(EngineeringEBooks - Civil) Formwork For Concrete Struc PDF
(EngineeringEBooks - Civil) Formwork For Concrete Struc PDF
(EngineeringEBooks - Civil) Formwork For Concrete Struc PDF
Concrete Structures
Formwork for
Concrete Structures
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Foreword
Formwork is an important constituent of concrete structures, yet it has not received due a ention
in civil engineering curriculum. Very few books with limited coverage are available on this subject.
The formwork is essential for all kinds of civil engineering structures right from roads, bridges,
flyovers, building towers, tunnels, ports, je ies, drainage to sewerage system. It is a fact that cost,
quality, schedule, performance, and safety of structures depend on the quality of formwork, its
design, and management.
Dr. K.N. Jha has made an effort to write an exhaustive book covering almost all known types of
formwork from simple to complex structures. The book has become unique because of its exhaustive
coverage and use of locally available material and more importantly use of S.I. units throughout.
It is quite clear that this book has both practical and theoretical inputs. A lot of practical examples
throughout the book will ensure that the concepts are learnt properly and retained in one's memory.
The examples used in this book very much relate to the field conditions and therefore the readers
will be able to utilize it optimally. The book brings out so many untouched features and hence
deserves a generous appreciation.
The book shall be useful for students, research scholars and practicing professionals in engineering
and architecture. I recommend this valuable edition for educational institutions and professional
departments/bodies like NTs, NITs, IBC, IRC, CIDC, CPWD, PWDs, NBCC, NTPC, Railways, MES,
CWC, MCD, NDMC, BSNL, EPIL, EIL, NITHIE, CBRI, CRRI, NCCBM etc.
I am sure this book will fulfil the long cherished objectives of the engineering requirement.
(C.S. Prasad)
Foreword
Concrete construction has found wide acceptability in almost all countries of the world. The
preference of concrete construction over structural steel construction for roof structures depends
on the economy, durability, sustainability, time of completion and other factors. Based on this the
popularity of concrete structures vis-à-vis steel structures varies but it can be said without any
controversy that concrete structures are still very popular. In the case of India concrete construction
has grown by leaps and bounds in the last two decades as indicated by the national GDP growth
of about 8-9% and cement production having exceeded 200 million tonnes out of a capacity of
300 million tonnes, thus taking India to the second position in the world. The expenditure on
infrastructure in the 12th Five Year Plan is projected to be over US $ 1 trillion (approx. Rs.50,00,000
crore). This excludes the housing sector where the shortage is over 22 million housing units. All
this would mean a continuous increase in efficient use of concrete so that the projects are completed
with good quality, in short time, economically and safely and in an environment-friendly fashion
in the years to come.
Concrete technology and its applications in India have improved considerably in the last decade,
bringing high popularity to be er methods of construction viz. use of ready-mix concrete in the
urban areas, prefabricated steel reinforcement and good formwork. Cement, stone aggregates, sand
and water make good concrete as well as not-so-good concrete, sometimes leading to undesirable
problems like honeycombing, inferior surface quality and permeability to water, and durability.
While the concrete from ready mix and reinforced bars is of assured quality, the same is not true
about formwork. While formwork constitutes only around 20% of the cost of concrete the quality
and time of completion depend upon the formwork methods adopted. In high-rise construction
the cycle time for construction can be between 3 and 5 days as against 2-3 weeks with traditional
formwork methods. A great majority of contractors continue to use the traditional timber-based
systems which are improperly made causing problems such as inadequate safety during construction,
permeability to water, durability, etc. Therefore, it can be said without hesitation that formwork
technology assumes prime importance in terms of achieving high quality, fast construction, safety
and overall economy in the long term to assure durability and sustainability and aesthetic look for
the concrete surfaces.
Many contractors have now taken up the use of proprietary system formwork and modular
formwork marketed by various international and Indian companies and there is a good sign of
owners and government departments appreciating its advantages and specifying be er quality
x FOREWORD
system formwork now readily available. The only problem seems to be that the initial investment
on such formwork is a deterrent and hiring industry has yet not developed. In the smaller cities
and rural areas traditional formwork methods continue to be used and this too requires a gradual
shi to system formwork which has standard components in steel, aluminium and timber in the
form of ‘H’ beams and trusses, all of which offer more durability and overall economy due to more
number of repeated uses in many projects. De-shu ering or removal and re-fixing is very slow
due to some non-standard practices and waiting for 2-3 weeks before the forms are struck. This
practice also needs to change on the basis of technical strength and deflection considerations to be
taken to ensure more repetitive use of the same formwork components to bring in economy. The
productivity of system formwork is 7 times to 10 times more when compared to traditional formwork
in addition to the fact that the components used in a system formwork last 5-7 years bringing in
economy besides speed and safety.
Historically system formwork was introduced by Larsen & Toubro Limited in 1985 by having
a technical collaboration with Messrs. Doka of Austria to manufacture, use and sell formwork
including climbing formwork and automatic climbing formwork for cooling towers and other special
structures. Due to import restrictions some international companies could not sell their products
in India. This was at a time when Acrow system was available to some extent which was more
scaffolding than a regular system formwork. Ballies and bamboos are being used even today due
to the initial expenditure being lower and the material being lost practically in one project.
While the formwork scenario is changing and some companies like Acrow, Doka, PERI, Meva,
Paschal, FUVI Coppha, Noe, Mivan, Titan, L&T, Hünnebeck, Bridgebuilder are marketing their
products, it is necessary to enhance the knowledge of practicing engineers as well as students and
supervising technical personnel of government departments to see the subject is be er understood
and the use of formwork becomes systematic. Apart from the international books on the subject
hardly any Indian textbook is available for students and practising engineers to learn more on the
subject. It is only recently that system formwork is being exhibited in exhibitions and there is lot of
interest among practising engineers to continuously learn as has been practised all over the developed
world in exhibitions like BAUMA in Munich and INTERMAT in Paris. Hitherto concrete formwork
has not been taught properly at the universities and polytechnics and practising engineers have not
applied their mind and time to plan and engineer the formwork right in the beginning. This book
will definitely remove the void we have in India for such quality literature, especially in the area of
concrete formwork. I am certain the book will find wide acceptance and usage by engineers all over
India and the neighbourhood as it deals comprehensively with practical examples. I compliment
the author Dr. Kumar Neeraj Jha and the publishers Tata McGraw-Hill for bringing out this useful
book and wish them success as this has the potential to ensure quality concrete construction and
economic growth of India.
A. R
Former President & Deputy Managing Director
Larsen & Toubro Limited
Chennai
April 2012
Preface
It gives me great pleasure to present to you the first edition of this book. The book is the result of
my twelve years of field experience working with Larsen and Toubro Limited and seven years of
teaching under graduate and graduate students at IIT Kanpur and IIT Delhi, consulting, research,
and organizing training programs for teachers and practitioners.
Formwork is an important constituent of RC construction. It is well known that quality, safety, and
economy all are influenced tremendously by formwork, yet it has not got the treatment it deserves.
Students are hardly aware of formwork and scaffolding and the lack of knowledge makes them feel
that it is not an engineer’s job. However, the readers would realize that formwork offers maximum
opportunity of applying engineering and managerial skill. A proper formwork design coupled with
proper management can provide a great opportunity in saving in formwork.
It is with this intention that the book has been organized to present and expose the readers with
different types of formwork and scaffolding systems. In the beginning an introduction to different
aspects of formwork has been provided. Different formwork materials and their properties are
presented next. Subsequently the basics of formwork design have been presented.
Different types of formworks such as foundation, column, wall, and slab and beam formwork have
been discussed. Both the conventional and proprietary formworks are discussed. Special formwork,
Bridge formwork, flying formwork and slipform are presented next. Formwork systems presented
by some leading manufacturers are discussed at length.
Formwork supports and scaffolds are discussed at length. Formwork for precast concrete elements
requires different approach than that of cast-in-situ elements and accordingly they have been
dealt with separately. Formwork management plays an important role in cost saving-accordingly
pre-award and post-award formwork management issues are discussed separately in detail. Poor
formwork leads to a number of failures and injuries to workmen and others. These issues have
been dealt with separately under formwork failure. The issues in formwork faced in multi-storeyed
construction specially the reshoring etc. have also been dealt appropriately.
The references at the end of the book, solved examples in different chapters, and review questions
in different chapters will be found useful by the readers. I am eager to receive the comments from
the readers of the book.
D .K N J
Acknowledgements
A book of such nature would not have been possible without the support and assistance of a number
of people. First, I would like to thank Mr. S. Raghunath-my first mentor at L&T ECC for making
me understand the importance of formwork. I wish to thank my trainers Mr. K.P.Raghwan, Mr.
S.Natrajan, and Mr. B. Murugesan for the system formwork and slipform training I received from
them at different points of time. I am also thankful to Mr. V.B. Gadgil for making me think differently
in formwork application. I also wish to thank my other colleagues in the Larsen and Toubro Limited
especially in formwork and construction method cell- namely Mr. A.L. Sekar, Mr. Navneet Kaul,
Mr. Anil Kumar, Ms K. Bhawani, Mr. Harpal Singh, and Mr. C.S.Negi.
I would like to thank my colleagues, at the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi who
contributed their time on a number of occasions discussing the contents of the book. I would like to
thank my colleagues from other IIT’s specially IIT Kanpur, IIT Madras, and IIT Guwahati. I would
like to place on record the encouragement I received from Prof. S.N. Sinha, Prof. A.K. Jain, Prof.
B. Bha acharjee, Prof K.C. Iyer, Prof. A.K. Mi al, Prof. G.S. Benipal, Prof A K Singh, Prof. Koshy
Varghese, and Prof. K.N. Satyanarayana on various occasions during the manuscript preparation.
I am thankful to Prof. Vasant Matsagar for going through proofs of the book and for suggesting
changes. I am thankful to Prof Suresh Bhalla for going through the design examples of the book
and to Prof Shashank Bishnoi for reviewing certain portions of the book.
I would like to thank Dr. A Ramakrishna and Shri C.S. Prasad for going through the proof of the
book and writing the foreword. I am thankful to Dr. A Ramakrishna for the complements I received
from him. The country owes a lot to him for the work he has carried out for the construction industry
in general and formwork and precast in particular.
I am thankful to Prof Sudhir Misra for the encouragements I receive from him time to time. The
comments received from my colleagues at Larsen and Toubro Limited on the practical contents
provided in the book is thankfully acknowledged. I am thankful to Mr. V.P. Sinha for going through
some of the practical examples of the book. I am thankful to the management of Larsen and Toubro
Limited in giving me suitable opportunities to work in different departments and in a number of
projects during my association with them for about 12 years.
I am thankful to M/s PERI, M/s SGB, M/s Harsco Infrastructure, M/s Doka, M/s Larsen and Toubro
Limited and many other leading manufacturers for granting me the permission and approval to use
some of their products in the book.
xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am thankful to Col Chitkara for the constant encouragement I receive from him and for
introducing me to McGraw Hill Group of Companies. The support provided by staff members of
McGraw Hill Group of Companies Mr. Sohan Gaur, Mr Simanta Borah, and Mr Sushil Gupta, and
the typese er M/s Shubham Composers is also thankfully acknowledged.
Several other persons have given me much to thank about. I am thankful to my teaching assistants
namely Akash Karak, Priya Chandrayan, and Brajendra Singh for assisting me in drawing the
various figures both in Autocad and MS Excel. The contribution of Mr. Abhishek Kumar Singh,
a research scholar in the Department of Civil Engineering is thankfully acknowledged. He was
instrumental in formulating the review questions for different chapters. I am also thankful to the
students of Addis Ababa University where I taught this course on two occasions through two way
linked video conferencing mode. The help received from Ms Gayatri Sachin Vyas, Lecturer, College
of Engineering, Pune and Mr. Dilip Patel, Assistant Professor of SVNIT Surat for proof reading of
the Manuscript is thankfully acknowledged.
I cannot forget my friend Prof Lalit Manral for inspiring me to take up the academic profession.
I thank him for being the source of inspiration for me at all times.
I don’t find any word to describe the efforts of my parents for all they have done for my upbringing.
Without their blessings this book would not have been completed. I hope to continue to get their
blessings. And of course, there are no words for the gratitude and love I feel for my family members,
Arti (wife), Srijan (elder son) and Sajal (younger son) who, from time to time encouraged me to
complete this book even at the cost of my time to be spent with them.
D .K N J
Contents
C 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Formwork as a Temporary Structure 2
1.3 Requirements for Formwork 2
1.4 Selection of Formwork 6
1.5 Classification (Types) of Formwork 8
1.6 Organization of the Book 16
Review Questions 18
C 2 Formwork Materials 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Timber 21
2.3 Plywood 29
2.4 Steel 32
2.5 Aluminum Form 35
2.6 Plastic Forms 36
2.7 Other Materials 37
2.8 Form Coatings and Mould Linings 40
2.9 Form Anchors 41
2.10 Tie System 42
2.11 Spreaders, Spacers 49
2.12 Form Lining Materials 49
Solved Examples 52
Review Questions 53
xvi CONTENTS
C 11 Slipform 327
11.1 Introduction 327
11.2 Vertical Slipform 329
11.3 Horizontal Slipform 329
11.4 Types of Slipform 329
11.5 Functions of Various Slipform Components 333
11.6 Assembly, Sliding, and Dismantling of Slipform 335
11.7 Slipform Design Issues 343
11.8 Some Cases in Slipform 344
11.9 Safety Operations During Slipform Erection 355
11.10 Productivity Issues in Slipform Construction 357
Review Questions 360
C 13 Scaffold 388
13.1 Introduction 388
13.2 Classification of Scaffolds 388
13.3 Timber Scaffolds 389
13.4 Metal Scaffolds 390
13.5 Types of Metal Scaffolds 394
13.6 Some Proprietary Scaffolds 398
13.7 Galvanized Scaffolds 400
13.8 Scaffold Boards 400
13.9 Scaffolds for High Clearance Structures 400
13.10 Design Issues 401
13.11 Possible Causes for Collapse of Scaffold Systems 402
13.12 Check List 404
Review Questions 405
Index 567
INTRODUCTION 1
Chapter
1 Introduction
1.1 INTRODUCTION
There are different types of temporary structures which are used as enablers for constructing
permanent structures. Some of the examples of temporary structures are: concrete formwork
(shu ering) construction, scaffolding, falsework/shoring, cofferdams, underpinning, diaphragm/
slurry walls, earth-retaining structures and construction dewatering. As can be noticed from these
examples, the purpose of temporary structures vary. For example, a diaphragm wall may be used
for the purpose of deep excavation, while a cofferdam may be constructed for making a bridge pier
inside a water body.
Formwork is also a kind of temporary structure whose purpose is to support its own weight and
that of freshly placed concrete as well as the construction live loads including materials, equipment
and workmen. Formwork as a temporary structure is desired to safely support the concrete until it
gains adequate strength to stand on its own.
According to IS: 6461 (Part 5)–1972, formwork is a complete system of temporary structure built
to contain fresh concrete so as to form it into the required shape and dimensions and to support it
until it hardens sufficiently to become self-supporting. It includes the surface in contact with the
concrete and all the necessary supporting structure.
The terms sheeting (sheathing), form (shu er), falsework, centering, mould, and scaffold
(scaffolding) are commonly used in the context of formwork, which must be clearly understood.
The brief definition of these terms according to IS: 6461 (Part 5)–1972 is given below:
1. Sheeting (Sheathing) - That part of formwork, which is in contact with the concrete.
2. Form (Shu er) - (a) That part of formwork, which consists of the sheeting and its immediate
supporting or stiffening members. (b) A temporary structure or mould for the support of
concrete while it is se ing and gaining sufficient strength to be self-supporting.
3. Falsework - (a) Falsework is the temporary structure erected to support the work in the process
of construction. It is composed of shores, formwork for beams or slabs (or both) and lateral
bracing. (b) That part of formwork, which supports the forms, usually for a long structure,
such as a bridge.
2 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
1.3.1 Quality
Even a casual inspection of the concrete surface just a er the formwork has been dismantled, would
reveal number of defects in the concrete surface in most of the cases. We can notice plywood grains
or timber stuck to the concrete surfaces at a number of locations, undulations in concrete surfaces,
INTRODUCTION 3
and patches of concrete showing honeycombing. Sometimes we may also find columns and beam
bulging out from the desired line, and a heap of concrete slurry near the joint or dowel locations. All
these defects can be a ributed to poor formwork, either partly or fully. These defects are very costly
to be repaired, and no amount of repair work can bring it back to the desired level of quality.
Some common defects observed a er the stripping of formwork, primarily due to poor formwork,
have been shown in Figs. 1.1(a) to (e).
Keeping these in mind, the formwork needs to be designed and built accurately so that the desired
size, shape, position, correct location, quality, and finish of acceptable quality of the cast concrete
are a ained. Some of the measures to achieve the quality objectives of formwork are given below:
Formwork should suit the architectural and structural requirement. Sometimes one need not
provide any treatment such as plastering or painting over the concrete surfaces, that is, they are
supposed to be le in as-is position. These surfaces are also known as fare faced concrete surfaces.
We need to provide special arrangements to cater to the needs of fare faced concreted surfaces.
Formwork should be able to be detailed well, to avoid damage to the concrete while deshu ering.
Joints in the formwork should be tight enough to prevent slurry leakage. Many ills of concrete
construction can be avoided if we are able to have a tight joint, so that there is no leakage of
slurry.
According to IS: 14687–1999, formwork should be made in such a manner that the finished
concrete is in proper position in the space measured with respect to certain predefined reference
points. Formwork should be of the proper dimensions and shape as per the drawings. Section 9.6 of
IS: 14687–1999 provides guidelines for tolerances on the shape, lines, and dimensions.
Formwork should be able to be constructed within tolerance limits. This is extremely important,
more so in the case of precast elements. If the precast elements are not cast within tolerable deviation
limits, a number of problems are faced at the time of erection of these elements and joining of
different elements.
1.3.2 Safety
The literature on formwork, Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) reports, etc.
suggest that formwork construction is associated with a relatively high frequency of disabling
injury and illness. Based on the 1997 OSHA accident statistics, Huang and Hinze (2003) report that
5.83% of falls were a ributed to the construction of formwork or the construction of temporary
structures, and 21.2% of all struck by accidents, involved wood framing or formwork construction.
It is unfortunate that numerous lives are lost due to formwork failure every year even today. We
come across news reports about formwork and scaffolding failure every now and then.
According to another study, in building construction, 60% failure is due to formwork collapse,
shoring collapse, inadequate shoring and inadequate lateral bracing; 8% due to premature removal
of shore; and 18% failure is observed due to faulty material. Har (2002) based on ergonomic studies
suggests that the repetitive activities of li ing, sawing, and hammering commonly performed by
formwork carpenters, lead to a high frequency of low-severity injuries such as discomfort and
persistent pain.
4 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
This calls for greater safety in formwork operation. Formwork needs to be built adequately so
that it is capable of supporting all the dead and live loads without danger to the workmen and to
the concrete surface. Not only should the formwork be strong and safe, but it should also have
arrangements for working platform where the workers can work without the danger of an injury.
Formwork should have arrangements which can prevent the falling of objects from its working
platform, so that injury to those working under the platform can be avoided.
1.3.3 Economy
Economy of formwork corresponds to an economical, careful, efficient, and prudent use of resources
for making of the forms. Economy is a major concern since formwork is the largest single cost segment
of the reinforced cement concrete construction cost in a project most of the time.
The total formwork cost is the sum of the following:
∑ cost of form materials,
∑ cost of labor for making, fixing, and removing,
∑ cost of equipment required to handle the form,
∑ cost of consumables such as form release agents or deshu ering agents such as diesel, oil,
grease,
∑ other consumables such as nails, binding wire, co on wastes, etc.
The cost may also include repair and maintenance cost of the form to keep it under working
condition. Some storage cost component may also be there in the total formwork cost.
It may also be noted that the forms for a concrete structure may cost more than the concrete or
the reinforced steel, and in some instances, they may cost more than the concrete and the reinforcing
steel together.
There are two categories of costs associated with formwork costing: investment cost and cost per
use. The distinction between the formwork investment cost and the cost per use must be clearly
understood. The investment cost in form material (excluding plywood and timber) per m2 may be
in the range of Rs. 4,000–5,000, depending on the type of formwork system used. In tonnage terms,
the formwork material with steel component, costs in the range of Rs. 45,000–50,000 per ton. In a
large project the tonnage requirement may be in the range of 1,000 to 1,500 tons. So one can imagine
the investment that is needed towards the formwork materials cost. Remember, this is without the
plywood and timber cost. However, the formwork materials (steel component) can be used a number
of times (sometimes more than 100 repetitions). Hence the cost per use for the material component
may be in the range of Rs. 40-50. One may also notice that the formwork cost would also depend
on the number of repetitions of the forms, the salvage value, and the cost of finishing the concrete
surfaces, a er the forms are removed. Sometimes contractors, instead of investing in the formwork
material, borrow them on rent which is charged either daily or monthly.
From the discussion in the preceding paragraph, we can understand that any saving in the
formwork cost can have large implications on the overall saving potential in a construction project.
Hence it is extremely important to plan a structural system which is not only economical as far as
the concrete quantity and reinforcement are concerned, but should also take formwork cost into
consideration. This requires a systems approach as far as RCC is concerned.
6 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
It is also very important to have a proper communication and coordination between the client,
the consultant, the architect, and the contractor in order to affect maximum economy. The economy
in a formwork can be affected right from the planning and design stage to the construction stage
of the project.
formed, (b) the type of sheathing material, (c) safety and serviceability of the structural frame, and
(d) economics.
Typically, a senior member of the contractor’s organization makes the decision of selection of the
formwork system and the decision to select a particular system is heavily based on his individual
experience. This experience may limit the selection of the system to the one that is not the optimum.
Hanna and Willenbrock (1992) developed an expert system by systematically capturing the expertise
of people involved in all the phases to assist the formwork selector/designer in making that decision.
The different phases in the life of the formwork start right from the design phase through erection
and concrete placement, to its removal. Guo and Tsai (1999) combined the Analytic Hierarchy Process
(AHP), Fuzzy Multiple A ribute Decision Making (FMADM) and Technique Order Preference by its
Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method in order to evaluate and rank alternative formwork
systems using 12 selected evaluation indices. Hanna (1999) elaborately discussed the factors affecting
the selection of the formwork system. He characterized the factors into 4 classes and 18 evaluation
factors. The four classes are: building design, job specification, local conditions, and supporting
organisation. These are discussed briefly in the following sections.
The formwork system selection is dependent on the site condition. For example, an open site would
call for a different formwork system than a site which is located in a congested area where the space
for site operation is restricted.
Figure 1.5 Proprietary Formwork for Casting Varied Concrete Elements Such As Wall, Column,
and Slab and Beam Formwork (Courtesy L&T Formwork)
There is a growing trend to use pre-fabricated forms in concrete construction these days. This is
obviously to save material and labor costs which result through greater efficiency a ained during
the mass production process employed for manufacturing the pre-fabricated unit. The technical
details of the pre-fabricated forms are provided by the manufacturers to the users. In addition, the
manufacturer may also provide the formwork layouts and the scheme if the user so desires. The
pre-fabricated forms are available either on purchase basis or on rental basis. Pre-fabricated forms
are generally of two types:
(a) Ready-made for general purpose; and
(b) Tailor-made for special purpose.
The ready-made forms can be adopted to build formworks for various sizes and shapes and thus
can be considered as general purpose formworks. These forms may include modular panel systems
and accessories. The tailor-made forms are fabricated to order and thus can be considered as special
purpose formworks. These may include tunnel forms, dam forms, bridge girder formwork, etc. It
may so happen that some ready-made form components may be used for the fabrication of tailor-
made forms.
standardization and make the entire formwork operation very easy. The formwork modules are
manufactured in a factory set up, and delivered to the site in a pre-fabricated form. They can be
assembled very quickly at the project locations. In contrast to the conventional system of formwork,
the advantages offered by the modular formwork system are given below:
1. Since the modular formwork system uses standardized modules, and their installation process
is also simple, the work can be accomplished even by less skilled workers.
2. There is a considerable reduction in erection time at the site.
3. A large number of repetitions (reuse) of modular formwork are possible which result in the
cost of formwork being considerably on a lower side.
4. The safety of workers and materials is ensured, as the modular formworks have high strength
of the form.
5. The quality of the concrete surface obtained is extremely good in a modular formwork which
reduces the need for further finishing work such as plastering, a er removal of the form.
6. The modular formwork systems automate the formwork operation and improve the
productivity as well as the cost-effectiveness in a construction project.
7. In order to ensure the successful use of a modular formwork system, proper planning in the
architectural design stage as well as in the construction phase of a project is necessary.
8. The factors such as the form reuse scheme, the allocation of modular form sets, cranes, workers,
etc., and the construction sequence need to be carefully planned out to get the best out of the
modular formwork.
The comparison of various features of the three systems (the conventional, the proprietary, and
the modular formwork system) is given in Box 1.2. Horner and Thomson (1981) studied the relative
costs of the site made and the proprietary formwork for a typical wall, column, and beam and slab
soffit. The relative costs were arrived at by producing two sets of designs each for the site made and
the proprietary formwork. For costing purposes however, they chose to take the labor and material
cost only for the two alternatives. The results of the study showed that if one or more uses per week
are anticipated, it is cheaper to hire than to make. The breakeven point is about one use every four
weeks. They further found that it is uneconomic to buy proprietary forms unless some 20 uses are
anticipated.
In Hand set formwork, the commonly used formwork systems are: (a) conventional wood
system (also known as stick form) and (b) conventional metal system (also known as improved stick
form). The conventional wood system is available for laying the foundation, beams and slabs, and
columns etc.
In Crane set formwork systems, we have the flying formwork system, column mounted shoring
system, and tunnel forming system. These are discussed at greater length in Chapter 10 of this book.
In special horizontal formwork systems, we have the joist slab forming system, and dome forming
system. These are discussed at greater length in Chapter 8 of this book.
In addition to the above methods of classification, formworks can also be classified according
to the size, materials of construction, nature of operation, and sometimes according to the brand
name of the product. According to size, they are classified into small and large formwork. While the
small formwork can be hand set, the large formwork requires crane assistance. In a small formwork,
small form panels — light in weight and usually made up of timber and plywood or aluminum
— are used, while in case of a large formwork, the form panels used are large in size and heavy.
Large area wall formwork and ganged formwork are examples of large formwork. According to
the materials used for form construction, formworks are referred to as timber formwork, steel
formwork, aluminum formwork, composite formwork etc. According to the operation involved, the
formworks can be classified into manually operated or mechanically operated formwork. Timber
and aluminum formworks are usually manually operated, while the heavy steel formworks are
normally mechanically operated. Some examples of mechanically operated formworks are: crane
assisted climbing formwork or self raising formwork. It is also common to refer to the formwork
with the names of the manufacturers. Thus, in this classification, we have L&T formwork, Doka
formwork, PERI formwork, Mivan formwork, and so on. Some of the formwork solutions offered
by these manufacturers have also been discussed in different chapters.
In this book we have not tried to follow any classification in totality. Instead, we have first covered
the frequently required formwork solutions in the context of building works such as foundation
formwork, wall formwork, column formwork, and slab and beam formwork. Subsequently, we
have covered special applications followed by bridge formwork, and the special formworks such
as flying formwork, slipform and so on. The organization of the book is briefly presented in the
next section.
In Chapter 4, the various aspects of formwork for foundations are discussed. The conventional
foundation formwork and the proprietary formwork are introduced. Some design issues pertaining to
foundation formwork are discussed.
In Chapter 5, we discuss the conventional wall formwork and different varieties of the proprietary
wall formwork such as the climbing scaffold, the traveling climbing scaffold and the automatic climbing
scaffold. Some real life illustrations of wall formwork in use have also been provided. We discuss the
different design steps needed to perform the wall formwork design. Some design aids for ge ing assistance
in the wall formwork design are also presented. Towards the end we illustrate a few wall formwork
design examples.
In Chapter 6, we discuss the conventional column formwork and different varieties of the proprietary
column formwork such as the Doka formwork and the PERI formwork. Some real life illustrations of the
column formwork in use have also been provided. We discuss the different design steps needed to perform
column formwork design. Some design aids for ge ing assistance in the column formwork design are
also presented. Towards the end we illustrate a few column formwork design examples.
In Chapter 7, we discuss the conventional slab formwork and different varieties of the proprietary
slab formwork such as the Doka formwork, the PERI formwork, and the Mivan formwork. Some real
life illustrations of slab formwork in use have also been provided. We discuss the different design steps
needed to perform slab formwork design. Some design aids for ge ing assistance in the slab formwork
design are also presented. Towards the end we illustrate few slab formwork design examples.
In Chapter 8, formworks for some special structure such as domes, shells, folded plates, tunnels,
cooling towers, and overhead water tanks are briefly discussed. The real life example of the formwork
arrangement for such structures is illustrated.
In Chapter 9, formwork for different elements of bridges is discussed. Formworks for cu ing edge, kerb,
well steining, pier and pier caps are discussed. In addition, the deck slab formwork, girder formwork,
and the formwork for crash barrier are also discussed.
In Chapter 10, some commonly used flying formwork systems are discussed. They are the table form
and the tunnel form. The step by step working procedure with these formwork systems is explained.
The advantages and limitations of these systems are also briefly discussed.
In Chapter 11, the slipform is introduced. The various types of slipforms such as straight, tapered, and
inclined slipform are explained with illustration. The various components of slipforming operation and
their functions are explained. The assembly and dismantling practices of slipform are briefly discussed.
The design issues in slipform are briefly covered; besides, the productivity values obtained in a leading
construction organization are illustrated for ge ing assistance in planning and costing of the slipform
operation. Towards the end we discuss some safety issues in slipform and cases in slipform.
Chapter 12 starts with an introduction to shoring and its utility followed by the classification of the
various shoring towers. Further, different families of shoring towers are compared. The design aspects
and work inputs of shoring towers are discussed in brief. The reuse of shoring towers and work inputs
for high shoring towers are also discussed. Towards the end of the chapter, the recommendations for
practitioners have also been provided for the use of shoring towers.
Chapter 13 starts with an introduction to the scaffold system. The design guidelines and checklist for
the scaffolds are discussed in this chapter. The possible causes for collapse of the scaffold system are also
discussed. Finally the recommendations for the scaffold system and the checklist for safe implementation
have also been provided for the practitioners.
18 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
In Chapter 14, the advantages of pre-casting over cast-in-situ concrete construction are discussed. The
different types of moulds used for pre-casting concrete elements are discussed. The various stages and
steps involved in pre-casting are briefly explained. The real life cases in pre-casting are explained with
the help of photographs.
In Chapter 15, the pre-award formwork management issues are addressed. These include: understanding
the requirement of the customer, study of drawings, layouts of the structure and estimation of cycle time
of formwork activities. The issues involved in the selection of formwork system have been discussed and
some guidelines for the selection of formwork system have been given. Formwork economy considerations
in planning and design stage of a project, computations of formwork material requirement, cost estimation
of formwork are also discussed in detail in the chapter.
In Chapter 16, the post-award formwork management issues are addressed. This is done in two stages:
one, immediately on award of the contract, and two, during detailed planning just before execution. In the
la er, emphasis has been placed on: preparation and finalization of the formwork scheme, preparation
of mobilization schedule of formwork materials, effective usage of systems/materials and the proper
implementation, upkeep/ maintenance of formwork materials, accountability for materials, training,
monitoring of formwork cost, and preparation of demobilization schedule of formwork materials.
Towards the end of the chapter, key positions and their responsibilities in formwork management are
also taken up.
Chapter 17 deals with formwork failure. The causes of formwork failure such as triggering, enabling,
and procedural causes are discussed. Some case studies in formwork failure are also discussed. Towards
the end, some checklists relevant for formwork related activities are provided for safe working.
In Chapter 18, a simplified method is presented to compute the loads on slabs, shores, and reshores
at the time of construction. The determination of the expected strength of concrete slab is also explained
using a simplified approach. Knowing the loads on slabs and the strength of slab, a formwork engineer can
ensure the safety of slab at the time of construction by adjusting various parameters such as construction
technique, cement type, curing temperature etc.
Glossaries of the terms related to formwork are briefly defined towards the end of the book. In the
construction industry, there are widely varying perceptions and understanding of different formwork
related terms. It is thought prudent not to add to the confusion by suggesting definitions specific to the
text and thus the definitions are taken from different Indian Standards and are produced in this chapter.
The IS: 3696 (Part 1)–1987, IS: 4014 (Part 1)–1967, and IS: 6461 (Part 5)–1972 have specially been useful in
compiling the various formwork related terms. Wherever it is felt appropriate, the definitions have been
explained a bit. The reader may find the compilation quite useful.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Formwork is a temporary (T/F)/ permanent (T/F) structure desired to safely support the
concrete until it reaches adequate strength to stand on its own.
(b) Examples of temporary formwork are: concrete formwork construction, scaffolding,
falsework/staging, cofferdams, underpinning, diaphragm wall, slurry wall, earth retaining
structures, construction dewatering.
INTRODUCTION 19
(c) The three major objectives of formwork are quality, safety, and economy.
(d) Honeycombs and bug-holes constitute evidence of good quality formwork.
(e) Total formwork cost is the sum of costs of form materials, labor, equipment, consumables,
and others.
(f) Bug-holes and honeycombs are the result of poor formwork.
(g) The economy in a formwork can be affected right from the planning and design stage to the
construction stage of the project.
Q2. Match the following
1. Sheathing (Sheeting) (a) Gaining access to higher levels of permanent
structure during construction
2. Form (Shu er) (b) Part of form which is in contact with concrete
3. Falsework (c) Frame for casting precast concrete units
4. Centering (d) Part of formwork consisting of sheeting to
support concrete till it becomes self supporting
5. Mould (e) To support work in process of construction
and is composed of shores, formwork for
beams etc.
6. Scaffolding (f) Specialized formwork used in the construction
of arches, shells space structures
Q3. Match the following. The safety statistics shown below are on an average reported in literature.
1. Falls (a) 60%
2. Struck (b) 5.83%
3. Formwork and shoring collapse (c) 21.2%
4. Premature removal of shores (d) 18%
5. Faulty material (e) 8%
Q4. Match the following in the context of parameters affecting the choice of formwork.
1. Hanna (1999) (a) Type of building element formed by the
sheathing material, safety, and economics.
2. Horner and Thomson (1981) (b) Supporting organization, local condition, job
specification, building design.
Q5. Match the following.
1. Traditional classification of formwork (a) Formwork item based classification
2. Hanna (1999) classification of (b) Conventional, patented, modular formwork
formwork system
3. DSR formwork classification (c) Horizontal and vertical formwork
Q6. Answer in brief the following questions.
(a) Why is formwork different from other temporary structures such as diaphragm wall and
cofferdam?
(b) Distinguish between (a) formwork, (b) scaffolding, and (c) centering.
20 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
(c) What safety features can you think of incorporating in a formwork system to avoid
accidents?
(d) Discuss the consequences of poor formwork in reinforced concrete construction.
Q7. Identify the requirements of formwork. Take feedback from the experts and decide the relative
importance of each of these parameters.
Chapter
2 Formwork Materials
Contents: Introduction; Timber; Plywood; Steel; Aluminum Form; Plastic Forms; Other Materials;
Form Coatings and Mould Linings; Form Anchors; Tie System; Spreaders, Spacers; Form Lining
Materials
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Timber and plywood have traditionally been used as form materials. A wide range of form materials
such as steel, aluminum, fiberglass reinforced plastic etc., have been used in the recent past. The
construction industry is witnessing newer forms of materials every now and then.
Formwork was formerly built in one place, used once, and wrecked. Because of high labor costs
prevailing currently in India and abroad, the trend today is towards increasing prefabrication,
assembly in large units, and erection by mechanical means such as flying the forms into the place by
crane, and continuing reuse of the forms. In 1908, the use of wood versus steel formwork was debated
at the ACI convention. Also, the advantages of modular panel forming with its own connecting
hardware, and good for extensive reuse were realized. By 1910 steel forms for paving were being
produced commercially and used in the field in the USA. Today modular panel forming is the
norm.
The selection of material to be used for formwork and shoring shall take into account its strength,
rigidity, durability, workability, finished quality of concreted surface, effect on the fresh concrete
placed, and the economy.
In this chapter, we will discuss the various form materials and their properties, support materials,
tie systems, form anchor, form liner, and coating and release agents.
2.2 TIMBER
Practically all formwork jobs require some timber. Frequently the choice of timber species depends
on the local availability and cost. The timber used should be reasonably seasoned to avoid warping.
They should hold nails well. It must be necessary to go for hard wood in cases of heavy structures
imposing large loads on the formwork. The timber for formwork should be so wood of partially
seasoned stock to avoid swelling or warping as per IS: 883–1994.
22 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
2.2.2 Commonly Used Timber Sections for Formwork and Their Properties
The commonly used timber sections for formwork purposes are given in Table 2.1 and the properties
of some commonly used sizes of sawn timber are given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.1 Commonly Available Sizes of Timber for Formwork (Based on Recommendations of IRC: 87–1984)
Sl. No. Description of formwork element Size (mm)
1. Sheathing 25 to 50 mm
2. Beam and column sides 25 to 50 mm
3. Beam bo oms 50 mm
4. Joists 50 mm ¥ 100 mm to 70 mm ¥ 200 mm
5. Ledgers 50 mm ¥ 100 mm to 75 mm ¥ 200 mm
6. Posts 75 mm ¥ 100 mm to 150 mm ¥ 200 mm
7. Column yokes 50 mm ¥ 100 mm to 100 mm ¥ 200 mm
8. Struts and walings 50 mm ¥ 100 mm to 150 mm ¥ 200 mm
The permissible stresses (N/mm2) For Grade I timber is given in Table 2.6.
The allowable axial compressive stress in N/mm2 parallel to the grain of timber for different l/r
and different groups of timber are given in Table 2.7.
FORMWORK MATERIALS 25
Table 2.7 Allowable Axial Compressive Stress in N/mm2 Parallel to Grain of Timber
l/r Group A Group B Group C
0 10.6 6.3 5.6
5 10.6 6.3 5.6
10 10.6 6.3 5.6
15 10.1 6.2 5.4
20 9.0 5.9 5.1
25 6.6 5.3 4.4
30 4.6 4.2 2.8
35 3.4 3.0 2.1
40 2.6 2.3 1.6
45 2.1 1.8 1.3
50 1.7 1.5 1.0
The modification factors for change in the duration of loading are provided in Table 2.9. This
modification factor is represented by K2. Table 2.9 provides K2 values for various duration of loadings
such as continuous loading, two months duration, seven days loading, wind and earthquake loading
and instantaneous or impact loading. It may be noted that with the decrease in loading duration,
the K2 values increase. It is maximum for instantaneous or impact loading conditions.
The material for the sheathing should be selected in such a way that it does not deteriorate
extensively on the absorption of moisture. The repeated cycles of we ing and drying may cause
some timber boards to crack, spall, or become bri le. This may cause a considerable reduction in
the strength. In order to avoid the deterioration and consequently the reduction in strength, the
timber material should be selected and stored carefully.
The timber used for formwork sheathing is usually made plain on the side in contact with the
concrete. The timber should be rigid to avoid local bending and denting. The recommended minimum
thicknesses of timber board to act as a sheathing member are given below for different applications
even though the design calculations might be showing a lower thickness. The block boards should
not be used as sheathing member.
For wall, vertical sides of beams : 25 mm
For floors of normal loads : 30 mm
For floors where heavier constructional loads are possible : 37 mm
Tongue-and-groove joint boards are preferred when sheathing boards are made into panels.
This is done to ensure smooth and plain concrete surfaces. Use of mechanical saws under trained
supervision can ensure that the boards closely fit with one another at the time of their installation.
Failure to do so would lead to gaps at the installation which would require extra effort in the form
FORMWORK MATERIALS 27
of either filling with thin reapers or filling by oil-based pu y. The gaps if not properly filled, will
eventually lead to the leakage of slurry which would give rise to a number of problems.
2.2.6.2 Requirement for timber joists, beam bottoms, batten supporting floor boards, and
battens supporting vertical sheeting of vertical formwork
Timber board as joists, ba en, and stringers are shown in Figs. 2.2 and 2.3.
The depth (or thickness) of ba ens or joists will be based on strength and deflection requirements.
Timber members used as joists, beam bo oms, ba ens supporting floor boards, ba ens supporting
vertical sheeting of walls act primarily in bending. The maximum permissible unstiffened length is
50 times the width of the timber ba en (joist) for such applications. For example, if the timber ba en
is 50 mm (approximately 2 inches) wide, the maximum spacing between stiffeners (horizontal or
vertical) or cross members shall be 50 ¥ 50 = 2,500 mm = 2.5 m. This could be even further reduced
for practical considerations. As in the case of sheathing, the use of cut-lengths of block boards as
ba ens should be avoided as these have very poor shear stress transfer capability.
28 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The sub factors: working a itudes of workers and efficiency of workers under the factor ‘Workmen
who work with the formwork’ and the sub factor: formwork stripping (striking) process under the factor
‘Design, fabrication and stripping process’ were found to have significant impact on the reuse of
timber formwork.
Although the study by Ling and Leo (2000) was based on a limited set of data, it clearly pointed
that it is the workmen who determine the number of times a formwork can be reused. The workmen
need to have the correct working a itude and be able to work efficiently, to ensure that the formwork
has a high reuse. The formwork stripping process is also related to the working a itude and efficiency
of the workmen.
Based on this finding, it may be possible to increase the numbers of reuse of timber formwork
by motivating the workmen, instead of concentrating on the design or other factors. The study
recommended that monetary reward be used to improve the work a itude and crew efficiency.
Efficiency of erection and stripping of formwork is further enhanced if such rewards are directly
associated with the performance of the workmen.
2.3 PLYWOOD
Plywood is used as the sheathing material directly in contact with the concrete. With proper care and
treatment of form surfaces and panel edges, many reuses are possible with plywood. Plywood also
involves relatively lesser cost of making of the formwork because of the ease of working with it.
The plywood is built up of odd number of layers with the grain of the adjacent layers perpendicular
to each other. Generally the grain direction of the outer layer is parallel to the long dimension of the
panel and it is stiffer when the face grain is parallel to the span.
Plywood is the most commonly used material for formwork because of the ease with which it
can be cut and assembled on the site.
Plywood is available in several thicknesses and it can be made available with the choice of
surface treatments to serve various needs and purposes. It provides extremely smooth surfaces to
provide desirable concrete surfaces and one can be confident about its physical properties, as it is
manufactured in factory like conditions unlike timber.
When using plywood, it is usual to frame up the materials into the largest size of the panel that
can be handled by the available equipment on the site, or is convenient for handling by men.
For large smooth areas like walls or floors, or complicated shapes, timber frames with a plywood
face are usually more economical than timber boards, especially when a high number of reuses are
needed.
Care needs to be taken during the assembly, erection and casting so that their rather so faces
and edges are not damaged; particular care is necessary when striking and during storage.
Eco marked plywood with environment friendly features are also available these days.
IS: 4990–1993 gives specification of the plywood used for the purpose of form lining and sheathing.
There are about 20 tests prescribed in IS: 1734–1983 for plywood testing.
The concrete surface obtained by plywood can virtually eliminate the need of plastering. Further,
the large size of plywood brings in economy. All this would however depend on nails and screws
30 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
being used judiciously. Excessive cu ing of plywood and excessive use of nails and screws can
spoil the plywood unduly.
Plywood can be used in a be er way both in the hot and the cold climatic conditions as the external
heat or cold does not penetrate through plywood unlike metal sheeting.
Table 2.10 The Permissible Stresses in Plywood for a Specified Deflection of 1:270
Center Dis- The maximum load permi ed (in kg/m2) The maximum permissible load (in kg/m2)
tance of Bear- is for the face grain of the plywood per- is for the face grain of plywood parallel to
ers (Span) mm pendicular to the length of the bearers. the length of the bearers
9-mm Thickness 12-mm Thickness 9-mm 12-mm Thickness
Thickness
300 1,270 1,950 760 1,220
400 540 850 320 540
450 320 640 195 390
600 170 360 110 170
The above loads apply when the concrete is laid on concrete shu ering plywood as in slabs and
beams. The same thickness of concrete in a wall can be held without excess deflection by thinner
boards. According to IS: 4990–1993, the maximum load should be reduced to 75 % if wet boards
are used.
Plywood in general is used for the formwork in a number of ways. For example, the plywood
panels are nailed with supporting timber members either in frame form or without the frame form.
The frame form is mostly used for wall and column application while in the case of slab, the frame
form may not be there. The frame can be made with timber as the supporting member. In some
applications, plywood boards are embedded in all steel frames. The frames are made out of steel
angle or channel sections and plywood is nailed into it. Sometimes on a frame made out of timber, a
thin ply veneer is also placed. Some manufacturers combine plywood with aluminum frame also.
The plywood for the shu ering application is available in various thicknesses. A leading plywood
manufacturer of the country offers plywood in 4 mm, 6 mm, 9 mm, 12 mm, 16 mm, 19 mm, and
25 mm thicknesses. The 12 mm and 19 mm plywood thicknesses are the most commonly used. A
minimum thickness of 12 mm with proper frame work is suggested if plywood is used. For heavy
load applications such as bridge decks, thick plywood members may be required. The smaller
thicknesses of plywood are used for applications such as casting curved wall, dome etc. where it is
desired to bend the plywood. The data on the weight in kg/m2 of plywood from a leading Indian
plywood manufacturer is given in Table 2.12.
The code IS: 4990–1993 also suggests the minimum bending radii for the plywood of different
thicknesses. They are given in Table 2.13 purely for guidance purposes.
Plywood without any plastic coating or a suitable overlay, may be bent to still smaller radii by
soaking in cold or hot water (temperature up to 70°C) before fixing.
