
After the 56 units were stacked, the facade was operational phase of the building’s life. This reduction in
installed. Workers also made the horizontal and vertical energy consumption will reduce both occupants’ energy
connections and set up the mechanical and electrical bills and the carbon emissions from energy consumption.
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systems; the modules arrived on the site already equipped The second pillar of sustainability is social sustain-
with kitchen appliances and tubs, showers and toilets in ability. The use of modular construction enhances worker
the bathrooms. Since many of the work tasks had been safety by reducing their exposure to inclement weather,
completed at the factory, it took a little over two months to temperature extremes, and ongoing or hazardous oper-
complete the field work, including assembling the ations, while at the same time providing better working
modules, from August 2013 to the end of October 2013. conditions. Modular construction also reduces traffic
The overall project took less than a year to complete, congestion as well as noise and dust at the job site, both of
including the conventional construction of the foundation which will reduce conflicts with local residents. As some
and first floor and all the field work after the module of the housing units were assigned to low- and medium-
assembly. income residents, this addresses the need for affordable
housing in New York City.
There are many environmental benefits in a modular
Sustainability in modular buildings building. Compared to conventional building sites, The
Modular building benefits from inherent qualities and Stack minimised job-site environmental impacts because
opportunities that improve the sustainability of the of the reductions modularisation achieves in material
building project. For example, modularisation can waste, air and water pollution, dust and noise, and overall
significantly reduce the project duration by improving energy costs, although prefabrication and related technol-
the productivity and efficiency and minimising weather- ogies also entail higher transportation costs and energy
related delays, reducing carbon emissions by transporting costs at off-site locations. Two of the major benefits of
only the finished modules to the site, and minimising modularisation are to reduce construction waste and lower
material wastage, and the natural resources used in the the need for resources. Finally, when they reach the end of
building. This section looks in more detail at how The their operational lives, modular buildings can be
Stack project achieved the goals of sustainability in the dismantled and recycled in other projects, after renovation.
building’s design, manufacturing, and construction. The reduced energy consumption once occupied also

Figure 12. Finishing The Stack. (Image sources: Deluxe Building Systems)
 258 Y.H. Ahn and K.-T. Kim

inclement weather, costs, site disturbances, and energy and

carbon emissions, as well as a safer and speedier
construction process. In particular, the speedy construction
of higher quality housing units supports efforts to address
the shortage of affordable housing in big cities around the
world. The lower construction cost also reduces the
financial burden of rental housing for low- and medium-
income residents in New York City. This case study
demonstrates that modular construction can indeed help
achieve the three pillars of sustainability by improving
social, environmental, and economic properties.
In addition, modular construction also addresses the
issue of the shortage of affordable rental housing units in
New York City.
Figure 13. Exposed mass concrete. (Image source: Gluck þ)

reduces carbon emissions during the building’s oper- Funding

This paper was supported by the Korea Institute of Construction
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ational phase. The exposed mass concrete on the floor in

The Stack modules will also reduce the need for additional Technology under the Strategic Research Project (Construction
Technology Development for One-day Housing).
materials such as carpet (Figure 13).

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Conclusion
Sustainability is very important in the built environment to
preserve our environment and enable our society and
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