The plywood must also be durable under alternate we ing and drying conditions. Although this
requirement makes the plywood a li le costlier, nevertheless it is required, and is one of the guiding
parameters for the selection of plywood to be used as formwork material.
Phenolic resin bonded plywood having an overlay of resin impregnated polymer film on both
sides is also available these days to the construction industry. Commercially, they are also referred
to as ‘film faced shu ering plywood’. The surface films in such a plywood have the following
advantages to offer:
1. Makes the plywood invulnerable to moisture.
2. Protection from deterioration caused by concrete and slurry.
3. Smooth finish to the concrete.
4. Large reuses are possible.
5. Very good for fair faced concrete application.
2.4 STEEL
Compared to timber formwork, steel formwork provides smoother concrete surfaces and is found to
be economical if there are a large number of uses. It has adequate rigidity and strength. These forms
can be erected, disassembled, moved and re-erected at a faster pace, provided suitable handling
equipments are available. The steel formwork system facilitates in maintaining accurate alignment,
levels and dimensions.
The cost advantage would turn into disadvantage if there were less number of reuses of the steel
form. Also, these forms offer li le or no insulation protection to the concrete placed during cold
weather.
2.4.1 Commonly Used Steel Sections for Formwork and Their Properties
Steel plates of 3.15 mm and 5.0 mm thicknesses are commonly used for fabricating the sheathing.
IS Angle sections 50 ¥ 50 ¥ 6 and 65 ¥ 65 ¥ 6 are quite commonly used for making steel panels to be
used in the wall, column, and slab and beam applications. Channel section ISMC 100 is the common
fabrication material for fabricating walers and soldiers. It is very common to use 40 NB circular
steel pipes for shoring and scaffolding works. Some of the steel components are even galvanized
for durability and to reduce maintenance.
The cross sectional area (A), moment of inertia (I), section modulus (Z), and radius of gyration (K)
of steel tubes of different diameters are provided in IS: 2750–1964. For example, for a 40 mm nominal
bore steel tube (frequently used), the cross sectional area (A), moment of inertia (I), section modulus
(Z), and radius of gyration (K) are 557 mm2, 1,37,700 mm4, 5,700 mm3, and 157 mm respectively.
Axial stress in compression— The permissible stress in compression can be obtained from
Figs. 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7 for different l/r values. Figures 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7 correspond to Grade YSt
22, YSt 25, and YSt 32 respectively. On the horizontal axis, l/r is specified while on the vertical
axis permissible stresses are specified. For some select l/r values the permissible stresses are
specified on the figures as well.
Figure 2.5 Permissible Axial Stress in Compression for Different l/r for Grade YSt 22.
Figure 2.6 Permissible Axial Stress in Compression for Different l/r for Grade YSt 25.
34 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 2.7 Permissible Axial Stress in Compression for Different l/r for Grade YSt 32.
Axial stress in tension—The direct stress in axial tension on the net cross-sectional area of tubes
shall not exceed the values of Ft specified in column 2 of Table 2.14. The Ft values for Grades Yst
22, Yst 25, and Yst 32 are 125 N/mm2, 150 N/mm2, and 190 N/mm2 respectively.
Bending stress in extreme fibers in tension and compression—The permissible stress in extreme
fibers in tension and compression Fv are provided in column 3 of Table 2.14 for the three grades
of steel: Yst 22, Yst 25, and Yst 32.
Shear stress—The permissible shear stress Fs values are given in column 4 of Table 2.14 for the three
grades of steel: Yst 22, Yst 25, and Yst 32.
Bearing stress—The permissible maximum bearing stress values Fp are given in column 5 of
Table 2.14 for the three grades of steel: Yst 22, Yst 25, and Yst 32.
Table 2.14 Permissible Axial Stress in Tension Ft , Permissible Bending Stress in Extreme Fibers in Tension and
Compression Fv , Permissible Maximum Shear Stress Fs , and Permissible Maximum Bearing Stress Fp
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Grade Ft Fv Fs Fp
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Yst 22 125 140 90 170
Yst 25 150 165.5 110 190
Yst 32 190 205 135 250
Some of the relevant IS codes providing specification on steel forms are IS: 2062–2006, IS: 8500
–1991, IS: 1977–1996, IS: 800–2007, and IS: 1161–1998.
FORMWORK MATERIALS 35
steel. The handling of aluminum formwork is also easier. Besides, the transportation and handling
costs are also lower. Some manufacturers (h p://www.wallties.com, h p://www.hi-lite-systems.
com) claim up to 2,500 repetitions with aluminum form, provided reasonable care, cleaning, and
maintenance are carried out at reasonable intervals. In some residential cases, light commercial and
precast concrete construction aluminum formworks are found most suitable among the various
possible alternatives. Some more features of aluminum formwork are given in Box 2.2.
Figure 2.8 Wire Mesh Wrapped Around the Stiff Wire Frame.
the application of other form materials is difficult. In the two cases mentioned above, the inflated
membranes can prove to be an economical solution of formwork compared to other systems.
The membranes are inflated by different ways. The principle here is to anchor the membranes
to some supporting structures such as a foundation slab or a ring beam, and then to inflate the
membrane. A er the membranes have taken the desired shape, they are coated with plaster by
shotcrete. The plaster is reinforced with wire mesh to bring rigidity to the inflated forms.
The dismantling of the form is performed easily by deflating the membranes. The application of
inflated membranes can provide considerable saving in the construction and stripping of forms.
modular units which can be assembled quite easily at the site just like interlocking bricks. ICFs
are made up mainly from foam materials such as Polystyrene and Polyurethane. This results in a
light weight formwork which not only reduces labor cost but also saves the time of installation of
formwork considerably. A er the installation of insulating concrete forms at site, rebars are placed
and concrete is poured. A er the curing of concrete, the forms are le in place permanently. The le
out forms help in thermal and acoustic insulation primarily. ICFs are versatile formwork materials,
and by using them, it is possible to incorporate curves, angles, slopes, and arches in the concrete
elements to be cast.
an even manner on the form surface. The form release agent should not react with the concrete and
produce some undesirable substance in the process.
Coatings on all type of forms are employed with the following objectives:
• Protection of the form for durability.
• On timber, it reacts with organic constituents and provides a uniform surface on each use.
Penetration of the chemicals control grain or edge effect as well as it fills pores in timber.
• Chemically active coating reacts with free lime from the fresh concrete and produces water
insoluble soaps. When dried, these soaps act as positive concrete release agents. When wet,
they help in the movement of air voids along the form.
Coatings including release agents commonly used are: Straight oils: emulsified wax applied at a
temperature of about 10˚C; oil phased emulsions with water globules encased in a continuous phase
of oil; petroleum based products; catalyzed polyurethane foam; epoxy resin.
As liners, fiber glass, silicone rubber, styrophors, rubber sheetings, vitreous clay, etc. are used.
They give excellent results in forming architectural concrete. Liners and form release agents may
not be used together, as undesirable chemical reactions may take place.
Because of their absorbency, new and untreated timber and plywood should always be given
a coat of the appropriate release agent at least 36 hours before being used. A second application
should then be made before using for the first time. For all further pours, a normal application is
all that should be necessary.
Release agents are prepared by the manufacturers to suit various requirements and their
instructions must be followed carefully. The most common fault with release agents is far too much
to be put on, which can stain concrete. On the other hand, if not enough is applied, striking is made
difficult and both the concrete and the form face can be damaged.
The release agents should normally be applied as a thin film with brush, roller or spray. If by
mistake, too much is applied, the excess should be wiped off with a clean rag.
The ties and anchors are made both of mild steel and high tensile steel to cater for various
strength requirements. The manufacturers provide complete data regarding the strength and
other particulars of ties and anchors depending upon their size, strength of the concrete, depth
of embedment, etc. Figures 2.9 to 2.13 show different types of form anchors.
One such example of twisted wire loop wall tie is shown in Fig. 2.14. Such ties are simple to use and
are popular even in current construction practices.
In recent times, various form ties of primarily steel, have evolved. These form ties are tensile units
which hold securely the formwork for concrete structures against the above mentioned lateral pressure
of wet concrete. The form ties can be made with or without the provision for spacing the forms a
definite distance apart (the function of a spreader). Further, the form ties can be made with or without
the provision for the removal of ties to a specified distance back from the finished concrete surface.
Modern ties made of special alloys are capable of resisting very high pressure. The form ties are
available with safe load ratings ranging from 500 kg to more than 25,000 kg.
The form ties essentially consist of two parts: (1) internal tension unit and (2) external holding
device. The form ties are manufactured in the following two basic types:
1. Continuous single member, also referred to as through tie or one-piece tie.
2. Internally disconnecting type, also referred to as lost tie.
The above two types of tying devices are identified commercially by various descriptive names,
such as form clamps, coil ties, rod clamps, snap ties, etc. Except for taper ties, the continuous single
member type is generally used for lighter loads, ranging up to about 2,500 kg safe load. The internally
disconnecting type of tie is available for light or medium loads but finds its greatest application
under heavier construction loads (up to about 35,000 kg). Form ties classification has been shown
schematically in Fig. 2.15.
Besides the above two types, we discuss form ties for water retaining structures and a patented
system of form tie.
As can be noticed from Fig. 2.16, the adjustable flat tie is made up of a flat strip of mild steel
with a series of slots or holes uniformly spaced across the tie. The adjustable ties are designed for
adjustments in an increment of about 25 mm. The ties are tightened by a wedge inserted in the slot
at a specific position indicated by the wall size.
The tie rods are provided with notches for breakback. At the notches, the width of the flat is
reduced for easy break off which can be performed by striking with the hammer. Normally for an
inside wall surface, the position of breakback is about 5-6 mm below the wall surface and thus the
inside wall surface is to be filled up with grout or mortar. For the outside wall surface, the breakback
is flush with the edge of the outside wall and therefore the depression le by the tie rod does not
require filling.
Figure 2.18 Snap Tie. Figure 2.19 Snap Tie with Cone Spreader.
Figure 2.20 shows three designs of snapping arrangement in snap ties. As can be seen from the
figures, the snapping action also breaks some of the concrete away. The resulting jagged edges are
patched with grout or mortar. When the process is completed, the rod is completely enclosed in the
concrete structure. The concrete face is made smooth, with evidences of the tie position. This is the
reason why the use of snap ties is discouraged when high quality concrete surface is desired.
respectively. The DK sealing system of PERI has two reusable DK sealing cones, the reusable tie rod,
and a lost spacer tube. A seal between the cone and the formwork compensates for unevenness, and
prevents laitance from trickling in.
The SK sealing system by PERI has two reusable SK tie cones and three tie rods, the middle one
of which can be lost (e.g. for vaults and strong rooms and buildings providing radiation protection).
For all other applications, a spacer tube is used to enable the middle tie rod to be recovered. The
seal is used similar to the DK sealing system.
The processes of retrieving the tie rod and the operations therea er are shown in Figs. 2.27 and
2.28, which are self-explanatory.
The design and texture imparted to concrete could be of varied nature such as leaves, animals,
birds, clouds, fossils, logos, etc. Brick pa ern, stone and rock pa ern, and some customized pa ern
are shown in Fig. 2.30. More such pa erns are available at h p://www.formliners.com. The form
liners essentially act as a reverse stamp. Without the use of form liner, the texturing can only be
achieved in two stages: (i) pouring the concrete and (ii) applying the texture tool.
The use of form liners has increased in the recent days since more and more end users of concrete
are demanding not just plain concrete but the one which is aesthetically pleasing. A large number
of proprietary form liners in different pa erns such as brick pa ern, fluted rib pa ern, sand blast
pa ern, masonry pa ern, stone and rock pa ern, geometric pa ern, wooden plank pa ern, etc. are
available.
Some form liners can provide only a single use while some form liners can provide as many as
100 uses (repetitions).
The salient features of different types of form liners are given briefly in Table 2.16.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
E 1 Compute the controlling l/d ratio for an unbraced column shown
in Fig. S.2.1.1.
S
1,800
l/d ratio parallel to narrow face = = 36
50
1,800
l/d ratio parallel to wide face = = 18
100
The larger, controlling, l/d ratio = 36
Fig. S.2.1.1 Unbraced Column
E 2 Compute the controlling l/d ratio for a braced column shown in
Fig. S.2.2.1.
S
2,700
l/d ratio parallel to narrow face (longest unbraced length) = 27
100
FORMWORK MATERIALS 53
4,800
l/d ratio parallel to wide face = 38.4
150
l
Thus, the controlling is 38.4
d
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Various formwork materials are – timber, plywood, steel, fiber reinforced plastics, plaster
of paris, aluminum, form coatings, and mould linings.
(b) Important factors while considering different timber groups are – modulus of elasticity, and
bending stress on extreme fiber.
(c) The three timber groups are – A, B, and C.
(d) The different types of anchors are – screw anchor, hair pin anchor, loop anchor, and pig tail
anchor.
(e) Various pa erns made from form liner are – brick master, fluted rib, fractured rib, sand
blast, masonry, custom, geometric etc.
(f) Some advanced formwork materials are – fabric, polysteel, and plastics.
Q2. Match the following for the specification of timber for a formwork application:
1. Modulus of elasticity (a) No prohibited defects in timber
2. Moisture content (b) Consider permissible stress while designing
3. Defects (c) 12 to 20% depending upon climatic zone of
construction
4. Durability and treatability (d) Not less than 550 N/mm2
5. Design (e) Suitable quality timber
Q3. Match the following form tie classification—
1. Continuous single member one piece tie (a) She-bolt tie, coil tie
2. Internally disconnecting tie (b) Flat tie, loop tie, snap tie, taper tie
Q4. Match the following for 40 mm nominal bore steel tube
1. Cross sectional area (A) (a) 15.7 mm
2. Moment of inertia (I) (b) 5,700 mm3
3. Section modulus (Z) (c) 557 mm2
4. Radius of gyration (k) (d) 1,37,700 mm4
Q5. Short answer type questions
1. List out the characteristics of good quality timber formwork.
2. List out the features of aluminum formwork.
3. List out the advantages and disadvantages of fabric formwork.
4. Compare and contrast the polysteel formwork and plastic formwork.
5. List out the salient features of various types of liners.
6. What are the three most common types of release agents used in the context of formwork?
7. Under what circumstances will one prefer to adopt fiber reinforced plastic as formwork
material and why?
54 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Contents: Introduction; Loads on Formwork; Dead or Permanent Loads; Imposed Loads; Environmental
Loads; The Design Basis (Assumptions Made in Formwork Design); Estimating Permissible Stresses;
Maximum Bending Moment, Shear Force, and Deflection
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Design of the formwork, though important, has not received the a ention that it deserves. Many
formwork failures have resulted on account of either the absence of formwork design or poorly
designed formwork. The design concepts specific to formwork design are discussed in this
chapter.
Design of the formwork basically involves four steps: estimating the load; forming the design
basis; estimating the permissible stresses; and analyzing and designing each of the formwork
components.
According to the Indian standard, the formwork should be designed to meet the requirements of
the permanent structure using relevant Indian standards for the materials selected for formwork.
The formwork design should take into account the conditions of the materials to be actually used
for the formwork, as well as environmental and site considerations. The formwork design should
address the following requirements:
• Safety
• Overturning
• Overall stability
• Prevention of collapse.
Before designing the formwork, the formwork designer should get familiar with the various details
such as the site investigation report, various loads likely to be exerted on the formwork, expected
loading schemes, sequence of erection and dismantling of formwork, method of concreting, sequence
of concreting, and the total time of pouring the concrete. The sequence of concreting may prove to
be a critical input for the formwork design of cantilevers, domes, and so on.
The design should take care of the expected dead load, imposed load, construction load, and
environmental load. The design should address various load combinations of dead loads, imposed
56 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
loads, environmental loads, lateral pressure, and incidental loads arising on account of erection and
dismantling of formwork.
The loads on the formwork can be broadly classified under three broad heads: (1) dead loads, (2)
imposed loads, and (3) environmental loads. These are discussed below:
dimensions. It is important to know and understand the factors that can affect concrete formwork
pressure to ensure a successful pour. When placing concrete, we will consider the different factors
that play a role in determining the placement rate and height of pour.
In general, in calculating the pressure of concrete on the formwork, the following factors are
taken into consideration.
Method of discharge
Discharging concrete from a height causes a surge or impact loading, which exerts more pressure
than a discharge closer to the form.
Pmax = D C1 R C2 K H C1 R (3.2)
Pmax = D h (3.3)
60 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
by CIRIA, which is produced in the Tables 3.2 through 3.7. For the purpose of the use of the table,
wall or base is defined as a section where at least one of the plan dimensions is greater than 2 m,
while column has been defined as a section where both plan dimensions are less than 2 m. In order
to calculate the pressure on formwork, we need to know the concrete group, concrete temperature,
form height and rate of rise.
Table 3.2 Design Formwork Pressure for Columns for Concrete Groups: (1) OPC, RHPC or SRPC without
admixture and (2) OPC,RHPC or SRPC with any admixture except a retarder
Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp.
(10°C) (15°C) (20°C) (25°C)
Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h)
Form ht (m) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
3 48 57 69 77 42 52 65 74 38 49 62 72 36 46 61 71
4 53 63 76 85 46 56 70 80 41 51 66 77 38 49 63 75
6 61 71 85 95 51 61 76 87 45 56 71 82 41 52 67 79
Table 3.3 Design Formwork Pressure for Columns for Concrete Groups: (1) OPC,RHPC or SRPC with a
retarder, (2) LHPBFC,PBFC,PPFAC or blends containing less tthan 70% GGBFS or 40% PFA
without admixture, (3) LHPBFC,PBFC,PPFAC or blends containing less than 70% GGBFS or
40% PFA with any admixture, except a retarder.
Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp.
(10°C) (15°C) (20°C) (25°C)
Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h)
Form ht (m) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
3 59 66 75 78 50 58 70 78 44 53 66 75 40 50 64 73
4 66 74 86 94 55 64 77 86 48 57 71 81 43 53 68 78
6 77 87 99 109 63 72 86 97 54 64 78 89 48 58 73 84
Table 3.4 Design Formwork Pressure for Columns for Concrete Groups: (1) LHPBFC,PBFC,PPFAC or blends
containing less than 70% GGBFS or 40% PFA with a retarder, (2) Blends containing more than 70%
GGBFS or 40% PFA
Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp.
(10°C) (15°C) (20°C) (25°C)
Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h)
Form ht (m) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
3 69 76 78 78 57 65 75 78 49 58 70 77 44 54 66 75
4 79 86 96 103 64 72 84 92 54 64 77 86 48 58 72 82
6 94 102 114 123 74 84 97 106 62 72 86 96 54 65 79 90
62 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Table 3.5 Design Formwork Pressure for Walls for Concrete Groups: (1) OPC, RHPC or SRPC without
admixture and (2) OPC, RHPC or SRPC with any admixture, except a retarder
Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp.
(10°C) (15°C) (20°C) (25°C)
Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h)
Form ht (m) 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5
2 30 35 41 45 25 30 37 41 21 27 34 39 19 25 32 37
3 36 41 47 52 28 34 41 46 24 30 37 42 21 27 35 40
4 40 46 52 57 31 37 44 49 26 33 40 45 23 29 36 42
6 47 53 53 65 36 43 50 55 30 36 43 49 26 32 39 45
Table 3.6 Design Formwork Pressure for Walls for Concrete Groups: (1) OPC,RHPC or SRPC with a
retarder, (2) LHPBFC,PBFC,PPFAC or blends containing less than 70% GGBFS or 40% PFA
without admixture, (3) LHPBFC,PBFC,PPFAC or blends containing less than 70% GGBFS or
40% PFA with any admixture, except a retarder.
Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp.
(10°C) (15°C) (20°C) (25°C)
Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h)
Form ht (m) 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5
2 40 44 48 52 31 36 42 46 26 32 38 42 23 29 35 40
3 47 52 58 62 37 45 48 53 30 36 43 47 26 32 39 44
4 54 59 65 69 41 47 53 58 34 40 46 51 29 35 42 47
6 64 70 76 81 49 55 61 66 39 45 52 57 33 39 46 52
Table 3.7 Design Formwork Pressure for Walls for Concrete Groups: (1) LHPBFC,PBFC, PPFAC or blends
containing less than 70% GGBFS or 40% PFA with a retarder, (2) Blends containing more than
70% GGBFS or 40% PFA
Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp. Concrete temp.
(10°C) (15°C) (20°C) (25°C)
Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h) Rate of rise (m/h)
Form ht (m) 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5
2 49 52 52 52 38 42 47 50 31 36 42 46 27 32 38 42
3 59 61 68 72 45 50 56 60 37 42 48 53 31 37 43 48
4 68 73 78 82 51 57 62 67 41 47 53 58 34 40 47 52
6 82 87 93 97 61 67 73 78 48 54 61 66 40 46 53 58
For Column
The ACI formula for computing the lateral pressure for a column is given below:
785 R
P = Cw Cc 7.2 (3.5)
T 17.8
FORMWORK DESIGN CONCEPTS 63
The maximum value of pressure (in kN/m2) calculated from Eq. (3.5) is limited to that given by
the following expression:
P = 150 Cw Cc (3.6)
2
The minimum value of pressure (in kN/m ) calculated from Eq. (3.5) is limited to that given by
the following expression:
Pmin = 30 Cw (3.7)
2
The pressure (in kN/m ) computed from Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6) can in no case be greater than that
computed by the following expression:
Pmax = w h (3.8)
For Wall
The ACI formula for computing the lateral pressure for a wall is given below:
1, 156 244 R
P = Cw Cc 7.2 (3.9)
T 17.8 T 17.8
The maximum value of pressure (in kN/m2) calculated from Eq. (3.9) is limited to that given by
the following expression:
P = 100 Cw Cc (3.10)
The minimum value of pressure (in kN/m2) calculated from Eq. (3.9) is limited to that given by
the following expression:
Pmin = 30 Cw (3.11)
2
The pressure (in kN/m ) computed from Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) can in no case be greater than that
computed by the following expression:
Pmax = w h (3.12)
In the ACI formulae,
P = Lateral pressure in kN/m2;
h = Depth of plastic concrete from the top of placement to the point under consideration (in m);
w = Unit weight (in kN/m3);
R = Rate of displacement (in m/h);
T = Temperature of concrete during placement;
Cw = Unit weight coefficient (as per Table 3.8);
Cc = Chemistry coefficient (as per Table 3.8).
The code outlines a method for calculating the formwork pressure exerted by concrete. It
recommends a set of curves for lateral pressure computation (see Fig. 3.3). The parameters affecting
the value of lateral pressure according to IS code are predominantly: the rate of placement (height)
FORMWORK DESIGN CONCEPTS 65
in m/h; temperature of concrete in degrees Celsius; and the concrete mix proportion. Figure 3.3 is
valid for medium degree of workability, and a mix design with cement content of 350 kg/m3, 33
grade ordinary Portland cement without any addition of admixture. For the pressure calculation
of concrete mixes made with different types of cement and workability, correction factors are to be
applied as specified in IS: 14687–1999. The different correction factors are discussed in the following
sections:
(5) Admixture
Figure 3.3 is valid for concrete without the use of any admixture. In case admixtures are proposed to
be used, suitable correction factors to Pmax may be applied. The correction factors may be computed
on the basis of trials conducted or manufacturers’ supplied data.
The pressure distribution along the height of formwork can be assumed as given in Fig. 3.4.
For normal concrete, the maximum pressure may occur at a height hm below the top as given by
the following formula:
P
hm = max (3.16)
d
where hm is in m, Pmax is in kN/m2, and d is the density of fresh concrete in kN/m3.
66 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The pressure exerted on back form (that is top form on inclined surfaces) can upli the formwork.
Such situations should be designed and detailed for anchorage and pressure containment without
movements.
During casting, the majority of the SCC that is already in the formwork does not move anymore.
Therefore, the particles in the motionless layers are able to coagulate and build up an internal
structure. Consequently, the resulting pressure using a slow casting speed is relatively low. Regarding
the mix design, the use of organic and inorganic admixtures can have an influence on the pressure
as they affect cement hydration and thixotropy. If external energy is added, the internal structure
of SCC is destroyed, leading to an immediate increase in formwork pressure.
3.4.2 Loads From Construction Personnel, Plant and Equipment, Vibration and
Impact of Machine Delivered Concrete
Loads during constructional operation shall constitute the imposed loads [see IS: 875 (Part
2)–1987] for falsework design. Such loads may occur due to the construction personnel, plant and
equipments, vibration and the impact of machine delivered concrete, lateral pressure of fresh concrete,
unsymmetrical placement of concrete, concentrated load and the storage of construction materials.
Such loads are computed on the basis of recommendations given in IS: 875 (Part 2)–1987. The
value so selected from the code needs to be corrected if:
1. Concrete is dropped from a height of more than 1.1.m and;
2. Concrete is accumulated for more than three times the depth (thickness) of concrete on the
formwork surface with a limit in area of 1 m2 for any such situation to this height.
If it is necessary to exceed the above limitations, the code recommends allowances for the additional
loading in design. Where the allowance has only to be made for access and inspection purposes, the
code recommends a loading of 750 N/m2.
The code further recommends that imposing of any construction load on the partially constructed
structures shall not be allowed unless specified in the drawings or approved by the engineer-in-
charge. Allowance shall be made in the falsework design to accommodate force or deformation in
the post-tensioned members.
68 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The code recommends that the load from the permanent works shall be assessed from the self-
weight of the permanent structure to be supported by the formwork, including the weight of plastic
concrete which may actually be determined or taken as per IS: 875 (Part 1)–1987. The effect or impact
of the surge wherever it may occur, should be suitably considered and catered for. Where pumping
is resorted to, additional loads should be considered in the design.
According to ACI 347 recommendations, the formwork should be designed for a live load of not
less than 2.4 kN/m2 of horizontal projection. It further recommends that when the motorized carts
are to be used, the live load should not be less than 3.6 kN/m2. The design load for combined dead
and live loads should not be less than 4.8 kN/m2 or 6.0 kN/m2 if motorized carts are used.
Indian Standards recommend that the formwork should be designed in such a manner that the
vertical members are subjected to compressive force only under the action of combined horizontal
and vertical loads.
Special loads
Consideration is given to the influence of all foreseeable special loads during the construction.
Generally, the weight of the concrete with reinforcement can be assumed as 25 kN/m3. Self-weight
of the formwork, for ordinary structures, varies between 0.50 kN/m2 and 0.75 kN/m2.
• The stresses induced in every member of formwork, in bending, in shear and in bearing,
should be within the permissible working stress for that material.
• Forms must be so designed that the various parts will not deflect beyond the prescribed limits.
The permissible deflection depends on the desired finish as well as the location.
• The strength of nails is neglected in determining the size of main formwork. This does not
apply when considering splices, braces, and brackets.
In the absence of detailed specification, acceptable and frequently used values of permissible
deflections can be taken as given in Table 3.10.
According to IS: 14687–1999, the deflection permi ed in falsework inclusive of the initial
imperfections shall not exceed 3 mm in case of beam span less than 3 m, and it should not exceed
the least of 3 mm and L/1000 in case of beam span more than 3 m.
In order to translate the design into implementation at site, formwork drawings should necessarily
be produced which contain the following information:
1. The assumptions made in the design, for example the concrete temperature, slump, rate of
rise of concrete in the form, etc;
2. The types of materials, sizes, lengths, and the connection details;
3. The sequence of removal of forms and shores;
4. The details of anchors, form ties, shores, and braces;
5. The field adjustment of the form during placing of concrete;
6. The working scaffolds and gangways;
7. The details of weep holes, vibrator holes, or access doors for inspection and placing of concrete;
8. The details of construction joints and expansion joints;
9. The sequence of concrete placements and minimum/maximum elapsed time between adjacent
placements;
10. The details of chamfer strips or grade strips for exposed corners and construction joints;
11. The foundation details for the shoring;
12. Special provisions if any, such as protection from flood water, ice, and debris at stream
crossings;
13. The details of form coatings and release agents;
14. The means of obtaining specified concrete;
15. The location of box outs, pipes, ducts, conduits and miscellaneous inserts in the concrete,
a ached to or penetrating the forms;
16. The location of spacing of rubber pads where shu er vibrations are used.
FORMWORK DESIGN CONCEPTS 71
Table 3.11 Maximum Bending Moment, Shear Force, and Deflection for
Varying Loading and Support Conditions
Bending
Sl. No. Loading condition Shear Force Deflection
Moment
1. M = Pl V=P
Pl 3
=
3 EI
2.
M=
Pl
V=
P Pl 3
=
4 2 48 EI
Span = l = a + b
72 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Bending
Sl. No. Loading condition Shear Force Deflection
Moment
4.
Pa 3l 2
M = Pa V=P = a2
6 EI 4
Continuous beam more than 3 As can be noted from above, the expression remains the
spans with U.D.L. over its full same for more than three equally spaced supports.
length. Span of length l.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
E 1 Estimate the total load exerted on the formwork of a RCC slab of thickness 250 mm. Assume a
live load of 2.4 kN/m2 and self-weight of forms as 0.4 kN/m2.
S
Dead load, concrete and rebar = 26 0.250 = 6.5 kN/m2
Construction live load = 2.4 kN/m2
Weight of forms = 0.4 kN/m2
Total form design load = 9.3 kN/m2.
E 2 Calculate the lateral pressure exerted by concrete, for a bridge abutment section of dimension
0.8 6.0 5 m high, proposed to be cast with OPC normal weight concrete, and 10°C temperature at placing.
The proposed rate of placement is 24 m3/h and is to be pumped.
FORMWORK DESIGN CONCEPTS 73
S
24
Rate of rise = = 5 m/h
0.8 6
As per CIRIA report 108, Pmax at height = 4 m = 75 kN/m2
Pmax at height = 6 m = 85 kN/m2
Therefore by interpolating we get, Pmax at height = 5 m = 80 kN/m2.
Please also note that the maximum hydrostatic pressure if concrete acted as a fluid equals
5 24 = 120 N/m2 (where 5 is height, and 24 is concrete density in kN/m3). Therefore, actual maximum
pressure (80 kN/m2) is less than hydrostatic maximum pressure 120 kN/m2. The design pressure
envelope and actual pressure envelope for formwork design are shown in Fig. S 3.2.1.
E 3 Find the lateral pressure using ACI formula for the wall of size 15 m 3 m 0.2 m. Assume
rate of pour is 10 m3/h and ambient temperature as 20°C. The product of Cw and Cc may be considered equal
to 1.
S
Pour size = 15 m 3 m 0.2 m = 9 m3
Rate of Pour = 10 m3/h
Time required for concreting = 9/10
= 0.9 h (say, 1 h)
Therefore, rate of rise = 3 m/h
As per ACI Commi ee report,
1, 156 244 R
Lateral pressure, P = Cw Cc 7.2
T 17.8 T 17.8
Given CwCc = 1
1, 156 244 3
P=1 7.2
20 17.8 20 17.8
P = 57.15 kN/m2
74 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
E 4 For the data given below, compute the lateral pressure on formwork as per CIRIA formula and
also draw the design pressure distribution.
D (weight density of concrete) 25 kN/m3
C1 ( shape constant) 1
R, rate of rise 1 m/h
C2, concrete constituent factor 0.3
Temperature of concrete (°C) 25
Temperature co-efficient 0.77
H, form height 6.15 m
h, pour height 6m
S
Lateral concrete pressure (as per CIRIA formula)
Pmax = D C1 R C2 K H C1 R
E 5 Draw the design pressure distribution for a wall of thickness 10.5 m, length of 10 m and height
of 6 m. It is proposed to use OPC concrete with retarder. The concrete temperature at the time of placing is
10°C. The concrete pour speed is 15 m3 per hour.
S
The total concrete quantity to be poured = 0.5 m 10 m 6 m = 30 m3
Estimated time for the concrete pour = 30/15 = 2 hours
Thus the rate of rise R = 6 m/ 2 hours = 3 m/h
FORMWORK DESIGN CONCEPTS 75
Pmax = 90 kN/m2
hm = 90/25 = 3.6 m
The design pressure distribution is shown in Fig. S 3.5.1.
E 6 Draw the design pressure distribution for a column of dimension 0.5 m (width) 1.75 m (length)
10.0 m (height). It is proposed to use OPC concrete without retarder. The concrete temperature at the time of
placing is 10°C. The concrete pour speed is 8.75 m3 per hour. Assume a maximum pressure of 150 kN/m2.
S
The total concrete quantity to be poured = 0.5 m 1.75 m 10 m = 8.75 m3
Estimated time for the concrete pour = 8.75/8.75 = 1 hour
Thus the rate of rise R = 10 m/ 1 hr = 10 m/h
Pmax = 150 kN/m2
hm = 150/25 = 6 m
The design pressure distribution is shown in Fig. S 3.6.1.
E 7 Draw the design pressure distribution for a wall of thickness 0.2 m, length of 2.5 m and height
of 3 m. It is proposed to use OPC concrete with retarder. The concrete temperature at the time of placing is
10°C. The rate of rise is 6 m/h and the maximum pressure is 75 kN/m2.
76 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
S
Pmax = 75 kN/m2
hm = 75/25 = 3.0 m
Thus in this case, hm and H both coincide. The design pressure distribution is shown in
Fig. S 3.7.1.
E 8 Compute the lateral pressure on formwork for a 3.0 m high wall where ordinary concrete is to
be placed at 10°C progressively over a 1 hour period. The following inputs (see Table S3.8.1) may be taken
for the design:
S
Since the wall of 3 m height is ge ing filled in one hour, the rate of rise of concrete can be taken
as R = 3 m/h.
Pmax = D C1 R C2 K H C1 R (3.20)
2
36
For T = 10°C, K = = 1.92
T 16
The lateral pressure Pmax according to CIRIA formula is the smaller of
Pmax = D C1 R C2 K H C1 R (3.20)
and Dh (3.21)
From Eq. (3.20),
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Formwork design should not address safety, overturning, stability, and prevention of
collapse.
(b) Parameters influencing the pressure on formwork are - velocity of casting, total height,
consistency, concrete density, geometry of mould, and mix design.
Q2. Match the following in the context of formwork loads:
1. Dead load (a) Wind load, seismic load, earth and water
pressure, snow and ice load
2. Imposed load (b) Self-weight, ancillary work, fresh concrete
load
3. Environment load (c) Lateral pressure, concentrated load,
construction personnel load
Q3. Match the following:
2
1. Concrete pressure (a) 36
T 16
2. Pmax (Maximum concrete pressure) (b) Unit weight height
3. Temperature coefficient K (c) D C1 R C2 K H C1 R
Q4. Match the following permissible deflections with guidance:
1. Sheathing (a) 3 mm
2. Members up to 1.5 m (b) 6 mm or span/360 or span/270 mm
3. Members spanning greater than 1.5 m (c) 1.6 mm
Q5. Match the following:
1. Formwork materials (a) IS Codes for basic permissible stress
2. Timber (b) IS: 456–2000
78 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Q8. In a construction project, RCC boundary wall of length 120 m is to be built in 12 days time. The
height of the wall is 2 m and its thickness is 150 mm. The following shu ering materials are available
with the contractor:
Plywood 12 mm thickness, H-16 beam, steel waler of different sizes, tie rod, and alignment
props.
The properties of these materials are given in Table Q3.8.1.
Assume 40 kN/ m2 as the design formwork pressure. Tie rod capacity is 50 kN.
Use these formwork materials to prepare the desired formwork scheme economically. Support
your formwork scheme with approximate design calculations and sketches. Justify the structural
adequacy of the walers with detailed calculations. Calculate the maximum tie-rod forces.
FORMWORK DESIGN CONCEPTS 79
Q9. Design the wall formwork for a wall having 6.0 m length and 3.8 m height. The maximum concrete
pressure can be assumed to be 70 kN/m2. The client’s specification limits the deflection to 1/270 of
the span of any formwork member. Through ties are allowed. Timber and tie rod of different sizes
and plywood of 12mm thickness are available. Prepare a neat sketch showing the cross-section
and spacing of different members.
Q 10. (a) Discuss the significance of the various terms and coefficients (C1 and C2) used in the CIRIA
formula for the computation of lateral concrete pressure on wall forms.
(b) A concrete wall is to be cast with the use of a wall-form made with the following parts:
Walls: Thickness = 800 mm
Height = 3 m
Bay length = 9 m
Assume the wall is located in a sheltered position and no wind loadings need designing
for.
Concrete = OPC with retarder
Density = 24.5 kN/m³
Temperature at placing = 10°C
Uniform volume supply rate:
3 (6 m³ trucks) every hour
Using the formulae, determine the lateral concrete pressure distribution on the wall form.
Q11. Find the lateral pressure for the wall of size 15 m 3 m 0.25 m. Assume that the rate of pour is
10 m3/h, ambient temperature is 20°C and slump is 75 mm.
Q12. Given H = 3 m, R = 5 m/h, d = 500 mm, t = 5°C and slump = 75 mm. Calculate the lateral pressure
exerted by concrete on the formwork.
Q13. Given H = 6 m, R = 2 m/h, d = 500 mm, t = 20°C and slump = 50 mm. Calculate the lateral pressure
exerted by concrete on the formwork.
Q14. Given H = 5 m, R = 2 m/h, d = 250 mm, t = 10°C and slump = 75 mm. Calculate the lateral pressure
exerted by concrete on the formwork.
Chapter
Contents: Introduction; Conventional Formwork for Foundation; Foundation Formwork (All Steel);
Foundation Formwork Design; Illustration on Foundation Wall Design
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we discuss the conventional and proprietary foundation formwork. Some real life
illustrations of foundation formwork in use have also been provided. We discuss the different design
steps needed to perform foundation formwork design. Some design aids for ge ing assistance in
the foundation formwork design are also presented. Towards the end, we illustrate few foundation
formwork design examples.
The selection of materials for foundation formwork depends on the size and type of foundation.
The basic elements in footing formwork are: (1) sheathing materials, (2) stakes, (3) braces, (4) nails,
(5) studs, (6) wales, (7) spreader, and (8) ties.
The sheathing material consists of mostly timber planks, plywood, and steel plates. If timber
planks are used as sheathing material, their thickness is about 50 mm and width is the same as that
of the depth of the footing. Thus, if depth of the footing is 300 mm, the width of the plank to be
used is 300 mm. The plywood thickness used is between 12 mm and 19 mm. The steel plate used
as sheathing material has a thickness of 3.15 mm to 5 mm and a commonly used size of 600 mm
1,200 mm. One side of the steel plates is usually kept 600 mm while the other side is in the multiple
of 300 mm. For example 600 mm 300 mm, 600 mm 600 mm, 600 mm 900 mm, and 600 mm
1,200 mm. The sheathing materials are held in place with stakes. The stakes and braces are commonly
made up of 50 mm 100 mm timber. The distance between sheathing materials is ensured with
the help of spreaders or ties. The duplex-head nails are used for joining timber materials since they
are easy to be removed during formwork removal. Short braces hold the stakes and are useful for
alignment of the footing. Sometimes, the excavated earth is dumped outside of the form to prevent
the wet concrete from running out.
Since footings are below the ground and are covered, appearance of the concrete surfaces is not
that important in case of footing formwork. Thus, used formwork materials are preferable for footing
formwork. However, in order to provide straight and smooth concrete surfaces, it is imperative that
materials selected for footing formwork are of good quality and straight.
FORMWORK FOR FOUNDATIONS 81
Sometimes the steel form panels used for walls and slabs
are also used for forming the foundation. These steel form
panels are also known as floor form. The floor forms are
usually light gauge mild steel sheets with pressed flanges
and stiffeners for rigidity and strength. The floor forms
are made in standard modular sizes. Adjuster panels are
also available to fill the odd gaps, if found during the form
installation. In Fig. 4.4, floor forms made up of pressed
bent sheets are shown. The longitudinal box/ rib stiffeners
provide rigidity to the floor forms and help them maintain
Figure 4.4 A Typical Floor Form.
the edges even a er considerable number of uses.
The floor forms are also known as centering plates in the industry and can also be used for casting
of floor slabs, RCC columns, beams, and walls. The quality of concrete finish obtained is reasonable.
The cost and time involved in the making, as observed in case of timber formwork, is minimized
in case of floor forms. The materials used for manufacturing these floor forms are typically 2 mm
sheets with pressed flanges and stiffeners. For heavy applications, floor forms made up of sheet
thickness of 2.5 mm and 3 mm are common. Standard floor forms are made in 600 mm widths and
1,150 and 900 mm lengths.
Figure 4.5 Column Footing Showing the End Sections of Exact Dimension and Side Sections
of Extended Length. Also Notice the Internal Tie Arrangement.
84 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Large column footings (Fig. 4.7) can be made of shu er panels supported by steel soldiers. The
shu er panels consist of plywood and timber. Tie rods may not be provided. The pressure exerted
by the fresh concrete is transferred to the tubular steel braces.
Figure 4.9 shows a typical shu er panel made up of 19 mm plywood as sheathing material and
50 mm x 100 mm plates and studs. The studs are typically placed at a distance of 300 mm.
Figure 4.9 View of a Typical Shutter Panel Made up of Timber and Plywood.
In order to allow speedy placement of ties through the wall and the forms, suitable edge distance
as shown in Fig. 4.10 is provided.
86 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The step-by-step procedure for erecting formwork for foundation wall is shown schematically
from Fig 4.11 through Fig 4.16 and discussed as below:
Step 1
Two sole plates of cross section 100 mm 100 mm are placed along the footing (see Fig. 4.11). The
plates are nailed with the nailer inserts in the footing. The spacing between the plates is equal to
the thickness of the wall. The plywood sheathing fixed on the plates is slightly protruded (3–4 mm)
for ease in placing the spreader ties at the given spacing.
Step 2
The end spacer ties are fixed at the given spacing across the sole plates with the help of a hammer.
The action of the hammer helps the ties to get embedded in the projecting plywood. Alternately,
notches can be pre-cut at the tie locations. In such cases, hammers would not be required. Shu er
panels are brought one by one and kept on the sole plate. Ends of the shu er panels bu against
each other along the footing and they are joined with each other either by nailing or bolting on the
end studs. The shu er panels are connected with the sole plates by nailing. The lower ties are now
clamped. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.12.
FORMWORK FOR FOUNDATIONS 87
Step 3
The form ties at the upper tier of the shu er panels are laid at the given spacing on top of the shu er
panels. As described previously, another tier of shu er panels (upper tier) is brought one by one
and kept on the previous shu er panels (lower tier). Here also, the ends of the shu er panels bu
against each other along the footing and they are joined with each other either by nailing or bolting
on the end studs. The upper tier shu er panels are connected with the lower tier shu er panels by
nailing. The second level ties are now clamped. The arrangement of step 3 is shown schematically
in Fig. 4.13.
Figure 4.13 Lower Tier Shutter Panel Fixed and Upper Tier Shutter Panel Placed.
Step 4
Form spacers are fixed at the upper tier shu er panels at a given spacing (Fig. 4.14). The spacers
could be made up of wood board, metal straps or steel rods, etc.
88 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Step 5
Strongbacks at suitable spacing, usually at the end junctions of shu er panels, are installed
(Fig. 4.15). The cross section of a typical strongback in a normal case would be 2 number 50 mm
100 mm timber.
Step 6
For alignment, braces are fixed with strongback at the top and stakes in the ground (Fig. 4.16). The
cross–section of a typical brace in a normal case would be 50 mm 100 mm timber. Depending on
the requirement, a steel alignment prop can also be used.
FORMWORK FOR FOUNDATIONS 89
The above steps are more or less common even if the form materials change. For example, the
wooden shu ering panels can be replaced with the floor forms, the strongbacks could be replaced
with channel sections, and timber braces could be replaced with the steel alignment props.
Stepped footing form consists of a series of individual sides. These forms are made to the required
size of the footing.
The sides of stepped footings are made similar to the sides for the wall footing depending on the
size of the footing. The only difference here is that sheathing boards are required to be placed over
the openings at the top of each step of the form. In the absence of such sheathing boards, the top
concrete surface at the step locations would require to be leveled and finished manually.
90 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The end panels are fabricated to the exact size, while the side panels may not be of precise shape.
Panels may be supported by braces or by heaping excavated earth around the sides. Figure 4.18
shows a typical stepped footing form.
4.2.5 Raft
The plan and section of a typical ra formwork are shown in Figs 4.23 and 4.24. The floor forms
mentioned earlier have been used to form the ra . The size of the floor form used is 1,200 mm 600
mm. The two floor forms are connected with bolts in a proper manner. The floor forms are supported
by the walers of 1,200 mm length and spaced at 1,200 mm center to center in the plan. A typical waler
is made up of two ISMC 100, placed back to back with about 50 mm spacing between them. The
space between two ISMCs is maintained by welding spacer plates at suitable intervals. Supporting
brackets are provided at waler locations for resisting the formwork pressure. The brackets are fixed
with the help of the head adaptor assembly with the waler, while at the ground, it is connected to
the foot adaptor assembly. In some cases, foot adaptor assembly may not be used and the braces
may be directly supported on the excavated earth as shown in Fig. 4.25.
wl 4
= (Sl. No. 7, Table 3.11)
145 EI
Allowable deflection = lp/360, and allowable EI = 2.73 kNm2
wlp4 lp
Thus, = =
145 EI 360
13
145 EI
Thus, span lp = 0.332 m
360 w
ws ls2
M= (Sl. No. 5, Table 3.11), where ls is the span of the studs.
8
My M wS lS2
Extreme fiber stress, f = (4.4)
I Z 8Z
8 f Z 8 10 87 , 397.67
Therefore, span ls = 920.59 mm (4.5)
wS 8.25
Figure 4.31 The Arrangement of Different Form Panels and Tie Rods in Elevation and Sectional View.
100 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
145 EI 3
145 7.0 10 3 88 , 79 , 603.74 3
lpl = = 1,116.25 mm (4.10)
360 w pl 360 18
The permissible span is the minimum of the three values given by (4.8), (4.9), and (4.10). Thus
the maximum permissible span = 611.70, say 600 mm. Thus, provide the tie rod at a spacing of 600
mm. The tie will be located at a distance of 300 mm from each end of form panel and at 600 mm
interval in the intermediate location as shown in Fig. 4.31.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Basic materials in footing formwork are timber sheathing materials, stakes, braces, nails,
studs, wales, spreader, and ties.
(b) In sheathing design, span is based on – bending, shear, and deflection criteria.
Q2. Match the following:
(i) Sheathing material made of timber (a) Thickness 3.15 mm to 5 mm, size 600 mm
1,200 mm.
(ii) Sheathing material made of steel (b) Thickness 50 mm, size: width approximately
equal to the depth of the footing.
Q3. Match the following:
(i) Form for small isolated footing (a) Sheathing supported by studs and wales.
(ii) Form for large footing (b) Timber made sheathing supported by vertical
stakes.
FORMWORK FOR FOUNDATIONS 101
5 Wall Formwork
Contents: Introduction; Conventional Wall Formwork; Proprietary Wall Formwork System; Large
Area Wall Forms; Climbing Formwork; L&T Wall Formwork; PERI Wall Formwork; PERI Climbing
Formwork; Doka Climbing Formwork; Wall Form Design; Illustration of Wall Formwork Design Using
Plywood and H-16 Beams; Illustration of all Steel Wall Form Design
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we discuss the conventional wall formwork and different varieties of proprietary
wall formwork, such as climbing scaffold, traveling climbing scaffold, and automatic climbing
scaffold. Some real life illustrations of wall formwork in use have also been provided. We discuss
the different design steps needed to perform wall formwork design. Some design aids for ge ing
assistance in the wall formwork design are also presented. Towards the end, we illustrate few wall
formwork design examples.
One of the essential features of the proprietary systems is that the entire system is so designed
that it can be assembled and dismantled very quickly. The forms can be assembled either in small
sections, so that they can be handled manually or they could be formed in large sections. In the la er
case, they certainly have to be handled with a crane or some other suitable mechanical devices.
Figure 5.2 Application of Large Area Wall Formwork in Track Hopper Construction.
already done. The climbing form system is useful in situations where intermediate floors are not
available to support the wall formwork. In the absence of intermediate floors, it will be difficult and
uneconomical to support the wall formwork beyond the first few li s from the ground.
The climbing formwork requires three additional components other than those needed for normal
wall formwork. They are: supporting bracket with platform, hanging scaffold, and an anchorage
device to transfer the loads coming from the brackets and hanging scaffold to the previously cast
concrete. The supporting bracket with platform is used by the workers engaged in cleaning and
oiling of forms, and in the removal of form ties and fixing of climbing shoe. The hanging scaffold is
used for repair and minor touch up works to the already cast concrete. The hanging scaffold is also
used by the workers engaged in curing of concrete.
In this system of formwork, the wall forms are raised vertically li s a er li s. The wall forms for the
li going to be cast are supported on some anchors embedded in the previous li . It is very important
to ensure that the concrete strength gain at the anchors be sufficient at each stage of the operation
to resist the various loads that it would be subjected to. In other words, the form is allowed to
be supported from the previously cast li only when the concrete has gained sufficient strength.
Climbing formwork should not be confused with a slipform that moves during placement of the
concrete. Support of the climbing form is usually provided by anchors cast in the previous placements.
Climbing formwork essentially consists of two parts: wall form panel and working platform. The
working platform is provided for working of crew members and it also is used to store construction
materials. The difference between the climbing system and ordinary scaffolding system of wall
construction is that in the climbing system, the entire load from form and other construction
materials besides the work crew weight, is supported on the bracket fixed to the previous li and
not supported all the way to the ground by means of scaffolding as done in the la er system. This
is explained with the help of the following diagrams:
In Fig. 5.3(a), step 1 of the ordinary or traditional wall formwork is shown, where the formwork
and scaffolding are made ready for pouring the first li of the wall.
Figure 5.3(a) Step 1 of Traditional Wall Formwork-Casting of First Lift of the Wall.
106 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
For the next pour, the scaffolding is erected for greater height. The arrangement for casting the
second pour of the wall is shown in Fig. 5.3(b).
Figure 5.3(b) Step 2 of Wall Formwork— Casting of Second Lift of the Wall.
For the next pour, scaffolding is further raised to the desired height. This is shown in
Fig. 5.3(c).
The process is repeated till the desired height of the wall is cast. It can be observed that adopting
this method is cumbersome and time consuming.
In order to avoid the above situation in which the formwork is to be supported all the way to
the ground, different types of climbing formwork systems are available these days depending on
whether the wall form panels are cleaned on the ground or at elevated locations. These can be
classified essentially in three types:
Type 1:
In this system of climbing formwork, the wall form panels are to be brought to the ground with the
help of a crane for cleaning purposes on completion of each li . The bracket is to be dismantled and
fixed in its next position with the help of a crane. The step wise procedure is given below:
WALL FORMWORK 107
Step 1
In this step, the first 1 or 2 li s (depending on the li height) are cast in a conventional manner upto
level A or B as shown earlier in Figs. 5.3(a) and 5.3(b). During the casting of these li s, provision
for a suitable anchorage device is made. These anchorage devices are used to hang the brackets and
suspended scaffolds. The brackets support the alignment arrangement of wall shu er besides the
formwork crew. The suspended scaffolds are used by masons for finishing works and the curing crew.
108 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Step 2
In this step, the brackets are a ached to the anchorage devices le during the casting of the previous
pour. The suspended scaffold is a ached to these brackets. The wall formwork is assembled along
with the tie rods and anchorages devices. This is shown in Fig. 5.4 (a). It can be seen that the formwork
is ready to receive the concrete for the second li . It is assumed here that appropriate height in the
first li has been achieved to hang the suspended scaffold. In case where it is not possible to hang
the suspended scaffold, the second li also needs to be performed in a conventional manner as
shown in Fig. 5.3(b).
Step 3
In this step, a er the concrete of the second li has gained sufficient strength, the wall formwork
panel along with the alignment brackets and the top working platform is brought to the ground
essentially for cleaning purposes with the help of a crane. This is shown in Fig. 5.4 (b).
WALL FORMWORK 109
Step 4
The brackets and suspended scaffolds are dismantled, cleaned at the ground level, and a ached to
the anchorage devices le in the second li . This is shown in Fig. 5.4(c). The dismantled formwork
of the second li , a er cleaning, is brought and placed in position to receive the concrete for the
third li .
Type 2:
In this system of climbing formwork, the cleaning operation of the wall form can be performed at the
elevated location itself and there is no need to bring the entire wall form all the way to the ground
for cleaning. In this system of formwork, the wall form can be moved away from the concrete surface
a er the concrete has a ained sufficient strength. The distance by which the wall form is moved
is sufficient for some crew members to go between the concrete surface and the wall form to clean
the wall form panels. Thus, lowering of the wall form to the ground level for cleaning purpose is
110 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
avoided. A er cleaning of the wall form panels, the entire assembly is li ed and fixed to its next
position with the help of a crane.
Figure 5.4(c) Fixing of Suspended Scaffold to Receive the Wall Formwork for Third Lift.
The various stages involved in the working of this system of formwork are given below with the
help of schematic sketches.
Stage 1
In this stage, first li of the wall is prepared in a conventional manner like any other wall formwork
(see Fig. 5.3(a)). A er tying the reinforcement, the wall panels are erected along with the top platforms
and tie rods are fixed. The alignment braces are also installed, which are supported on the base
slab (it could be ground as well). The accessories to support the climbing shoe are installed at the
appropriate locations, normally at the upper tie location. Different kinds of climbing a achments
are available with different trade names according to the manufacturer. Concrete is poured and
allowed to gain strength.
WALL FORMWORK 111
Stage 2
A er the concrete has a ained the desired strength, tie rods are released. Formwork panels are
moved away from the recently cast wall concrete either by tilting (see Fig. 5.5 (a)) or by rolling (see
Fig. 5.5 (b)). Climbing shoe is a ached to the climbing accessories le in the previous pour. The
entire wall form assembly along with the supporting brackets is li ed with the help of a crane. The
supporting bracket is a ached to the climbing shoe now. Suspended scaffold can now be a ached
to the supporting brackets. The reinforcement for the li is tied and forms are fixed. Similar to the
first li , climbing accessories are installed at the upper tie location. Forms are aligned and concrete
is poured.
Figure 5.5 (a) View Showing the Gap Between the Concrete and Wall Form (Tilting Type).
Stage 3
A er the concrete has gained sufficient strength, the tie rods are released. The climbing shoe for the
next li is fixed at the climbing accessories location le in the previous pour. The entire wall formwork
assembly along with the supporting brackets and the suspended scaffold is moved to the third
112 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 5.5 (b) View Showing the Gap Between the Concrete and Wall Form (Rolling Type).
li location with the help of a crane (see Fig. 5.5 (c)). The process continues in a similar manner as
described, till the desired wall height has been reached.
Climbing form offers a number of advantages. For example, the cycle time that can be achieved
varies anywhere between 2-4 days. The crane time for formwork operation is considerably reduced.
The crane is needed only for moving the wall formwork from one li to the next. The system has
in-built safety systems. Thus work can proceed safely at any height. The system can be designed
to resist high wind speeds of the order of 150 km/h. All the components in a climbing formwork
system are engineered and made in a factory set up, thus the designer can design the system for
various loading and site conditions quite confidently.
Some of the limitations of the climbing formwork are: The form panels being of considerable
height and width, the site must be properly accessible for ease in maneuverings. Sufficient clearance
is also required while li ing the form from one li to the next. The system’s productivity and cycle
time suffers if a large number of openings and block-outs are to be le out.
WALL FORMWORK 113
Type 3:
This is the most advanced version of climbing formwork. The system is known as Automatic Climbing
Formwork or Self-Raising Formwork. In this formwork system, there is no requirement of a crane for any
formwork related operations. The wall form panels need not be brought to the ground for cleaning.
The cleaning and other formwork activities are performed at elevated locations itself. The climbing
part is taken care by a special device called climber, (see Fig. 5.6) which hoists up the formwork
assembly step by step. With standard components used in wall forming, the automatic climbing
formwork system can be customized for a wide range of applications. This type of climbing formwork
system can be very advantageously used for construction of large tall structures like Pylons, Piers,
Li Sha , Natural Draught Cooling Towers, Dam Faces etc. The system is ge ing popular these
days due to its independence from the crane and due to increased speed of construction. The form
114 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
panels could be made of large plywood sheets fixed on metallic or aluminum frames or they could
be made up of metal sheets fixed on metal frames.
The following components are in addition to what is used in the normal wall formwork.
Lifting frames
Bo om support of the li ing frame is anchored to the previously cast concrete li . The hydraulic jacks
are a ached to the li ing frames. The jacks pull the entire form system to the next li location.
Hydraulic jacks
The hydraulic jacks are a ached to the li ing frames. The jacks pull the entire form system to the
next level. A wide range of hydraulic and electric powered jacks are available. The spacing between
the jacks is dependent on the capacity of the jacks and the load to be li ed.
The climbing cycle sequence is explained with the following diagrams.
Stage 1
Formwork on one side is set. The leading anchor is positioned and secured. Reinforcement work is
completed. The arrangement corresponding to stage 1 is shown in Fig. 5.7.
Stage 2
Formwork is closed. Concrete is poured. The arrangement at this stage is shown in Fig. 5.8. A er
the concrete has a ained sufficient strength, the striking of formwork is commenced.
Stage 3
Climbing shoe is mounted. Climbing operation starts. The corresponding arrangement is shown
in Fig. 5.9.
WALL FORMWORK 117
Stage 4
Formwork for one side is set. Leading anchor is positioned and secured. Formwork is closed. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.10.
Figure 5.9 Arrangement Corresponding to Stage 3. Figure 5.10 Arrangement Corresponding to Stage 4.
118 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
In Fig. 5.13, retaining wall construction for a stadium using L&T wall formwork system is shown. A
number of steel walers along the wall height can be noticed. The single pour height is of the order
of 5-6 m. The tubular props and the foot adaptor assembly can also be noticed. It is possible to cast
the wall with slight curvature without any additional component as is clear from Fig. 5.13.
Circular walls can also be formed using the L&T wall formwork components as is shown in Figs.
5.14 and 5.15. The contractor (AFCONS Limited) used L&T wall formwork for casting the caisson.
Figure 5.14 Shoe of Caisson for Intake Structure Being Cast in the Dry Dock, Visakhapatnam.
WALL FORMWORK 121
Figure 5.15 Caisson for Intake Structure Being Floated into Deep Sea, Visakhapatnam.
form is relatively lower. There are many variants of Trio panel formwork. Each of the variants has
certain specialized functions. These are described briefly.
Trio Housing Panel Formwork is the fastest among all the variants of Trio panel wall formwork.
This system has a very short cycle time. The plywood board can be screwed on the panel in such a
way that there are no indentations of screws and nails le on the concrete surface. The ties can be
installed from one side only. The panels could be formed up to 5,400 mm height. There is only a
single tie required for concreting a height of 2,700 mm. The form panel is designed to withstand a
concrete pressure of 67.5 kN/m2 for a concreting height of 2,700 mm. Figure 5.17 shows a typical Trio
housing panel formwork. The form system is equipped with a working platform and a ladder.
Trio Aluminum Panel Formwork (see Fig. 5.18) is suitable for projects where cranes are not available
for formwork operations. The panels in this system of formwork are light in weight and thus can
be easily handled by manual efforts. Trio aluminium panel formwork is powder coated and uses
the same accessories as used in other Trio steel panel formwork.
WALL FORMWORK 123
Trio 330 Panel formwork (see Fig. 5.19) is suitable for wall heights up to 3,300 mm. Two ties are
required for this height. The form panels can withstand a concrete pressure of 82.5 kN/m2.
In addition to the above mentioned variants of Trio panel wall formwork, there are other variants.
For example, Trio structure formwork system (see Fig. 5.20) is useful for situations where farefaced
concrete finishes are required; Trio platform formwork system (see Fig. 5.21) provides the highest
level of safety, and so on.
5.7.5 Vario GT 24
Vario GT 24 wall formwork system is a versatile system formwork useful for a wide range of
applications, such as building construction, industrial construction, bridge abutments, retaining
walls, and so on. It is possible to form any ground plan and any height using this system. The
system has continuously adjustable element connections for all designs and applications. The system
offers a lot of flexibility in selecting the type and size of plywood, element widths and heights, the
vertical and horizontal tie arrangement, and the permissible concrete pressure. The system offers a
126 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
working platform for safe workings at all heights. A typical Vario GT 24 panel formwork is shown
in Fig. 5.24.
5.9.1 CB-150A
This is a crane-assisted, simple climbing wall formwork, and is referred to as a CB-150A system. The
system consists of (1) standard wall panels, (2) adjustable props for alignment, (3) standard brackets
of 1.5 m width with a provision for extension of width, and (4) suspended working platform. The
wall form is brought to the ground with the help of a crane a er completion of each li . This is
essentially for cleaning of wall formwork and making it ready for the next li . The bracket is also
dismantled a er each use and fixed to the next location with the help of a crane. The details of CB-
150A climbing formwork system is shown in Fig. 5.33.
WALL FORMWORK 133
The rollback arrangement through which a gap is created can be seen in Fig. 5.34. In Fig. 5.35,
the different components used in a CB-150F formwork system are clearly shown. It can be noticed
that most of the components are same as that used in ordinary wall formwork.
WALL FORMWORK 135
The application of traveling climbing formwork CB-150F is shown in Figs. 5.36 and 5.37. The
contractor used CB-150F for the construction of an LNG tank of 80 m diameter and 40 m height.
Shu er panels of size 4.0 m x 3.8 m were used for the wall formwork construction.
Figure 5.36 View of CB-150F in Use For Construction of an LNG Tank (Courtesy L&T Formwork).
Figure 5.37 Another View of CB-150F in Use For Construction of an LNG Tank (Courtesy L&T Formwork).
on formwork operations. The system has appropriate safeguards against wind, and work can
continue even in stiff weather conditions, which helps in adhering to tight control of schedules
and costs. Different variants of SKE formwork system are available, such as SKE 50, SKE 50 Plus,
and SK 175. The system can be very advantageously used for core walls in high rise structures,
cable stayed bridge pylons, large tall structures like natural draught cooling towers, etc. SK 175
is an automatic climbing formwork solution for constructing natural draught cooling towers. The
detailed discussion on this formwork is available in Chapter 8 of the book.
For a given thickness of plywood, the permissible bending stress and shear stress are found out
from the relevant Indian Standards or from the manufacturer’s data and the span for the plywood
(same as the spacing of the studs) is found out. In Table 5.1, approximate values for allowable bending
moment, shear force, and deflection for 12 mm, and 19 mm thick plywood are provided.
Table 5.1 Allowable Bending Moment, Shear, and Deflection for 12 mm and 19 mm Thick Plywood
Criteria Type of material
12 mm thick 19 mm thick H-16 Steel waler
plywood plywood
Allowable bending
0.2 0.34 3 10.2
moment (kNm/m)
Allowable shear (kN/m) 6.16 9.75 6 103.4
Allowable deflection L/360 or 1.6 mm L/360 or 1.6 mm L/360 or 6 mm L/360 or 3 mm
Permissible EI value 1.07 kNm2 2.73 kNm2 145 kNm2 784.14 kNm2
Based on the above values, the span of the plywood (spacing of the studs) can be computed by
referring to Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Formula for Spacing Based on Bending Moment, Shear and Deflection
for Continuous Ends Conditions
Material Bending Moment Shear Deflection L/360
1
2.0 9.86 3
145 EI
12 mm thick plywood w
w 360 w
1
3.4 15.6 3
145 EI
19 mm thick plywood w
w 360 w
1
3.0 9.6 3
145 EI
H-16 w
w 360 w
Table 5.3 Formula for Spacing Based on Bending Moment, Shear and Deflection
for Simply Supported Ends
Material Bending Moment Shear Deflection L/360
1
1.6 12.32 3
16 EI
12mm thick plywood w w
75 w
1
2.72 19.5 3
16 EI
19mm thick plywood w
w 75 w
1
24 12 3
16 EI
H-16 w
w 75 w
WALL FORMWORK 139
For example, for a 12 mm thick plywood, the spacing of the studs can be computed as below:
Based on bending moment for a load w = 7 kN/m2,
1.6
spacing = = 478 mm
w
Based on shear for a load w = 7 kN/m2,
12.32
spacing = = 1,760 mm
w
Based on deflection limit of L/360, w = 7 kN/m2, and EI = 1.07 kNm2,
1
3
16 EI
spacing = = 319 mm
75 w
The minimum value of spacing obtained from above three conditions is chosen as the spacing
of the studs.
At this point of time, there are two possibilities:
(i) We choose the cross section and material of the studs, and compute the permissible span of
the studs (this is same as the spacing of the walers).
(ii) We decide on the spacing of the walers and thereby the span of the studs, and find the cross
section and material of the studs.
The illustration for both the cases is given below:
(i) Let us choose timber studs of 50 mm 100 mm cross section. The permissible stress values
can be taken from IS: 883–1994 for exact calculation. However, for preliminary design, the
permissible stress values can be taken from Table 5.4.
I bd 2
Section modulus, z= (5.3)
( d / 2) 6
M 6M
Therefore, f= (5.4)
Z bd 2
The allowable stress for timber can be obtained from IS:883–1994, and one can arrive at different
combinations of b and d.
The value of M in the above expressions can be obtained from Table 3.11 of Chapter 3.
The permissible span of the studs based on bending would be computed by equating the permissible
value of bending stress and the expression of f using relevant expression for M as given in Eq. (5.4).
(b) Horizontal shearing stress:
The maximum unit stress in horizontal shear in a rectangular beam is given by:
3V
H= (5.5)
2bd
The shear force is computed using the relevant expression of Table 3.11. The permissible span of
the studs based on shear would be computed by equating the permissible value of shear stress and
the expression of H using relevant expression for V as given in Eq. (5.5).
Deflection:
The expression for deflection (5wl4/384EI in case of U.D.L. simply supported condition) is equated
with the permissible deflection to get the span of the studs.
The minimum value of spacing obtained from above three conditions is chosen as the span of
the studs, which is the spacing for the wales.
Step 4 Design of the Wales
Design of the wales is performed for either of the two cases: (i) the tie rod spacing is known (ii)
the cross section of the wales is known:
(i) the tie rod spacing is known
In this case, the tie rod spacing is considered as the span of the wales. The load exerted from the
studs, even though they are concentrated, is treated as uniformly distributed load. Depending
on whether the walers are simply supported or continuous, the cross section of the walers is
decided based on the permissible bending stresses, shear stresses, and deflection, whichever
governs in a similar manner illustrated above for the design of the studs.
(ii) the cross section of the walers is known
In this case, depending on the cross sectional property of the walers, the span of the walers
is fixed based on bending moment, shear forces, and deflection considerations.
Step 5 Design of the Tie
There could be following possibilities:
The span of the waler is known, the load exerted on the tie rod can be computed by multiplying
the concrete pressure with the area of load being taken care of by the tie rod. For this load, the tie
rod can be designed using the following expression:
WALL FORMWORK 141
Capacity of tie rod required = Area catered by one tie rod Concrete pressure on formwork Factor of
safety (5.6)
Step 6 Check for bearing
Bearing of the studs on the wales
Bearing between the tie washer or tie holders and the wales.
Maximum tie load
The actual bearing stress = (5.7)
Bearing area
The various steps in the wall formwork design are given in the form of a flow chart in Fig. 5.39.
5.11 ILLUSTRATION OF WALL FORMWORK DESIGN USING PLYWOOD AND H-16 BEAMS
It is desired to check the adequacy of wall formwork shown in Fig. 5.40. As can be seen from the
Figure, 12 mm thick plywood has been used as sheathing, H-16 @250 mm centre to centre distance
has been used as studs. Walers have been used @1,200 mm centre to centre distance. Tie rods have
been proposed @1,200 mm centre to centre.
Pmax = D C1 R C2 K H C1 R
The design pressure distribution corresponding to these values is shown in Fig. 5.41.
Thus, the given spacing of the H-16, and hence the span of the plywood is safe in bending, shear,
and deflection.
Where, fcb = elastic critical stress in bending, fy = yield stress of the steel in MPa, and n is a factor
which is taken as 1.4.
The expression for computing fcb is given below:
k1 ( X k2 Y ) c2
fcb =
c1
Where, k1 = a coefficient to allow for reduction in thickness or breadth of flanges between points
of effective lateral restraint.
k2 - a coefficient to allow for the inequality of flanges.
The values of k1 and k2 can be read from IS: 800–2007. In the present case, k1 and k2 can be taken
as 1 and 0 respectively.
c1, c2 = respectively the lesser and greater distances from the section neutral axis to the extreme
fibers. Consider c2/c1 to be 1.0
26.5 1, 00 , 000
Y= 2
= 2,944.44 N/mm2
(l / ry )
2
1 lT
X =Y 1 = 3,296.10 N/mm2
20 ry D
Thus,
k1 ( X k2 Y ) c2
fcb = =1 (3,296.10 + 0 2,944.44) 1 = 3,296.10
c1
For, fy = 250 N/mm2, and the computed values of fcb
0.66 fcb f y 0.66 3 , 296.10 250
bc = 1/ n 1 / 1.4
= 161.89 N/mm2
n n 1.4 1.4
fcb f y 3 , 296.10 250
The permissible stresses, deflection, and EI value for the waler are summarized below:
Permissible bending stress bc = 161.89 N/mm2
Permissible shear stress = 0.4 fy = 100 N/mm2 (IS: 800–2007)
l 1, 200
Permissible deflection = w = 3.69 mm (IS: 800–2007)
325 325
EI = 7.84 1011 N/mm2
146 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The tie rods have been spaced at 1.2 m centre to centre, thus the span of the waler, lw = 1.2 m. The
span shall be checked for bending moment, shear, and deflection for its adequacy under simply
supported condition.
Load on waler = ww = w spacing of walers = 38.12 1.2 = 45.74 kN/m
Check for bending stress
ww lw2 45.74 1.2 2
M= = 8.233 kNm
8 8
Bending stress(M/Z) = 110.38 N/mm2 (less than 161.89 N/mm2, hence safe).
Check for shear stress
w l 45.74 1.2
V= w w = 27.44 kN
2 2
Shear stress (V/Aweb) = 29.20 N/mm2 (less than 100 N/mm2, hence safe).
Check for deflection
5 ww lw4
= = 1.6 mm (less than 3.69 mm, hence safe).
384 E I
Thus the given spacing of the tie rods, and hence the span of the walers is safe in bending, shear,
and deflection.
Figure 5.42 Front and Side Elevation of Proposed Wall Formwork (All Steel).
Considering a typical square element (shorter side a = longer side b = 300 mm) of the plate with
all four edges inbuilt (see shaded portion in Fig. 5.42).
Thus, span ratio r = b/a = 1.
b1 Pmax a2
Maximum stress in bending tension bt.cal =
t p2
tf b2f
Section modulus provided Zp = , where tf = thickness of flat = 6 mm and bf = width of flat
6
= 50 mm.
6 50 2
Thus, Zp = = 2,500 mm3 (more than 1,023 mm3, hence safe). For the calculation of Zp, the
6
flange plate has not been considered.
For the cross sectional dimensions shown in Fig 5.43, the centre of gravity CG and the distances
of extreme bo om and top fibres yb and yt can be found out.
The CG is located at a distance of 40.16 mm from the bo om.
yb and yt are 40.16 mm and 13.84 mm respectively as marked in the figure.
Moment of Inertia
50 3 6 43 96
IXX = 6 50 ( 40.16 25)2 4 96 (13.84 2)2
12 12
= 1,85,791 mm4
I 1, 85 , 791
Section modulus Zb = XX = 4,626.27 mm3
yb 40.16
I XX1, 85 , 791
Section modulus Zt = = 13,424.21 mm3
yt 13.84
BM h 1, 68 , 750
Calculated tensile stress due to bending sbt, cal = = 36.48 N/mm2.
Zb 4 , 626.27
BM h 1, 68 , 750
Calculated compressive stress due to bending sbc, cal = = 12.57 N/mm2.
Zt 13 , 424.21
WALL FORMWORK 149
wh lh 15 0.3
Shear force V = = 2.25 kN = 2,250 N
2 2
V 2 , 250
Shear stress = = 7.5 N/mm2
bf tf 50 6
2 , 00 , 000 1, 85 , 791
E I= 2
= 37.16 kNm2
1, 000 1, 000
5 wh lh4 5 15 0.34 span 300
Deflection = = 0.00004 m = 0.04 mm (less than = 0.92 mm,
384 E I 384 37.16 325 325
hence safe).
Figure 5.44 Front and Side Elevation of Proposed Wall Formwork Showing
Waler and Tie Locations.
150 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
For the cross sectional dimensions shown in Fig 5.45, the centre of gravity CG and the distances
of extreme bo om and top fibres yb and yt can be found out.
The CG is located at a distance of 46.52 mm from the bo om.
yb and yt are 46.52 mm and 17.48 mm respectively as marked in the figure.
Moment of Inertia
60 3 6 4 3 96
IXX = + 6 60 (46.52 – 30)2 + 4 96 (17.48 2)2
12 12
= 2,98,778 mm4
I 2 , 98 , 778
Section modulus Zb = XX = 6,422.57 mm3
yb 46.52
I XX
2 , 98 , 778
Section modulus Zt = = 17,092.56 mm3
yt 17.48
BM v 10 , 54 , 688
Calculated tensile stress due to bending sbt,cal = = 164.22 N/mm2.
Zb 6 , 422.57
BM v 10 , 54 , 688
Calculated compressive stress due to bending sbc,cal = = 61.70 N/mm2.
Zt 17 , 092.56
w l 15 0.75
Shear force V = v v = 5.625 kN = 5,625 N
2 2
V 5 , 625
Shear stress = = 15.63 N/mm2
bf t f 60 6
2 , 00 , 000 2 , 98 , 778
E I= = 59.76 kNm2
1, 000 1, 000 2
5.12.4 Check for Waler
Two numbers ISMC 100 back to back have been provided as walers in the wall formwork. Let’s take
the spacing of the walers as 0.75 m.
Thus, load on one waler = ww = w sapacing of the walers = 50 0.75 = 37.5 kN/m
Check for bending stress
The span of the waler lw, is taken as the spacing of the tie rod which is assumed as 1.2 m centre
to centre.
WALL FORMWORK 151
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Various types of proprietary wall formworks are: climbing scaffold, traveling climbing
scaffold, and automatic climbing scaffold.
(b) Various types of PERI climbing formwork are :-CB240,CB160, RCS,ACS.
(c) The three variants of ACS are: ACS-R, ACS-P, and ACS-G.
(d) Various types of Doka climbing formwork are: CB-150A, CB-150F, MF-240,and SKE-50.
Q2. Match the following
(i) Large area wall form (a) Used for high rise structures: jump form.
(ii) Climbing formwork (b) Gang form, prefabricated panels joined together
to form a large shu er panel.
Q3. Match the following
(i) Maximo panel wall formwork (a) Used for semi circular arch, segmental arch.
(ii) Trio panel wall formwork (b) Used for structures having curvature and
circular structures.
(iii) Handset panel wall formwork (c) Continuously adjustable elements, wide range
of applicability.
(iv) Vario GT 24 girder wall formwork (d) Light, withstand concrete pressure up to
40 kN/m2.
152 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
(v) Rundflex circular wall formwork (e) Trio housing, Aluminum, 330 panel.
(vi) GRV circular wall formwork (f) Used for speedy construction, conical tie
system.
Q4. Sequence the following steps in wall formwork design; (a) design of sheathing ; (b) design of wales;
(c) determine the pressure on form ; (d) check for bearing ; (e) design of tie ; (f) design of stud.
Q5. List out the salient features of each of the following:
(i) Climbing formwork;
(ii) Traveling formwork;
(iii) Automatic climbing scaffold.
Q6. List out the various design inputs and steps for wall formwork design.
Q7. List out the salient features of L&T wall formwork.
Q8. List out the various features of PERI wall formwork.
Q9. List out the salient features of conventional wall formwork.
Q10. Design the formwork for a 3.0 m high wall, where ordinary concrete is to be placed at 10°C
progressively over a 1 hour period. The following inputs may be taken for the design:
C1 Shape co-efficient 1.0
C2 Material co-efficient 0.3
D Concrete density 26 kN/m3
H Vertical height of form 3.0 m
Q11. Design the forms for a concrete wall for the following data.
(a) Height of wall = 4.0 m; (b) Rate of filling forms = 1.33 m per hour; (c) Temperature = 25˚C.
It is proposed to limit the deflection to l/270. Use timber sheathing and studs.
Q12. Thickness of plywood is 20 mm, concrete wall = 150 mm, and allowable stress in the deck
= 12 MPa, E = 10GPa; it is decided to use 75 mm 150 mm ba en as stud. What is the spacing of the
joist and what shall be the spacing of the wales, height of the wall is 4.5 m. Maximum permissible
stress on the timber is 8 MPa. Tie and braces shall be designed suitably.
Chapter
6 Column Formwork
Contents: Introduction; Conventional Column Formwork; Proprietary Column Formwork; L&T Column
Formwork; Doka Column Formwork System; PERI Column Formwork; Disposable Column Formwork;
All Metal Column Formwork; Achieving Formwork Economy in Column Construction; Design for
Column Form; Illustration of Column Formwork Design; Example for Computation of Force in Diagonal
Tie Rod of Column
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we discuss the conventional column formwork and some proprietary column
formwork. In conventional column formwork, the emphasis is on all timber and all steel formwork.
Under proprietary column formwork, we discuss L&T, Doka column formwork, and PERI formwork,
and some disposable column formworks. The design issues of both the types of columns are
discussed. Some field applications of column formworks are also illustrated.
A column formwork typically consists of four sides even though different shapes of column
formwork are possible. Some commonly used column shapes are given from Figs. 6.2–6.4.
Inclined struts or shores are used in tall column formwork in order to ensure the stability of the
formwork, and also verticality. For columns, shores on all sides are preferred. Shores in conventional
column form arrangement are usually of timber; however, proprietary metal shores are also very
common these days. The shores are connected to the bedplate to distribute the pressure uniformly
on the soil.
In all steel column formwork, sheathing would consist of steel plates of thickness usually varying
from 3.15 to 5 mm and the studs (supporting members for sheathing), could be made with flats
(50 mm 6 mm is a very common section) or angle sections (ISA 50 mm 50 mm 6 mm is a very
COLUMN FORMWORK 155
common section). The yokes would be made out of two numbers ISMC 100 back to back. The size
of a shu er panel is chosen in such a manner that it is easy to li them manually. Individual side
shu ers are brought at column location and they are connected together with the help of bolts. The
joints formed when adding the two shu ers need to be made water tight so that the slurry does not
leak. For this, foam or similar substance is glued at the joint location.
offer special shaped form panels to fit in the corners or splays or construction of curved structures.
In some cases, the column formwork components with some additional accessories, can be converted
and used as a climbing formwork system for a column.
The manufacturers specify the permissible concrete pressure on the formwork. The proprietary
formworks have flexibility to be used both for manual applications and crane assisted applications.
Specially designed li ing hooks are in-built in the system for ease in li ing the form panels by
cranes. Most of the proprietary column formworks have the provision for fixing an access ladder
for climbing up and down besides the provision to fix the working platform at the top of the column
form. The proprietary column formwork can be reused large number of times.
Some commonly visible proprietary column formworks are briefly explained in the following
sections.
Figure 6.6 Application of L&T Column Formwork for the Construction of Factory.
Figure 6.7 Column Formwork Being Lifted With the Help of a Crane.
160 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
100 m2, concrete quantity of 27 m3. The size of the column at the pile cap is 600 mm wide 1,100 mm
long, with outside face semi circular at 300 mm radius. The angle of inclination of the inclined part
is 80°. Pile cap top is at –1.15 and the inclination starts from –0.3. The column splits into two parts
as shown in Fig. 6.9 at +5.455, with vertical part of dimension 600 mm 800 mm and the inclined
part of 600 mm 808 mm, with outside face semi circular at 300 mm radius. From +10.45 to +16.5,
the vertical and the inclined parts flare in width from 600 mm to 1600 mm, resulting in top plan
area of dimensions 4,210 mm long 1,600 mm wide.
The sheathing material adopted for the column is steel, for the purpose of huge concrete volumes
in each li and to maintain the semicircular shape, quality, and for more number of repetitions. The
form heights were restricted to 2.5 m for ease in manual handling. The formwork for the full height
of columns was done in stages. The completed Y-shaped columns are shown in Fig. 6.10.
three heights: 3,000 mm, 2,100 mm, and 600 mm. This allows various height adjustments besides
allowing faster construction. The system being light weight does not require crane involvement.
It can resist concrete pressure up to 120 kN/m2. The provision of access ladders and a concreting
platform allows safe working at all heights.
Figure 6.16 Rapid Column Formwork (Courtesy PERI). Alignment Props Not Shown for Clarity.
external ties at each waler location are sufficient to withstand concrete pressure up to 100 kN/m2.
The system can be designed for higher concrete pressure as well. The provision of access ladders
and a concreting platform allows safe working at all heights.
Figure 6.21 A Typical SRS Steel Circular Column Form (Courtesy PERI).
Very strong;
Light and easy to handle;
Quick and easy to erect;
Requires no mould oil or release agent;
Stripped literally in seconds;
Delivered at a short notice;
Manufactured in a large range of sizes;
Can be used for horizontal void forming.
Rapidobat is a disposable formwork made up of spirally wound rigid paper, suitable for forming
round column. The internal side of the formwork is lined with a smooth faced plastic release sheet.
The release sheet helps a aining a good quality surface finish. The formwork system is claimed
to be fast and an economical solution for forming round columns, compared to timber and steel
column formwork. The number of columns cast in a day is limited only by the number of column
formworks purchased. Figure 6.26(a) shows the Rapidobat form in position, while Fig. 6.26(b) shows
the finish of the column a er the form has been removed.
COLUMN FORMWORK 175
(a) (b)
Figure 6.26 (a) Rapidobat Column in Installed Position (b) The Column After Removal of Forms.
The alignment of the circular column form can be done by using the props used for rectangular
and square column formwork.
Figure 6.27 shows the details of a customized column formwork for casting concrete columns
of 600 mm diameter and 6,150 mm height. The form panels have been fabricated using 4 mm steel
sheets and flats of various sizes such as 50 mm 6 mm, 60 mm 6 mm, and 120 mm 8 mm. Holes
of 17.5 mm diameters have been le for fixing bolts of 16 mm diameter.
The details of the form panel for casting a starter of 200 mm height is also shown in the Fig. 6.27.
The sheathing member is joined to the flats using 4 mm fillet welds as per Indian Standards (IS:
816–1969). The rate of pour for the given design is specified as 2 m/h. The form panels are constructed
in two half-circles. The location of alignment props is also shown in the figure.
For the Delhi International Airport Project, the application of steel column formwork for casting
rectangular columns is shown in Fig. 6.28. Some of the columns for this project were formed using
steel formwork. Heavy duty towers were erected to support the working platform through which
concrete was poured.
Figure 6.28 Column Construction Using Steel Formwork for Delhi International Airport Project.
6.9.1 Location
For maximum economy, as far as possible, standardized column location in a uniform pa ern in
both directions is recommended.
6.9.2 Orientation
The same orientation for as many rectangular columns as possible, should be used.
6.9.3 Shape
The use of same shapes as o en as possible throughout any given floor, and vertically from floor to
floor, is advisable for economy. Square or round columns are the most economical. The rectangular
shapes should be used only when architectural, structural or flying form1 (discussed in detail in
Chapter 10) requirements so dictate.
6.9.4 Size
The column should be kept the same size throughout the building. If size changes are necessary,
they should occur in 50 mm increments, one side at a time (Example: 600 mm 600 mm column
should go to a 600 mm 550 mm, then 550 mm 550 mm etc). This approach to changing column
sizes results in material economies permi ing gang forming2 possibilities. For use with a flying form
system, the distance between column faces and the flying form must be held constant. Column size
changes should be made parallel to the flying form.
1
Flying forms are large prefabricated units of formwork incorporating support and designed to be moved
from place to place. These are explained in detail elsewhere in the book.
2
Ganged forms are prefabricated panels joined to make a much larger unit for convenience in erecting, stripping
and reusing; usually braced with wales, strongbacks, or special li ing hardware.
178 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
P = Cw Cc 7.2 785 R
T 17.8
With a maximum of 150 Cw Cc kN/m2, a minimum of 30 Cw kN/m2, but in no case greater than wh;
where,
P = lateral pressure (kN/m2)
R = rate of pouring concrete (m/h)
T = temperature in °C
Let’s assume:
R = 2 m/h ; T= 15°C ; and Cw Cc = 1
Permissible bending stress for timber = 7 N/mm2
Permissible bending stress for plywood = 14 N/mm2
Therefore, maximum lateral pressure,
785 2 kN
P=1 7.2 55.066
15 17.8 m2
5 w lp
Q= 6.16
8
5 55.066 lp
Q= 6.16
8
8 6.16
lp
5 55.066
lp 0.178 m = 178 mm
Based on deflection
Assuming two spans,
w lp4 lp
=
185 E I 360
185 E I 185 1.07
lp 3 lp 3
360 w 360 55.066
lp 0.215 m = 215 mm
Minimum of the above three values = 170 mm. Assuming 50 mm 100 mm joist, keep the centre
to centre distance of the studs as 150 mm only, since the side of the column is of 350 mm width. The
arrangement of plywood and joists would be as shown below:
I
Zxx = = 166,666.67 mm3
d/2
E = 7,700 N/mm2
Allowable bending stress, fb = 7 N/mm2
Thus, allowable bending moment = fb Zxx= 1.167 kNm
Allowable shear stress fq = 0.6 N/mm2
Thus, allowable shear force = fq A = 0.6 10,000 = 6,000 N = 6 kN.
Based on bending moment
wy ly2
Maximum bending moment (assuming simply supported conditions), M =
8
Maximum permissible bending moment = 1.167 kNm
Load wy = 55.066 0.60 = 33.04 kN/m
On substituting, we get,
wy ly2
M= 1.167
8
33.04 ly2
1.167
8
⇒ ly = 0.531 m = 531 mm
Based on shear force
Assuming simply supported conditions,
w y ly
Q= 6
2
2 6
ly 0.363 m 363 mm
33.04
Based on deflection
5 wy ly4 ly
=
384 E I 360
wy ly2
Maximum bending moment =
8
55.066
0.575 0.575
= 2.275 kNm
8
2
Permissible stress in timber = 7 N/mm (given)
M 2.275 106
Section modulus required = 3,25,000 mm 3
fb 7
Taking b = 100mm,
3 , 25 , 000 6
Depth of section required = 139 mm
100
Thus, provide the yokes with a cross section of 100 mm 150 mm.
Check the yoke section for shear and deflection.
Formwork scheme for the column is shown in the following figure:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Main components of column formwork are: sheathings, studs, yokes, tie arrangement, and
alignment arrangement.
(b) Various factors in achieving economy in column formwork are-location, orientation, shape,
size, varying percentage of steel, avoiding projections.
COLUMN FORMWORK 185
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we discuss the conventional slab and beam formwork, and some proprietary slab
and beam formworks. The main components of a slab and beam formwork are sheathing, joists,
stringers, shores, and bracing. Diagonal braces in both the directions, though very important members
in slab and beam formwork, are o en found missing in the formwork scheme being implemented
at project sites. Many formwork collapses in the past are a ributed to the absence of the diagonal
bracings. These bracings, in addition to ensuring stability of the formwork in the event of high
winds and differential se lement of shores, also act as a framework on which the working platforms
can be erected. These platforms are useful during form stripping operations. The diagonal braces
between the top of the shore and the mid-height need to be provided at least in one bay along a
row of shores of several bays.
In conventional slab and beam formwork, the emphasis is on all timber and all steel formwork.
Under proprietary slab and beam formwork, we discuss L&T slab and beam formwork, PERI slab
and beam formwork, and Mivan formwork. The design issues of both the types of slab and beam
formwork are discussed.
to the adjacent ones by a system of horizontal braces. The braces are usually fixed at about 1.30
to 1.50 m below the sheathing. For a shore of height in the range of 3.0 – 3.5 m, that is somewhere
slightly above the mid-height of the shores. This leaves a clear height of about 1.80 m – 2.0 m from
the ground which can allow workmen to freely move about below the formwork.
The use of a traditional formwork system may be characterized as a labor-intensive and time-
consuming operation. Not only the forms are tailor-made manually on the site, but the concrete
surface also frequently requires man-hours for further finishing a er stripping. In addition, the
falsework involving formwork is one of the activities causing major casualties at construction job
sites, and hence, hampers the worker’s safety. Consequently, the activity of formwork construction is
o en critical in a project, affecting it in terms of time, cost, quality, and safety. Joints in traditional slab
and beam formwork require special considerations and are dealt with, in the following section.
Figure 7.1 Typical Components of Beam Formwork with Slab Forming in.
Figure 7.2 Typical Slab Form Resting on Beam Ledger and Stringers.
188 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 7.5 Joining Details of Posts and Joists, and Posts and Bracings.
light gauge M. S. sheets with pressed flanges and stiffeners for rigidity and strength. They are also
made in standard modular sizes. To fill up the odd gaps, adjuster panels are also available.
Figure 7.8 Typical Arrangement of L&T Flex System for Inclined RC Floors.
placed at much larger spacing, for example, at 3 m c/c. But this will necessitate using structural steel
channels over the towers as runners especially when the towers are provided below heavy beams.
Also no bracings are required between the towers, and each tower is self-supportive. The towers
are provided with a two-way head and spindles both at the top and the bo om. The spindles have
an adjustment range of 450 mm. Large and heavy table forms can be made out of the towers by
fi ing wheels to them for easy transporting and rese ing. The units can also be lowered far enough
to enable them to be rolled out from under the floor with the deep beam without dismantling.
Figure 7.12 Re-propping Strip Along with the Props at the Construction Site.
The application of the L&T heavy duty tower system is shown in Fig. 7.13 for casting waffle
slabs for a commercial complex. The figure shows the laying of the waffles on the decking prepared
using H-16 beams. It is also possible to use the L&T flex for casting the waffle slab if the height of
the floor permits its use.
194 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
In Fig. 7.14, the heavy duty tower system has been used to cast beams and slabs for one of the
buildings at Delhi International Airport. In the figure, the beam bo om is under preparation. H-16
beams have been used to support the beam bo om. The H-16 beams are resting on the walers, which
in turn are supported on the U-head. The heavy duty towers need to be braced to each other when
the height exceeds 6.0 m. The bracing is to be done as per the guidelines of the manufacturer. The
tower spindles and the foot plates need to be provided in each leg of the heavy duty tower.
Figure 7.14 Beam and Slab Formwork Under Preparation at Delhi International Airport.
In Fig. 7.15, the beam formwork is implemented using a heavy duty tower for construction of
a factory building for Rallis India Ltd. The height of the towers used here is comparatively less
SLAB AND BEAM FORMWORK 195
than the one shown in Fig. 7.14. The footplate and the tower spindle in each leg of the tower can be
clearly seen. The H-16 in two layers can also be noticed. The side shu ers for the beam are shown
to be removed in the figure.
The application of a heavy duty tower formwork for constructing curve shaped gallery beams
is shown in Figs. 7.16 and 7.17. These beams have a typical curve profile as shown in the Fig. 7.16
and are 1,250 mm (maximum) deep and 400 mm wide. At the peak, the contractor mobilized 12 sets
of beam bo om formwork and 4 sets of side formwork which resulted into producing four beams
per week. The carpenters on an average produced 4.0 m2 per man day. Each beam comprises of a
shu ering area of around 90 m2 taking one half on each side of the bay into consideration and a
concrete quantity of 13 m3 per beam including the cast-in-situ slab portion.
a standard size of 2,250 mm. Filler beams of 1,500 mm and the beams for the cantilever portion of
3,750 mm length are also offered in this system. The system offers various choices for the dropheads
to suit different applications. These dropheads enable most of the formwork materials to be removed
quickly which can be reused at other locations. The system can be fi ed with platforms for enhanced
safety. The platforms have provisions for guard rails. The system also offers cover strips, an edge
beam and filler timber for forming various irregular shapes in the plan. All the components are light
in weight and thus suitable for hand set form applications. The skydeck panels and the main beams
have self draining edges thus requiring lesser time for cleaning compared to the other systems.
Figures 7.19 and 7.20 show the details of the Skydeck aluminum panel slab formwork.
Figure 7.18 Aluminum Panel Used in Skydeck Aluminum Panel Slab Formwork (Courtesy PERI).
Figure 7.20 Arrangement of Formwork for Beam and Slab in Skydeck Aluminum
Panel Slab Formwork (Courtesy PERI).
Figure 7.21 Wall Supports Being Installed for Both the Longitudinal and Transverse Directions (Courtesy PERI).
Figure 7.22 Gridflex Panels Being Erected from the Existing Floor (Courtesy PERI).
200 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 7.24 Multiflex Girder Slab Formwork (View showing Primary, Secondary
Beams and Shores with Tripod) (Courtesy PERI).
SLAB AND BEAM FORMWORK 201
Figure 7.25 Multiflex Girder Slab Formwork (All Components in Position) (Courtesy PERI).
7.5.1 Advantages
The system is simple, adaptable (flexible) and cost-effective. The materials used in such
formwork systems are strong, sturdy, precisely-engineered, and accurate in dimension. The
form system can be repeated a large number of times (the possible reuse could be even up to 250).
It produces total quality work. The concrete formed with such formwork systems is more
durable.
202 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
It is possible to develop a customized solution using such formwork systems for any type
of building; for example, a framed structure involving column beam-slab elements or for a
box-type structure involving a slab-walls combination.
Due to the modular nature of the formwork system, easy fixing and removal of the formwork
is possible, resulting into a faster construction cycle. The result is a typical 4 to 5 day cycle for
a floor-to-floor construction.
The operations involved are simple, and can be even performed by unskilled crew members.
The system does not require any sophisticated tool and most of the time, most operations can
be performed with a hammer.
The erection of the formwork components used in this system is achieved manually, and thus,
no mechanical equipment for handling and erection is required.
The application of the above components in wall, beam, and slab formwork is shown in the
schematic Figs. 7.27–7.29. Figure 7.27 shows the application of the internal corner, the external corner,
the wall panel, and the wall ties in the wall formwork assembly. Figure 7.28 shows the application of
the prop head for soffit beam, the internal beam side panel, the soffit length, the external beam side
panel, and the kicker panel in assembling the beam formwork. Figure 7.29 shows the application
of the deck prop, the beam bar, the mid beam in the slab formwork assembly.
Step 2: Vertical rebar fixing and the first stage mechanical and electrical works.
Reinforcements for the wall and the columns are tied as per the drawings. The first stage works
involved with the mechanical and electrical works are also a ended to in this step. The reinforcement
tying for the wall is shown in Fig. 7.31 while the mechanical and electrical works in progress can
be seen from Fig. 7.32.
reasons. The form panels are connected with pins and wedges with a hammer operation. Wall ties
which are also coated with the release agents for easy removal, are provided. In case of a long wall
or windy conditions, some temporary bracings to the wall formwork may need to be provided. The
erection of the wall formwork is shown in Fig. 7.33. The provision of a door opening is also made
in the formwork. The arrangement for the door opening is shown in Fig. 7.34.
Step 6: Sunken portion formwork fixing, the spacer and the vertical soldier fixing.
The formwork for the sunken portion is fixed besides fixing of the spacer and the vertical soldier.
The vertical soldier is used to maintain the verticality of the beam side by using the tie rod and the
wing nuts. Spacing of the vertical soldier is approximately 1,000 mm. The same slot can be used for
fixing the walkway brackets
Step 7: Vertical and horizontal alignment and checking.
The vertical and horizontal alignments are checked.
Step 8: Concrete pouring.
Concrete is poured with appropriate equipments. Figure 7.40 shows the concrete pouring in
progress.
Step 10: Striking the deck form with the le out props
Erection of the bracket for the next floor (see Fig. 7.43) commences immediately a er the striking
of the wall formwork for the previous floor. The props are le out for the duration specified by the
relevant standards (see Fig. 7.44). The reshores are also le upto the specified duration and in the
requisite number of floors as suggested by the designer.
the cycle time can go up to six days. However, the most typical cycle time for estimation purposes
could be considered as a 4-day cycle. For illustrating a 4-day cycle, let’s consider a typical floor plan
of a multi-story building (see Fig. 7.45). It may be pertinent to note that the typical cycle time may
not be applicable for the first few floors of the building. As can be seen, the floor has been divided
into four regions.
Figure 7.45 A Typical Floor Plan of a Multi-story Building to Illustrate the Cycle Time.
The day-wise details of the activities carried out to achieve a 4-day cycle time is given in Fig. 7.46.
Sequence 1: Re-propping strip in position Sequence 2: Props placed below the re-propping strip
The commonly used sheathing materials in case of the slab and the beam formwork are (1) timber
sheathing, (2) plywood sheathing, and (3) steel plates or floor forms.
Solution:
5.7 lp2
M= 0.2
8
8 0.2
lp
5.7
lp 0.529 m = 529 mm
Span based on shear force
5 w lp
Q= 6.16
8
5 5.7 lp
Q= 6.16
8
8 6.16
lp
5 5.7
lp 1.73 m = 1,730 mm
Span based on shear force
w lp4 lp
=
185 E I 360
185 E I 185 1.07
lp 3 lp 3
360 w 360 5.7
Spacing = 540 mm
Width of loading = 540 mm
wsb = loading intensity on the secondary beam = 0.54 5.7 = 3.08 kN/m
Span based on bending moment
2
wsb lsb
M= 1.167 kNm, where lsb is the span of the secondary beam.
8
1.167 8
lsb
3.08
lsb ≤ 1.74 m = 1,740 mm
Span based on shear force
w l kN
Q = sb sb 6
2 m
2 6
lsb = 3.896 m = 3,896 mm
3.08
Span based on deflection condition
4
5 wsb lsb lsb
=
384 E I 360
384 E I 384 64.17
lsb 3 lsb 3
5 wsb 360 5 3.08 360
lsb 1.644 m = say 1,640 mm
Minimum of the above values = 1,640 mm.
Therefore, the maximum span of the secondary beam = 1,640 mm, say 1,600 mm.
Solution
8 0.2
lp
5.7
lp 0.529 m = 529 mm
Span based on shear force
5 w lp
Q= 6.16
8
5 5.7 lp
Q= 6.16
8
8 6.16
lp
5 5.7
lp 1.73 m = 1,730 mm
Span based on deflection
w lp4 lp
=
185 E I 360
185 E I 185 1.07
lp 3 lp 3
360 w 360 5.7
lp 0.458 m = say 450 mm
Minimum of the above three values = 450 mm.
8 3.0
lsb
2.85
lsb 2.902 m = 2,902 mm
Span based on shear force
wsb lsb kN
Q= 6
2 m
2 6
lsb = 4.211 m = 4,211 mm
2.85
Span based on deflection
4
5 wsb lsb lsb
=
384 E I 360
384 E I 384 145
lsb 3 lsb 3
5 wsb 360 5 2.85 360
lsb 2.214 m = 2,214 mm
Minimum of the above values = 2,214 mm.
Therefore, the maximum span of the secondary H-16 = 2,214 mm, say 2,000 mm.
Solution
w lp4 1.6
=
145 E I 1, 000
E = 10,000 N/mm2
I = 1,000 203/12 mm4
EI = 6.67 kNm2
145 1.6 E I 145 1.6 6.67
lp = 4 lp = 4
1, 000 w 1, 000 8.825
lp = 0.647 m = say 650 mm
Minimum of the above three values = Min (0.95 m, 1.209 m, 0.65 m) = 0.65 m.
Therefore, the span of the sheathing = 650 mm.
75 100 2
Z= = 1,25,000 mm3
6
Thus, M=8 1,25,000 Nmm = 1 kNm
1 10
lj =
5.74
lj = 1.32 m = 1,320 mm
Span based on shear force
VQ
=
Ib
Ib
V= , I = 75 1003/12 mm4
Q
224 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
0.5 75 100 3 75 8
V= 2
= 2,500 N = 2.5 kN
12 75 100
5 w j lj
Also, V= = 2.5 kN
8
8 2.5
lj = = 0.696 m = 696 mm
5 5.74
Span based on deflection
Permissible deflection = 3 mm = 3/1,000 m = 0.003 m,
E = 10,000 N/mm2
I = 75 1003/12 mm4
EI = 62.5 kNm2
1 wj l 4j
= 0.003
145 E I
145 E I 0.003 145 62.5 0.003
lj 4 lj = 4
1 wj 1 5.74
lj = 1.475 m = say 1,475 mm
Minimum of the above values = Min (1,320 mm, 696 mm, 1,475 mm) = 696 mm.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) The main components of a slab and beam formwork are: sheathing, joists, stringers, shores,
and bracing.
(b) In traditional slab and beam formwork, emphasis is on all timber and all steel formwork.
(c) Traditional slab and beam formwork is characterized by labor intensive and time consuming
operation.
(d) In traditional slab and beam formwork, activity of formwork construction is critical and
hence affecting the time, cost, quality, and safety.
(e) Typical components of beam formwork with slab forming are- bevel strip, T-head shore,
beam soffit, and plywood sheathing.
(f) Examples of proprietary slab and beam formwork are –L&T slab and beam formwork, PERI
slab and beam formwork, Mivan.
(g) With respect to joints- the two important factors needing a ention are (i) joints between the
posts and the joists; and (ii) framework of the posts through a system of horizontal braces
and inclined shores.
(h) The three major L&T slab and beam formwork systems are –(i) L&T flex, (ii) Beam forming
support system, and (iii) Heavy duty tower.
(i) PERI solutions for slab and beam formwork are –(i) skydeck aluminum panel ; (ii) gridflex
aluminum grid slab (iii) Multiflex girder slab.
(j) Mivan formwork is found to be appropriate in housing projects where large numbers of
similar houses are to be constructed in a short duration.
(k) In Mivan formwork, all elements viz., load bearing walls, columns, beams, floor slabs,
stairs, and balconies are cast in one continuous pour of concrete resulting in a monolithic
structure.
SLAB AND BEAM FORMWORK 227
(l) Commonly used sheathing materials in case of slab and beam formwork are - (i) timber
sheathing; (ii) plywood sheathing; (iii) steel plates or floor forms.
(m) Formwork construction cycle time is affected by the layout of the floors.
(n) Formwork construction cycle time is affected by the dependence among the various activities.
(o) Formwork construction cycle time is affected by the skill level of the workmen.
(p) Formwork construction cycle time is affected by the permissible striking times.
Q2. Match the following:
(i) Joints between the posts and the joists (a) Reduce the effects of constructional
eccentricity.
(ii) Joints between the beam bo oms and (b) Contribute to adequate structural
the posts stability.
Q3. Match the following:
(i) L&T flex (a) Useful since shu ering is uneconomical due
to the beams having a small section.
(ii) L&T beam forming head (b) L&T props; tripod; four-way head, and H-16
beams.
(iii) L&T heavy duty tower (c) > 4.1 m; large spacing, self-supporting,
transportation easy.
Q4. Match the following:
(i) Skydeck aluminum panel (a) Plywood as sheathing, formwork girder,
props, crossheads, galvanized props, GT24
and VT20K girder.
(ii) Gridflex aluminum grid slab (b) Slabs up to thickness of 950 mm and beams of
up to 300 mm width and 600 mm depth; drop
heads; enhanced safety.
(iii) Multi-flex girder slab formwork (c) Grid elements of 2,000 mm length and 1,000
mm width; wall support; filler elements of
various sizes to suit different requirements
in transverse and longitudinal directions.
Q5. Sequence the following in the context of achieving economy in plywood strip fixing arrangement:
(i) re-propping strip along with the props at the construction site (ii) re-propping strip in position
(iii) props placed below the re-propping strip.
Q6. Sequence the following in the context of slab and beam formwork design: (i) design of the sheathing;
(ii) design of the primary beam;(iii) design of the secondary beam (joists); (iv) design of the shores/
props; (v) determine the material available for the sheathing, the joists, the stringer, the shores,
and the bracings ; (vi) estimate or the vertical and horizontal load; (vii) select the appropriate
permissible stress and the section properties.
Q7. Prepare a summary report for L&T slab and beam formwork and discuss all the major characteristics
of the system.
Q8. List out the advantages of Mivan formwork.
Q9. List out and discuss the characteristics of Mivan formwork.
Q10. List out the different construction steps in a Mivan formwork application.
228 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Q11. Prepare a bar chart giving details of the various activities involved in Mivan formwork operation
for a 4-day cycle.
Q12. Design the formwork for the slab and beam for the given data: (a) Thickness of the floor: 120mm (b)
Center to center spacing of the beam: 3 m (c) Width of the beam: 300 mm and depth 400 mm below
the slab (d) Height of the ceiling of the roof: 4m above the floor. Take live load on the sheathing as 4
kN/m2 and the dead weight of the wet concrete = 26.5 kN/m3. A 19 mm thick plywood is available
for formwork sheathing for which the EI = 2.73 kNm2/m, and the permissible deflection = 1.5 mm
and the permissible bending moment = 0.34 kN m. The permissible bending stress in the timber =
7 N/mm2.
Chapter
Contents: Introduction; Shells; Domes; Folded Plates; Overhead Water Tanks; Natural Dra Cooling
Tower; Nuclear Reactor; Tunnel; Li Sha
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we cover a wide range of formworks for special structures. Special structures here
mean the kind of structures not used in day-to-day construction. These structures include shells,
domes, folded plates, natural dra cooling towers, nuclear reactors, tunnels, and li sha s, etc. As
would be seen, some of these structures are formed as cast-in-situ structures while some of them as
precast elements. Examples of forms from fields have also been illustrated.
8.2 SHELLS
The shell structures as roofs are required for various applications such as nuclear reactors, indoor
stadiums, aircra hangars and so on. The formwork for these structures requires the design and
execution of two distinct components: (1) decking and (2) arrangement of shoring towers, commonly
known as centering. The decking member usually consists of timber and plywood. The roof profile
is normally expressed in terms of span length (s), height (‘h’ also called as ‘rise’) at mid span (centre),
and thickness (t) of the roof slab. Sometimes, the radius (R) may also be specified by the designer.
However, even if the radius is not given, the same can be found out from the rise specified at the
mid span and the span length. For example, consider the shell roof (Fig. 8.1) having a circular profile
and having s, t, and h values as 20 m, 200 mm, and 3 m respectively.
The radius can be computed from the following expression:
s2 h
R= (8.1)
8h 2
Thus, the radius R for the above mentioned values of s, t, and h can be computed as
20 2 3
R= 18.17 m
8 3 2
230 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
For forming the deck for the shell roof, it is important to convert the geometry envisaged for
the shell roof as closely as possible in reality. To match the exact geometrical profile, it is essential
to generate the coordinates of a sufficient number of points on the decking. For example, let’s
try to locate the points for forming the deck of a shell roof having circular profile given by XYZ
(Fig. 8.2). Let’s assume the s, h, and R values as 24 m, 4 m, and 20 m respectively, for the new
example.
Thus, the points X, Y, and Z are the points on the bo om of the shell roof. For the formwork, these
X, Y, and Z points are on the top of the deck formwork. Knowing these three points alone will not
be enough for the formwork crews to translate the exact geometry in reality. Thus, the coordinates
FORMWORK FOR SPECIAL STRUCTURES 231
of some more points are needed. Assuming that coordinates at a distance of 1 m along the span
length would be sufficient, the following method can be used to derive the coordinates.
An expression for y at different distances from the midpoint is given by
yi = R – R2 xi2 (8.2)
s
Assuming xi = , Table 8.1 provides the values of yi which are self explanatory.
24
Table 8.1 Computation of yi
Point Distance from Expression to The value of yi (m)
midpoint Y (m) compute yi
Due to the relatively thin sections of shells, it is very challenging to work within the specified
tolerance limits. The complicated nature of the shell geometry also poses challenges in computing
the stresses at different points. The removal of formwork for shell structures is again a critical task.
All these issues make the construction of shell structures a difficult task. The sequence of removal
of formwork for these structures needs careful consideration and should be planned in such a
manner that it does not result in the concentration of stresses at any point which is not envisaged
by the form designer.
8.2.1 System of Shells for National Spiritual Assembly of Bahai Faith at New Delhi
A complicated system of shells (see Fig. 8.3) was constructed for the National Spiritual Assembly
of Bahai faith at New Delhi.
232 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Most of these spherical shells were to be concreted in single pour, and hence the formwork for
soffit had to be erected and aligned for full height. The formwork consisted of timber shu er panels
shaped to suit the curvature of shells with plywood sheathing bent and fixed on top. The timber
shu ers were supported by timber joists spanning over structural steel purlins. The staging consisted
of a number of space trusses generated in the same way as that for the shell surface.
The back form consisted of curved structural steel soldiers, to which shaped timbers of 230 mm
width were fixed in the exact geometry of the top surface. The top shu ers were of smaller height
for ease of handling, and they were fixed to the soldiers progressively, as the concreting proceeded.
The shaped timber ensured that the back forms were fixed to the correct geometry of the top surface.
Thorough bolts at large intervals connected the back form to the bo om staging.
t
Figure 8.3 Formwork Arrangement for Shells for National Spiritual Assembly of Bahai Faith.
Deflection was an important consideration in the design of the formwork besides the various
loads to which the formworks were subjected. The dead load on the formwork, the live load on the
formwork, and the wind load on the formwork considered in the design were 0.750 kN/m2 of surface
area, 2 kN/m2 of plan area, and 1 kN/m2 respectively. The concrete pressure on the formwork was
computed using the ACI formula. For designing the formwork, various combinations of loads were
considered and the most adverse loading condition was considered for the design. The maximum
deflection in the design was limited to 3 mm per m. The maximum deflection value included the
possible errors in fabrication and erection.
In order to avoid the joints, casting of most of the shells was done in a single continuous pour.
Also in order to avoid the lateral loads on the shores supporting the formwork, the concreting of
shells was done 3 at a time, 120° apart in a symmetrical manner.
The formwork consisted of space frames made up of structural steel with welded joints. Timber
joists were used to support the form panel. The slope of the shells was such that it required a top
formwork besides the bo om formwork. Each form panel of the top and bo om formwork was
fabricated according to the dimension computed from the geometry. The theoretical dimensions were
cross checked practically by the measurements from a full scale mock-up erected on the ground. The
FORMWORK FOR SPECIAL STRUCTURES 233
dimensions were verified at different levels both within the contractor organization and by the client
organization. Plywood was used as the sheathing material. The bo om formwork as mentioned, was
thus fully fixed from the bo om to the top for every petal, and was aligned accurately. The sheathing
joint in each form panel was sealed with pu y, and a protective coating was applied over the plywood
surface. The outer formwork panels were made to the exact dimensions and their positions were
verified in the mock up exercise. These panels were kept ready for installation as and when the
need arose. The outer formwork panels were fixed one a er the other as the concrete progressed.
The pipe supports were erected at selected points on the inner leaf staging. The selection of the
pipe support points was done based on architectural considerations. The pipes were supporting the
structural steel grid prepared for the outer surface of the shells. The steel grid in turn was supporting
the loads exerted on the outer formwork. The ties connecting the inner and outer forms were also
provided at select locations to reduce the load on the steel shoring.
8.3 DOMES
Jacks were provided for gradual and sequential deshu ering operations. With this arrangement,
it was possible to work both on the internals and the roof simultaneously. In cases where there was
no constraint, the shu ering could also be supported on conventional staging.
Figures 8.6 and 8.7 show the dome formwork under preparation for the construction of a nuclear
reactor building. The dome for the containment is cast on the formwork supported by a framework
in structural steel. The framework consists of a number of radial trusses with circumferential stiffener
members. The framework is supported on a number of brackets fixed to the containment wall. The
formwork supporting structure is first assembled on the ground to avoid any mismatch, and the
erection inside the reactor building is carried out later in segments (Fig. 8.6). A er erection of the
formwork supporting structures, the formwork and the rebar are laid in place (Fig. 8.7).
234 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 8.6 Erection of Dome Formwork. Figure 8.7 Dome Formwork Fixing.
8.3.2 Construction of Central Secretariat Rotary Dome for Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
Rotary dome is a part of the main Central Secretariat Station for the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
MC1B package and is located between Patel Chowk and Rail Bhavan. Radius of the dome is 9.0 m
in the vertical plane, the apex height is 3.5 m, and the plan radius is 29.8 m at the ring beam level.
The complete formwork arrangement is designed and developed indigenously by the design team
of Larsen and Toubro Limited. The total formwork area for the dome is 3,500 m2 for both the top
and bo om shu ers.
Initially, the planning and design of the formwork were carried out assuming that normal
concrete shall be used. Accordingly, the windows in the top shu er were provided for concreting.
The formwork construction turned out to be so good that the client insisted on using self compacted
concrete. Thus the plan and design of the formwork was modified to take care of self compacting
concrete. The window opening le for normal concreting was closed since it was felt that it would not
FORMWORK FOR SPECIAL STRUCTURES 235
be needed for self compacting concrete. The loads were transferred to the main frame and it was found
that if concrete was poured at 400 mm to 500 mm per hour, there would not be excessive deflection.
The formwork crews were present all time during the concreting operation. During concreting, some
Figure 8.10 Part Plan Showing Shoring Arrangement and Secondary Beam.
238 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
leakages were observed which were immediately addressed. The first pour of 200 m3 concrete was
cast successfully on 27.02.04. This is perhaps the first shell structure with self compacting concrete.
No deflection was noticed in the top and bo om shu er. A er the removal of the shu ers, a very
good finish was obtained both at the top and the bo om of slab.
Figure 8.8 shows the cross section of the dome while Figs. 8.9 and 8.10 show part plan showing
bo om shu er arrangement and part plan showing shoring arrangement and secondary beam
respectively. Figure 8.11 shows different views of dome formwork under construction.
FORMWORK FOR SPECIAL STRUCTURES 239
Figure 8.12 View Showing Shoring Towers Supporting the Dome Formwork Under Progress.
and supported on trestles 7 days a er concreting. The entire assembly was lowered and shi ed to
its new position.
Figure 8.15 Formwork Using Standard Components of L&T Formwork Systems to Form the
Folded Plate Slab of Air Hangar at Mumbai.
FORMWORK FOR SPECIAL STRUCTURES 241
Figure 8.16 Staging and Shuttering in Position for Construction of the Indian Airlines Hangar at
Mumbai Project Executed by L&T-ECC Construction Group for IRCON.
The system ensures high level of safety even when the wind blows strongly well above the ground
level, because it is firmly anchored to the structure in all phases. With telescopic working platforms,
they are gapless even when climbing is in progress, so the working environment remains safe.
The applications of the cooling-tower formwork SK 175 in the construction of natural dra
cooling-tower constructed at Neyveli, Tamilnadu is shown in Figs. 8.21 and 8.22. The project was
executed by the L&T-ECC Group.
244 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 8.22 Inside View of the Natural Draft Cooling Tower Being
Constructed Using Cooling-Tower Formwork.
FORMWORK FOR SPECIAL STRUCTURES 245
Figure 8.23 View of Containment Wall Under Construction at Kaiga Atomic Power Project.
Construction by L&T Limited, ECC - Construction Group.
246 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 8.24 Work on the Container Shell in Progress at Kaiga. Project Executed
by L&T Limited, ECC - Construction Group.
8.8 TUNNEL
From the consideration of formwork, the tunnel can be thought of consisting of four distinct
components: curb, invert, wall and arch. The first two components are easier to form compared to the
wall and arch form. A typical tunnel cross section showing the four components is shown in Fig. 8.25.
The most common sequence of constructing these components is in the order – curb, followed by
invert, wall, and finally the arch. In some of the cases however, arch may be constructed ahead of the
invert. This is possible by erecting the centering on the excavated ground itself. In some cases, the
FORMWORK FOR SPECIAL STRUCTURES 247
inverts may be cast without the curbs. In some cases, the full lining of the tunnel in a given section of
the tunnel can also be placed as the tunnel progresses. This is not commonly practiced however.
The curb form can be made out of timber or metal. The selection criterion is primarily to maximize
the reuse. In curb, only the formwork for supporting the vertical face is needed. Arrangements
are made to resist the pressure exerted by the concrete on the vertical formwork. For this, suitable
inclined braces are designed. Arrangements such as bolting of braces to the rocks etc. are made.
While casting the curbs, arrangements are also made to create the support for the invert form.
This is usually done by leaving the anchors when the concrete for the curbs is relatively green.
Traveling bridge is also sometimes used in the construction of a large tunnel. The bridge is
employed where continuous casting of the invert is desirable. The traveling bridge is capable of
laying side forms of the invert and concreting it. Concrete finishing platforms are also sometimes
a ached to the traveling bridge. While casting the inverts, provisions are also made to provide
anchor bolts which become useful for supporting the wall forms.
For casting the arch form, the sheathing member is supported on a structural frame consisting of
a number of circumferential ribs and longitudinal stringers. The sheathing member could be timber
or steel. The ribs are braced suitably according to the design. A typical steel arch form is shown in
Fig. 8.26. The length of a tunnel formwork is decided depending on the requirement. The tunnel
forms are composed of various sections or units.
Once the concrete for a given section of the tunnel is completed, there are two ways in which the
form can be shi ed to its new location. In one of the methods, the arch form is collapsed partially
and moved to its new location on a traveler or a jumbo. The forms are able to be moved to their
location through the in-place adjacent forms. Such type of forms are also referred to as ‘telescoping
forms’. In another method, the tunnel forms are collapsed sufficiently for stripping. These forms
are then moved to a new location beyond the recently completed sections of the tunnel. Such type
of forms are also referred to as ‘non telescoping forms’.
The formwork arrangement for the tunnels is governed by factors such as (a) dimension of the
tunnel, (b) concrete placing sequence, and (c) construction joint configuration of the lining.
For example, when the tunnel is relatively shallow, cut and cover method of tunnel construction
can be used. In this method, the support for the outer formwork for wall is taken from the excavated
surface while the inner formwork for wall is similar to that used in the normal wall application.
Form ties are used to resist the pressure exerted on the wall form. Spreaders are used to maintain
the desired distance between the outer and the inner formwork. The formwork for arch portion
of the tunnel is usually placed from outside using a crane. Normally for some distance near the
crown, the outer formwork for the arch portion is not provided. This space is utilized for pouring
the concrete. The area where the top form is not provided, is hand finished later when the concrete
in the adjoining area is complete.
The schematic arrangement of the formwork in cut and cover construction method is shown in
Fig. 8.27. In cut and cover, sometimes the traveler is designed to let the site traffic pass beneath it
unhindered. This aspect is clearly shown in Fig. 8.27.
A field application of cut and cover method of tunnel construction provided by Doka is shown
in Fig. 8.28. The tunnel is on the route of a new high speed twin-track railway line built in central
Greece. The client opted for Doka formwork on the inside, combined with custom steel formwork
on the outside. The cross section of the tunnel is circular having an inside width of 12.12 m and
an inside height of 8.85 m. The tunnel was constructed in 48 steps with each step of 12.5 m. On an
average, two steps a week were cast.
248
FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 8.28 Cut and Cover Construction Method in Use for Tunnel Construction (Courtesy Doka).
When the concreting operation is planned to be continuous except for the holidays and the
breakdowns, the advancing slope method of tunnel construction is used. In this method, the concrete
is placed from near the crown. The arch form is prepared in units or sections. The length of a unit
or section varies depending on the requirement. In addition, there could be a number of sections
employed at a time depending on the requirement. The sections are stripped in a given sequence.
250 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
They are then collapsed and telescoped through other sections. Form traveler is used to re-erect
them at their new location. Form traveler is also known as ‘jumbo’.
Figure 8.29 shows the formwork arrangement for the construction of the junction of the inlet sha
and tunnel for B.M.C. at Bandra, Mumbai. The project was executed by AFCONS.
Figure 8.29 Shuttering in Position for Construction of Junction of Inlet Shaft and Tunnel (Courtesy L&T Formwork).
A special custom built tunnel formwork was used to construct two tunnels each of 300 m length
for Chawri Bazar Station for Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (Fig. 8.30). The tunnel has a diameter
of 8.750 m and the thickness of the lining is 400 mm. The length of each concrete pour is 9.60 m.
The contractor mobilized 3 sets of tunnel forms with 5 panels each of 2 m length. The form-work
consisted of 12 mm plywood as sheathing materials supported on H-16 beams. These were
supported on one top truss and two side trusses. Truss connectors were used to transfer the load
from the trusses to the trolley. The trolleys had tower spindles at the bo om for height adjustment.
Figure 8.30 Formwork in Position for Construction of Tunnel (Courtesy L&T Formwork).
FORMWORK FOR SPECIAL STRUCTURES 251
Trusses were also connected to the trolleys through turnbuckles. The turnbuckles were used for
the alignment of the formwork. Walls were cast in two stages. The top slab was cast a er the walls.
Movement of the whole formwork system from one location to another was carried out manually
using wheels mounted on rails. The contractor achieved a cycle time of 8 days on an average.
Figure 8.31 shows the Doka tunnel formwork in use for constructing a circular tunnel of inside
width 9.70 m and an inside height of 6.8 m. The length of the tunnel formwork was 12 m. The tunnel
formwork had all-hydraulic formwork traveler. The all-hydraulic tunnel formwork traveler was
easy to operate which enabled very short cycle times to be achieved.
Figure 8.31 Mining Method of Construction in Use for a Tunnel Jobsite (Courtesy Doka).
Some more schematic sketches for tunnel formwork are shown in Figs. 8.32 and 8.33.As can be
observed, depending on the requirement and dimension of the tunnel, the cross section of the central
formwork member changes.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Some of the special structures are: shells, domes, folded plates, natural dra cooling towers,
nuclear reactor, tunnels, li sha s, etc.
(b) Formwork arrangement for the tunnels is governed by factors such as (i) dimension of the
tunnel (ii) concrete placing sequences (iii) construction of joint configuration of the lining
254 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
(c) Components for the li sha are—sha climbing pawl, corner plate, beam extensions, main
beam, corner spindle, corner waling, and waler square plate.
(d) The expression Yi for circular shell roof is = R – ( R2 xi2 )
(e) Decking and centering are the two major components for formwork design of special
structures.
(f) The four distinct components of tunnel are: curb, invert, wall, and arch.
Q2. Prepare a summary report on formwork issues involved in
(a) National construction of spiritual assembly of Bahai faith at New Delhi (for shells)
(b) Construction of dome roof of a reactor building
(c) Construction of central secretariat rotary dome in DMRC project
(d) Construction of elliptical dome in DMRC project
(e) Cast-in-situ folded plates for air hangar at Mumbai.
(f) Overhead water tank construction
(g) Natural dra cooling tower construction
(h) Kaiga nuclear reactor construction
(i) Tunnel construction
Q3. Discuss the cut and cover method of tunnel construction.
Chapter
Contents: Introduction; Formwork Arrangement for Caisson; Formwork for Piers and Pier Caps; Formwork
for Bridge Superstructures; Formwork for Bridge Railings/Parapets/Edge Beams; Cases in Failure of
Temporary Support Structures of Bridges
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the forms required for the substructure and superstructure of a bridge are discussed.
The substructure consists of the foundation of the bridge, which supports two or more piers joined
together at the top by a pier cap. On the pier cap, the superstructure rests, consisting of the deck of
the bridge. The bridge designer can come up with several types of foundation. The foundation type
is dependent on a number of factors, such as the span of the bridge, location of the bridge, bearing
capacity of the material on which the foundation rests, and so on. In this chapter, formwork for
caissons are discussed. Caissons are hollow structures sunk to a very great depth below the ground
or river bed. In caissons, the formwork for cu ing edges, curbs, and caisson wall are discussed.
The formwork for some commonly used pier shapes, pier caps, cast-in-situ bridge girders, and deck
slabs are also discussed.
The planning and building of formwork for the components mentioned are very similar to what
has already been discussed in the chapters on column formwork, wall formwork, and slab and beam
formwork. For example, a short pier is constructed in a similar manner to the column formwork
discussed in Chapter 6. Similarly, the deck slab construction illustrated in a later part of this chapter
is also very similar to the slab and beam formwork explained in Chapter 7. Even the architectural
finishes for piers, pier caps, cast-in-situ girders, and deck slabs are provided in a similar manner as
illustrated in previous chapters. Site conditions are important factors in the planning and building
the forms for bridge elements.
Steel is a very common formwork material for forming bridge elements, though timber can also
be used. Some proprietary systems such as Doka, etc. also offer a number of solutions for bridge
formwork. The formwork systems are also discussed in this chapter.
Some cases on the failure of temporary supports for bridge are also discussed in this chapter.
256 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Concreting is done in a similar fashion as for the curb. De-shu ering is done a er final se ing,
usually a er about12 hours. The first three li s of steining are cast singly and then sunk so that
sufficient grip is obtained for stability purposes. Therea er the li s are normally cast in a two
li cycle, some time also three li s.
FORMWORK FOR BRIDGE STRUCTURES 259
Figure 9.5 Reinforcement Tying for Next Lift in Progress for One Well and Cutting
Edge Work in Progress in Other Well.
Figure 9.7 L&T- Wall Formwork with Climbing System in Use for Casting 20 m High Caisson Wall of 18 m Diameter
(Contractor: AFCONS).
Figure 9.9 illustrates the formwork for pier construction for the Delhi Metro Project. The
formwork components are made of steel and casting has been done in a single li . The formwork
is fabricated using steel sheathing and steel stiffeners. The contractor has used custom made walers
and alignment props. The contractor could afford to do this because of a large number of similar
piers to be constructed for the project. The working platform at the top for the crew members can
also be seen. The completed piers using the steel formwork can also be seen in the figure.
Piers of significant height can be formed using climbing formwork or slipform. Figures 9.10–9.13
illustrate the application of climbing formwork for the construction of an octagonal pier. Figure
9.10 shows the octagonal pier in plan. In Fig. 9.11 a part plan of the formwork is shown for the
octagonal pier. The formwork arrangement is like any other wall and column formwork explained
in previous chapters.
Figure 9.12 shows the formwork arrangement for casting the first li of the octagonal pier. Such
piers can be constructed using both plywood and steel sheathing. The selection of sheathing material
is dependent on the number of possible reuses in the project. Figure 9.13 shows the formwork
arrangement for the second li . It can be seen that the formwork for the second li is supported on
264 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
the brackets fixed onto the previously cast concrete. The arrangement is very similar to that discussed
in Chapter 5 under climbing formwork.
Figures 9.14 and 9.15 show the application of climbing formwork for the construction of a hollow
tapered circular pier. The pier was constructed for the Jammu Udhampur Rail Link project. For the
construction of another pier for the Jammu Udhampur Rail Link slipform was used. The arrangement
is shown in Fig. 9.16. The pier is located in an extremely difficult terrain. Slipform was also used
to construct very tall piers for the Konkan Rail project. More details of the application of slipform
are given in Chapter 11.
Figure 9.14 Construction of Pier Using Climbing Form (Jammu Udhampur Raillink Project).
Figure 9.16 Construction of Pier Using Slipform (Jammu Udhampur Raillink Project).
The application of custom–made steel formwork for short piers and pier caps is shown in Figs. 9.17
and 9.18. The formwork arrangement shown in Fig. 9.17 was adopted for the construction of a pier
and pier cap for the Delhi Metro construction project, and Fig. 9.18 shows the formwork arrangement
adopted for a bridge project in Delhi. In Fig. 9.17, components such as the props and walers are all
customized for the project. In Fig. 9.18, the forms are made up of modular steel forms which can be
used for different formwork applications.
Figure 9.17 Formwork Arrangement for Pier and Pier Cap for Delhi Metro Project.
266 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 9.18 Formwork Arrangement for Pier and Pier Cap for a Bridge Project in Delhi.
The formwork arrangement for a pier cap for a flyover project in Delhi is shown in Figs. 9.19–9.22.
Figures. 9.19–9.21 show the schematic formwork arrangement, and Fig. 9.22 shows the actual
photograph of the formwork arrangement adopted on site. The formwork arrangement for the pier
cap is supported from the pier itself and not from the ground. The pier supports the truss–shaped
brackets, which in turn support the props and other components. The sides of the pier caps were
formed using steel shu ers. The forms were supported using structural steel members.
Figure 9.22 Formwork Arrangement for Pier Cap Used in the Construction of Flyover at Delhi.
Figure 9.23 Formwork and Supporting Arrangement for Bridge Deck Slab Using Proprietary Formwork.
each other. The spacing of towers is decided based on the formwork design loads. The details of
design of such shoring towers are given in Chapter 12.
Figure 9.24 Arrangement of Sand Bags to Prevent Erosion of Soil Underneath the Scaffold.
Figure 9.26 Arrangement of Tubular Steel Scaffolds for Casting Bridge Deck.
Figure 9.27 L&T Heavy Duty Tower System in Use for Deck Slab and Girder Formwork Support.
The bridge girders could be cast-in-situ or precast. Sometimes the girders could be made of steel.
Deck slabs are cast on the precast or cast-in-situ girder. The supporting arrangement for girders is
similar to any other of the beam support arrangements discussed in Chapter 7. However, when
the girders are located at higher elevation, or they are located over water, the support arrangement
needs careful planning and design. Also, when the soil supporting the girder formwork support
is poor, special arrangements needs to be made. A number of failures have taken place due to the
supporting soil giving way.
272 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 9.28 L&T Heavy Duty Tower System in Use for Deck Slab and Girder.
Figures 9.29 and 9.30 show the formwork arrangement for a web of box girder for ROB at Khairane,
Vashi, in Navi Mumbai. The contractor, Kvaerner Cementation Ltd., used L&T formwork. As can be
seen, the formwork consists of plywood, H-16 Beams, steel waler, and tie rods. For the alignment of
forms collapsible tube props have been used. The alignment props are supported on a heavy duty
tower. The tower legs are supported on a concrete pedestal. The concrete pedestals are placed on
well compacted soil.
Figure 9.29 Closer View of Form Arrangement for Web of Box Girder.
FORMWORK FOR BRIDGE STRUCTURES 273
L&T formwork was used by Technibharathi Ltd. (Cochin) in one of the bridge projects of NHAI.
The bridge consisted of three spans of 48.35 m. Each span consisted of three cast-in-situ I-girders of
3.86 m depth. The girders were connected with diaphragm walls at the two ends and at the centre
of the span.
The form arrangement for the girder sides is shown in Fig. 9.31. It contains usual L&T wall
formwork with the exception of walers. As can be seen, the forms required the application of a
tailor–made waler to suit the haunch portion of the I-Girders.
The girder formworks were supported on heavy duty towers. The heavy duty towers in turn
were supported on trusses. The trusses were resting on two pile caps in addition to one intermediate
support. The heavy duty towers were not supported on the river bed as there was continuous flow
of water in the river.
The formwork arrangement for the girders and slab for a major bridge for the LMNHP Project
at chainage 442+256, constructed by Madhucon Projects Ltd., is shown in Figs. 9.33 and 9.34. The
formwork for girders and slab are supported on trestles. The bearing capacity of the supporting
soil was poor. Thus the contractor, a er compacting the existing soil, used a 100 mm layer of GSB
on which concrete pedestals of dimensions 800 mm 800 mm and 200 mm thickness were placed.
On these pedestals the trestles were mounted. The trestles were connected to the pedestals using
20 dia H.T. bolts. The trestles have dimensions of 600 mm 600 mm in plan. A total of 9 trestles
were used in a row, spaced at about 1,395 mm centers. In the longitudinal direction the trestles were
spaced at 1,354 mm centers. The main members of the trestles were fabricated using ISA 65 65 6,
while the lacing members were fabricated using ISA 50 50 6. The trestles were fabricated in
modular units of 2.0 m in height.
FORMWORK FOR BRIDGE STRUCTURES 275
For supporting the deck slab the contractor erected 32 NB pipes, with a footplate assembly at the
bo om and a U-head assembly at the top. The pipe supports rested on the ISMB 150, which were
supported on trestles.
Figure 9.33 Cross Section of Formwork for Bridge Girders and Slab for a Major Bridge.
A more detailed view of the trestle supporting the girder and slab is shown in Fig. 9.34. ISMB
150 100 were used to transfer the loads from the girders and slab to the trestles. The forms for the
bo om of the girders were fabricated in steel. These had timber packing resting on the ISMC 50
100. The ISMC’s in turn were resting on the ISMB 150 100 mentioned earlier.
Figure 9.34 Detail of Trestle Supporting Girder and Slab Beam Formwork.
276 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figures 9.35 and 9.36 show another application of the trestle for supporting a girder and slab
for ROB at chainage 124+115 on the Faizabad Bypass. The project is part of LMNHP. The side
formwork for the girders consisted of steel sheathing of 3.15 mm and ISA 45 45 5 angle sections.
The stiffeners were angle sections of ISA 45 45 5 at 250 mm centers. The bo om forms for girders
were fabricated with 3.15 mm steel plates and ISA 45 45 5 angle sections. The stiffeners were also
made up of angle sections of ISA 45 45 5 but they were kept at a spacing of 175 mm centers. The
tie rods used were 20 mm in diameter and they were spaced at 1,100 mm centers.
The details of the trestles are shown in Figs. 9.37 and 9.38. The trestles were fabricated in modular
units of height 3.0 m. ISA 65 65 6 sections were used to fabricate the vertical members and ISA
50 50 6 sections were used as lacings for the trestles. The individual trestles were braced with
box sections, made up of two ISA 50 50 6 sections.
Figure 9.35 Arrangement of Trestles for Supporting Girder and Slab for ROB.
Figure 9.36 Another View of Trestles Arrangement for Supporting Girder and Slab for ROB.
FORMWORK FOR BRIDGE STRUCTURES 277
The necessity of providing such heavy trestles arose from the fact that large clearances were
required so that the railway track underneath the ROB could function, even whilst the overhead
work was in progress. The railway track is visible in plan and section represented by Figs. 9.35 and
9.36 respectively.
Figure 9.39 Formwork Arrangement for Deck Slab Supported on the Girders.
As there is no access to the outside forms, and all arrangement for the of alignment, etc. are
performed from the inside only, the resultant concrete is not up to the mark. In most cases the
alignment of the exposed concrete is not satisfactory. The lack of access to the outside shu er means
that any leakage of slurry from the outside cannot be stopped, and thus the exposed concrete presents
a great deal of honeycombing.
Figure 9.42 Formwork Arrangement (Accessible from Both Sides) of Parapets for Flyover in Delhi.
The parapet walls for all the elevated corridor of the Delhi Metro (Fig. 9.44) were constructed
using precast segments. Besides offering a good concrete finish, and proper alignment, precasting
also saved considerable time for the different contractors engaged in the Delhi Metro project. It is
possible to get different textures and designs for aesthetic appeal in precast arrangements.
types of bridges. The system is used most efficiently on shorter superstructures, medium-length
bridges with a small number of repositioning cycles, and bridges with tight radii and complicated
cross-sections. A schematic diagram of the formwork system is shown in Fig. 9.45 while its field
application is shown in Fig. 9.46.
9.6.1 Failure of a Launching Girder at Laxmi Nagar in the Delhi Metro Project
The failure of a launching girder (Fig. 9.47) is a ributed to improper fabrication of the launching
girder. The holes for bolts were made with a gas cu er and therefore not drilled properly. The
number of bolts was also less than that required, besides an insufficient contact area. All this led to
stress concentration leading to the ultimate failure of the launching girder.
9.6.2 Failure of Cantilever Portion of Pier Cap and Deck Slab Failure
The entire span between two piers for an under-construction metro bridge collapsed in July 2009
in Zamrudpur, New Delhi (see Fig. 9.48). This is a classic case in which a number of causes were
responsible for the failure.
(a) The design was not correct.
(b) The reinforcement detailing had a major deficiency. The critical areas lacked the desired
quantity of reinforcement
(c) The work on site proceeded based on ‘advance copies’ not validated by the concerned
people.
(d) The implementation on site was not as per the provisions of the drawings, and several
deviations were noted.
(e) Above all, the strength of the concrete failed in strength criteria by a wide margin.
FORMWORK FOR BRIDGE STRUCTURES 285
The most unfortunate part in the whole episode was that a large number of cracks were noticed
prior to the failure. The investigators of the said cracks did not understand the nature of the cracks
and did not recommend proper, judicious corrective measures.
Figure 9.48 View of Zamrudpur Under Construction Metro Bridge Span Collapse.
9.6.4 Toppling of Prestressed Girder during Construction at a Major Bridge on Banganga River
During the construction of a major bridge on the Banganga River near Bharatpur, one prestressed
girder (Girder No. 30) fell from its cast position to the ground, killing two people. One end of the
Girder was resting on abutment A2 while the other end was resting on Pier 7. The author was a
co-investigator of this accident.
286 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 9.50 Another View of the Accident Site (Photo Courtesy www.thehindubusinessline.com).
During the investigation it was found that the toppled girder was cast-in-situ on July 21, 2008 and
the formwork was still in place. The girder was prestressed to design level on July 30, 2008 and the
ducts for prestressing tendons were grouted on July 31, 2008. The F4 type of bearing (of sliding POT/
PTFE type) was in locked condition on abutment A2. The F3 type of bearing (longitudinal guided
sliding POT/PTFE type) was fixed in locked condition on Pier P7.
FORMWORK FOR BRIDGE STRUCTURES 287
A ramp consisting of two channels was placed at some distance near the abutment A2. One end
of the ramp was supported on the ground while the other end was on top of girder no. 30. The
ramp was used for shi ing the reinforcement for the casting of a diaphragm wall between girder
nos. 29 and 30. On the day of accident, a vehicle carrying some workers hit the ramp. Immediately
a er this the girder no. 30 fell to the ground and the vehicle got trapped under the girder. The
accident resulted into two fatal injuries: one labor working near girder no. 29 and the driver of the
vehicle which hit the ramp) and a few other non–fatal but serious injuries to those who were in the
vehicle.
The investigators noticed that there was no adequate provision of laterally supporting the girders
prior to the casting of the diaphragm wall and deck slab, and that it was supported using different
means such as wire ropes, timber packing and so on.
The girder was found to be unstable due to the following:
(a) The bo om flange of the girder is smaller than the top flange, and the girder is top heavy. As
a result the centre of mass is considerably higher than the vertical axis providing a large lever
arm in the case of any toppling effect. Besides, the flange width being small at the bo om,
the required resisting moment against any toppling effect is also small. Generally, as a safety
measure, such girders are held in position with lateral supports throughout its length, which
in this case was inadequate.
(b) Proper bearing of the girders at the ends was not provided due to constructional inaccuracies.
This is likely to cause eccentricity in the system resulting in destabilizing moments and thus
toppling. Furthermore, the bearing plate, although fixed to the bo om of the girder, was not
fastened at the Jaipur end, while the girder was not resting on bearing plates at the Pier 7 end.
(c) As a result of the prestressing, the central portion of the girder is li ed as a bow and therefore
the contact at both the ends (supports) must have been only on the edges instead of full surface
contact area—practically only providing line support.
The horizontal load, on account of the impact made on the ramp by the vehicle, caused girder no.
30 to slide. The investigators recommended the provision lateral support to the girders until the time
the diaphragm walls at all locations and the deck slab are cast in a span. Some possible schematic
support arrangements are shown in Figs. 9.53 and 9.54, which can be adopted in consultation with
the designers.
type girders, together with first stage prestressing that allows immediate casting of cross
girders and the deck slab before final prestressing is done.
(b) The use of seismic arrestors on the pier cap should be preferred irrespective of the seismic
zone in which the construction falls. The use of seismic arrestors will provide some additional
safety measure and would prevent such a failure.
Figure 9.53 Part Plan For Girder Restraining Arrangement (Restraining arrangement at the
other end of girder is same and thus not shown.)
To avoid such accidents in the future, the investigators suggested the following sequence of
construction:
290 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Substructure consists of the foundation of bridge which supports two or more piers joined
together at the top by a pier cap.
(b) Foundation type is dependent upon the span length of bridge.
(c) Foundation type is dependent upon the location of bridge.
(d) Foundation type is dependent upon the bearing capacity of material on which the foundation
rests.
(e) Caissons are hollow structures sunk to a very high depth below ground or the river bo om.
(f) The three broad parts of caissons are cu ing edge, curb, and wall.
(g) Piers are important for 2 cases viz. relatively lesser heights and large heights.
(h) Slipform and climbing formwork are two major formworks for piers with large heights.
(i) Major failures of temporary support structures of bridges are: (i) improper design (ii) deficiency
in reinforcement detailing (iii) concrete strength failure (iv) improper implementation at
site.
Q2. Match the following:
(i) Cu ing edge (a) air je ing reduces the skin friction on the outside
periphery of the wall
(ii) Curb (b) assists the caisson in sinking below the ground
or river bo om
(iii) Wall (c) inside shu er is fixed, aligned correctly and
supported by suitable props. Curb reinforcement
is fixed and starter bar is welded with cu ing
edge.
FORMWORK FOR BRIDGE STRUCTURES 291
10 Flying Formwork
Contents: Introduction; Some Examples of Flying Formwork; Flying Formwork Cycle; Advantages and
Limitations of Flying Forms; Design Issues in Flying Forms; Safety Issues in Flying Forms; Table Forms;
Tunnel Formwork System; Column Mounted Shoring System; Gang Forms
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The flying form is a system of formwork which is assembled into form units usually on the ground
and is located to form concrete elements at the site location. The form units are further relocated at
a new location with virtually no disassembly of parts to form concrete elements. The term flying
formwork is used because forms are flown from one story to another with the help of a crane. The
flying formwork can be used to cast various concrete elements such as concrete beams, girders,
slabs, shear walls, etc. The flying form is one of the most commonly used formwork system even
though the initial cost of fabrication for flying form is high as compared to the hand set form. The
flying forms are more common in high rise buildings for rapid cycle construction wherein large
repetitions are possible, thus justifying their relatively high initial cost of fabrication. The flying
form is also supposed to save material and labor costs.
A typical unit of flying formwork consists of sheathing member (mostly plywood), trusses or
shores, steel or wood beams as stringers, joists; same as in the handset forms. Joists are timber member
or aluminum beams connected in most cases to deep trusses. In case of flying forms, all members
are connected together to allow li ing of the whole system in one piece which is in contrast to the
handset forms. This also prevents the possibility of joist or stringer upli at their supports.
There is a vast range of flying formwork systems available today such as the tunnel forms, the
flying truss systems, the column mounted shoring systems by different formwork manufacturers.
The various flying formwork systems are available today either on purchase or on rental basis.
In the following sections, we will discuss some of the flying formwork systems by a few
manufacturers. The various steps involved in the flying formwork cycle time are described briefly.
The advantages and limitations of the flying formwork system are pointed out. We will also discuss
some design and safety issues involved with the flying formwork system. The mentioned systems
are briefly discussed for some of the manufacturers.
The flying form modules supplied by a leading manufacturer comes in a length in excess of 30 m
and width up to 15 m. In fact the actual sizes of the modules may be limited only by the capacity
FLYING FORMWORK 293
of the crane which will hoist a unit. By combining modules, components, accessories, and special
parts, it is possible to assemble the form systems suitable for use in casting many concrete shapes.
One typical large flying formwork is shown in Fig. 10.1.
Figure 10.5 Harsco Infrastructure Flying Table Form Ready for Lifting Using Crane
(Courtesy Harsco Infrastructure).
Figure 10.6 Harsco Infrastructure Flying Table Form Installed at Concreting Location
(Courtesy Harsco Infrastructure).
Step 1
The forms are preassembled into modules at the ground level (see Fig. 10.7). As mentioned earlier,
the formwork system consists of the sheathing member (mostly plywood), trusses or shores, steel
or wood beams as stringers, and joists. The materials for some of the flying formwork components
may vary depending on the manufacturer.
296 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Step 2
The forms are moved into positions for concreting with the help of a crane. For internal shi ing
beyond the reach of the crane, moveable dollies are used as shown in Fig. 10.8. There may be some
custom made fabrication required at the site location, especially over the concrete columns, to cover
the space between the columns and the flying formwork components. The step 2 in a real project
application is also shown in Fig. 10.9.
Step 3
The elevation of each flying formwork module is adjusted to the correct height, and a ached firmly to
other modules. The reinforcing steel is fixed. The electrical, mechanical, and plumbing components,
and any other services are also a ended to at this stage. The concrete is placed as in case of any
conventional formwork. The concreted slab is shown as the new slab in Fig. 10.10.
FLYING FORMWORK 297
Step 4
A er the concrete has a ained sufficient strength, the stripping of forms begins. For this, the flying
formwork is lowered by means of an adjustable jack arrangement and retracted to clear the concrete
element cast recently. This is shown in Fig. 10.11.
Step 5
The forms are moved to the edge of the supporting concrete slab with the help of transportation
devices such as moveable dollies. This is shown in Fig. 10.12.
Step 6
The form tilts when about half the form panel is out of the floor, as shown in Fig. 10.13. At this point
of time, it may even touch the roof slab cast recently. The form panels are now hoisted to a higher
floor for reuse. It may be noted that the recently placed concrete slab should be reshored immediately
as per the advice of the design engineer before any live load is placed on it.
Figure 10.13 Tilting of Form When About Half the Form Panel is Out of the Floor.
Step 7
The forms are cleaned and the release agent applied. In fact, some of the practitioners point out that
cleaning the flying forms between floors and applying a release agent is one of the most arduous
tasks faced by construction crews in the flying formwork operation.
The steps mentioned above are repeated as per the requirement.
In some of the flying formwork systems, only the trusses are flown from one story to another and
the tables are assembled on each floor separately as in the case of the conventional formwork. This
situation may arise on account of site limitation and varying configuration of the bay at different
floors.
FLYING FORMWORK 299
Some of the do’s and dont’s while using flying form are given below: (Source Harsco Infrastructure)
FLYING FORMWORK 301
DO’s
1. A detailed method statement should be prepared while using the flying form. The site specific
risks assessment involved with flying formwork operations should also be carried out.
2. It is recommended to use trained and dedicated crews for flying formwork operations. The
crew members should be familiar with the method statement.
3. The safety rope must be a ached between the flying form modules and suitable parts of
permanent construction such as a reinforced concrete column.
4. The suspended parts of the flying form modules should be properly secured to prevent them
from falling out.
5. The bolted connections wherever they are in the flying form modules, should be secured.
6. The slings of the crane must be a ached to the flying form modules at correct positions
specified by the manufacturer. The flying form modules should not be pushed out beyond
safe distances specified by the manufacturer.
7. While lowering the flying form modules, all the legs should touch the floor simultaneously.
8. Flying form modules should be moved only on the trolley units specified by the
manufacturers.
DON’Ts
1. The flying form modules should not be moved on an incline or near an exposed edge unless
a Safety Line is a ached.
2. Untrained crews should not be used for any operation involving striking, moving, flying and
lowering of the flying form modules.
3. The flying form modules should not have any loose objects or unnecessary materials loaded
on them during flying.
4. Any personnel riding on the flying form modules should not be allowed during flying.
5. The flying form modules should not be flown inclined at an angle.
6. The flying form modules should not be landing heavily onto the slab.
The formwork can be moved horizontally with the help of castor wheels or trolley units. Plumbing
frames and concrete hardwares are used for the alignment of table forms.
The operational procedure using table form is exactly similar to what has been explained earlier.
The process starts with assembling the table form at the ground level and then shi ing to the location
where the floor is to be cast. A er aligning the formwork, the reinforcement is tied and provisions for
other services are laid. Concrete is poured and allowed to gain strength. The formwork is struck with
the help of jacks and without disassembly of the table form, it is rolled towards the façade (exterior)
of the building. From here, the table form is picked up by a crane for locating it on the upper story.
Figure 10.14 Table Formwork Being Flown to its New Location (Courtesy L&T Formwork).
FLYING FORMWORK 303
Figure 10.16 Transportation Arrangement for Table Formwork (Courtesy L&T Formwork).
Figure 10.17 Extensive Use of Tableform at Oberoi Mall Project Site Mumbai (Courtesy L&T Formwork).
304 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The Uniportal table formwork (see Fig. 10.22) of PERI is suited for projects with a large number
of similar applications and open facades. In this system of formwork, the design of the table is
customized to suit a particular structure such as a trapezoidal shape, circular shape etc. As discussed
earlier, in this system also, there is a provision of foldable slab props.
PERI offers another table form system known as Skytable table forms. The system uses two trusses
to support the table form components (see Fig. 10.23). The system uses multiprop slab props which
allow a large lowering range so that the forms can be moved even under the beams. The system can
be used both for large and small floor heights. The modules can accommodate slab area of up to
150 m2.
FLYING FORMWORK 305
Figure 10.19 Table Module Being Shifted to New Location (Note the Props in Folded Position) (Courtesy PERI).
Figure 10.20 Table Module Being Transported Using Crane (Note the Lifting Fork) (Courtesy PERI).
306 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 10.21 Table Form Being Shifted on Trolley to the Desired Location (Courtesy PERI).
10.7.4 Limitations
1. There is a requirement of a large open space around the site so that the table forms can be
li ed and transported easily.
2. A crane of adequate capacity is required for li ing the assembled table formwork. Also, there
is a requirement of an open façade for easy transportation of the table formwork from one
floor to another floor. These limitations however can be addressed by using a smaller table
formwork which can be li ed even without the use of a crane and can be handled even in
limited space availability.
3. The table formwork system requires detailed planning and is not suited when the site is
expected to face high wind.
The two variants of tunnel formwork by Symons Corp. are shown in Figs. 10.24 and 10.25.
Figure 10.24 Tunnel Formwork System (Courtesy of Symons Corp. Available at http://www.symons.com).
Figure 10.25 Tunnel Formwork System (Courtesy of Symons Corp. Available at http://www.symons.com).
The tunnel formwork system creates an efficient load-bearing structure for use in a wide variety
of applications. It is particularly effective in projects suited for repetitive cellular construction such
as the construction of residential blocks, hotels, student accommodation, barracks and prisons. The
solid, strong monolithic structure can be 40 or more stories in height and the accuracy of the system
suits the installation of prefabricated elements such as cladding panels and bathroom pods.
The steel tunnel forms create spaces spanning 2.4 to 6.6 m. These can easily be subdivided to
create smaller rooms. Where longer spans (up to 11 m) are required, the tunnel form is extended
using a mid-span section.
Tunnel form is a fast-track method of construction that is well suited for repetitive cellular projects
such as hotels, apartment blocks and student accommodation. It is claimed that the cost and time
can be reduced by 15% and 25% respectively using the tunnel form.
During the tunnel form construction process, a structural tunnel is created by pouring concrete
into the steel formwork to make the floor and walls. Every 24 hours, the formwork is moved, so
that another tunnel can be formed. When a story has been completed, the process is repeated on
the next floor.
FLYING FORMWORK 309
As long as the architect has chosen, or is prepared to work within the constraints of regular wall
alignments, the tunnel form is an excellent structural solution.
The smooth face of the formwork results in a high quality finish that can be decorated directly.
This reduces the need for finishing trades, thereby providing additional cost savings and speeding
of the entire process.
The formwork is available to the contractor for purchase or rent and can be reused on other
projects.
The tunnel form suppliers/contractors provide full design and technical support to ensure that the
engineers, architects and site staff are all familiar with the system and its application, as the project
starts, thus enabling time and cost savings to be achieved. If the site staff is inexperienced on tunnel
form construction, the supplier’s site training quickly brings them up to speed.
The different components of a typical tunnel formwork system are shown in Fig. 10.26.
3. Work possible in all weather: The work can continue in every weather except high winds,
and heaters can be used to accelerate the concrete curing process.
4. Quality: Despite the high speed of construction, quality is never compromised in tunnel form
construction. The steel sheathing of the tunnel formwork creates a smooth and high quality
finish. The surface finish obtained, virtually reduces the requirement for finishing trades. For
the finishing, only a minimum level of preparation (a skim coat may be required) is needed.
This results in further savings in cost. Wallpaper can be directly applied or a skim coat may
be used to provide a perfect plastered finish.
5. Design: The tunnel form provides great flexibility in design. It allows high degree of freedom
in the final appearance. For example, it can provide for cantilevered balconies and a number of
facade options such as: insulated framed infill panels, curtain walling, and so on. It is possible
to achieve high level of dimensional accuracy and superior load distribution.
6. Safety: The tunnel formwork is provided with integral working platforms, guard rails, and
edge protection systems. There is minimal requirement for tools and equipment when moving
the tunnel form. This further helps reduce the risk of accidents. Also, since the work to be
performed at the site is minimum due to the preassembled formwork, the chances of accidents
are reduced.
7. Ease of service installation: Tunnel forms can facilitate pre-installation of service runs before
the concrete is poured.
The advantages of the tunnel formwork system are summarized in Box 10.1
High initial cost and requirement of extensive planning of architectural details are the major
limitations. The high initial cost may get offset only by large number of repetitions, say of the
order of 100 or more.
Accuracy in fabrication and assembling calls for a high degree of supervision.
Operations are crane dependent and require considerable crane time.
The system requires a few weeks to understand and become familiar. Thus in the initial
periods, productivity may be on a lower side.
Requires good co-ordination between the structural designer and the formwork engineer.
It is difficult to form large and different shaped structures using tunnel form. The system is
mostly suited for buildings with repetitive configurations.
Step 1
The first step is to cast the slab including the starter walls (kickers). The starter is usually of 75 mm
to 100 mm depth and is used to position the tunnel forms (see Fig. 10.27). The starter walls should
be carefully positioned and their vertical alignment must be accurate.
Step 2
A er the starter wall forms have been stripped, it is time to tie the reinforcement which can be tied
in either of the two possible ways: (1) placement of reinforcement before the tunnel formwork is
placed and (2) placement of reinforcement a er the tunnel formwork is placed. In the la er case, the
reinforcement is in the form of pre-assembled sections. Tunnel forms are placed by crane between
the rows of reinforcement, bu ed against the starter walls for alignment, and leveled with screw
jacks (see Fig. 10.28). Box-outs for door, windows, electrical conduit, and mechanical block outs are
also installed at this stage (see Fig. 10.29).
312 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 10.27 Construction of Starter Wall for the Tunnel Formwork System.
Step 3
Forms for the other sides of each wall (which may also be tunnel forms) are then placed. Spacers are
used to center the wire mesh between the forms. The ceiling panel is positioned at proper heights
by adjusting the inclined struts. The struts transfer the load of the concrete to the base of the tunnel
forms.
FLYING FORMWORK 313
The tunnel form system has heating equipment (see Fig. 10.30) for accelerating the hardening of the
concrete thus enabling a complete cycle of work to be performed every day. Some contractors even
claim that 2 concreting operations are possible in a 24-hour period for the slabs of short span.
The whole construction cycle thus consists of positioning the forms, fixing the steel reinforcement,
pouring the concrete, curing the concrete, lowering the form and moving it to the new location and
as mentioned, could be as short as 24 hours. It may be noted that different types of tunnel formworks
have been shown in Figs. 10.28, 10.29, and 10.30 to illustrate the tunnel formwork cycle.
The day wise cycle for the tunnel formwork operation is shown schematically in Fig. 10.31.
314 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 10.32 (b) Another View of Column Mounted Shoring System (Courtesy Formwork–Shoreall
Available at http://www.formwork-exchange.com).
316 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
As can be observed, the column mounted shoring system essentially consists of sheathing, joists,
stringers, supports for stringers, and bracket jacks. In the column mounted shoring system the
formwork consists of plywood as the sheathing member and timber joists. This is similar to any
other formwork system. Joists are supported on truss members acting as stringers. For smaller span,
the stringer could be made up of structural steel sections such as single channels, box made up of
two channel sections, etc.
The truss members are supported on steel I beams spanning perpendicular to the truss member.
The I beams are supported on bracket jacks. The bracket jacks consist of a double steel roller at the
top of the jacks, an adjustable screw to adjust the jacks, and a steel plate a achment. The rollers help
ease the horizontal movement of the formwork panel. The formwork panel can slide in and out
without much of an effort. The adjustable screw of the bracket jacks control the vertical movement
(height adjustment) of the formwork panels. The jacks are available to suit different requirements
of vertical height adjustments. The steel plate a achment is in contact with the concrete wall or
column with the help of thorough bolts.
The above mentioned components are shown schematically in Fig. 10.33.
type shores or cribs are preferred for higher floor heights. In case of column mounted shoring
system, height of floors is not a governing criterion.
4. Large investment required initially. The column mounted shoring system requires large capital
investment initially, which can be justified when a large number of reuses are envisaged.
5. Crane needed. The system requires crane for various formwork operations.
Figure 10.34 Construction of Track Hopper at Anpara Super Thermal Power Station Project
Executed by L&T- ECC Construction Group.
318 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 10.35 Schematic Sketch Showing Workflow for the Gang Forming Operation.
FLYING FORMWORK 319
10.10.2.1 Single region, single crane, and form sets not shared in a floor
In this scheme, the building has only one region in a floor and the form sets are mobilized for one
complete region. Thus only vertical movement of forms is possible. A single crane is assigned to
the region for formwork operations. This type of scheme is useful for tall buildings (having number
of floors) with small floor areas in a region. The site layout plan and the elevation of a building are
shown in Figs. 10.36 (a) and (b). The building has been divided into four units and the formwork
for all the concrete elements for the four units are mobilized simultaneously. Thus the four units
constitute one region according to our definition. From Fig. 10.36 (b), it can be noted that forms are
moved only in the upward direction, i.e., from the lower floors to the upper floors. The location of
the crane is also shown in the figure.
10.10.2.2 Multiple regions, single crane, and form sets not shared in a floor
In this scheme, the building has a number of regions in a floor. The form sets are not shared in a
floor. In other words, form sets move only vertically from the lower floors to the upper floors. As
a result, the formwork cost is going to be more. There is a single crane which caters to the needs of
multiple regions. Thus, depending on the availability of crane formwork operations, all the regions
in a floor can be taken up simultaneously. This type of scheme is suitable for projects having a tight
schedule.
We take the previous building (referred in previous section) for illustrating the concept. The
building has four units. Now the two units, unit 1 and unit 4 constitute one region. The form for
columns, walls, beams, and slab for unit 1 and unit 4 are mobilized as one set (see Fig. 10.37(a)).
Thus the plan of the building has two regions. Region 1 consists of units 1 and 4 while region 2
consists of units 2 and 3. Since time is a constraint here, the formwork operation is in progress for
both the regions depending on the availability of the only crane that is available. Thus, in this case
also, the forms for regions can not be moved within the floor and only their vertical movement is
possible as shown in Fig. 10.37(b).
320 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 10.36 Illustration of Single Region and Single Crane Scheme, Form Sets not Shared in a Floor.
10.10.2.3 Multiple regions, single crane, and form sets shared in a floor
In this scheme, the building has a number of regions on a floor. The form sets are shared in a floor.
In other words, the form sets move horizontally first in a floor, and then vertically from the lower
floors to the upper floors. This would result in lower formwork cost. There is a single crane which
caters to the needs of the multiple regions. Since the formwork has to move horizontally also from
FLYING FORMWORK 321
one region to another region in a floor, this type of reuse scheme is suitable where the project duration
is not too tight. Work can take place at a relaxed pace. Needless to say, in order to reduce the time,
the form sets and the associated crews have to be increased.
Figure 10.37 Illustration of Multiple Regions and Single Crane Scheme, Form Sets Not Shared in a Floor.
In Fig. 10.38 (a), the building has been divided into four units. The formwork for columns, walls,
beams and slab for unit 1 has been mobilized fully. Thus, according to our definition, unit 1 consists
of one region. Thus we have four regions in the building. The form for region 1 moves to other
regions on the same floor first and then it is taken to the upper floors. The movement is shown in
322 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
the elevation Fig. 10.38 (b). Obviously, the forms have more opportunity to be reused in this scheme.
The location of the crane is also marked in the figures.
Figure 10.38 Illustration of Multiple Regions, Single Crane and Form Sets Shared in a Floor.
10.10.2.4 Multiple regions, multiple cranes, and form sets shared in a floor
In this scheme, the building has a number of regions on a floor. There are multiple cranes available.
Each region is serviced by a single crane for formwork operations. Obviously such schemes would be
FLYING FORMWORK 323
preferable when there is a lot of work to be performed by the crane in a region besides the formwork
activities. The form sets are shared in a floor. In other words, the form sets move horizontally first
in a floor and then vertically from the lower floors to the upper floors.
In Fig. 10.39 (a), the building has been divided into 4 units and each unit is considered as a region.
There are two cranes employed for the job. The forms for the region are shared within the floors
first and then are moved to the upper floors.
Figure 10.39 Illustration of Multiple Regions, Multiple Cranes and Form Sets Shared in a Floor.
10.10.2.5 Multiple regions, multiple cranes, and forms not being shared in a floor
In this scheme, the building has a number of regions on a floor. The form sets are not shared in a
floor. In other words, the form sets move only vertically the from lower floors to the upper floors and
324 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
as a result, the formwork cost increases. There are multiple cranes available. Each region is serviced
by a single crane for the formwork operations. Obviously such schemes would be preferable when
there is extreme urgency to complete the project. The formwork cost is going to be extremely high
in such a situation.
In Fig. 10.40 (a), the building has been divided into four units. The formwork for columns, walls,
beams and slabs of each of the four units has been mobilized. And thus according to our definition,
the formwork for all the four regions have been mobilized. The forms thus move only in the vertical
directions i.e., from lower floors to upper floors. Obviously such schemes can prove to be a costly
option. Each region has a dedicated crane for formwork and other operations. The locations of each
of these cranes are shown in the plan and elevation both.
Figure 10.40 Illustration of Multiple Regions, Multiple Cranes and Forms Not Being Shared in a Floor.
FLYING FORMWORK 325
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) The flying form is a system of formwork which is assembled into form units usually on the
ground and is located to form concrete elements at the site location.
(b) The term flying formwork is used because forms are flown from one story to another story
with the help of a crane.
(c) The flying forms are more common in high rise buildings for rapid cycle construction
wherein large repetitions are possible thus justifying their relatively low initial cost of
fabrication.
(d) The flying form also inflates the material and labor cost.
(e) A typical unit of flying formwork consists of sheathing member, trusses or shores, steel or
wood beams as stringers, joists.
(f) Tunnel forms, flying truss systems, and column mounted shoring systems are different types
of flying formwork system.
(g) Table form and flying from are two different entities.
(h) In table form, the speed of construction is very slow.
(i) In table form, large area formwork is pre assembled at the ground usually.
(j) In tunnel forms, it is possible to cast walls and slabs in one operation in a one day cycle.
(k) Tunnel forms are used to form repetitive cellular structures such as hotels, residential
buildings etc.
(l) Tunnel forms provide accuracy, flexibility, and economy of in-situ construction.
(m) Tunnel forms are very economical for projects having 100 or more cellular units.
(n) Tunnel form uses steel for all components.
(o) Tunnel form consists of a sheathing of thick steel plate both for casting wall and ceiling,
waler and diagonal strut assembly.
(p) Gang forming operations include—tying reinforcement, plumbing, form li ing and erection,
concrete pouring, curing and form stripping in general.
(q) Gang forming systems employ larger sized standard forms.
Q2. Match the following
(i) Conventional method of scaffolding (a) strength of existing RC columns is utilized to
support the formwork
(ii) Column mounted shoring system (b) scaffolding or staging from the floor below is
erected to support the formwork for slabs and
beams.
Q3. Write short notes on
(a) Interform Aluminum Flying Forming System
(b) Symons Multiple Reuse Flying Truss System
(c) Harsco Infrastructure Flying Table Form
Q4. Enunciate the different steps involved in the flying formwork cycle.
Q5. List out the advantages and limitations of the flying formwork.
326 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Q6. List out the design issues, safety issues, operations hazards, and remedies for the flying formwork.
Q7. Write the do’s and don’ts involved in the safety operations for the flying formwork.
Q8. Write short notes on:
(a) L&T table formwork
(b) PERI table formwork
Q9. List out the advantages and limitations of table formwork.
Q10. Prepare short notes for the two variants of tunnel form by Symons Corporation.
Q11. List out the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of the tunnel form.
Q12. List out the different steps involved in the tunnel formwork cycle.
Q13. Prepare short notes on column mounted shoring system.
Q14. List out the advantages and limitations of the column mounted shoring system.
Q15. Prepare short notes on Gang forming system.
Q16. List out and describe different reuse schemes for Gang forming construction.
Chapter
11 Slipform
Contents: Introduction; Vertical Slipform; Horizontal Slipform; Types of Slipform; Functions of Various
Slipform Components; Assembly, Sliding, and Dismantling of Slipform; Slipform Design Issues;
Some Cases in Slipform; Safety Operations During Slipform Erection; Productivity Issues in Slipform
Construction
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Slipform construction, also known as sliding form construction, is similar to extrusion process in
which the wet concrete is extruded rather than retained in the forms until it has hardened. The
slipform construction method is used to build high-rise structures quickly. In this method, the
concrete is placed at a pre-determined rate on top of a travelling form, which emerges in a hardened
state from the bo om. Concrete is shaped in the desired profile during the travel of the form. In
slipform, the form moves semi continuously with respect to the concrete surface. The movement
is at such a regulated speed that the concrete when exposed, has already become strong enough to
retain its shape, and support its own weight besides being capable of supporting the vertical pressure
from the concrete still in the form, as well as to withstand the lateral pressure caused by the wind,
etc. It is different from other forms in a sense that form ties are not used in slipform.
In the initial days of slipforming, wooden forms in combination with wooden screw jacks and
wooden yokes were used. These were replaced by metallic forms, yokes, and hydraulic jacks. The
slipform construction technology was used to construct one of the notable structures— the 345 m
high concrete sha of CN Tower in Toronto in 1974 (see Fig. 11.1).
In India also, a large number of structures have been constructed using slipform. In one of the
early constructions in 1988, slipform was used to construct 235 m high TV tower in Pitampura, New
Delhi (see Fig. 11.2).
The slipform construction method can be applied with great advantages to many construction
projects such as chimneys, silos, water towers, telecommunication towers, bridge piers, pylons,
stair and elevator sha cores, sha linings, heavy concrete offshore platforms, and oil platforms etc.
Slipforming is resorted to where continuous concreting is possible and where monolithic structure
is desired.
328 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Although the initial investment required in slipform construction is high, in the long run, the
technology proves to be economical due to the reduction in construction time and labor cost compared
to other formworks. High slipping speed and accurate alignment of the concrete structures are
possible now with the application of large yoke capacities and be er laser guidance. Some other
advantages offered by slipform construction over other formworks are: high quality finished surfaces
and continuous moving monolithic structure.
Slipform construction can be used both for vertical and horizontal structures. Vertical slipforming
is used for silos, bins, sha s, cores, caissons, bridge piers, etc. Horizontal slipforming is used for
canal lining, tunnel inverts, highway pavements, water conduits etc.
Bolt
1,520
Fixing cleat
Yoke leg Double yoke beam
1,650 Bolts Timber decking
150 40 1,800
Platform bracket
Suspended 8
long link chains secured at top
and bottom with D shackles
100 100 Timber strut
at each yoke foot
Suspended
scaffold bracket
W = 300 mm
Unlike straight slipform, the design of tapering slipform system is more complicated. The
components are assembled in such a way that as and when the slipform moves up, the reduction in
dimensions (for example diameter and wall thickness) of the structure and the inclination of wall is
taken care of. Most of the components are fixed on one end and are free to move on the other end to
cater to the changing profile of tapered structure. The reduction in circumference is facilitated by a
set of hydraulic cylinders using spindles with le hand and right hand threads.
SLIPFORM 333
11.5.1 Sheathing
The function of sheathing is to contain and provide shape to the concrete. It also helps maintain
the correct profile of the structure to be slipformed. The sheathing along with the wales, resist the
334 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
concrete pressure. The sheathing can be made out of timber, plywood, metal, glass fiber, reinforced
plastic or a combination of these materials.
11.5.2 Wales
The wales are used to support and hold the sheathing in place. They transmit the li ing force from
the yokes to the sheathing and to the other elements of the form. Wales also provide support for
various platforms and the scaffolding.
11.5.3 Yokes
Yokes support the wales at regular intervals with their legs, transmit the li ing forces from the jacks
to the wales, and resist the lateral force of the plastic concrete within the form.
Yoke Legs
The function of yoke leg is to li the slipform structure as one integral unit. It transfers the li ing
reactions to the jacks. Yoke legs also act as the main connecting member for walkway platforms,
mason’s scaffold, yoke beams, top platforms, etc.
Yoke Beams
Yoke beam is the main connecting member between the inside and outside yoke legs. Two yoke
beams are connected at the bo om portion of the yoke legs and a single yoke beam is connected at
the top portion. Jacks are mounted over the yoke beams. The yoke beam transfers the li ing forces
of the jacks to the yoke legs.
11.5.4 Jacks
The jacks, installed on the yoke beams, climb up the jack rods and provide the force needed to raise
the entire slipform system. In one patented arrangement by a leading manufacturer, the jack grips
the jack rod with two ballgrips. Jacks are to be suitably located preferably at equal intervals to enable
li ing the slipform as one integral unit. The capacity of the jacks is decided depending upon the
reactions at the point of li ing.
One of the leading manufacturers of jacks produces these jacks with a working capacity of 3, 6
and 12 ton (Fig. 11.7). The 6 ton jack is normally used for high-rise tapered structures and when
the required li ing load is heavy. The 3 ton slipform hydraulic jack is normally used for straight
structures and when the load is normal. The stroke for each li can be adjusted individually making
it possible to operate the slipform with the desired accuracy.
Figure 11.7 The Interform Hydraulic Slipform Jacks with 3, 6, and 12 Ton Lifting Capacity.
In order to salvage (extract) the jack rods, a thin pipe or tapered tube sleeve is usually placed
around the jack rods for about one meter depth from the concrete surface and a ached to the yoke.
This way, the sleeve forms a hole for the jack rod to stand freely as the form moves. A er the
completion of the slide, the jack rod is pulled out.
members to ensure that the required shape is maintained during the slipforming operation. The
gap between the inner and outer forms creates the void thickness of wall in which the vertical and
horizontal reinforcements are tied. The forms are connected to jack rods with hydraulic jacks which
move the form. The slipform assembly is an extremely complicated activity which has to be done
in a systematic manner. It requires an expert’s supervision at different stages.
Step 1
A kicker or starter (150 mm deep) is cast over the base slab or the foundation. The vertical
and horizontal reinforcements are positioned properly to ensure the correct cover (Fig. 11.9).
Reinforcement starter bars must be between a minimum of 1.2 m and a maximum of 1.8 m in height.
Lacing bars must be fi ed before the erection of the slipform rig can begin. In Fig. 11.9, kicker is not
shown for the sake of clarity.
Step 2
The panels are clipped together and positioned according to the wall lines on the base slab. This is
shown in Fig. 11.10.
Step 3
The top frames are added and can be used to give taper to both sides of the shu er, the panels are
then braced, fixing them in position. The corresponding arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.11.
Step 4
The pre-assembled yoke frames are positioned and fixed to the sides of the shu er at both the waling
levels. This is shown in Fig. 11.12.
Step 5
The working deck is made up of 100 mm 100 mm timbers fixed into the tops of the top frames and
225 mm 50 mm boards spanning between the top frames. This is shown in Fig. 11.13.
Step 6
With the working deck fi ed, the top deck can be assembled. The top deck is made up of primary
and secondary 125 mm 100 mm timber beams and 225 mm 50 mm boards (see Fig. 11.14).
Step 7
The hydraulic jacking units are fi ed at every li ing point and the climbing tubes lowered down
through them from the top deck. Once the hydraulics have been tested, the rig is ready to slide. The
corresponding arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.15.
Step 8
Once the slide has reached a sufficient height, the hanging scaffold frames are connected and decked
out. The corresponding arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.16.
beforehand. A person experienced in slipform construction should be present on the deck at all
times during slipform movement.
The following issues based on the recommendations of ACI 347 need a ention and should be
closely observed during the slipform operation.
1. Leveling of forms and concrete: Forms should be leveled before they are filled. The use of
a probe to establish safe li ing rates is recommended. The level of the hardened concrete in
the form should be checked frequently by the probe.
2. Dri ing from plumb or twisting: It is essential to prevent the form from dri ing from the
plumb or twisting due to torsional movement during the slipform operation. The plumb of the
structure can be checked by a plumb bob/optical plummet/laser beams, and also by the vertical
tape measures at fixed points. It is recommended that the formwork should be adequately
braced and the platform should be kept leveled at all times. The level of the platform can
be maintained by checking constantly with reference to the marks on the jack rods or by the
water level systems.
3. Frequency of check for alignment and plumbness: The alignment and plumbness of a
structure should be checked with respect to the alignment or the designed dimensions at least
once during every four hours that the slide is in operation and preferably every two hours
according to the recommendations of ACI 347. Where the stoppages are planned in slipform
operation, alignment and plumbness should be checked at the beginning of each slipform
operation. For tall structures with relatively small plan dimensions, ACI 347 recommends
frequent readings so that the condition of being out of plumb and any twist can be detected
early and remedial measures can be taken. It is also recommended to keep the records of both
the vertical and lateral form movements throughout the slipform operation.
SLIPFORM 343
4. Planning and coordination: Slipforming involves a large crew taking charge of the different
activities in a round the clock operation. Unlike cast-in-situ structures, formwork, reinforcement,
and concreting are simultaneously done in slipform. Activities like fixing inserts, pockets for
permanent and temporary arrangements are also done along with the concrete, requiring
meticulous planning of activities and resources. It is obvious that thorough planning and
coordination between the various crews are essential in ensuring the success of the slipform
operation. It is advisable to prepare a chart/checklist in advance showing reinforcements,
inserts, pockets, openings, coil nuts, sleeves, etc.
5. Constant supervision: ACI 347 recommends that the construction of the slipform and slipping
should be carried out under the immediate supervision of a person experienced in slipform
work.
6. Regular examination of all ancillaries: All ancillaries on the slipform should be examined
and regularly inspected a er erection and during the operation period to ensure that sufficient
safety and capacity are achieved.
The slipform design should be such that the forms do not deform the concrete harmfully a er
erection and during the operation. The design should also consider providing appropriate camber
to the forms.
ACI 347 recommends that slipforms should be designed by experienced, competent engineers
familiar with slipform construction. It also recommends that the drawings for slipform construction
should be prepared by a slipform engineer employed by the contractor and it must show the jack layout,
formwork, working decks, and scaffolds. The engineer should be familiar with the exact brand of the
slipform equipment proposed to be used for slipform operation. The engineer should also prepare
a developed elevation of the structure showing the location of all the openings and embedments.
The dead loads are computed as in any other formwork. When it comes to estimating live load,
ACI 347 recommends a minimum design live load of 3.6 kN/m2, or concentrated buggy wheel load
whichever is greater, for the design of the sheathing and joists. The minimum design live load for
designing beams, trusses, and wales used in slipform is assumed to be 2.4 kN/m2, whereas the
minimum design live load for designing light-duty finishers’ scaffolding is recommended to be 1.2
kN/m2.
The lateral pressure of fresh concrete to be used in designing the forms, bracing, and wales can
be calculated according to the recommendation of ACI 347 as given below:
524 R
Pmax = c1 + (11.1)
T 17.8
where
Pmax is the lateral pressure, kN/m2;
c1 = 4.8 kN/m2 (For some applications, such as gastight or containment structures, the value of
c1 should be increased to 7.2 kN/m2);
R is the rate of concrete placement, m per h; and
T is the temperature of concrete in the forms, °C.
11.8.1 Chimneys
Tall chimneys are required to be built to disperse flue gases mixed with other pollutants at high
altitudes. Single chimney with multiple flues is also designed these days to disperse pollutants from
different boiler units. With stringent anti pollution regulations, the required heights of the chimneys
are increasing day by day. It is common to have a 275 m high chimney for boilers of 500 MW or
more. A number of such chimneys have been constructed in the country. A number of contractors
are capable of constructing chimneys of such height using slipform.
A chimney of 275 m height, 30 m base diameter, and 20.8 m top diameter was built by using the
slipform method at Anpara in U.P. For this, a massive structural frame consisting of an upper frame,
a lower frame, bracings, main trusses, spider beams, and rig beams was erected (Fig. 11.20). The
load of the concrete and the reinforcement to be li ed each day for such chimneys is considerable.
Four rope guided hoists were installed on the slipform structural member to take care of the li ing
of the top concrete, reinforcement, and access to the platform. The slipform system was designed to
provide a li ing force of 336 tonnes to cater to live load, dead load, and friction load. Figure 11.21
shows the nearly completed view of the chimney.
In order to accommodate the reduction in the diameter of the chimney with increasing heights,
the bolted connections were designed which helped in dismantling some of the slipform panels
during the slipping operation.
The contractor employed 8 main yokes and 40 normal yokes, 16 twelve-ton capacity slipform
li ing jacks, 40 six-ton capacity slipform li ing jacks, and 1 hydraulic power pack for the slipform
jack. Laser beams were used for vertical alignment. The contractor used 4 passenger/material hoists
and two Space Clima for emergency access from the outside. For reinforcement li ing, 2 two-ton
346 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
capacity gear winch were used. The contractor installed batching plant at the site to produce concrete
which was transported to the chimney location in transit mixers.
Concrete Institute (Maharashtra India Chapter). On the best day, in 24 hours, the crew completed
9.4 m of vertical height on the bridge pier.
thickness varies along the height of the column. For the first 2,955 mm, the column has 1,858 mm
outer diameter and 550 mm thickness. Between 2,955 mm and 10,620 mm, the column has 1,650
mm diameter and 450 mm thickness. Between 10,620 mm and 18,832 mm, the column has 1,424
mm diameter and 350 mm thickness. Between 18,832 mm and 27,044 mm, the column has 1,200 mm
diameter and 230 mm thickness.
The cross section and elevation of the column is shown in Fig. 11.24.
The slipform arrangement adopted for the column construction is shown schematically in
Fig. 11.25.
The slipform was planned with a total of three intermi ent stoppages before reaching to the
completed height. The scheduled stoppages were at 2,955 mm, 10,620 mm, and 18,832 mm. At
each of these stoppages, the slipform assembly was dismantled and re-erected to suit the changed
column thickness. The project was executed by Shilpa Associates Pvt. Ltd. for the Noida Authority.
The contractor used a set of eight hydraulic jacks of 3 ton capacity. The yoke legs were made out
of ISMC 125 section while the head beam was made of ISMB 100 section. The suspended scaffold
was fabricated using ISA 75 75 6 sections. The form plates were made of 5 mm thick mild steel
plates stiffened with ISA 50 50 6 sections. A mild steel pipe 20 NB of ‘C’ class was used to serve
as the jack rod. A mechanical winch supported on mild steel access tower was used to transport the
concrete for the column construction.
The construction started with the casting of the concrete starters followed by the assembly of
the slipform. As mentioned, the slipform operation had three planned stoppages at the changing
thickness locations. At each of these locations, the slipform assembly was dismantled and reassembled
to suit the changed thicknesses and the diameter of the column. Concreting was done in a layer
of 400 mm and sliding was done in an increment of 10 mm stroke. Verticality of the structure was
measured at every half meter height by suspending 10kg —4 Plumb bob and the correction on the
jack movement was done by level controllers fixed at the top of the hydraulic jack .The total concrete
quantity used for the project was 45 m3 and the total reinforcement steel was 3.05 ton. M30 grade
concrete had been used in the construction. The vertical reinforcement bars were of 25 mm diameter
while for circumferential reinforcement, 10 mm diameter bars had been used. The reinforcing bars
were of Stainless Steel (SS).
The different stages of construction of the column piazza are shown in Fig. 11.26.
Concrete pylons for boiler supports for a height of approximately 80 m were slipformed by Larsen
and Toubro Limited, ECC - Construction Division (see Fig. 11.27). The span between the pylons was
around 22 m which were constructed using a walkway bridge. Pylons were constructed together
with an accuracy of plus or minus 10 mm to accommodate the supporting girder with 52 holes to
match with the bolts emanating from the pylon. Also, precast staircase was erected in a short span
of 15 days. Slipping of the pylons resulted in an aesthetic surface finish and a clean, maintenance
free concrete pylon.
Figure 11.27 Simultaneous Slipforming of Four Pylons at Vijayawada Thermal Power Station.
In one of the slipform methods of core construction, the slipping is not done on a continuous 24
hour per day basis. Rather, the slipforms are started and stopped each day. The slipform operation
remains suspended on holidays. Specific formworks for the openings of elevators—mechanical, and
electrical are constructed in the duration of the stoppage. Usually at this stage, vertical reinforcements
are installed with the appropriate lengths to cover one floor.
In another method of slipform construction of the core, the slipping is done on a continuous basis.
For connection at different floor levels, dowel bars or insert plates are le inside the concrete during
slipping. These dowel bars or inserts are exposed later on the completion of the slipping operation
and suitable connections from the beams and slabs at different floors are made with the core wall.
Slipform was used to construct the 14 elevator and stair core of the Bharat Hotels (Hilton), New
Delhi in 1982. The height of slipforming was 54.13 m and the inside plan dimension of the core
measured 2.5 m 2.4 m. The wall thickness of the core varied from 230 mm to 180 mm. Insert
plates were provided on the face of the elevator core wall at respective levels. These plates were
later used to connect the end of the floor beams with walls a er the completion of the slipform.
Similar arrangements were made for the stair core also. Temporary block-outs were provided
during slipform concreting for elevator door openings. Figure 11.28 shows the construction of the
core using slipform.
11.8.5 Silos
Silos are constructed for storing grains, and the construction and the industrial materials. Being
circular in shape, generally these silos represent the ideal cases for the slipform technique of
continuous construction, especially when the height of the silo wall is very high. According to Jaafari
et al. (1989), the slipform method is the most economical and time saving technique for constructing
silos higher than 15 m.
Construction of circular silos is a common feature in cement plants. These are built to store clinker,
cement, etc. Indian contractors have slipformed silos of different diameters and heights in different
conditions successfully. Silos of fluted designs have also been built by the slipform method.
352 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 11.28 Bharat Hotels Elevator Core Under Construction Using Slipform.
A number of silos with architectural grooves resulting in aesthetic surface finish have been
constructed using slipforms at Tadapatri, Nimhada, and abroad in Oman by the Indian contractor
Larsen and Toubro Limited, ECC - Construction Division. One such silo constructed at Tadapatri
Cement Plant is shown in Fig. 11.29.
A 65 m diameter silo to store clinker was constructed using slipform technique for the Andhra
Pradesh Cement Plant in Tadipatri. Such large diameter silos were constructed using the climbing
formwork technology earlier. Slipform structure was specially designed to cater to the large diameter.
The total height of slipping was 25.5 m.
The typical slipform arrangement for constructing silos of low to medium diameter (say up to 36
m) consists of centrally connected spider assembly (yokes) and central spokes made up of 12 mm
M.S. round bars. One end of the spoke rods are connected to a central ring while the other end is
connected to the waler pipes of the slipform shu ers with an adjustable spindle. During the slipform
operation, these spokes are kept intact through turnbuckles and they maintain the circular shape.
This arrangement would become very heavy and expensive if used for slipforming large diameter
silos.
The arrangement of slipform for constructing 65 m diameter silo consisted of the turnbuckle
assembly and avoided the usual central spokes mentioned above. The turnbuckle assembly is similar
SLIPFORM 353
to a horizontal frame running parallel to the structural wall in the plan on any or both sides of the
yokes. The turnbuckle arrangement provides structural integrity to the entire slipform assembly
and provides resistance to the differences in yoke levels. The arrangement prevented local buckling
of walers and form panels.
Pre-stressing cables weighing up to 1 ton were placed in the shell, while slipping. The slipform
assembly consisted of 154 yoke elements and 166 slipform hydraulic jacks each of 3.5 ton capacity.
The construction involved 2,260 m3 of concrete pouring, 10,000 m2 of slipformed area, and tying 650
tonnes of reinforcement and 20,000 m of pre-stressing cables. In each shi of 12 hours, the contractor
mobilized 165 workers for the concreting work, 35 workers for slipform shu ering operations, 70
workers for the reinforcement works, and 80 workers for pre-stressing, 18 mates, and 5 engineers.
The structure rose to 25.5 m slipping height in 15 days. The contractor had mobilized 3 access cum
concrete li ing towers, 3 winches for li ing reinforcement, 1 winch for li ing the pre-stressing
cables, and 6 concrete mixers. This has resulted in a direct saving of 2-2.5 months in construction
time and also considerable cost.
The pre-stressing and reinforcement tying operations are critical in constructing silos of this
nature. The li ing arrangement of the pre-stressing cables, placing pre-stressing sheathing pipes
during concreting, and post threading the pre-stressing cables a er the completion of the slipform,
need careful consideration. Mock assembly of cables installed before commencing the slipform
operation helps in foreseeing the problem. Specially designed concrete mixes are required to cater
354 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
to the speed of slipping. In this case, the contractor had designed M-40 concrete mix to have initial
se ing time between 2 to 2.5 hours and final se ing time between 6 to 7 hours.
Coordinating such a large crew dealing in different activities is also a tedious task. It requires
detailed planning and monitoring. Efficient communication devices such as intercoms and walkie
talkies (used earlier), and mobile phones prove helpful in coordinating with different crew leaders.
The completed silo is shown in Fig. 11.30.
11.9.1 General
(a) Wearing safety helmet (hard hat) by all is imperative.
(b) It is preferable to have one entrance to enter the chimney. One security guard should be posted
to prohibit anyone entering without the helmet and also the trespassers.
(c) The entrance should be sheltered to a length of 15 m outside the chimney and inside up to
the R.G hoist; so that the entrance is saved from the falling material.
(d) Barricading is required around the chimney circumference at a distance of 15 m.
(e) Inside the chimney, at the locations where perpendicularity is checked by laser beam, should
be sheltered with a small hole.
(f) Deploy minimum number of workmen on the platform, and as far as possible have them
sca ered.
(g) Smoking should be prohibited on the platform.
(h) Fire extinguishers should be kept on the platform. The distance to reach a fire extinguisher
should be maximum 25 m.
(i) Safety posters and caution boards should be displayed on the platform and at the ground
level.
(j) Intercom for communications is very much required.
356 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
(k) It is important to give a safety talk to the workers by the concerned engineer on the procedures
before the slipform start.
11.9.2 Platform
(a) The platform at all levels should be checked by a competent person for its reliability on bolting,
plank fixing, etc. A periodic check at a frequency of once a month is a must.
(b) The platform should have a handrail and toe board.
(c) All planks should be checked. The recommended size is 1,800 mm 250 mm width 50 mm
thickness —preferable variety is hardwood.
(d) The external and internal platform bo om should be covered with safety nets.
(e) Access ladder is required to climb down from the platform to the bo om platform.
11.9.3 Electrical
(a) All electrical equipments should be earthed.
(b) Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) should be fixed to portable equipment and lightings.
(c) The electrical cable should be neatly traced along the platform and handrail. Avoid placing
them on the platform or routing in a haphazard way.
(d) Provide lightning arrester as the slipform proceeds connecting other earths to the lightning
arrestor earth is prescribed.
11.9.6 Miscellaneous
(a) It is easier and less risky to do corbel casting during the slipform operation. At times, the
platform is moved above the casting and workers are sent down to remove the shu ers and
to do the finishing work. These workers should be equipped with a safety belt of sufficient
length and a kit bag to keep the spanners, bolts and nuts. It is also recommended to have one
additional level of suspended platform to carry out such special activities.
(b) Outside platforms should be cast while doing the slipform. The workers deployed should
have the required personnel protective equipment (PPE).
(c) Housekeeping on the platform should be maintained stringently. No material should be
dropped from a height.
(d) The shu er cleaning gang should be instructed to clear the platform at the end of the shi
and the collection debris should be brought down through the hoist.
(e) The bit rod cut by the gas cu er or electrode bits generated by the welders should be collected
by the respective helpers and brought down at the end of each shi .
concrete using the concrete pump. It can be observed that for the silo diameter of 16 m and 0.5 m
thickness, the slipform productivity is about 0.214 m/h at a jacking rate of 30 cm/h.
Figure 11.32 Slip-forming Productivity Versus Silo Diameter Using Bucket and Crane in Concrete Placing (24 working
h/day) Courtesy American Society of Civil Engineers. License No. 2885870881477.
Figure 11.33 Slip-forming Productivity Versus Silo Diameter Using Pump in Concrete Placing (24 working h/day)
Courtesy American Society of Civil Engineers. License No. 2885870881477.
SLIPFORM 359
The productivity of different silo projects, using the crane and bucket arrangement or pump to
place the concrete can be predicted easily using Figs. 11.32 and 11.33. This is shown with the help
of the following small illustration.
Example: It is desired to estimate the duration for a project which involves slipform construction
of twelve silos of 22 m diameter and 0.7 m thickness, and eight silos of 12 m inner diameter and 0.5
m thickness. Each of the twenty silos is of 55 m height. It is proposed to use a jacking rate of 50 cm/h
and concrete is planned to be placed using the crane and bucket arrangement.
Since crane and bucket arrangement is proposed to be used, Fig. 11.32 needs to be referred for
estimating the project duration. From Fig. 11.32, the slipform productivity for a silo of 22 m diameter
and 0.7 m thickness is 0.121 m/h at 50 cm/h jacking rate.
Thus the time to construct twelve silos = 12 time to construct one silo
Silo Height 55 5,454.54
= 12 12 hours days = 227.27 days
Slipform Productivity 0.121 24
The slipform productivity for a silo of 12 m diameter and 0.5 m thickness is 0.223 m/h at 50 cm/h
jacking rate.
Silo Height 55 1,973.09
= 8 8 hours = days = 82.21 days
Slipform Productivity 0.223 24
Thus, the total project duration for construction of 20 silos = 227.27 + 82.21 = 309.48 days. Some
contingencies may have to be added in this value for duration estimation. It may be noted that
only one set of slipform equipment and crew has been considered for the above computation. The
duration would decrease proportionately if more slipform equipments are mobilised. For example,
if the slipform equipments and crews are doubled, the duration would become half of what has
been estimated.
For computing the man hours of different crew members required for a few activities in slipform,
the following productivity values can be taken for planning purpose.
1. Assembly and dismantling of slipform: The assembly of straight slipform can take about 75
man hours per yoke set. The dismantling of straight slipform can take on an average 55 man
hours per yoke set. Thus, if the slipform assembly consists of 24 yoke sets, the total man hours
required for assembly and dismantling would be on an average 75 24 + 55 24 = 3,120 man
hours.
2. Slipping operation: For straight slipform, the man hour requirement comes to about 1.25
man hours per m2. It can go to 2.50 man hours per m2 for tapering slipform.
3. Concreting activities: For planning purpose the man hour requirement for straight slipform
concreting can be estimated based on a productivity value of about 22 man hours per m3. It
can be slightly increased (about 25 man hours per m3) in case of tapering slipform.
4. Reinforcement: For straight slipform, the productivity is about 65 man hours per m. It can
increase to 90 man hours per m for tapering slipform.
360 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Slipform construction is similar to the extrusion process in which the wet concrete is extruded
rather than retained in forms until it is hardened.
(b) Slipform construction method is used to build high rise structures quickly.
(c) In slipform, the form moves semi continually with respect to the concrete surface.
(d) Slipforming is resorted to where continuous concreting is possible and where monolithic
structure is desired.
(e) Slipform reduces construction time and labor cost compared to other formworks.
(f) Vertical slipform system essentially comprises of form panel, yoke assembly, jack rod,
mechanical or hydraulic jack.
(g) Horizontal slipform generally moves on a rail system.
(h) Slipform can be classified as— straight slipform, tapering slipform, and special application
slipform.
(i) Sheathing is used to contain and provide shape to concrete.
(j) Wales are used to support and hold the sheathing in place.
(k) Yokes support the wales at regular intervals with their legs, transmit li ing forces from jacks
to wales, and resist lateral forces of plastic concrete within form.
(l) Yoke leg is used to li the slipform structure as one integral unit.
(m) Yoke beam is the main connecting member between the inside and outside yoke legs.
(n) Jacks provide the force needed to raise the entire the slipform system and climb up the jack rods.
(o) Slipform design should ensure sufficient strength of form to withstand all the loads and the
safety of the personnel and the materials involved.
(p) Slipform should be designed for all special loading conditions including frictional forces
between the concrete and forms.
(q) Slipform design should be such that the forms do not deform the concrete harmfully a er
erection and during operation.
(r) For slipform design, as per ACI 347: maximum design live load = 3.6 kN/m2 and minimum
design live load = 2.4 kN/m2.
524 R
(s) For slipform design, lateral pressure is given by the expression: Pmax
T 17.8
Q2. Match the following
(i) Vertical slipform is used for (a) canal lining, tunnel inverts, highway projects,
water conduits.
(ii) Horizontal slipform is used for (b) silos, bins, sha s, cores, caissons, bridge piers,
etc.
Q3. Prepare short notes on
(a) Straight slipform
(b) Tapering slipform
(c) Special applications slipform
(d) Function of various components of slipform
SLIPFORM 361
Q4. List out the various steps involved in assembly, sliding, and dismantling of slipform.
Q5. What are the important issues of concern as per ACI 347 during slipform operation?
Q6. Prepare short notes on
(a) Chimney construction using slipform
(b) Tall bridge pier construction using slipform
(c) Columns, pylons, and tower construction using slipform
(d) Elevator and stair core construction using slipform
(e) Silos construction using slipform
(f) Construction of RCC framed structures using slipform
Q7. List out the safety issues involved in slipform erection.
Q8. Chalk out the productivity issues in man-hours with respect to
(a) Assembly and dismantling of slipform
(b) Slipping operation
(c) Concreting activities
(d) Reinforcement
Q9. Why is the pressure on side forms less in slipform compared to the pressure on wall form in a
conventional construction?
Q10. Why is ba er provided in constructing form for the slipform?
Q11. Calculate the schedule (completion time) and manpower requirement for constructing a 20 m
diameter and 56 m high silo using slipform.
Q12. Give briefly the functions of following slipform components:
(a) Yoke legs
(b) Yoke beams
(c) Climbing rod
(d) Walkway brackets (inside and outside)
Q13. Estimate the project duration for a project which involves slipform construction of 15 silos of 18 m
inner diameter. The height of silos is 65 m and wall thickness 0.6 m. You may assume a jacking rate
of 30 cm/h. The concrete is planned to be placed using concrete pump. There is one set of slipform
equipment and crew.
Q14. Estimate the project duration for a project which involves slipform construction of ten silos of
28 m inner diameter and 0.8 m wall thickness. The height of each silo is 60 m. The jacking rate is
estimated to be 30 cm/h. The concrete is planned to be placed using crane and bucket arrangement.
The contractor has plans to mobilize two sets of slipform equipment and crew.
Chapter
12 Formwork Supports
Contents: Introduction; Shores/Props and Dropheads; Multi-legged Shoring Towers; Design of Vertical
Supports for Formwork; Work Input for Shoring Towers; Shoring Towers Reuse and Erection Sequence;
Recommendations; Horizontal Supports
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, vertical supports and horizontal supports for formwork are discussed. The vertical
supports could be either single-leg type or multi-leg type. The single-leg type is also known as shore
or prop. They are generally tubular and telescopic type. They also come with height adjustment
features for adjustment in heights. The shores/props are available in different sizes to cater to
different ranges of heights and different load capacities. Examples of multi-leg type supports are
frame or tripod or trestle. In horizontal supports, the light weight trusses are discussed. The detailed
discussion on shores/props, frames, trestles, etc. follows.
12.2.1 Shores/Props
In chapter 2, the application of timber as vertical shores/posts was illustrated. The timber shores/
props are also commonly used in low rise construction where floor to floor height may be between
3-4 m. It was emphasized that the l/d ratio is an important design parameter for timber shores and
thus while using timber shores, sufficient thickness of timber should be ensured to safeguard them
against buckling. Bracing of shores should also be ensured. A typical arrangement for timber shores/
props is given in Fig. 12.1. Note the arrangement of jointing of shores/props to achieve additional
heights (Fig. 12.2). The design aspects of timber shores/props are covered in Chapter 7.
The shores/props made up of steel are very common these days. In the early development of
props, they were usually made up of mild steel tubes. Modern props are made with high tensile
steel and tubes. They are of light weight yet offer high strength. The props are usually used for
supporting the formwork in low clearance construction, up to heights of about 5 m. Beyond this
height also, they can be used. However, in these cases, they have to be used in tiers and need to be
properly tied and braced so as to form a rigid structure.
FORMWORK SUPPORTS 363
As in the case of timber shores, bracings are also important in steel shores. Bracings are provided
by means of tubes and clamps. There are a large number of manufacturers who produce steel props.
These props come in different designs and have different load carrying capacities. The manufacturer’s
364 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
advice must be taken into consideration when using these shores. The design data provided by them
prove to be valuable for the design. Their advice on the erection procedures of the shores and the
safety precautions in their application must be adhered to. The details of some commonly available
steel props by one leading manufacturer, L&T, are given in Table 12.1.
12.2.2 Dropheads
Dropheads are devices which are fi ed on the top of props or supports to support the slab while
the remaining form for the decking could be struck for reuse. The dropheads remain in contact with
the underside of the slab at all times for the full curing period, while the majority of the formwork
materials, including plywood, can be removed as early as 3-4 days a er pouring of the concrete.
This results in great economy as for as the cost of the formwork is concerned. Dropheads are
a comparatively recent development and different manufacturers have come up with various
proprietary designs of dropheads which essentially serve the same purpose. One such typical
drophead by a reputed manufacturer is shown in Fig. 12.3.The arrangement of the drophead before
and a er striking the forms is also shown in Figs. 12.4 and 12.5, respectively. The dropheads are
suited primarily for flat slabs and multi-story construction.
differ from each other on account of (1) tower configuration, (2) frame configuration, (3) dimensional
variation of frames, (4) load carrying capacity, and (5) the way in which they are assembled.
Hurd (1963) classified the shoring towers based on the safe working load of each leg of the tower.
She termed the towers as standard, heavy duty, and extra heavy duty. For a standard tower, the safe
working load of each leg is 27 kN; for heavy duty tower, the safe working load of each leg is 45 kN;
and for extra heavy duty tower, the safe working load of each leg is 180 kN. With the introduction
of aluminum towers and towers with ultrahigh-load carrying capacity, the safe working load of
each leg has increased up to 450 kN and the classification of standard, heavy duty and extra heavy
duty may look obsolete in today’s context. Further, the service lifetime of the shoring tower material
has increased to 15-20 years now.
The classification of shoring towers adopted by Hurd (1963) and Shapira and Raj (2005) is shown
in Fig. 12.6 and discussed below:
Shapira and Raj (2005) classified shoring towers in the following four types:
Type A
Type ‘A’ tower is shown in Fig. 12.7. The basic configuration of the frame for Type ‘A’ towers is
shown in Fig. 12.8. Such towers can be assembled in square and rectangular shapes. Each tier is
made up of two parallel frames which are connected by two pairs of cross braces. The cross braces
are used to interconnect two separate towers or to make a larger tower.
The towers of type ‘A’ are manufactured by Acrow, Doka, Symons, and so on. Depending on
the manufacturer, the height of each tier in such towers may vary from 910 mm to 2,100 mm. The
working load per leg of the tower may vary from 45 to 80 kN. Such towers are available in aluminum
and painted steel. The length of the frame (tower width) varies from 610 mm to 1,830 mm. There
is an option of the whole tower section ge ing li ed as in the Gang form. The towers cannot be
assembled in the triangular tower form.
Type B
Type ‘B’ tower is shown in Fig. 12.9. The basic configuration of the frame for Type ‘B’ towers is shown in
Fig. 12.10. Each tower section is made up of four telescopic props. The props are connected by sets of
four ledger frames. The props may also be used separately as single post shores. The ledger frames
are used to interconnect two separate towers or to make a larger tower. The towers of type B are
manufactured by Meva, PERI, and so on.
FORMWORK SUPPORTS 367
Depending on the manufacturer, the height of each tier in such towers may vary from as low as
800 mm to as high as 6,250 mm. The working load per leg of the tower may vary from 45 to 60 kN.
Such towers are available in aluminum and painted steel. The length of the frame (tower width)
varies from 550 mm to 3,800 mm. There is an option of the whole tower section ge ing li ed as in
the Gang form. The towers cannot be assembled in the triangular tower form.
Type C
Type ‘C’ tower is shown in Fig. 12.11. The basic configuration of the frame for Type ‘C’ towers is
shown in Fig. 12.12. These towers come in square configuration in the plan. As in the case of Type
‘A’ towers, each tier is made up of two parallel frames. In Type ‘C’ towers, the tiers are turned 90°
in relation to each other. The ledger frames are used to interconnect two separate towers or to make
a larger tower. The towers of type ‘C’ are manufactured by Doka, PERI, and so on.
368 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Depending on the manufacturer, the height of each tier in such towers may vary from a minimum
of 500 mm to a maximum of 1,800 mm. The working load per leg of the tower may vary from 50
to 60 kN. Such towers are also available in galvanized steel. The length of the frame (tower width)
varies from 1,000 mm to 1,520 mm. There is an option of the whole tower section ge ing li ed as
in the Gang form for the towers manufactured by Doka. The towers of type ‘C’ usually cannot be
assembled in triangular tower form; however some manufacturers can have the type ‘C’ tower
assembled in the triangular tower form.
FORMWORK SUPPORTS 369
Type ‘D’
Type ‘D’ tower is shown in Fig. 12.13. The basic configuration of the frame for Type ‘D’ towers is
shown in Fig. 12.14. Such towers can be assembled in triangular, square, and rectangular shapes.
Each tier is made up of four frames connected to each other. As in the other types of towers, these
can also be interconnected to make a larger tower. The towers of type ‘D’ are manufactured by Kabir
of Israel, Pal of Switzerland, and so on.
Depending on the manufacturer, the height of each tier in such towers may vary from a minimum
of 500 mm to a maximum of 1,500 mm. The working load per leg of the tower may vary from 50
to 70 kN. Such towers are available in painted steel as well as galvanized steel. The length of the
frame (tower width) varies from 1,000 mm to 2,000 mm. The gang form application (whole tower
section ge ing li ed simultaneously) for such towers is not possible. The towers of type ‘C’ have
the option of assembling them in the triangular tower form.
There is no tower which is ideally suited for each application and depending on the requirement
of the constructor, a particular type of shoring system can be selected. There can always be more
than one solution for the specific requirements of each project and the company.
Figure 12.16 Another Arrangement of Trestles to Support Bridge Girders and Deck Slab.
372 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
One typical arrangement of trestles adopted at a project site is shown in Fig. 12.18.
is similar to what has already been explained in earlier chapters (Chapter 7 in particular). Thus this
aspect is not mentioned in the subsequent discussions.
The design of multi-legged shoring towers has received very little attention in the past.
Traditionally, the design is le to the site functionary such as the project engineer, the superintendent,
or the foreman, depending on the regularity of the element to be framed. Needless to say, this
results mostly in poorly designed formwork, sometimes uneconomical, and can sometimes lead to
physical failures also.
Similar to the design of the other formwork components, shoring tower design is concerned with
finding the appropriate distances between the joists and stringers, and distances between towers
the in two directions. Also the stability aspect of the tower needs careful consideration.
The distances between the joists are governed by the maximum allowable span of the sheathing
elements. For safety reasons, the joist’s spacing, both on and between the tower rows, is determined
in such a way that the sheathing element is supported with no cantilevers on its two sides.
The distances between the tower rows are similarly governed by the maximum allowable span of
the joists. The distances between the towers within the rows are dictated by the maximum allowable
span of the stringers, but may be further constrained by the carrying capacity of the towers. For
practical considerations, a tower placed next to a wall should be no closer than a minimum distance
from the wall (around 200 mm, measured from the tower leg’s axis) so as to leave room for the tower
footings and to allow manipulation of the tower’s screw jacks (tower spindle).
Shapira et al. (2001) reported the design and construction of the high multitier shoring towers
which may be of interest to the practitioners. Although the area of the slab cast was small in the
case project studied by them, the height of the shoring towers (about 60 m) required to be erected
for the casting of the slab may be of interest to the readers, as there is limited literature available on
the subject. The building in the case project was 25-story high.
Shapira et al. (2001) explored a number of solutions and preferred the option of erecting the
multitier shoring tower for casting the slab for economic reasons. For this option also, they considered
two alternative shoring towers: steel towers with a working load of 45 kN per tower leg and
aluminum towers, with a working load capacity of 80 kN per tower leg, and the la er option was
adopted for economic reasons. Some of the recommendations arising out of the study with regards
to the design are given below:
It is preferable to have a layout with a minimal number of towers under the given load and
stability requirements;
The option of ge ing uniform tower-leg loading should be adopted;
The bracings against tower buckling, lateral forces, and wind effects are a must;
The highest available frames must be used to minimize the number of tiers;
The self-weight of the towers in such cases could be as high as 10% of the combined weight
of the concrete plus the live load.
such a combination that virtually any height of shoring tower is possible to a ain in practice. The
manufacturers also provide guidelines on bracing different independent shoring towers. The claim of
the manufacturers regarding the load carrying capacity of the towers must be cross-checked with the
test reports provided by them. It is important to stick to the guidelines provided by the manufacturer.
Now given the load carrying capacity of the towers, or the frames, or the each leg of the frame,
one can easily decide the spacing of the towers in both the directions for a given design load. This
is explained below.
Let’s design the shoring towers for supporting the formwork for a RC roof slab of 1,200 mm
thickness. The overall intensity of vertical load is the sum of the dead load, the live load, and the
self weight of the formwork.
Dead load = 26 1.2 = 31.20 kN/m2
Live load = 3.0 kN/m2
Self weight of formwork = 0.8 kN/m2 (assume)
Thus total design load wd = 35.0 kN/m2
Let’s arrange the shoring towers along the X-direction at 750 mm clear distance and along the
Y-direction at 1,500 mm clear distance. The dimension of the shoring tower selected is 1,524 mm
1,524 mm (L&T Heavy Duty Tower). The load carrying capacity of the L&T Heavy Duty Tower
(plan dimension 1,524 mm 1,524 mm) is 250 kN for a height of 6.0 m. Beyond this height also, the
manufacturers claim that the capacity does not come down, provided the individual towers are
braced to each other as per the manufacturers’ guidelines.
In our case, let’s assume that the required height of the shoring tower is 5.0 m. Now we simply
need to check the actual load coming on one tower. For this we need to find out the area covered
by one shoring tower.
The area covered by one shoring tower axy = distance covered in X-direction, dx distance covered
in Y-direction, dy
= (0.750/2 + 1.524 + 0.750/2) (1.5/2 + 1.524+ 1.5/2)
= 2.274 m 3.024 m = 6.876 m2
Thus the maximum load exerted on one shoring tower = wd dx dy = 35 2.274 3.024 = 240.1
kN which is less than 250 kN and is thus safe.
In case the load on one shoring tower would have exceeded the prescribed load carrying capacity
of the shoring tower, one needs to appropriately reduce dx, dy, or both.
In Figs. 12.19-12.23, different possibilities of arrangement of shoring towers in the slab and beam
formwork are shown. From the load intensity, the spacing of the shoring towers can be decided
appropriately.
Figure 12.19 Arrangement of Shoring Towers in Plan for Slab and Beam Formwork.
376 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 12.21 Sectional View of Shoring Towers for Slab and Beam Formwork.
Let us assume that the total load on one trestle including self weight of the trestle = 450 kN. The total
moment in normal condition has been calculated to be 56 kNm and under seismic condition, is 95 kNm.
Maximum height of cribs = 4.096 m = 4,096 mm
I yy 35,56,76,953.90
so, rmin = 279.5 mm
A 4 1,138
leff = 4.10 1.5 = 6.14 m = 6,140 mm
leff 6,140
= = 21.97
rmin 279.5
35,56,76,953,90
Zx = Zy = = 11,85,589.83 mm3
300
2
ac = 147.41 N/mm (from Table 11.1 of IRC : 24 – 2001)
4 1,138 147.41
Axial load capacity of crib =
1,000
= 671 kN
Load carrying capacity = 671 kN > 450 kN (Safe)
Calculated axial compressive stress
450 10 3
ac, cal = = 98.86 N/mm2
4,552
Calculated bending compressive stress
56 106
bcx, cal = = 47.23 N/mm2 (Normal condition)
11,85,589.83
95 106
bcx, cal = = 80.13 N/mm2 (Seismic condition)
11,85,589.83
To make the structure safe
ac , cal Cmx bcx , cal
1.00
ac (1 ( ac , cal / 0.60 focx )) bcx
= 98.86 N/mm2
ac, cal
2
ac = 147.41 N/mm
Cmx = 1.00
2
2
E 2.11 10 5
focx = 2 2
= 4314.42 N/mm2
x 21.970
2
bcx = 0.62 fy = 0.62 250 = 155.0 N/mm
Thus,
ac , cal Cmx bcx , cal
ac (1 ( ac , cal / 0.60 f ocx ) bcx
Design of Lacing:
Spacing of Lacing is governed by e < 50 or
e < 0.7
which ever is less
e = 0.7 21.97
= 15.4
Hence, e = 15.4
For, Angle 75 75 8
rmin = 22.8 mm
So, S 15.4 22.8 = 351.12 mm
Adopt spacing 550 mm
b = 600 – 50 = 550 mm (25 mm end offset on both sides for lacing bar)
So, S = 2b cot
= 2 550 cot = 550
= 63.43° [40° < 63.43° < 70°] Safe
Transverse shear = 0.025 P
= 0.025 450 = 11.25 kN
No. of lacing planes = 2 (single lacing)
11.25 cosec
Force on lacing bar = = 6.29 kN
2
Length of lacing bar = 2752 550 2 = 614.92 mm
Using 25 mm plain bar
I = 19,174.80 mm4
r = 6.3 mm ( /4)
Effective length of welded bar = 0.7 614.92 mm Figure 12.25 Lacing Details.
= 430.44 mm
So, = 430.44/6.3 = 68.32 < 140 Safe
For, = 68.32
2
ac 113.10 N/mm (from Table 11.1 of IRC : 24 – 2001)
=
6.29 1,000
Actual stress = = 12.82 N/mm2 < 113.10 N/mm2 Safe
490.625
Use 25 mm plain bar as lacing @ 550 mm spacing
Shapira (1995) studied the work input for erecting and dismantling the shoring towers using
direct/ stopwatch time study. Towers were assembled and dismantled using two-worker teams.
Each tier in the square and rectangular towers had four frames and the triangular towers had three
frames in each tier. The activities of erection and dismantling in the computation of time are shown
in Table 12.2.
Table 12.2 Activities Considered in Erection and Dismantling for Work Input Analysis
Activities of erection Activities of dismantling
• Carrying tower parts from the staging area to the • Oiling tower screws
assembly location up to 30 m away. • Lowering the tower by closing adjustment screws
• Oiling tower screws • Dismantling the tower
• Making tower locations on floor • Separating tower base plate from the wooden
• Preparing wooden footings footings
• Erecting and leveling tower base • Carrying tower parts back to the staging area
• Assembling tower maintaining plumb
• Adjusting tower height
• Installing temporary work platform on towers
The time obtained by Shapira (1995) is shown in Table 12.3. The study was conducted on 5 and 8
m tower heights in fair weather conditions using experienced work crews. The towers studied were
of two types: (1) Four-leg towers of either 1.40 m 1.40 m square, or 2.00 m 1.20 m rectangles, and
(2) Three-leg towers using 1.40 m 1.40 m triangles.
It can also be observed from Table 12.3 that the input times recorded for erection and dismantling
are higher than those claimed by the manufacturers of shoring towers and hence they should be
used with proper care.
The above equations could also be useful for the multitier shoring towers beyond 30 m height
and the actual input is expected to be within a reasonable error of about 10-20% from that of the
predicted work inputs. It is also interesting to note that the dismantling work input is almost the
same as that of the assembly work input for high towers. In other words, the dismantling work input
is about 50% of the total time (assembly and dismantling). In case of small tower heights up to 20 m,
the dismantling work input is between 20-40% of the total time for assembly and dismantling.
12.7 RECOMMENDATIONS
Some of the recommendations on the design and construction of shoring towers are given below.
These are based on the study conducted by Shapira (2004) on extremely high towers: 17, 26, and
60 m high. The study was based on the application of ALUMA frames, KABIR frames, and PERI
frames.
1. Given a choice of shoring towers, the system offering larger frame height and a variety of
tiers should be selected. This is explained with the help of schematic diagrams in Fig. 12.26.
System A offers frames in 1,200 mm, and 1,800 mm heights while System B offers frames in
1,500 mm, 2,500 mm, and 3,000 mm heights. The choice would be System B.
2. From among the various frame heights offered by a given system for a shoring tower, the
largest frames to minimize the number of tiers for a given height should be selected. This
would obviously result in reduced work input.
Thus, Fig. 12.27 (b) would be the appropriate choice.
3. The larger (heavier) frames should be used at the bo om of the tower and smaller frames
should be used at the top of the tower. This is shown schematically in Fig.12.28. The tower
configuration shown in Fig. 12.28 (b) is the appropriate method and should therefore be
adopted.
FORMWORK SUPPORTS 383
Figure 12.26 Two Systems –One with Smaller Frame Height and Less Variety and other with
Larger Frame Height and More Varieties of Frames.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
4. The tower spacing should be maximized by choosing appropriate stringers and joists (thicker
and heavier sections capable of spanning larger distances). By doing so, the load carrying
capacities of the towers are not compromised excessively. The lighter sections of stringers and
joists would necessitate large number of towers without offering any additional advantages.
In fact it would make the shoring system costlier. The top figure in Fig. 12.29 shows closer
tower spacing due to the limited load carrying capacity of the stringer while the bo om figure
shows increased tower spacing on account of stronger stringer. Thus, preferably the bo om
arrangement should be preferred.
5. It is desirable to use the shoring system with which the work crew is familiar. The number of
workers in a crew should also be carefully selected. Shapira (2004) suggests two workers per
crew for towers up to three tiers, three workers per crew for towers up to six tiers and four
workers per crew for towers higher than six tiers.
6. For enhanced productivity, the shoring tower material should be stacked as near as possible
to the tower assembly location. Depending on the system characteristics, a system of either
horizontal pre-assembly on the ground or vertical in-situ assembly should be chosen. The
space constraints in the pre-assembly and li ing area should also be considered in the
comparison.
7. Bracing the towers should not be done based on intuition, rather it should be based on proper
design. Failure to do so may either result in excessive number of bracings thereby increasing
the cost, or it could result in the failure of the shoring system itself.
8. For shoring linear concrete elements such as beams, three-leg towers prove to be more efficient
productivity-wise compared to four-leg towers. According to Selinger and Shapira (1985), the
work inputs for three-leg towers are roughly 80% of that required for four-leg towers of the
same type.
There are many types of horizontal formwork supports available. These are given in Table
12.4.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Formwork supports are of two types– horizontal and vertical.
(b) Vertical supports are of two types– single and multi-legged type.
(c) Single leg type is also known as shore or prop.
(d) Multi-leg type supports are frame or tripod or trestle.
(e) l/d ratio is an important design parameter for timber shores and thus while using timber
shores, sufficient thickness of timber should be ensured to safeguard them against
buckling.
(f) Drop heads are devices which are fi ed on top of the props or supports to support the slab
while the remaining form for decking could be struck for reuse.
(g) Multi-legged shoring tower—frame based system, tube and coupler system, and trestle
system.
(h) Tower configuration, frame configuration, dimensional variation of frames, load carrying
capacity, and assembly method are the major characteristics upon which the shoring tower
design differs from each other.
(i) In the context of different possible sequences by which to erect a vertical tower array: each
tower is assembled to its full height before work progresses to the next tower.
(j) In the context of different possible sequences by which to erect a horizontal tower array :
entire array is erected tier a er tier.
(k) Horizontal supports are capable of spanning across beams or wide spans rest either on beam
forms or other shores at ends.
(l) Horizontal support eliminates the need for the intermediate supports thereby providing
free access and working space during construction.
FORMWORK SUPPORTS 387
Q2. Match the following in the context of classification of the shoring towers
(i) Hurd (1963) (a) Type A, B, C, D
(ii) Shapira and Raj (2005) (b) Standard, heavy duty, and extra heavy duty
Q3. Prepare short notes on
(a) Type A, B, C, and D shoring towers. (b) Trestle (crib) shoring.
Q4. For the design of the vertical support for formwork, list out the various critical recommendations.
Q5. Perform a design analysis for proprietary shoring tower.
Q6. Prepare short notes on work input analysis for shoring tower.
Q7. List out the various activities involved while erecting and dismantling for work input analysis.
Q8. List out the recommendations on the design and construction of shoring towers in the context of
the application of ALUMA frames, KABIR frames, and PERI frames.
Q9. List out the various types of horizontal supports and their unique characteristics.
Chapter
13 Scaffold
Contents: Introduction; Classification of Scaffolds; Timber Scaffolds; Metal Scaffolds; Types of Metal
Scaffolds; Some Proprietary Scaffolds; Galvanized Scaffolds; Scaffold Boards; Scaffolds for High Clearance
Structures; Design Issues; Possible Causes for Collapse of Scaffold Systems; Checklist
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Scaffolding is a temporary structure for gaining access to the higher levels of the permanent structure
during construction. Scaffolds are o en used because they are convenient, versatile, and economical.
They are practically needed in all the stages of construction. Scaffolds are one of the essential
formwork parts to provide temporary platforms at various levels for carrying out all those works
which cannot be conveniently and easily carried out either from the ground level or any other floor
of the building or by the use of a ladder. Besides providing access, the scaffoldings are also used for
(i) centering for the formwork, and (ii) for supporting heavy loads at great heights.
Sometimes wooden shores are used in combination with modular steel scaffolds to provide
temporary supports.
Depending on the type of construction, scaffolds can be primarily divided into the following
broad heads (Fig. 13.2). These are discussed subsequently.
SCAFFOLD 389
Figure 13.5 illustrates the Putlog Scaffold (Unit Frame Type). The system consists of base plate,
unit vertical, unit Putlog cross bar, unit type longitudinal diagonal brace, horizontal tie coupled
with double couplers, scaffold boards, toe board, and guard rail.
to the uprights, transom, putlog, putlog couplers to couple the transom to the putlog, longitudinal
diagonal and cross braces, swivel coupler, toe board, and guard rail.
Figure 13.7 shows a typical Independent scaffold (Unit Frame Type) essentially consisting of the
base plate, unit vertical, unit cross bar, ledgers secured to the unit cross bar, unit type longitudinal
diagonal brace, scaffold boards, toe board, and guard rail.
Each of the above type of scaffolds may be constructed for heavy, medium or light duty. By and
large, metal scaffolds are made of steel tubes. Many countries have formulated standard specifications
and codes of practice for the metal scaffolds. These are shown in Box 13.1.
brackets are a ached to the scaffold uprights to increase the width of the working platforms and
also to give additional working li s between the main platforms.
Many standard codes of practice specify the construction details of scaffolding with regard to
the provision of working platforms, their minimum width, provision of guard rails, toe boards, etc.
The codes of practice also give broad guidelines for bracing and tying of scaffolds in addition to
following the safety provisions in building the scaffolds (Box 13.2).
All the above types of scaffolds apart from being used as access scaffolds, are also used for the
supporting formwork or other heavy loads at great heights where normal propping is not feasible.
These scaffolds are also used for building guyed aerial towers for telecommunications. Recent
developments in steel scaffold equipment are the use of high tensile tubes to make them light and
stronger.
Figure 13.12 Door-type Steel Scaffold: (a) Simple Style; (b) Standard Style.
398 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The towers are provided with tower spindles at the bo om for fine adjustments in height
and leveling. The spindles are also used to adjust the levels of the scaffolds. The manufacturer
recommends the bracing of the scaffold with the permanent structure every 4 m in height. The
scaffold has provisions of fixing the working platform (scaffold board) at various levels depending
on the requirement. The system being light weight, high labor productivity of the order of 0.15
manhours per m3 is possible. Figure 13.14 shows the L&T Access Scaffold in use for an under
construction building.
SCAFFOLD 399
Figure 13.14 L&T Access Scaffold in Use for an Under Construction Building.
Figure 13.16 PERI UP Scaffold Being Shifted Using Crane (Courtesy PERI).
A scaffold support system, o en a combination of the modular steel scaffolds and wooden shores,
is typically used for temporary support during the construction of high-clearance concrete buildings
in Asia. Such temporary support systems are o en used because they are convenient, versatile and
relatively inexpensive.
Door type tubular steel scaffold units come in standard shapes. It is natural that they do not
completely fill the full inner clearance of the structures, in spite of the frames being stacked one
above the other. Under such circumstances, wooden shores are sometimes used to fill the balance
clearance of the structures. This is shown in a schematic sketch in Fig. 13.17.
results of this research combined with the experience of the scaffold crew, Peng et al. (1996) came
up with some recommendations for scaffold use by the design and construction industries. These
are given below:
1. Scaffold support systems should use jack bases, even on a concrete foundation. This will
allow for: first, an increase in system stiffness at the base; secondly, adjustments to different
heights off the ground (such as when stairs are being built); and finally, adjustment of height
due to improper or uneven installation of steel scaffolds. If a system of steel scaffold is twisted
because of improper installation, some of the scaffolds may not be in contact with the ground,
which may lead to instability problems.
2. The wooden planks beneath the wooden shores should be fastened directly to the dried
reinforced concrete columns and walls.
3. Nails should be used at both the top and the bo om of the wooden shores in the scaffold
support system.
4. In addition to using bamboo cross-braces, horizontal bamboo bracing should be installed at
the top of the first story of the scaffolding (on the in-plane surface of the steel scaffold). The
bamboo and the steel scaffolds should be fastened together with wires in order to prevent
buckling of the bamboo. In addition, it is recommended that the bamboo braces on the out-
of-plane surface of the steel scaffolds be replaced with steel braces since bamboo’s capacity
to resist the bending moment may be inadequate for this application. Above the first story,
this type of horizontal bamboo and steel brace should also be used a er every two or three
stories in the case of multi-story steel scaffolds. In principle, these horizontal braces should
also be fastened to the reinforced concrete columns and walls.
5. It is recommended that the designers specify the locations on the reinforced concrete walls
and columns for wall connections for a aching the horizontal bamboo and steel braces and
the wooden planks.
6. If possible, the wooden shores should be replaced with tubular steel adjustable shores. The
end of these tubular steel adjustable shores can be connected the same way as the joints
between steel scaffolds (i.e., in place of nail joints). This can greatly increase the critical load
of the scaffold support system. If this is not possible, tubular steel adjustable shores should
at least be used temporarily in the interior of the scaffold support system where the largest
force is exerted.
7. Whenever possible, simple style steel scaffolds with one joint should be used. If possible, the
manufacturers should enforce strict quality requirements for ‘joint welding’ and ‘joint size’
to control the stiffness and initial eccentricity at the joint of the steel scaffolds. In addition,
the connection pins at the joints should be lengthened in order to increase the stiffness of the
joints.
Construction loads may exceed the critical load of the scaffold support system
According to Peng et al. (1996), the failure of a scaffold support system in high-clearance structures
is usually a problem of structural stability. The collapse of the scaffold support system is o en the
result of the actual construction load exceeding the critical load of the system. At present, there are
no guidelines which can be used to predict the critical load (i.e., the buckling load) of the entire
scaffold support system.
Partial loading of the fresh concrete may reduce the critical load for the scaffold support system
The concrete pour duration for high-clearance structures is usually one day except in the case of a
very large slab pouring area. Peng et al. (1996) opine that, the concrete load over the complete slab
area may be considered to be a sequence of different partial load cases. A er the critical loads of
each partial load case are compared, the minimum critical load may be assumed to be the critical
load of the overall scaffold support system.
A specific (possibly asymmetric) placement pattern of fresh concrete may decrease the critical load
of the system
The fresh concrete is usually placed according to some specific pa ern. However, a uniform load is
usually assumed in structural analysis. According to Peng et al. (1996), the placement pa ern may
cause the critical load of the temporary support system to be smaller than that under the uniform
load assumed in the design. Thus, the design strength of the temporary support may be inadequate
for the actual external load.
Zimmer and Bell (2006) report on the centre scaffold collapse of a 100-story building named
John Hancock center located in Chicago. The scaffold wreckage killed 3 motorists and severely
injured several other passers by. Zimmer and Bell (2006) investigated the technical and procedural
causes of this failure and found that under the platform’s self weight and the down dra wind loads
acting upon it, the upli rollers and wire ropes lashing, holding the north outrigger to the building’s
roof track failed. The scaffolds were erected for the purpose of façade restoration.
404 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Peng et al. (1996) presented a simplified procedure for estimating the critical loads for the
scaffold system. They also investigated the effect of bamboo cross braces on the scaffold system.
Bamboo cross braces are o en used to provide increased stiffness of the entire scaffold system.
The axial stiffness of bamboo is very large compared to the bending stiffness when the bamboo
is a ached to the scaffold system. However, bamboo’s ability to resist is poor and it fails easily in
flexure.
Table 13.2 Checkl ist for Installation of Simple-style Scaffold Support System
Sl. No. Checklist item description Compliance in terms of Remarks
yes or no
Yes No
1. Are jack bases installed at the bo om of all steel
scaffolds?
2. Are adjustable shoring heads installed at the top of all
steel scaffolds?
3. Are the exterior bamboo cross-braces tied with wires at
both the ends?
4. Are the exterior bamboo cross-braces tied with wires in
the middle every 2-3 meters?
5. Is the interior horizontal bamboo (on the in-plane surface
of the steel scaffold) installed at the top of the first story
of steel scaffolds?
6. Is the interior horizontal bamboo (on the in-plane surface
of the steel scaffold) a ached to the reinforced concrete
columns and walls?
7. Is the interior horizontal bamboo (on the in-plane surface
of the steel scaffold) tied with wires on at least one joint
for every steel scaffold?
8. Are all wooden planks at the bo om of the wooden
shores placed on adjustable shoring heads?
9. Are wooden planks at the bo om of the wooden shores
fastened to the reinforced concrete columns and walls?
10. Are nails used at the top of all wooden shores?
11. Are nails used at the bo om of all wooden shores?
SCAFFOLD 405
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Scaffolding is a permanent structure for gaining access to higher levels of permanent structure
during construction.
(b) The three major uses of scaffoldings are—providing access, centering for the formwork, and
supporting heavy loads at great heights.
(c) Scaffolds are classified according to the normal usage and on the basis of the type of
construction.
(d) Safety is compromised in using Bamboo or Bally scaffolds for tall buildings.
(e) The two types of metal scaffolds in vogue are – Tube and fi ing type and pre-fabricated
unit – frame type.
(f) The two types of door type tubular steel scaffolds are— (i) finishing scaffolds and (ii) support
or shoring scaffolds.
(g) Possible causes for the collapse of scaffold systems are –
(i) Construction load > critical load
(ii) Horizontal instability of wooden shores
(iii) Partial load of fresh concrete may reduce the critical load for the scaffold system
(iv) Asymmetric pa ern of concrete placement
Q2. Match the following:
(i) Single pole scaffold (a) Independent scaffold
(ii) Double pole scaffold (b) Putlogs
Q3. Match the followings:
(i) Heavy duty scaffolding (a) used by electricians, painters
(ii) Medium duty scaffolding (b) used by bricklayers and masons and in
concreting operations and for façade
cladding work and demolition work
(iii) Light duty scaffolding (c) used by carpenters, plasterers, glaziers,
cleaners, welders.
Q4. List out the basic features of the pre-fabricated unit-frame type scaffold and discuss its various
types.
Q5. List out and discuss the characteristics of various proprietary scaffolds like –L&T access scaffold
system, PERI scaffold, galvanized scaffold, scaffold board.
Q6. Enumerate the various design issues related to scaffolding.
Q7. Do the critical analysis of the checklist provided in the text for safety is case of scaffolding.
Chapter
Contents: Introduction; Advantages, Limitations and Reasons for Less Share of Precasting; Moulds
for Precast Concrete; Precasting Process; Methods of Crew Organization in Precast Construction; Case
Studies
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the formwork for precast construction is discussed. Precast construction is adopted
when a large number of similar elements are to be produced in concrete in a number of civil and
infrastructure works. Precast elements refer to the concrete building and structural elements that
are made using moulds at a centralized facility and then transported to the building site to be
assembled in the facility being constructed (Chan and Hu, 2002). Depending upon the handling
facilities available, the size and shape of the precast elements are decided.
Precasting is ideally suited for mass scale production of concrete elements such as: floor elements,
columns, lintels, door and window frames, railway sleepers, hollow blocks, wall panels, etc. Countries
with a large public housing program have increasingly turned to the use of precast building/
structural elements and site automation to increase site productivity (Chan and Hu, 2002). In case of
multispan bridge construction, particularly where site conditions makes the provision of falsework
difficult or expensive, precasting of bridge is usually resorted to in a casting yard close by, and then
the elements are hoisted or launched into position by mechanical means. This method, apart from
speeding up the work, ensures good quality of concrete in strength and in finish.
Precast construction offers a number of advantages. The precast concrete is the ideal material for
health, safety and protection of the environment. Studies have shown that precast concrete products
can provide a service life in excess of 100 years.
The precast construction process in general is also explained in the chapter. The decision to
choose precast construction over in-situ construction is dependent on a number of factors such as:
the production facility, the cost of transportation, the number of precast elements to be produced,
the size and shape of precast members to be produced, and so on.
FORMWORK FOR PRECAST CONCRETE 407
Precast concrete elements can be produced either in dedicated precast concrete factories or in a
precast yard specifically developed for catering to the needs of a project either on the site itself or at
a distant location depending on the availability of land and other facilities. In India, there are very
few companies which produce precast concrete elements depending on the client’s requirement in
a factory set-up. Hindustan Prefab Limited is such a company which produces a variety of precast
concrete products useful in different applications. The company produces precast pre-stressed
bridge girders and slabs, railway sleepers, portal frames and sections, pre-stressed concrete electric
poles, fencing posts, precast columns and many other products to suit the client’s requirements. The
products of this company have been used in a number of reputed government and private projects.
The details of the company can be found at h p://www. hindprefab.com. Hindustan Prefab Limited
is a government owned company established soon a er independence and has a long history. In
India, however, there are not many private companies which produce precast concrete elements.
Most of the times, the precast concrete elements are produced by the contractors in the precast yard,
at or near the work site, to produce the project specific demands. A er the needs are satisfied, the
precast yard is dismantled. Such precast concrete production offers limited opportunity to use the
principles of industrialization as opposed to the factory based precast concrete production. Also,
limited opportunity of standardization and automation exists in such a method of precast concrete
production. The discussion in this chapter is limited to precast concrete production by the contractors
in the precast yard and not in the dedicated factories.
Different types of forms or moulds are discussed. Some cases in precast construction with emphasis
on the type of forms adopted are also provided.
14.2.1 Advantages
Precast construction, as opposed to the cast-in-situ construction of structural and architectural
concrete elements, offers a number of advantages to different project participants. Some of them
are given below:
Precasting ensures accuracy, uniformity, and good quality concrete under well-controlled
conditions. This is possible because compared to the cast-in-situ construction, precast uses
comparatively high-end technology and advanced equipments.
The cost of the formwork is generally less in precast construction. This is because less
scaffolding and less number of forms are needed. The requirement of scaffolding is less because
the precast operations are performed mostly at the ground level. Lesser number of forms are
needed because it is possible to plan for more reuses in precast construction. Another reason
for the decrease in cost is the decrease in overall project duration. The precast construction
offers saving in time as it can be taken up concurrently along with the cast-in-situ works, such
as the foundation and basement works. The production and erection processes do not get
affected by the vagaries of weather and the great fluctuations in the laborers’ productivity
which further results in saving in the project execution time.
Further, there is less requirement of the on-site labor and there is less wastage of materials in
production and erection.
408 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Concrete placement is easier and be er controlled. The finishing operations are simplified
because workers have easy access to the forms, and improved control of the finish quality
is possible. It is possible to achieve be er architectural appearance for the precast concrete
elements.
Precast construction offers more productivity of crew members as they work at the ground
level. The reinforcing steel can be placed accurately and its position maintained.
Vertical transportation is simpler; only the completed piece and minimum of scaffolding needs
be li ed.
The precast concrete increases efficiency because the cold and hot weather, and the rains do
not interfere with the production schedule and do not delay production. In addition, weather
conditions at the jobsite do not significantly affect the schedule. This is because it requires less
time to install the precast as compared to the other construction methods, such as cast-in-place
concrete.
Because the precast concrete products are typically produced in a controlled environment,
they exhibit high quality and uniformity. The variables affecting the quality typically found
on a jobsite— temperature, humidity, material quality, cra smanship— are nearly eliminated
in a plant environment.
The precast concrete products produced in a quality-controlled environment and used with
high-quality sealants, offer a superior solution to the water-tightness requirements. Standard
watertight sealants are specially formulated to adhere to the precast concrete, making
watertight multiple-seam precast concrete structures possible.
Because of the standard and modular nature of many precast concrete products, structures
or systems of nearly any size can be accommodated.
The precast does not require the use of specialized heavy cranes. The precast concrete elements
can be installed in a short time, as these elements are designed and manufactured for relatively
simpler connections.
Precast concrete elements can be shaped and moulded into different sizes and configurations
to serve the functional and aesthetic requirements. The elements can be produced in virtually
any color and a wide variety of finishes, to achieve the desired appearance.
Precast concrete requires li le or no maintenance, which makes it an ideal choice for nearly
any design solution.
Precast concrete products arrive at the jobsite ready to be installed. There is no need to order
raw materials such as reinforcing steel and concrete, and there is no need to expend time
se ing up the forms, placing concrete, or waiting for the concrete to cure.
14.2.2 Limitations
Unlike the in-situ concrete, one does not have to compromise on the dimensional accuracy in precast
concrete construction. The specification on deviation from the planned dimension of the precast
concrete elements is relatively stricter. In addition, proper upkeep of the formwork to guard against
dimensional changes is a must. Also, it requires more a ention in stacking and transporting, and we
have to take care while erecting the elements in position. For erection works, the site must have some
FORMWORK FOR PRECAST CONCRETE 409
li ing device. Precast concrete construction involves repetitive work, thereby bringing monotony
in the design and hampering creativity and innovation.
The mould bo oms are usually stationary and the sides are removable. The stationary part of the
mould is usually made in concrete and the removable part in structural steel.
The mould should have sufficient chamfers and side ba ers for smooth demoulding. Excessive
adhesion of the concrete to the mould can damage both the unit and the mould and can result in
poor finish.
To avoid this danger, form release agents can be applied to the mould surface before concreting.
The moulds should be mounted on the rubber pads to enable external vibration with the mould
vibrators. The moulds should be supported on firm foundations so that there are no support
se lements due to the vibration and the moist soil ground.
The moulds used for precasting differ from those used for in-situ construction in many respects,
such as:
Robust construction to withstand large repetitive uses;
Simple assembly and stripping devices to ensure high turnover of moulds and reduced
handling costs;
Absence of elaborate falsework;
Incorporation of special arrangements within the moulds for accelerated curing, such as steam
jackets where required and vibrators for compaction.
The choice of the mould type and shape depends upon the following:
The total number of elements to be produced;
The desired rate of output;
The shape and construction feature of the element;
The facilities available at the production yard for casting, curing, storing and handling; and
Economic aspects.
A release agent is also applied to prevent concrete sticking. A coating of paraffin wax is also
sometimes applied to the moulds. The wax helps in blocking all the micro pores.
Some of the advantages offered by brick/masonry moulds are given below:
accurate dimensions can be maintained constantly;
more reuses are possible as compared to timber moulds;
it requires minimum maintenance.
412 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 14.4 Steel Moulds in Use for Casting Wall Panels for an Underpass.
they are rust proof, adhesion to the concrete is less and hence dismantling is easy. In combination
with wood and steel, plastic can be used for producing wall panels and also for producing pa erned
or architectural finishes. Resin coated and plastic lined surfaces are most suitable for producing
smooth concrete finishes. This type of mould is also becoming common in the country especially
for casting waffle slabs.
Figs. 14.5-14.11 schematically while the actual layout adopted by one of the contractors engaged in
Delhi Metro construction is shown in Fig. 14.12. The places for performing different activities are
clearly marked in Fig. 14.5. Depending on site constraints, the actual layout may vary. Figure 14.6
shows the details of the arrangement adopted for the space for the mould shown in Fig. 14.5. Further
blow up of Fig. 14.6 is shown in Fig. 14.7. Figure 14.8 shows the plan of Mould P-2, while Figs. 14.9,
14.10, and 14.11 show the sections 1-1, 2-2, and 3-3 taken from Fig. 14.6 and Fig. 14.8, respectively.
The application of the gantry crane is a required feature in most of the precast facilities. The
gantry cranes move on rail tracks. Thus, sufficient lengths of tracks are laid out in the precast yard
to allow the movement of the gantry crane. A er the rails are laid, the gantry crane is installed. The
gantry cranes are helpful in li ing the reinforcement cage, forms for the precast concrete elements,
and for shi ing the elements to the stacking yard. The details of a gantry crane are provided in
Figs. 14.13-14.15. Figure 14.13 shows the plan of the gantry crane while Fig. 14.14 shows the sectional
view. Figure 14.15 shows the details of rails fixing. The gantry cranes travel on rails and thus can
cover a large area of the precast yard.
300
12 Bolt
140 75 8 THK. Rail
Plate
150 50
100
G.L
3 – Y16
450
50
Y8 – 2 legged
at 250 C/C
3 – Y16
100 100
his objectives are to see that the formwork is erected and de-shu ered fast and in a safe manner,
and good concrete quality and surface finish is achieved. In order to achieve these objectives, it is
essential that the right formwork system with the right detailing is adopted.
The materials chosen for making the form or the mould is governed by factors such as the shape
of the element to be cast, the complications involved, the accuracy desired, the type of finish that is
desired, and the number of reuses. The duration of precasting and the cycle time of precast operations
govern the reuse of forms. Since an economical precasting operation frequently depends on early
stripping of the forms for reuse, provision for adequate curing without the forms should be made. The
commonly used form materials are timber, steel, aluminum, and glass fiber-reinforced plastic.
For limited reuse, untreated wood/timber is a be er option. For large production, they are
difficult to strip and costly to keep in repair. Metal moulds are suited for large production. They
have provision for adjustment to varying sizes. Plastic and glass-reinforced plastic are also suited
for large production as they give prolonged service with proper care.
Proper care should be taken to ensure the line and level of the precast element. Also, beading/
chamfer wherever provided should be properly executed.
14.4.7 Concreting
Concrete can be produced in the precast yard area itself or can be procured from RMC plants. In the
la er case, the grade of the concrete should be doubly ensured to avoid any mistake. The workability
418 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
and compaction should be ensured especially near the bracket and pocket location. Before placing
the concrete, cleaning of the mould should be ensured. The area to be concreted must be free from
debris and any extraneous ma er. During the concreting, samples must be collected for checking
of compressive strength and workability as per the requirement.
14.4.8 Compaction
Compaction should be ensured while concreting. The vibration can be given in the form of immersion
vibrators or through mould vibrators. It is always useful to vibrate the concrete optimally. It is always
be er to over-vibrate than to under-vibrate, though optimal vibration is always desirable. Special
care should be given while designing the form to take care of vibration. For this, the mould should
be sturdy and joints secured. The mould should not lose dimensional accuracy once vibrated.
14.4.9 Handling
For li ing the concrete unit from the mould, suitable equipments like gantry on rail or a crane of
sufficient capacity can be used. Suitable provision for handling the precast concrete element must
be made at the time of casting.
All precast units must be adequately shored and braced in position until final connections are
made and cured if cast in place concrete forms part of the joint.
The precast units, usually, do not need any finishing. However, sometimes minor touching up
may be required, and for this purpose, a er li ing from the mould, they can be placed on raised
pedestals to obtain sufficient headroom below the soffit of the units.
14.4.10 Curing
Curing by spraying water or flooding, and applying a curing compound on the surface of the units
are some of the commonly adopted methods. In order to reduce the curing time, there are methods
to accelerate the process of hydration and thus gaining strength by the concrete. Curing of precast
elements can be done in any one or the combination of ordinary curing, steam curing, and chemical
curing. In ordinary curing the concrete element is covered with wet jute bags. Water may be sprayed
with curing pipes, or water sprinkler. Sometimes flooding with water is carried out in ordinary
curing. In steam curing, either the mould is heated up or encasing of the concrete element is done
and steam is provided. In chemical curing, chemical compounds are applied to the concrete element
which serves the purpose of curing.
and it should be governed by the erection schedule. For this, identification marks on each element
should be provided.
14.6.1 Precast Beams, Columns, Spiral Staircase, Precast Pre-stressed Beams for a Natural
Draft Cooling Tower
A large number of concrete beams and columns were to be cast for natural dra cooling towers
within a short span of time. These beams and columns formed part of the basin works in the cooling
water. The basin consisted of RCC floors of about 100 m diameter. All along the perimeter, there was
a reinforced cement concrete wall of about 2.5 m height. The basin supported a framed skeleton
consisting of precast columns and beams. Columns and beams were of varying cross sections
depending on the load carried out by them. Columns and beams were cast in a precast yard located
about 50 m from the cooling tower location. Details of the casting arrangement for a typical precast
beam are shown in Figures 14.16 to 14.24.
14.6.2 Precast Waffle Slab, and Bubble Dome for Parliament Library Building
A large number of bubble domes which are part of the larger spherical dome were to be constructed
in a very short time for the construction of the parliament library building in New Delhi. Besides, a
number of difficulties were anticipated if the bubble domes were to be cast-in-situ. All these factors
were responsible for the contractor to select the precasting option. M-50 concrete grade (fiber
reinforced) was used for the casting of the bubble domes. The bubbles were square, polygon and
triangular shaped in the plan. The bo om surface curvature was in two directions and each of the
bubble domes was weighing approximately 5 tonnes.
The bubble domes were cast at a platform at about 1.5 m height above the ground level. The
entire formwork was supported on heavy duty tower.
]
Figure 14.25 Casting of Bubbles in Progress for the Parliament Library Project.
FORMWORK FOR PRECAST CONCRETE 421
Figure 14.26 Another View of Casting of Bubbles for the Parliament Library Project.
Figure 14.27 Rib Pattern on the Inner Surface of Bubbles for the Parliament Library Project.
The contractor had mobilized one senior engineer, one junior engineer, and one foreman for the
precast work. A total of 90 workers of different specializations such as mould fabrication, mould
se ing, cu ing, bending and tying of reinforcement, concreting, mould dismantling, rendering,
steam curing, etc. were involved in the precast operation. The contractor mobilized two mixer
machines, eight hydraulic jacks of 10 ton capacity, one hydraulic pump, two gantry cranes, three
422 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
welding transformers, ten 10 ton capacity turn buckles, and many other small equipments for the
casting work.
For the casting of folded plates, the following step by step process was used:
Step 1: Moulds were cleaned and release agents were applied on the inside mould surfaces.
Step 2: The reinforcement for flaps were tied, side shu ers were fixed. The embedments were fixed
according to the drawing.
Step 3: The flaps of folded plate were cast from the center to the ends.
Step 4: The flaps were li ed a er about three hours and aligned along the centre line.
Step 5: The side shu ering of the diaphragm was fixed and reinforcement for the diaphragm and
bo om slab was tied. The li ing hooks were fixed at appropriate locations as per the drawing.
Step 6: The outer shu er of the diaphragm was fixed keeping the pocket inside, in position and
aligning before li ing the flap. Foams of 6 mm thickness were fixed at the junction of the bo om
slab shu er and flap to avoid the leakage of slurry.
Step 7: The diaphragm and bo om slab were cast.
Step 8: Steam curing pipe line was fixed and hood was placed for covering and making a sealed
container for steam curing.
Figure 14.28 Mould Pit and Shuttering Arrangement for Precast I Girders.
A more or less similar arrangement was adopted for the casting of girders for the second
Nizamuddin Bridge in New Delhi. The view of reinforcement and pre-stressed cables are shown
in Fig. 14.29. The strongback for li ing the reinforcement cage and placing it on the casting bed is
also seen in Fig. 14.29. Figure 14.30 shows the side shu ers in position. The gantries used in the
casting yard can also be seen.
FORMWORK FOR PRECAST CONCRETE 423
Figure 14.31 Inside View of Dome Segments Supported Temporarily at the Center.
The mould has in-built provisions for grouting holes and other accessories (Fig. 14.34) to be used
at the place of installation of the tunnel elements.
Prefabricated reinforcement cage (Fig. 14.35) is lowered into the tunnel mould.
426 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 14.35 Pre-fabricated Reinforcement Cage for the Tunnel Element Being Lifted.
Figure 14.38 Prefabricated Reinforcement Cages Ready for Placement in the Crash Barrier Mould.
428 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 14.40 Pier Segment Being Raised (Note Lifting Tackle, Weight 75 ton).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Precast element refers to the concrete building and the structural elements that are needed
using moulds at a centralized facility and then transported to the building site to be assembled
in the facility being constructed.
430 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
(b) The choice of the mould type and shape in precast construction depends on
(i) Total number of elements to be produced.
(ii) Desired rate of output.
(iii) Shape and construction feature of the element.
(iv) Facilities available at the production yard for casting, curing, storing, and handling.
(v) Economic aspects.
Q2. Discuss the characteristics of the following types of moulds:
(a) Horizontal and vertical,
(b) Stationary and mobile system,
(c) Brick and masonry moulds,
(d) Wooden and steel moulds.
Q3. Discuss in detail the various precasting processes.
Q4. List out the advantages, limitations, and reasons for low share of precast concrete.
Q5. List out the differences in moulds used for pre casting and in-situ construction.
Q6. Write short notes on precasting processes associated with the following projects:
(a) Parliament library building precast waffle slab and bubble dome
(b) Folded plates for ITC Saharanpur
(c) I-Girder for Nizamuddin bridge and Dwarka flyover
(d) Dome elements for the stadium project at Bangalore
(e) DMRC tunnel elements
Chapter
15 Pre-Award Formwork
Management Issues
15.1 INTRODUCTION
The formwork management issues have been covered in two broad stages: pre-award and post-
award stages in a project. In the pre-award stage, the emphasis is on formwork initial planning, value
engineering, and costing. In the post-award stage, the emphasis is on detailed formwork planning,
mobilization and demobilization of the material, and executing the formwork activities within
the stipulated schedule, cost, and quality parameters. Besides, one has to take care of the upkeep/
maintenance, the accountability of the materials, and the training of the crew and the supervisor also.
The pre-award management issues are discussed in this chapter, while the post-award management
issues are discussed in Chapter 16.
physically the structures and use this approximate information for planning purposes. Non
availability of information should not be an excuse for non-planning. Sometimes, the information
gathered unofficially can also help in the initial planning exercise.
A schematic sketch showing the various tasks involved with the pre contract award formwork
management is shown in Fig. 15.1. A brief discussion on these tasks follows in the subsequent
sections.
Figure 15.1 Schematic Sketch Showing the Various Tasks Involved with the Pre-contract
Award Formwork Management.
• Formwork design related information such as: the loads and the lateral pressure, the maximum
permi ed deflection.
• Instructions on formwork detailing and fabrication, and guidelines on the required dimensions,
the plumb, and the joints.
• Instructions on supervision of the formwork activities.
• Instruction on delivery, storage, protection, and handling, of the formwork materials. Acceptance
criteria of the formwork materials.
• Prior to commencement of the work, existing dimensions, elevations, locations and conditions
applicable to the work shall be field verified.
• Instruction on the time allowed between erection of the forms and placing of the concrete for the
various trades to properly install their work.
• Instruction on application of load on recently cast concrete.
• Specifications for lumber, sheathing material, and shoring. Instructions on fabrication of form
panels in conformity with the approved submi als.
• Specifications for formwork accessories, such as form ties, hangers, clamps, lugs, cones, washers,
form liners or other devices.
• Specifications for triangular fillets if applicable.
• Instructions for cleaning and maintaining the formwork materials.
• Instruction on inspections for cleanliness and accuracy of the alignment prior to the placement
of the concrete.
• Instruction on location, snugness and tightness of joints.
• Instruction on level of horizontal joints and plumb of vertical joints.
• Instruction on location, size, and construction of openings.
• Specification on expansion joint material, water stops, and other embedded items to be built into
the forms, and the instruction on their placement and support against displacement.
• Instruction on filling of voids in sleeves, inserts and anchor slots.
• Instruction on se ing up of edge forms or bulkheads and intermediate screed strips for the slabs
to obtain required elevations and contours in the finished slab surface.
• Instruction on supervision for checking deviations from desired elevation, alignment, plumbness
and camber at the time of concreting.
• Guidelines for taking remedial measures in case at the time of casting, weakness develops and
the formwork shows se lement, deflection or distortion.
• Specification on form coating material and instructions for their application.
• Instructions on reshoring, permissible loading on reshores, timing of placement of reshores,
instruction on tightening of reshores.
• Instructions and guidelines for removal of forms, form ties, and bracings to insure complete safety
to the structure.
434 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
• Instructions on removal of top forms on sloping surfaces of concrete so as to not allow the concrete
to sag. Instructions on notification to be given to the engineer in cases where newly stripped
surfaces require patching.
• Instruction on requirement of forms for re use. Instructions on cleaning and re-oiling of forms
prior to re-use.
schedule prepared for the proposed project, the time allo ed for the various RCC activities is
identified and a detailed breakup of the various formwork activities for the different structures of
the project is prepared. This aspect has been discussed in detail in the illustrative case study later
in the chapter.
designer provides member sizes that demand very expensive or infeasible types of formwork, it
would unnecessarily be increasing the formwork cost.
It is clear from the above discussion and the expressions of number of reuses and duration for
the various cases, that more regions in a building floor would result in more reuses, but it would
also mean more interfaces between the regions and thus increase in durations for completing the
formwork operations.
The use of a tower crane has become synonymous with medium- to high-rise construction, be it
for buildings or for bridges, dams, cooling towers, etc. Tower cranes can be fixed or can be mounted
on rails. In the la er case, it is referred to as a travelling tower crane. Sites with multiple tower cranes
PRE-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 441
in operation are very common these days, especially for fast-track construction projects involving
flying forms and gang forms.
Depending on the nature of the work, the following assignment of tower cranes could be adopted
at a given site:
(a) A single tower crane being assigned to a single region as shown in Fig. 15.2.
(b) A single tower crane being assigned to multiple regions as shown in Fig. 15.3.
(c) Multiple tower cranes being assigned to a single region as shown in Fig. 15.4.
(d) Multiple tower cranes being assigned to multiple regions as shown in Fig. 15.5.
Step 1
From the construction schedule prepared at the time of tendering, the duration of activities involving
RCC is found out. Normally, the duration of formwork activities is taken as the duration for RCC
activities plus the mobilization and demobilization periods. The mobilization and demobilization
periods can be assumed as one month each for a typical project. Large projects may have slightly
bigger mobilization and demobilization periods, and may require to be mobilized and demobilized
in a phased manner.
Step 2
The distribution of different formwork items can be obtained from the bill of quantities if it is available.
In case the bill of quantities is not available, the estimate of the different formwork quantities may
be based on some assumptions. A typical breakup which may be assumed for a typical building
project is given in Table 15.2.
PRE-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 443
Table 15.2 Breakup of Different Formwork Items for a Typical Building Project (for Planning Purpose)
Sl. No. Type of formwork required The percentage of total formwork area
1. Foundation 5%
2. Column 10%
3. Wall 15%
4. Slab and beam 65%
5. Domes/ Precast element if any 5%
In case the total formwork area is also not known, the same can be estimated based on the
estimates of the concrete quantity. For example, if the concrete wall quantity is known, the formwork
area can be assumed based on a typical wall dimension in a building project. Similarly the column
formwork area can be estimated from the total column concrete quantity by assuming a typical
column dimension for a building project.
Step 3
The month-wise formwork area to be executed is estimated by assuming either an uniform distribution
of formwork quantities of different types or by assuming a particular distribution as felt appropriate.
The template for estimating the formwork area on a monthly basis for the different formwork items
is shown in Table 15.3. It may be noted that the classification of the formwork items is broadly based
on the formwork items specified in Delhi Schedule of Rates. Some of the items suggested in Delhi
Schedule of Rates have been le out as they constitute a small percentage of the overall formwork
area and it may not be advantageous to go into that much detail at the time of tendering.
Table 15.3 The Month-wise Break up of Formwork Items for the Project
Sl. No. Type of elements Total quantity Month-wise split up of quantity of formwork
(m2) planned to be executed (m2)
1 2 3 4 5
1. Footings/Ra /Pile caps 4,796 4,796
2. Walls 44,667 8,933.4 8,933.4 8,933.4 8,933.4 8,933.4
3. Columns 11,352 2,270.4 2,270.4 2,270.4 2,270.4 2,270.4
4. Beams and Slabs with 41,479 8,295.8 8,295.8 8,295.8 8,295.8 8,295.8
floor height up to 4.5 m
5. Beams and Slabs with 16,328 3,265.6 3,265.6 3,265.6 3,265.6 3,265.6
floor height more than
4.5 m
6. Staircase 2,706 541.2 541.2 541.2 541.2 541.2
Step 4
A er the estimate of the formwork area to be executed on a monthly basis is prepared, an estimate
of the cycle time for the different formwork activities is made. For this, the data from past projects
444 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
can be utilized a er suitable adjustment depending on the nature of the project for which the bid
is being prepared.
A typical estimate of the possible usage of the formwork materials for different formwork activities
and the corresponding cycle time for the formwork is given in Table 15.4 for planning purpose.
Table 15.4 Typical Possible Usage and Cycle Time for Various Formwork Activities
Type of formwork elements Possible usage Cycle time (days)
Footings/Ra 8 uses / month 3
Walls 5 uses/ month 5
Columns 8 uses / month 3
Beams and Slabs 2 uses/month 15
Step 5
The formwork area to be catered or mobilized for various formwork items can be estimated based
on the total area to be executed in a month, cycle time, and the number of working days in a month.
For example, let’s compute the area of the wall shu er that is to be mobilized if it is desired to
execute 1000 m2 in a month. Assume the cycle time for wall formwork to be 5 days and the number
of working days in a month to be 25 (assuming five Sundays).
Total formwork area planned for the month Cycle time
The wall formwork area to be mobilized = (15.5)
Number of workinng days in a month
Hence,
1,000 5
The wall formwork area to be mobilized = = 200 m2
25
The area to be mobilized for different formwork items can be computed in the above manner
on a monthly basis. It can be observed that the reduction in cycle time can have a great effect
on the requirement of the formwork materials. For example, if the wall formwork cycle time is
reduced from 5 to 4 days and 3 days, the material requirement would come down from 200 m2 to
160 m2 and 120 m2, respectively, which is a saving of 20% and 40% in the materials requirement
respectively.
Step 6
The above step has yielded the overall area to be mobilized for a given formwork type on a monthly
basis. This in itself is not sufficient. One would also require the breakup of the major material types
for accurate costing. For example, how much is the requirement of plywood, timber, and steel for
the total project? Similarly, what is the requirement of scaffolding material and so on?
It may be emphasized here that during the tendering process, the time available for performing
detailed planning and computations is not sufficient. Thus, for estimating the cost, most of the
contractors rely on estimating the materials requirement (from step 5) on certain thumb rules
developed from past projects. These thumb rules are based on certain assumed formwork
schemes.
PRE-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 445
The summary of some such thumb rules for some typical formwork schemes using L&T formwork
system are given in Table 15.5. Similar tables can be prepared using other formwork systems also.
Table 15.5 Some Thumb Rules Useful for Computing Formwork Materials Requirement
Item Description Steel Timber H-16
kg/m2 m3/m2 Rm/m2
Footings/Ra /Pile caps 20 0.085 N.A.*
Walls 60 0.006 3.5
Columns 100 0.006 7.0
Beams and Slabs with floor height up to 4.5 m 25 0.028 4.0
Beams and Slabs with floor height 6 m 75 0.028 3.5
Access scaffolding (Area in elevation) Assembly of 16
Heavy Duty Tower
* Normally use of H-16 beam in foundation work is avoided.
The use of Table 15.5 has been illustrated for the wall formwork example explained previously.
It may be recalled that the wall formwork area to be mobilized was 200 m2 for a cycle time of 5 days
and 25 working days in a month. The requirement of steel, timber, and H-16 beam (for L&T wall
formwork system) from Table 15.5 is 60 kg/m2, 0.006 m3/m2 and 3.5 m/m2, respectively.
Thus the requirement of steel for 200 m2 would be 60 200 = 12,000 kg
The requirement of timber for 200 m2 would be 0.006 200 = 1.2 m3
The requirement of H-16 for 200 m2 would be 3.5 200 = 700 m
In the above manner, for the different types of formwork items, the material requirement can be
estimated and the requirement of similar items can be combined.
Case 1 Planning Exercise
The pre-award formwork planning exercise has been illustrated with respect to a real project
data. The project is planned in two phases: 1A and 1B. During the planning exercise, it is imperative
to note down the major milestones to be achieved in each of the phases. The overall construction
schedule for the project is referred to. This is shown in Figure 15.6. The milestones and their estimated
schedule based on the overall construction schedules in phase 1A and 1B are shown in Tables 15.6
and 15.7, respectively.
The relevant data for preparing the formwork plan is culled out from the specification, and the
available drawings for the project. The data so obtained are tabulated in Table 15.8.
PRE-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 447
Area to be catered (CA) in m2 is calculated for every element like columns, walls, slabs and beams,
etc. separately from Eq. (15.6).
SA C1
CA = (15.6)
R
where,
SA = Shu ering area to be executed in a month
Total shuttering area (TSA)
=
Duration in months (M )
C1 = 1.10 normally 10% factor is applied for spare resource to be mobilized
to meet any additional requirements or replace damaged parts of
formwork elements during the work progress.
R = Number of repetitions in a month = working days in a month/cycle
time (CT)
26
=
CT
where, CT = Cycle time in days
4,796
Thus CA for foundation = 1.1 = 609 m2 (see Table 15.9)
1
(11,352/5) 1.1
CA for columns = = 288 m2 (see Table 15.9)
26/3
The workings for both the phases are shown in Table 15.9 and Table 15.10, respectively. It may
be noticed that the formwork material is dependent on the area to be catered in each category
(Foundation, Columns, RC walls, Flat slab, Beams and slab, Staircase) which in turn are dependent
on the formwork system proposed for the work, the duration in which the work is to be completed,
and the cycle time. Needless to say, all these will have a bearing on the costing issues of the formwork.
Cycle
Formwork Duration Area to be
Sl.No Description As Per BOQ Unit Time in
System in Months Catered
days
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5. Conventional
beams and 16,328 L&T-BFS,HDT m2 5 14 1,934
slab
6. Staircase 2,706 L&T Flex m2 5 14 321
Summary 1,21,328 m2 9,308
While the first case is used for calculating the costs of items like timber and plywood, the second
case is used for items like steel, metal components, aluminum, etc.
It is to be recalled here that the requirement of formwork materials depends on the total
area of shu ering; the total value of staging for the entire project; the period of completion and
the construction program; the striking time for the various parts of the structures; the strength
requirements of the permanent structures; and the type of the structure.
There is a cost involved towards storing, watch and ward, of the formwork materials. However
these are considered collectively in the overall project indirect cost and a percentage is added in the
formwork items based on pro rata basis.
Consumables
Some of the consumables used in the formwork activities are form coating agents, nails, binding
wires, inserts, lost ties, and hardware, etc. While the cost of form coatings, nails, and binding wire
may not be appreciable in comparison to the material and labor cost, the cost of consumable such
as insert, lost ties, and other lost hardware could be substantial. Some inserts and hardware are lost
a er each use. Thus, if the formwork schemes anticipate application of inserts, lost ties, and other
hardware in the previously placed concrete to anchor the formwork, for the next li , the cost of
these consumables should be properly accounted for.
Case 1
Area to be catered 1,000 m2.
Area mobilized for 40 m2 based on cycle time and total duration available.
1,000
Total repetition possible = 25 .
40
Since plywood cannot last for this many repetitions, take cost of plywood per m2.
1.05 plywood cost
= , where 5% is the wastage and 12 is the repetition.
12
Case 2
Area to be catered 1,000 m2.
Area mobilized for 200 m2 based on cycle time and total duration available.
1,000
Total repetition possible = 5.
200
In case we are not able to make use of this plywood at the project site, take cost of plywood
1.05 plywood cost
per m2 = , where 5% is the wastage and 5 is the repetition.
5
450 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Case 3
Area to be catered 1,000 m2.
Area mobilized for 200 m2 based on cycle time and total duration available.
1,000
Total repetition possible = 5.
200
In case this plywood is further used for some other application at the project, take cost of
1.05 plywood cost
plywood per m2 as = , where 5% is the wastage and 12 is the total repetition.
12
have to be considered under this head. Also, the labor employed for dismantling of the components
is to be included.
The estimate of labor cost for erecting and dismantling of the various formwork schemes may
be based on man-hours per m2 based on the past experience with similar type of schemes. For a
detailed analysis of labor cost for erection and dismantling, the crew size for the different operations
involved with erection and dismantling activities and the time consumed need to be considered.
The detailed analysis would indeed be giving the accurate estimate.
Table 15.11 Some Thumb Rules Useful for Computing Formwork Labor Requirement
Item Description Man-hour/m2 (for labor)
Footings/Ra /Pile caps 0.9
Walls 1.7
Columns 1.8
Beams and Slab with floor height up to 4.5 m 1.5 (Slab and Beam)
0.8 (Flat slab)
Beams and Slab with floor height 6 m 2 (Slab and Beam)
Access scaffolding (Area in elevation) Assembly of HDT 0.2
The use of Table 15.11 has been illustrated for the wall formwork example explained previously.
It may be recalled that the wall formwork area to be executed for a typical month was 1,000 m2. The
requirement of labor would be 1,000 1.7 = 1,700 man-hours = 170 man-days assuming 10 working hours
per day. Thus, the wall formwork alone would require 170/25 = 6.8, say, 7 crew members. Similarly,
452 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
the labor requirement for the different formwork activities can be computed on a monthly basis. The
detailed breakup of labor into carpenter and helper may not be required at the time of tendering.
50 45 3% 13.5
The cost of steel components = Rs.
5 m2
Alternatively, instead of depreciation, sometimes, the lease rental or hire charges for steel
components on per kg basis may be considered. The resulting expression is as given below:
Consumption of steel in kg for 1 m 2 Leased
rental or hire ch arg es of steel for 1 kg
Cost of steel components = (15.13)
Number of uses in a month
Depending on the formwork type and the concrete element such as wall, column, slab, and
beam, the requirement of steel would vary. For example, if L&T system is used for wall, column,
and slab (flex system), the requirement of steel components is 50 kg, 98 kg, and 35 kg, respectively.
The expression for the calculation of the cost remains same however.
E. Cost for usage of consumables
Consumables include form coating agents such as diesel and grease, or some proprietary form
coating agents, nails, and binding wires. These are normally considered on a lump sum basis.
In some cases, it is possible to calculate the spread or coverage of form coating agent. In such
cases, the cost of form coating agent can be estimated from the following expression:
Cost of form coating agent per liter
Cost of form coating agent = (15.14)
Coverage or spread in m 2 of 1 liter form coating agent
Suppose the cost of 1 liter of form coating agent is Rs. 20 and it has a coverage of 10 m2, then the
cost of form coating agent is Rs. 2/m2.
The consumption of nails can be calculated by the following expression:
Weight of nails in kg for 1 m2 Cost of nails per kg
Cost of nails = (15.15)
Number of reuse envisaged for the form
Suppose 0.20 kg of nails is needed to make 1 m2 of form, cost of nails is Rs. 40 per kg, and the
form is expected to last for 10 uses then the cost of nails would be computed as below:
0.20 40 0.8
Cost of nails = Rs.
10 m2
Table 15.13 Generic Template for Preparing Estimate of Unit Rate for 1 m2 of Formwork
Sl. Item Amount (Rs.)
No. Description
1. Steel Consumption of steel in kg for 1 m 2 Investment cost
of steel for 1 kg @ Rate of depreciation per month
Cost of steel components =
Number of uses in a month
Consumption of steel in kg for 1 m 2 Leased
rental or hire charge of steel for 1 kg
Cost of steel components =
Number of uses in a month
2. Timber Consumption of timber in cubic meter for 1 m 2
Purchase cost of timber for 1 cubic meter
Cost of using timber =
Maximum number of uses envisaged
3. Plywood
Consumption of plywood in square meter for 1 m 2
Purchase cost of plywood for 1 m 2
Cost of using plywood =
Maximum number of uses envisaged
PRE-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 457
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) The two broad stages in formwork management are pre-award and post award.
(b) Wall formwork area to be mobilized.
Total formwork area planned for month ( Cycle time)
= .
Number of working days in a month
Cost of material-Scrap value
(c) Cost of material per use = .
Number of repetitions
(d) Cost of material per use
(Cost of material-Scrap value) (Period of use for item per project)
= .
Life of materials
(e) Form work direct cost includes - material cost, labor cost, and plant and equipment cost.
Q2. Match the following
(i) Pre-award stage (a) Emphasis on detailed formwork planning,
mobilization, and demobilization of material.
(ii) Post award stage (b) Emphasis on formwork initial planning, value
engineering, and costing.
(iii) Number of reuses in project (c) Cycle time for one region Number of regions
in a floor Number of floors.
(iv) Total duration (d) Number of floors Number of regions.
458 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
16 Post-Award Formwork
Management Issues
16.1 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in the earlier chapters, it is evident that formwork is a vital material in any concrete
construction. It was also brought to notice that any saving in the formwork can have a large
implication in overall saving for the project. It is imperative therefore to have a scientific management
of the formwork system in place in any construction organization that is involved with concrete
construction. As far as a contractor is concerned, formwork management system is a must. The
post-award formwork management should address the following major issues.
Figure 16.1 Schematic Sketch Showing Various Tasks Involved with the
Post-contract Award Formwork Management.
Figure 16.3 Section of the Example Building Project Fig 16.2 Showing Two Symmetrical Towers.
The floor to floor height is 3.5 m including the two basements. All beams are of uniform size:
300 mm width and 450 mm depth. The area for beam formwork can be assumed to be 30% of the
plan area. All columns are square columns of 450 mm.side. The lower basement has 142 columns
and the upper basement has 135 columns. In the remaining seven stories, there are 80 columns. It is
proposed to calculate the formwork area to be mobilized each for column, beam, and slab formwork
to complete the entire concrete work in the given duration.
The computation of formwork area for the column, beam, and slab for one tower is shown in
Table 16.1. Since the other tower is exactly similar to tower 1, the quantities of formwork for the
column, beam, and slab would get doubled.
462 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Table 16.1 Computation of Formwork Area for Column, Beam, and Slab
Slab area Beam area@35% Column area
of slab area
1 Lower basement 72 66 = 4,752 m2 0.35 4,752 = 1663.2 m2 142 (0.45 2.90 4) = 741.24 m2
2 2
2 Upper basement 54 42 = 2,268 m 0.35 2,268 = 793.8 m 135 (0.45 2.90 4) = 704.70 m2
3 Ground floor 48 38 = 1,824 m2 0.35 1,824 = 638.4 m2 80 (0.45 2.90 4) = 417.60 m2
2 2
4 First floor 48 38 = 1,824 m 0.35 1,824 = 638.4 m 80 (0.45 2.90 4) = 417.60 m2
5 2nd Floor 48 38 = 1,824 m2 0.35 1,824 = 638.4 m2 80 (0.45 2.90 4) = 417.60 m2
2 2
6 3rd Floor 48 38 = 1,824 m 0.35 1,824 = 638.4 m 80 (0.45 2.90 4) = 417.60 m2
7 4th Floor 48 38 = 1,824 m2 0.35 1,824 = 638.4 m2 80 (0.45 2.90 4) = 417.60 m2
2 2
8 5th Floor 48 38 = 1,824 m 0.35 1,824 = 638.4 m 80 (0.45 2.90 4) = 417.60 m2
9 6th Floor 48 38 = 1,824 m2 0.35 1,824 = 638.4 m2 80 (0.45 2.90 4) = 417.60 m2
The schedule for the concrete work alone is shown in Fig. 16.4. It can be noticed that the two
basements are planned to be completed in one and a half months each, while each of the seven
stories is planned to be completed in one month.
Lower Basement
Slab area = 4,752 m2 for one tower. Let’s divide the entire floor area in six units as shown in Fig.
16.5.
The construction of formwork normally involves the following operations:
(i) Propping and centering
(ii) Shu ering
(iii) Provision of camber
(iv) Cleaning and surface treatment
POST-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 463
It is proposed that the entire concrete work in each unit be completed in one week duration, so
that the floor gets completed in 6 weeks i.e., in one and a half months. The number of columns in
each unit is equal to 142/6 = 23.6, say 24 sets. Assume that the contractor has prepared 20 sets of
columns for this project.
Typical floor
The area of slab in a typical floor = 48 m 38 m = 1,824 m2. Let’s divide the entire floor area in four
units as shown in Fig. 16.6. It is proposed that the entire concrete work in each unit be completed
in one week duration so that the floor gets completed in 4 weeks, i.e. in one month. The number
of columns in each unit is equal to 80/4 = 20. Assume that the contractor has prepared 20 sets of
columns for this project. The detailed schedule is given in Fig. 16.7.
Unit 1 Unit 2
Unit 3 Unit 4
Design allowance for construction loads on new slabs should be shown when such allowances
would affect the development of the shoring and / or re-shoring schemes.
Anchors, forms ties, shores, lateral bracing, and horizontal lacing.
Field adjustment of forms.
Waterstops, keyways, and inserts.
Working scaffolds and runways.
Weepholes or vibrator holes where required.
Screeds and grade strips.
Location of external vibrator mountings.
Crush plates or wrecking plates where stripping may damage the concrete.
Removal of spreaders or temporary blocking.
Cleanout holes and inspection openings.
Construction joints, contraction joints, and expansion joints to conform to design drawings.
Sequence of concrete placement and minimum elapsed time between adjacent placements.
Chamfer strips or grade strips for exposed corners and construction joints.
Camber.
Mudsills or other foundation provisions for formwork.
Special provisions such as safety, fire drainage, and protection from ice and debris at water
crossings.
Formwork coatings.
Wherever handling equipments like cranes etc. are used, the size of panels, the method of erecting
and dismantling have to be worked out in such a way that the equipment is effectively utilized.
Procurement of materials such as plywood, timber, etc. must be monitored on a continuous basis.
Care should be taken to see that the material procurement does not exceed the initial planned
quantities.
A mock-up can also be prepared for a typical formwork system so that the workers get a fair idea
of working with the particular formwork system. Normally such mock-ups are installed at some
prominent location at the site and any new carpentry crew engaged at the site is shown these mock-
ups so that they take li le time to get familiarized with the system. One such mock up is shown
in Fig. 16.10. In the figure, mock-ups of wall and column formwork are shown. Any one viewing
POST-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 467
the mock-up would understand the kind of components used in the system, the connection details
and so on.
As soon as the project is awarded to the contracting organization and the le er of intent issued
by the client, the contractor appoints a project manager and a planning engineer for the project. The
two then go through the entire contract document and prepare the estimates of executing each bid
item. They also prepare the estimate for the overheads of the project.
Cost codes are established and the budgeted estimates for each of the cost codes are prepared.
These budgeted estimates are scrutinized by the top management of the contracting organization
and a mutually agreeable budgeted estimate is agreed upon. This is called the accepted cost estimate
(ACE) or zero cost by the contracting organization. The monitoring of formwork activities is
performed with respect to the accepted cost estimate (ACE). In Table 16.3, the accepted cost estimate
for formwork activities for a project is given. The quantities are drawn from the bill of quantity and
in this case it is assumed to be 28,000 m2.
Table 16.3 The Accepted Cost Estimate for Formwork Activities for a Project
Cost Item Description Unit Quantity Accepted cost estimate
Code Rate Amount
(Rs.) (Rs.)
2010 Labor charges for making column, beam bo om
shu er m2 800 105.00 84,000
2020 Labor charges for making wall and beam side
shu er m2 200 90.00 18,000
2030 Labor charges for repairing of shu er m2 500 50.00 25,000
2040 Labor charges for fixing and removing column
shu er m2 2,800 75.00 2,10,000
2050 Labor charges for fixing and removing beam and
slab shu er m2 17,053.4 50.00 8,52,670
2060 Labor charges for scaffolding m3 34,106.8 20.00 6,82,136
POST-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 469
The variation against each of the cost codes is obtained by obtaining the difference between the
cost for the month from the accepted cost estimate (Table 16.7). The negative variation indicates
trouble areas and needs timely management a ention.
16.4.2 Concreting
Formwork plan affects the way concreting activity is to be planned. A planner o en faces the task
of choosing between high and low li , large and small form units etc. In such cases, he or she has
to tradeoff between formwork crew cost and concrete crew cost to minimize the overall cost.
imposed loads should be carefully considered in order to avoid harmful cracks and other damages
to the structure.
Strength development of the concrete should be the prime criteria for deciding on removal of
forms. Strength developed will depend upon the magnitude of the loads and rate of gain in the
strength of the concrete. However, in section II of IS:456–2000 on formwork and IS:14687–1999, some
guidelines for removal of forms for different concrete elements are presented. These are produced
in Table 16.8.
Figure 16.11 The Organization Chart for Managing Formwork in a Large Contracting Organization.
476 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
It is assumed here that a large contracting organization has a large number of project sites at
any point of time spread over different regions in the country. The organization has a number of
regional offices with each regional office having a number of sites to manage. In Fig. 16.11, only
three regional offices have been shown.
The organization has a general manager (resources) stationed at the headquarters who is
supported by managers responsible for managing different resources. One manager has been
shown exclusively for managing the formwork. The manager—formwork is supported by regional
formwork coordinators located at various regional offices. The regional formwork coordinator is
responsible for coordinating with the site formwork engineer within his region and the formwork
manager based at the headquarters of the organization.
The responsibilities of the formwork engineer located at the sites are given below:
1. Preparing formwork schedule in line with the project construction schedule. The schedule
would show all the milestones pertaining to the formwork.
2. Preparing the formwork scheme. The formwork engineer prepares the scheme for typical
formwork structures on his own while for complicated structures, the formwork engineer
may require support from the designers.
3. Based on the formwork scheme, the formwork engineer prepares the bill of materials required
for the formwork items and mobilizes with the help of the regional formwork coordinator.
This is to be updated at frequent intervals so that the mobilization and demobilization of
formwork materials is undertaken smoothly. The formwork engineer has to intimate the
receipt and release of any consignment promptly.
4. The formwork engineer is also responsible for the effective utilization of formwork materials
and thus he is also entrusted with the responsibility of allocating the formwork materials to
the competing site engineers.
5. As large organizations o en engage subcontractors for the formwork activities, it is imperative
that the subcontractors should also be trained in using a given type of formwork system.
Formwork engineer plays a major role in training the subcontractor’s workmen. He is also
instrumental in installing the mock ups of the various formwork system proposed to be used
at the site as ready reference for the workmen.
6. The reader must have noticed that the formwork system contains numerous formwork items.
Lack of even a single item/component may render an entire formwork unit useless. Thus it is
very essential that each and every component of the formwork system is taken care of, and
reconciliation is carried out physically at regular intervals. The formwork site engineer is
also entrusted with the responsibility of physical reconciliation of formwork components at
regular intervals. He has to have close interactions with persons involved at the stores and in
the execution at project site.
7. In some organizations, the formwork engineer is also entrusted with the responsibility of the
purchase of some formwork materials such as plywood, timber, etc.
8. The formwork engineer is also responsible for the maintenance of formwork items.
POST-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 477
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Accepted Cost Estimate (ACE) is also known as zero-cost by the contracting organization.
Q2. Sequence the following in the context of tasks involved in post-contract award formwork
management.
(i) Training subcontractors and workers
(ii) Monitoring of formwork cost
(iii) Periodical reconciliation of formwork materials
(iv) Preparation of demobilization schedule of formwork materials
(v) Upkeep/maintenance of formwork materials
(vi) Preparation and finalization of formwork scheme
(vii) Preparation of mock-up for various formwork systems
(viii) Preparation of mobilization schedule for formwork materials
(ix) Ensuring effective and proper utilization of formwork materials
(x) Detailed planning
(xi) Preparation of schedules of formwork activities based on the project schedule
Q3. Discuss the different steps involved in formwork management in post-award stage.
Q4. List out the different features involved in preparation and finalization of formwork scheme.
Q5. List out the various responsibilities of the formwork engineer located at the sites.
Q6. Why is mock-up important in the context of formwork?
Q7. What kind of construction practice (comment only about formwork system consisting of sheathing
material, and staging material) would you adopt as far as formwork is concerned under the
following circumstances?
(a) Multi-story building with floor to floor height less than about 4 m
(b) A factory shed with floor height 10 m
(c) A cement plant where a number of tall structures such as Silo are present
(d) An airport hangar with folded roof
In case 1, 2, and 4, the repetition of the sheathing material is expected to be about 10-12 due to time
constraint, while in case 3, repetitions is expected to be about 100.
Q8. An owner had started work for his new hotel building. He took a lot of time in completing the
foundation of the building. So one day he decided to get the remaining job completed through
one contractor. Calculate the formwork area (for columns and slab/beam alone) that needs to be
mobilized by the contractor in order to complete the RCC work for the entire six-story building
(see Fig Q16.8.1) in 6 months time?
Slab and beam formwork material you can repeat every 15 days.
Column formwork material you can repeat every 3 days.
All columns of size 400 400 mm
All beams 400 mm wide and 600 mm deep
478 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Q9. A casting yard produces pre-stressed concrete beams of size 60 mm width and 200 mm depth and
2.4 m length. Total 5,000 beams are to be cast. Beams can be moved out of the casting bed only
a er 7 days. The total duration for completion of the beam casting is 180 days. How many casting
beds would be required to achieve this construction schedule? Also give typical sketches for the
casting yard for such a production. There is no constraint of land availability.
Q10. Formwork is to be designed for a wall 3.5 m and 350 mm thick. The client’s specification limits
deflection to 1/270 of the span of any formwork member. Through ties are allowed. The concrete
will be OPC with admixture but no retarder. The work will take place in April. The temporary
works designer has been advised that concrete will be placed by skip, at an assumed volume rate
of supply of 9 m3/h. The concrete temperature for April is assumed to be 12°C. The site crane will
li 2,000 kg at all radii. Wall pour length = 5.7 m, size considered = 3.8 m 6 m.
Q11. A contractor has to construct a building shown in the following figure. The building consists of
two symmetrical towers having two basement and seven stories. The basements dimensions are
72 m 66 m and 54 m 42 m. The dimensions of the remaining seven stories are 48 m 38 m.
The concrete work (formwork + reinforcement + concreting) is scheduled to be completed in
10 months time.
Floor to floor height is 3.5 m. All beams are of uniform size: 300 mm width and 450 mm depth. The
area for the beam formwork can be assumed to be 30% of the plan area. All columns are square
POST-AWARD FORMWORK MANAGEMENT ISSUES 479
columns of 450 mm. The lower basement has 142 columns and the upper basement has 135 columns.
In the remaining seven stories there are 80 columns.
Calculate the formwork area to be mobilized each of column, beam, and slab formwork to complete
the entire concrete work in the given duration.
Q12. Estimate the cost per m2 of the slab formwork system shown in the following figure.
Q13. Develop thumb rule (norms) for calculating steel requirement for the Doka wall formwork. The
norms so developed should be useful for preliminary planning. For the estimation, you may consider
a shu er size of 2.4 m 6.0 m. A sample sheet for estimation is provided in Table 16.13.1.
Table Q 16.13.1 Sample Sheet for Calculating Steel Requirement (Shutter Size of 2.4 m x 6.0 m)
X
Weight per m2 = 2.4 6
Q.14. Develop thumb rule (norms) for calculating timber requirement for a conventional wall formwork
shu er shown in Fig Q 16.14.1. The norms so developed should be useful for preliminary planning.
For the estimation, you may consider a shu er size of 2.4 m 6.0 m. A sample sheet for estimation
is provided in Table Q 16.14.1.
480 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Q.15 Develop thumb rule (norms) for calculating H-16 requirement for the Doka wall formwork. The
norms so developed should be useful for preliminary planning. For the estimation, you may consider
a shu er size of 2.4 m 6.0 m. A sample sheet for estimation is provided in Table Q16.15.1.
X
H-16 beam in m per m2 =
2.4 6
Chapter
17 Formwork Failure
Contents: Introduction; Causes of Formwork Failure; Common Deficiencies in Design Leading to Formwork
Failure; Case Studies in Formwork Failure; Avoiding Formwork Failure; Recommendations on Safe
Practices; Some Suggested Checklists
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Formwork activities constitute an important part of any construction work. Some form of formwork
construction is involved in nearly every construction project. Formwork activities are associated
with relatively high frequency of disabling injuries and illness. Huang and Hinze (2003) analyzed
the OSHA accident reports for 1997 and reported that 5.83% of the falls were a ributed to the
construction of formwork or the construction of temporary structures, and 21.2% of all struck by
accidents involved wood framing or formwork construction.
Ergonomic studies by Har (2002) also suggested that the repetitive activities of li ing, sawing,
and hammering commonly performed by the formwork carpenters led to a high frequency of low-
severity injuries such as discomfort and persistent pain.
Hallowell and Gambatese (2009) conducted an interesting study in which they identified a total of
13 operations involved with formwork activities. Based on the observations of 11 workers involved
with the formwork activities, the exposure of workers in terms of percentage on an 8-h work day
was found out.
It may be observed that most formwork failures are not catastrophic and can be detected during
concrete placing by vigilant supervisors. When the failure occurs, the concreting is stopped or slowed.
Extra bracing may be installed and some remedial action (sawing or clipping) may be required later
on the cured concrete. Some signs to look for during the pouring operation to avoid failures are: (1)
groaning, creaking and popping noises heard during the pouring, (2) excessive deflection of forms,
and (3) concrete quantities not yielding proper coverage.
As it is, very few researches have been conducted in the area of formwork safety and on top of
that very few researchers have identified the worker activities required to complete the formwork
process. In that sense, the effort of Hallowell and Gambatese (2009) is noteworthy. They created a
comprehensive list of activities which became so vital in understanding the risks involved in the
formwork activities.
During the observation phase, 11 worker activities were identified and described. The activities
and their descriptions were sent to industry professionals for their review and validation. During
this review, the activity descriptions were refined and two additional activities were identified. Table
482 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
17.1 summarizes the findings of the observation phase of the study and includes activity names,
descriptions, and approximate exposure. One should note that the risks defined for the activities
described in Table 17.1 apply only to activities that are performed as described.
The exposure values in Table 17.1 represent the average percentage of time spent performing
a specific activity during an 8-h work day for the four projects observed. One will note that on an
average, 86% of the time was consumed on the 13 listed activities, while 14% of the workers’ time
was consumed on non-productive activities such as resting, eating, or talking about non-work related
topics. Since the researchers calculated the exposures using only four projects, the information
presented here should be used for reference only and should not be considered as being representative
of the industry as a whole.
Table 17.1 Activity Descriptions and Approximate Exposure (Percentage of an 8-h Work Day)
Sl. Approximate
Activity name Description
No. exposure
1. Ascend/Descend ladder Operations that occur above or below grade typi- 3%
cally require workers to ascend or descend the
ladders to reach the work site. Ladders may be
wooden, metal, or fiberglass and may vary in
length from site to site. In many cases, workers
may climb up the formwork supports instead of
using a ladder.
2. Static Li Workers are o en required to temporarily support 6%
a portion of the concrete form, while other work-
ers connect materials or components. This activity
involves a static li and may be accompanied by
li ing/lowering.
3. Nail/screw/drill Nailing or screwing the form components or ma- 8%
terials may involve the use of a hammer (typically
larger than 0.57 kg), nail gun, electric screwdriver,
impact wrench, or staple gun. The worker may be
required to repeat this activity for an extended pe-
riod of time at certain stages of construction.
4. Motorized transport Materials may be transported by vehicles such as 2%
trucks, skids steers, forkli s, cranes, or scissor li s
when the equipment is readily available or when
the site is relatively large.
5. Crane Materials When a crane is used to transport materials or form 5%
components, workers must accept the materials
from the crane and/or load the crane with excess
materials or waste. Workers must direct the crane
operator as the material is li ed or lowered and
they may be required to manually guide the load.
6. Cut Materials During most formwork operations, materials such 9%
as 50 mm 100 mm timber plywood, or alumi-
num must be cut to size. Typically, equipments
such as circulating saw or reciprocating or table
saw is used to cut materials and the worker oper-
ates such equipments and guides materials during
cu ing/ripping.
FORMWORK FAILURE 483
Sl. Approximate
Activity name Description
No. exposure
7. Inspect/plan During construction, the workers and crew lead- 16%
ers o en take time to inspect their work and plan
for subsequent operations or inspect prior work.
8. Li /lower materials Li ing and lowering the materials or equipment 8%
involves unassisted vertical transport of construc-
tion materials, formwork components, or equip-
ment. The process of forming concrete may re-
quire that workers li materials or concrete from
foot-level to a higher or lower grade.
9. Manual transport Manual transport may include transporting 11%
the equipment and materials of varying weights
such as 50 mm 100 mm timber plywood, form
panels, ties, cat heads, and adjustable pipe braces,
from one location to another.
10. Hammer materials This activity is different from nailing components 6%
and materials because heavier tools such as a
sledgehammer may be necessary to drive large
objects. Such an activity typically requires fewer
strikes of larger force than standard nailing.
11. Plumb/level forms Leveling and plumbing of forms involves using 6%
bodyweight, pry bars or other equipment to shi
and adjust the formwork. A screw jack may be
used for this activity and some workers may be
used for surveying or using hand levels, lasers, or
plumb bobs to ensure proper placement.
12. Excavation Excavation involves the removal of soil or other 2%
materials to access areas below grade. This activ-
ity typically involves the use of heavy equipment
such as a backhoe or a bulldozer.
13. Lubrication/preparation Form lubrication and preparation involves spray- 4%
ing of form oil and/or the curing compound and
se ing and we ing of curing blankets and expan-
sion materials.
Diagonal bracing improves the stability of such a structure, as do guys or struts to solid ground or
completed structures.
When a failure occurs in one part, inadequate bracing may permit the collapse to extend to a
large portion of the structure and multiply the damage. Suppose a worker accidentally rams a
wheelbarrow into some vertical shores and dislodges a couple of them. This may set up a chain
sort of reaction that brings down the entire floor. One major objective of bracing is to prevent such
a minor accident or failure from becoming a disaster.
The collapse of a segment of cast-in-situ waffle slab is shown in Figs. 17.2 and 17.3. The collapse
occurred when the concrete pour was about to be completed. Investigation showed that some of
the bracings had been removed by the formwork crew for preparing the formwork for another slab
segment. The load carrying capacity of the shores was found adequate and it was possibly due to
the removal of the bracing only, that resulted into the collapse of the floor segment.
In Fig. 17.4, the bent shores are clearly visible. This may be corresponding to the stage where
some of the shores might have given way and the load share of the failed shore are transferred to
the shores seen in the picture.
486 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 17.7 Shoring Tower in Position for the Deck Slab Adjacent to the Collapsed Slab.
overloading the forms. If this is not done, formwork failure may happen. Failure to properly regulate
the rate and order of placing concrete on the horizontal surfaces or curved roofs may produce
unbalanced loadings and consequent failures of the formwork.
Figures 17.8-17.10 show different views of formwork failure primarily due to overloading of the
formwork. During the concrete pouring operation, a large amount of concrete was dumped at a
single location. This led to the failure. The buckled (bent) props on account of heavy loading are
clearly visible in Figs. 17.8-17.10. The damaged H-16 beams that were used as primary and secondary
beams can also be seen in Fig. 17.10.
Figure 17.8 View of the Portion of the Slab which Failed due to Concrete Overloading.
Figure 17.9 Another View of the Portion of the Slab which Failed due to Concrete
Overloading (Note the Buckled Props).
Figure 17.10 Another View of the Portion of the Slab which Failed due to Concrete Overloading.
FORMWORK FAILURE 491
Figure 17.11 View of Portion of Slab and Beam Formwork which Collapsed.
Figure 17.12 Another View of Portion of Slab and Beam Formwork which Collapsed.
Failure to account for loads imposed on anchorages during gap closure in aligning
formwork;
Insufficient allowance for eccentric loading due to placement sequence;
Inadequate anchorage against upli due to ba ered form faces;
Failure to investigate bearing stresses in members in contact with shores and struts;
Failure to provide proper lateral bracing or lacing of shoring;
Failure to investigate the slenderness ratio of compression members;
Inadequate provisions to tie the corners of intersecting cantilevered forms together;
Inadequate reshoring; and
Overstressed reshoring.
Hadipriono and Wang (1986) examined the causes that resulted in 85 major falsework failures
over the past 23 years. They identified three causes of failure: triggering, enabling, and procedural
causes (Fig. 17.13). In Fig. 17.13, the number of occurrences against each of the causes is given in
brackets. Most failures occurred because of the interaction of the triggering and enabling events
that were, in many cases, produced by inadequacies in the procedural methods. Their results also
revealed that approximately 72% of the failures occurred during concrete placement. The period of
concrete placement seems to be the most critical time in the entire life of a building.
Inadequate falsework cross-bracing or placing was the primary source of several falsework
accidents, such as the collapses of the Arroyo Seco Bridge in California, the Skyline Center Complex
in Virginia, the high-way ramp in East Chicago, and the Coliseum in New York.
Figure 17.13 Summary of Causes of Formwork Failure (Adapted from Hadipriono and Wang, 1986).
FORMWORK FAILURE 493
Qualified staff
A properly qualified falsework/formwork coordinator must be appointed for the formwork
operations. If any proprietary system is being implemented, guidance from experts in the early
years always helps in a be er and safe implementation.
Training
Short professional courses should be arranged. Practical training courses on formwork ensure
proper implementation of the formwork. Keeping record of the engineers and workmen who
have undergone formwork training must also be maintained so that their services can be utilized
whenever required.
Reporting
In spite of the above measures, if any collapse occurs, it should be reported and thoroughly
investigated by the experts. The causes of the failure must be established. Finally, the recommendation
to prevent any future failure must also be suggested by the experts and the report should be given
wide publicity so that similar failures are not repeated in future.
Observation 1
Workers and supervisors without appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE)
It is very common to find complete disregard for personal protective equipment such as hard hat
(helmet), safety shoes, safety belts, hand gloves, goggles, ear plugs, both by the workers and by their
supervisors. In some instances, even the client and the consultant representatives do not pay proper
a ention to these life saving gadgets. Figures 17.14-17.16 show some instances where the desired
personal protective equipments have not been used by the workers and supervisors.
FORMWORK FAILURE 497
Figure 17.16 Senior Officials of Contractor, Client, and Consultants without Appropriate PPE.
498 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Observation 2
Substandard arrangement for access/approach
In a number of instances it is found that the contractors do not pay a ention to the access/approach
to the workers. These are found to be substandard, makeshi type and unsafe. The access/approach
is not properly secured and sometimes large gaps exist in between the two elements used to form the
ramps. Wherever ladders are used, they are not on firm grounds, slopes are not proper, and sometimes
adequate heights are not available. This not only creates unsafe work conditions, the productivity
is also compromised. The ladders used are of substandard material and they are also not placed
properly. Walkway jallies are not proper. There is no provision of handrails. Figures 17.17-17.25
show all the unsafe accesses/approaches that should never be allowed for any kind of construction.
Observation 3
Safety nets not properly installed
Although in some cases, safety nets were in use wherever work at heights was being carried out,
these were not fixed properly. The improper use of nets is as good as not having the safety nets at
all. An improper safety net installed is shown in Fig. 17.26.
Observation 4
Shu ering plates used to form ramp for access
At most of the work sites, the ramps for access are prepared using shu ering plates. These plates are
reversed (Figs. 17.27 and 17.28) and used for transporting men and materials to heights. Sometimes
large gaps are also noticed between the plates (Fig. 17.28) which is a hazard.
502 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 17.28 Makeshift Ramp Along with Dangerous Gaps (Openings) in between.
Observation 5
Shu ering plates used to form working platforms
At some locations the shu er plates are used as brackets to support the formwork crews and the
materials used by them. The bolts used to fix the shu er plates with concrete are not proper. This
is extremely hazardous. Figure 17.29 shows this hazardous condition.
Observation 6
Shu ering plates used as pedestals to support scaffolding pipes
Use of shu er plates as mudsills is noticed at a few locations. These plates are placed at loose soils
prone to erosion. This may cause uneven se lement of shores leading to failure of the formwork
system. Many accidents have happened in past due to such uneven se lements. Figure 17.30 shows
such an arrangement made at one of the project sites.
FORMWORK FAILURE 503
Figure 17.29 Shuttering Plates Being Used to Form Brackets to Support Working Platform.
Figure 17.30 Shuttering Plates Being Used as Pedestal (Even Worse, They Are Kept on Loose Soil).
Observation 7
Proper a ention not paid to the design and installation of bracings
Reinforcement bars tied with binding wires are sometimes used as diagonal bracings. Figures 17.31
and 17.32 show the reinforcement bars tied with binding wires being used as horizontal and diagonal
bracings. Obviously this arrangement of bracings is not adequate and should not be used.
504 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 17.31 Reinforcement Bars Tied with Binding Wire Used as Horizontal Bracing.
Figure 17.32 Reinforcement Bars Tied With Binding Wires Being Used as Diagonal Bracings.
Observation 8
Shoring towers not placed in level on the concrete pedestal
There is no connection between the cribs and the concrete pedestals. Where scaffolding frames are
used, they are without footplates and sometimes not on a level base. Figure 17.33 shows such an
arrangement at one of the project sites.
FORMWORK FAILURE 505
Figure 17.33 Foot Plates not in Proper Contact with Concrete Pedestals.
Observation 9
Work zones not properly barricaded
The work zones are not properly barricaded and the entry of unauthorized persons not connected
with the work being performed, is not restricted. Figure 17.34 shows a woman picking up the waste
concrete from the work site. Figure 17.35 shows children at the edge of excavation.
Observation 10
Working platforms supported on the ledger pipes passing through the weepholes le in the
concrete wall
Figure 17.36 shows such an unsafe arrangement practiced at one of the project sites. In Fig. 17.37,
no arrangement of working platforms has been made and workers are seen tying the reinforcement
for the wall.
506 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 17.36 Scaffolding Pipes Are Erected on Figure 17.37 No PPEs. No Platform. No Access/
the Weepholes Made in the RCC. Approach. No Display of Caution Signs.
Observation 11
Working platforms not proper
The provision of handrails and the arrangement to tie the safety belts are missing at most of the
places. The working platforms are not proper.
Figure 17.38 shows the prevailing gaps between the boards. There is no provision of guard rails,
knee rails, and toe board above the platform. The boards are not properly secured. Also, the materials
stored on the platforms are not properly secured. Further, there is no provision of anchoring safety
belts. Figures 17.39 and 17.40 also show similar deficiencies and unsafe practices.
FORMWORK FAILURE 507
Observation 12
Soil not properly compacted
The soil on which the cribs/trestles/scaffolding frames are resting, are not properly compacted and
erosion of soil is noticed. Figure 17.41 shows such a practice being adopted at one of the project sites.
Observation 13
The materials used for scaffolding and formwork are sometimes defective.
Observation 14
The approved design and drawings missing
The approved design and drawings are absent in some of the packages. The work in some of the
cases is being carried out on advanced copies and provisionally approved copies of the drawings.
Sometimes, deviations are noted in the implementation of the formwork from the approved
drawings. It appears that the li ing tool and tackles are not inspected, tested, and checked before
use. Although the contract mentions ve ing of the temporary structure drawings by a third party,
in some cases, they are found not implementing this task. Work was performed without trained
workmen and supervisor. There was no system of maintenance and checking of form materials
before pu ing them into use.
Based on the observations of the audit of the above projects, the audit team developed a checklist
for the works pertaining to the formwork, access/approach, etc. The checklists are given in Tables
17.4-17.8. It contains the description of the checklist points. In order to implement the checklist,
the compliance in terms of ‘yes’ or ‘no’ are to be entered in the compliance column. Any remarks
corresponding to a given checklist point can be entered under the remarks column. Each one of the
‘no’ entries in the ‘compliance’ column needs careful consideration before proceeding to the next
stage of work. It is hoped that the checklist would be useful to the practitioners.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. True or False
(a) Formwork activities are associated with relatively low frequency of disabling injuries and
illness.
(b) Signs to look during the pouring operation to avoid failures are:
(i) Groaning, creaking, and popping noises heard during the pouring.
(ii) Excessive deflection of forms.
(iii) Concrete quantities not yielding proper coverage.
(c) Primary causes of formwork disasters are:
(i) Excessive loads
(ii) Premature removal of forms or shores
(iii) Inadequate lateral support for shoring members
(d) The three common causes of formwork failure are: triggering causes, enabling causes, and
procedural causes of failure.
(e) Ways to avoid formwork failure are:
(i) Proper design and system
(ii) Qualified and trained Staff
(iii) Reporting
(f) Frequent causes of failure of formwork:
(i) Early shore removal
(ii) Inadequate reshoring arrangement
(iii) Rapid delivery of concrete introducing lateral forces at the top of high shoring
(iv) Inadequate diagonal bracing
Q2. List out the various activities and the exposure of risk associated with formwork.
Q3. Do the comparative analysis of the risks associated with various construction activities and provide
comments.
Q4. List out the various reasons for formwork failure.
Q5. List out the various deficiencies in design leading to formwork failure.
Q6. List out the various recommendations as per OSHA, ACI for safety in formwork.
Q7. List out the various checklists to ascertain safety during formwork/scaffold, etc.
Chapter
18 Formwork Issues in
Multi-Story Building
Construction
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Rapid urbanization and land scarcity have prompted widespread use of multi-story reinforced
concrete (RC) buildings in most countries including India. The country is seeing fast growth of such
high-rise buildings in different cities. Builders are forced to complete such projects at a fast pace
primarily for economic reasons. Pressures from buyers also sometimes dictate fast construction cycles
of the various floors of such buildings. A cycle time of 4 to 7 days per floor which was unheard of
in this part of the world is becoming a reality in the modern days.
The reduced cycle time and the tendency of the builders to strip the formwork faster, have resulted
in a number of accidents in the United States, the Soviet Union, and Japan in the 1980’s, the 1990’s,
and recently in India. Few such accidents have already been discussed in the previous chapter. The
major reason for such accidents is found to be excessive loads imposed onto the supporting slabs,
shores, and reshores. It may so happen that the strength of a slab is not enough to support an upper
floor when it is cast. The problem is more compounded when the design live load to dead load ratio
is small, in the range of 0.5 to 1.0.
The premature removal of shores is another primary reason for the collapse of structures during
construction. The shore removal process can induce overloads in slabs which may endanger its
safety.
The decrease in cycle time requires a newly placed concrete slab to be temporarily supported on
the supporting systems comprising of several previously cast slabs and shoring systems. Depending
514 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
on a number of factors (explained later), one, two, three, or four levels of shores may be used to
support the loads safely during construction. Increasing the number of levels of shores during
construction however is not recommended as it increases the number of sets of formworks required
thereby increasing the cost. Further, it also increases the ultimate shore loads on the lower floors
and interferes in other works to be carried out on a floor.
In order to overcome the problem of large number of shore levels, different construction techniques/
procedures/sequences are utilized which can ensure safety. Before going into the techniques, we will
discuss the terms shores, reshores, backshores, and preshores which are frequently encountered in
multi-story RC building construction.
Shores
Shores are vertical or inclined support members designed to carry the weight of the formwork, the
concrete and the construction loads above. Different types of shores have already been discussed
in the previous chapters.
Reshores
Reshores are the shores placed snugly under a stripped concrete slab or structural member a er
the original forms and shores have been removed from a large area, thus requiring the new slab
or structural member to deflect and support its own weight and of the existing construction loads
applied prior to the installation of the reshores. At the time of installation, reshores carry no
significant load. Reshores are like normal shores in design although they are placed with larger
spacing between them.
Backshores
Backshores are the shores placed snugly under a stripped concrete slab or structural member a er
the original forms and shores have been removed from a small area without allowing the slab to
deflect or support its own weight or of the existing construction loads from above.
Preshores
Preshores are the refined version of the reshoring method. It is the technique of scheduled reshoring
whereby the unsupported slab is reduced and controlled.
A rational judgment on the number of levels of shores and reshores for a given pace of construction
is also a ma er of concern for a formwork engineer. He/she has to make a right balance between
safety and economy aspects. During construction, the safety of a slab depends mainly on the load
imposed on the slab and the available strength of the slab. For a given construction load, the load
distribution in the slab-shore system is decided by the number of levels of shores and reshores,
the stripping sequence, the age of the slabs (which influences the stiffness of slabs), and the load
distribution. On the other hand, the available strength of a slab depends on the age of the concrete,
the type of cement, the construction temperature, and any admixtures. A formwork engineer has
to ensure that the load imposed on slabs during construction is less than their available strength at
every construction stage.
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 515
18.2.1 Shoring
“The typical construction procedure for slabs involves casting the new slab on formwork and shores,
and removal of the shores from the lowest level in perhaps four to five days a er casting the slab.
Shoring is carried to several floors; so the load of the fresh concrete will be shared among several
supporting slabs. Increasing the number of shores will delay the occurrence of the peak load, thus
benefiting from the increase in strength with time; however, it will increase the maximum slab load
and the maximum shore load” (Mosallam and Chen, 1990).
The construction sequence of three levels of shores and the major activities: (a) casting the slab,
(b) removing the lowest level of shores, and (c) installing the highest level of shores are shown in
the schematic sketches in Fig. 18.1.
Figure 18.1 Construction Sequence and Activities Involved with Three Levels of Shores.
516 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 18.2 Construction Sequence and Activities Involved with Two Levels of Shores and One Level of Reshores.
One of the advantages of preshoring is that the unsupported span lengths are reduced, thus
reducing slab deflections (Fig. 18.3b). The disadvantages of preshoring are:
(a) Close control of the construction process is needed to realize the benefits.
(b) Preshoring is more complicated to model than reshoring. The analysis in preshoring needs
consideration of slab deformations, shore deformation, and static equilibrium of the loads.
18.4 LOAD DISTRIBUTION FOR SLABS AND SHORES IN ONE, TWO, THREE, AND FOUR
LEVELS OF SHORES
The following symbols have been used.
Let Si represent the load on slab i, thus S1, and S2 represent loads on slab 1, and 2 respectively.
Let Pi represent the loads on shores under slab i, thus P1 and P2 represent loads on shores under
slab1 and 2 respectively.
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 519
On day 12, the shores under slab 1 are removed. The shore load of P1 = D is carried by slab 1.
Thus, S1 = D and P1 = 0 (Fig. 18.5)
On day 14, slab 2 is cast. The load D of slab 2 is carried by the interconnected slabs 2 and 1;
however since slab 2 is freshly cast, it cannot take any load and thus the load is transferred to slab
1. The shores under slab 2 carry that portion of the load above them which is not carried by the
slabs. The load carried by slabs and shores at this stage are: S2 = 0 (freshly cast slab); S1 = initial
load + share of new load = D + D = 2D; P2 = 1D load above (weight of slab 2) –load carried by slab
2 = 1D – 0 = 1D (see Fig. 18.6).
On day 19, the shores under slab 2 are removed. The shore load of P2=D is carried by slab 1. Thus,
S2=D, P2=0, S1=D, and P1=0 (Fig. 18.7).
On day 21, slab 3 is cast. The load D of slab 3 is to be carried by the interconnected slabs 3 and 2;
however since slab 3 is freshly cast, it cannot take any load and thus the entire load is transferred
to slab 2. The shores under slab 3 carry that portion of the load above them not carried by the slabs.
The load carried by the slabs and shores at this stage are: S3= 0 (freshly cast slab); S2 =initial load
+ share of new load = D + D = 2D; P3=1D load above (weight of slab 2) –load carried by slab 2= 1D-
0=1D, P2=0, and S1=D (Fig. 18.8).
In a similar manner, the load on slabs and shores can be computed. For easy reference, some
more steps are shown in Fig. 18.9 along with the steps explained earlier. As can be seen from Fig.
18.9, a er certain steps, the loads on slabs, shores, and reshores converge.
Figure 18.9 Load Ratios Versus Time for One Level of Shores.
Figure 18.10 Casting of Slab 2 on the Day 14 (Shores Under Slab 1 and 2 are in Position).
Shores under slab 1 are removed on the 19th day (2T+m days, where T = 7, and m = stripping
period = 5). The shore load of P1 = 2D is carried equally by slabs 1 and 2. Thus, S2 = D, S1 = D, P2 = 0,
and P1 = 0 (Fig. 18.11).
On day 21, slab 3 is cast. The load D of slab 3 is carried equally among the two interconnected
slabs 2 and 1. The shores under slabs 3 and 2 carry that portion of the load above them which is not
carried by the slabs. The load carried by slabs and shores at this stage are computed below (also
see Fig. 18.12).
S3 = initial load + share of new load = 0 (freshly cast slab)
S2 = initial load + share of new load = D + D/2 = 3D/2,
S1 = initial load + share of new load = 1D + D/2 = 3D/2
P3 = 1D load above (weight of slab 3) –load carried by slab 3 = 1D – 0 = 1D
P2 = 2D load above (weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2) – (load carried by slab 3 + load carried
by slab 2) = 2D – (0 + 3D/2) = D/2
522 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
P1 = 3D load above (weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2 + weight of slab 1) – (load carried by slab
3 + load carried by slab 2 + load carried by slab 1) = 3D – (0 + 3D/2 + 3D/2) = 0 (as expected).
The shores under slab 2 are removed. The load carried by shores (P2 = D/2) under slab 2 is
distributed on two interconnected slabs 3 and 2. Thus each of the two slabs would have to carry an
additional load of D/4. The load on slabs and shores are computed below:
S3 = initial load + share of new load = 0 + D/4 = D/4
S2 = initial load + share of new load = 3D/2 + D/4 = 7D/4,
S1 = initial load – load carried by shores under slab 2 = 3D/2 – D/2 = 1D
P3 = 1D load above (weight of slab 3) – load carried by slab 3 = 1D – D/4 = 3D/4
P2 = 2D load above (weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2) – (load carried by slab 3 + load carried by
slab 2) = 2D – (D/4 + 7/4 D) = 0 (as expected). The load distribution is shown in Fig. 18.13.
On day 28, slab 4 is cast. The load D of slab 4 is carried equally among the two interconnected
slabs 3 and 2. The shores under slabs 4 and 3 carry that portion of the load above them which is not
carried by the slabs. The load carried by slabs and shores at this stage are computed below (also
see Fig. 18.14).
S4 = initial load + share of new load = 0 (freshly cast slab)
S3 = initial load + share of new load = D/4 + D/2 = 3D/4
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 523
In a similar manner, the load on slabs and shores can be computed. For easy reference, some
more steps are shown in Fig. 18.15 along with the previous steps explained earlier. As can be seen
from Fig. 18.15, a er certain steps, loads on slabs, shores, and reshores converge.
524
FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 18.15 Load Ratios Versus Time for Two Levels of Shores.
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 525
Shores under slab 1 are removed on the 26th day (3T + m days, where T = 7, and m = stripping
period = 5). The shore load of P1 = 3D is carried equally by slabs 1, 2, and 3. Thus, S3 = D, S2 = D,
S1 = D, and P3 = 0, P2 = 0, P1 = 0 (Fig. 18.17).
On day 28, slab 4 is cast. The load D of slab 4, is carried equally among the three interconnected
slabs 3, 2, and 1. The shores under slabs 4, 3, and 2 carry that portion of the load above them which
is not carried by the slabs. The load carried by slabs and shores at this stage are computed below
(also see Fig. 18.18).
526 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The shores under slab 2 are removed. The load carried by shores (P2 = D/3) under slab 2 is
distributed on three interconnected slabs 4, 3, and 2. Thus each of the three slabs would have to
carry an additional load of D/9. The load on the slabs and shores are computed below:
S4 = initial load + share of new load = 0 + D/9 = D/9
S3 = initial load + share of new load= 4D/3 + D/9 = 13D/9,
S2 = initial load + share of new load= 4D/3 + D/9 = 13D/9
S1 = initial load - load carried by shores under slab 2 = 4D/3 – D/3 = 1D
P4 = 1D load above (weight of slab 4) –load carried by slab 4 = 1D – D/9 = 8D/9
P3 = 2D load above (weight of slab 4 + weight of slab 3) – (load carried by slab 4 + load carried
by slab 3) = 2D – (D/9 + 13D/9) = 4D/9. The load distribution is shown in Fig. 18.19.
On day 35, slab 5 is cast. The load D of slab 5, is carried equally among the three interconnected
slabs 4, 3, and 2. The shores under slabs 5, 4, and 3 carry that portion of the load above them which
is not carried by the slabs. The load carried by the slabs and shores at this stage are computed below
(also see Fig. 18.20).
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 527
P4 = 2D load above (weight of slab 5 + weight of slab 4) – (load carried by slab 5 + load carried
by slab 4 = 2D – (0 + 4D/9) = 14D/9
P3 = 3D load above (weight of slab 5+weight of slab 4 + weight of slab 3) – (load carried by slab
5 + load carried by slab 4+ load carried by slab 3) = 3D – (0 + 4D/9 + 16D/9) = 7D/9
P2 = 4D load above (weight of slab 5 + weight of slab 4 + weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2)
– (load carried by slab 5 + load carried by slab 4+ load carried by slab 3 + load carried by slab 2)
= 4D – (0 + 4D/9 + 16D/9 + 16D/9) = 0 (as expected).
The shores under slab 3 are removed. The load carried by shores (P3 = 7D/9) under slab 3 is
distributed on three interconnected slabs 5, 4, and 3. Thus each of the three slabs would have to
carry an additional load of 7D/27. The load on slabs and shores are computed below:
S5 = initial load + share of new load = 0 + 7D/27 = 7D/27
S4 = initial load + share of new load = 4D/9 + 7D/27 = 19D/27
S3 = initial load + share of new load = 16D/9+ 7D/27 = 55D/27,
S2 = initial load - load carried by shores under slab 3 = 16D/9-7D/9 = D
P5 = 1D load above (weight of slab 5) –load carried by slab 5 = 1D – 7D/27 = 20D/27
P4 = 2D load above (weight of slab 5 + weight of slab 4) – (load carried by slab 5+ load carried by
slab 4) = 2D – (7D/27 + 19D/27) = 28D/27
P3 = 3D load above (weight of slab 5 + weight of slab 4 + weight of slab 3) – (load carried by
slab 5 + load carried by slab 4 + load carried by slab 3) = 3D – (7D/27 + 19D/27 + 55/27 D) = 0
(as expected).
In a similar manner, the load on slabs and shores can be computed. For easy reference, some
more steps are shown in Fig. 18.22 along with the steps explained earlier. As can be seen from Fig.
18.22, a er certain steps, loads on slabs and shores converge.
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 529
In the previous sections, the load distribution on slabs and shores was explained with the help
of a simplified method.
The maximum load on the slabs occurs when the shores connecting the supporting assembly with
the ground level are removed. However, the load ratio converges for the upper floor levels. This is
shown in Figs. 18.23(a), (b), and (c) for one, two, and three levels of shores, respectively.
Figure 18.23 (a) Load-Ratio History of the Slabs for One Level of Shores.
Figure 18.23 (b) Load-Ratio History of the Slabs for Two Level of Shores.
530 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Figure 18.23 (c) Load-Ratio History of the Slabs for Three Level of Shores.
From Fig. 18.23(a), it can be seen that the peak load and the converged load is 2 D. From Fig.
18.23(b), it can be observed that the absolute maximum load ratio is 2.25 at 14 days for two levels
of shores. In the case of three levels of shores, the simplified analysis showed the maximum load
ratio equal to 2.36 while the converged value for upper floor levels is equal to 2.00. The most heavily
loaded slab is always the last slab that is supported directly from the foundation. This is shown in
Fig. 18.23(c). The absolute maximum load ratio was 2.36 at 42 days.
In the case of four levels of shores, the absolute maximum is 2.43 at 28 days (verify!!!). Whether
it is the case of the two or four levels of shores, the maximum loads are always carried by the last
slab cast before the shores at ground level are removed. It can also be noticed that above level 4, the
loads steadily converge with a maximum load factor of 2.00 in the bo om slab aged 21 days.
In each case (in fact, for any number of shored levels), the loads converge on a cycle in which the
bo om slab of the shored system has a load ratio of 2.00.
It can also be observed from the above load distribution that increasing the number of levels
shored leads to no reduction at all in the average maximum construction loads on the slabs. The
absolute maximum actually increases with an increasing number of levels shored. However, the age
of the slab at which these maxima occur also increases. Thus the increase in the concrete strength
may offset the extra load as a design consideration.
18.5 LOAD DISTRIBUTION FOR SLABS AND SHORES IN TWO LEVELS OF SHORES AND
ONE LEVEL OF RESHORES
It is further assumed that the cycle time T for casting slabs is 7 days and the lowest levels of
shores are removed a er 5 days (m = 5) of casting the top slab. The cycle time T is defined as the
period from the beginning of casting a concrete slab to the beginning of casting the next concrete
slab. Thus if the first slab is cast on day 7, 2nd, 3rd , and 4th slab will be cast on day 14, 21, and 28,
respectively.
The shores under floor 1 will be removed on day 12 and reshores will be kept in place.
Let’s assume that work starts on the day 1 and it takes six days to complete the installation of
shores, formwork, and the reinforcement for slab 1. On day 7, slab 1 is cast. At this point, the entire
weight of slab D is taken by shores under slab 1 and is transmi ed to the ground. Thus, the load
carried by slab 1 is 0 and the load carried by shores is D.
Figure 18.24 (a) Slab Ready to Cast at the End of Day 6, (b) Casting of Slab on Day 7.
Considering the cycle time of seven days, it is assumed that slab 2 is cast on day 14. All loads
of slab 1 and slab 2 go through shores to the ground. The load carried by shores under slab 2 is D
and the load carried by shores under slab 1 is 2D. This is indicated as S2 = 0, P2 = 0, S1 = 0, and P1
= 2D in Fig. 18.25.
Shores under slab 1 is removed on the 19th day (2T + m days, where T = 7, and m = stripping
period = 5). The shore load of P1 = 2D is carried equally by slabs 1 and 2. Thus, S2 = D, P2 = 0,
S1 = D, and P1 = 0 (Fig. 18.26)
532 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Now the reshores are placed snugly under slab 1. Due to snug placement of the reshores, they
are still not carrying any load and thus there is no change in load distribution from the previous
case. The slab loads S2 = D, P2 = 0, S1 = D, and P1 = 0 remain unchanged (Fig.18. 27).
On day 21, slab 3 is cast. The load D of slab 3 is carried to ground by shores under slabs 3 and 2
and reshores under slab 1. The load carried by slabs and shores at this stage are: S3 = 0, P3 = D, S2
= D, P2 = D, S1 = D, and P1 = D. This is shown in Fig.18.28.
Reshores under slab 1 are removed. This action will cause all three slabs S3, S2, and S1 to deflect
together. The reshores load of P1 = D is distributed equally among three interconnected slabs 3, 2,
and 1. The shores under slab 3 and 2 carry that portion of the load above them which is not carried
by the slabs. The load carried by slabs and shores at this stage are:
S3 = initial load + share of new load = 0 + D/3 = D/3
S2 = initial load + share of new load = 1D + D/3 = 4D/3,
S1 = initial load + share of new load = 1D + D/3 = 4D/3
P3 = 1D load above (weight of slab 3) –load carried by slab 3 = 1D – D/3 = 2D/3
P2 = 2D load above (weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2) – (load carried by slab 3+ load carried by
slab 2) = 2D – (D/3 + 4D/3) = D/3
P1 = 3D load above (weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2 + weight of slab 1) – (load carried by slab
3 + load carried by slab 2 + load carried by slab 1) = 3D – (D/3 + 4D/3 + 4D/3) = 0. This is shown in
Fig. 18.29.
The shores under slab 2 are removed (Fig. 18.30). The load carried by shores (P2 = D/3) under
slab 2 is distributed on two interconnected slabs 3 and 2. Thus each of the two slabs would have to
carry an additional load of D/6. The load on slabs and shores are computed below:
S3 = initial load + share of new load = D/3 + D/6 = D/2
S2 = initial load + share of new load = 4D/3 + D/6 = 3/2D,
S1 = initial load - load carried by shores under slab 2 = 4D/3 – D/3 = 1D
P3 = 1D load above (weight of slab 3) – load carried by slab 3 = 1D – D/2 = D/2
P2 = 2D load above (weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2) – (load carried by slab 3+ load carried by
slab 2) = 2D – (D/2 + 3D/2) = 0 (as expected)
The reshores under slab 2 are placed (Fig. 18.31). These reshores act as struts. Since the reshores
are snugly placed, there is no change in the load distribution at this stage. The load on slabs and
shores are:
S3 = D/2, S2 = 3/2 D, S1 = 1D, P3 = D/2, P2 = 0
534 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
On day 28, slab 4 is cast. The load D of slab 4 is carried equally among the three interconnected
slabs 3, 2, and 1. The shores under slabs 4 and 3, and reshores under slab 2 carry that portion of the
load above them not carried by the slabs. The load carried by the slabs and shores at this stage are
computed below (also see Fig. 18.32).
S4 = initial load + share of new load = 0 (newly cast slab)
S3 = initial load + share of new load = D/2 + D/3 = 5D/6
S2 = initial load + share of new load = 3/2 D + D/3 = 11D/6,
S1 = initial load + share of new load = 1D + D/3 = 4D/3
P4 = 1D load above (weight of slab 4) –load carried by slab 4 = 1D – 0 = 1D
P3 = 2D load above (weight of slab 4 + weight of slab 3) – (load carried by slab 4 + load carried
by slab 3) = 2D – (0 + 5D/6) = 7D/6
P2 = 3D load above (weight of slab 4 + weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2) – (load carried by slab
4 + load carried by slab 3 + load carried by slab 2) = 3D – (0 + 5D/6 + 11D/6) = D/3.
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 535
The reshores under slab 2 are removed (Fig. 18.33). The load carried by shores (P2 = D/3) under
slab 2 is distributed on three interconnected slabs 4, 3, and 2. Thus each of the three slabs will have
to carry an additional load of D/9 (one third of D/3). The load on the slabs and shores are computed
below:
In a similar manner, the load on slabs, shores, and reshores can be computed. For easy reference,
some more steps are shown in Fig. 18.35 along with the steps explained earlier. As can be seen from
Fig. 18.35, a er certain steps, the loads on slabs, shores, and reshores converge.
18.5.2 Two Levels of Shores and One Level of Reshores— Dead Weight of Slab, Self Weight of
Shores and Reshores, and Construction Live Loads Considered
Let’s assume the following:
Self weight of the slab is D
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 537
Considering the cycle time of seven days, it is assumed that slab 2 is cast on day 14. All the loads
of slab 1 and slab 2 go through shores to the ground. The load carried by shores under slab 2 is 1.6D
as before and the load carried by shores under slab 1 is 1.6D + 1.1D = 2.7D. It may be noted that the
construction live load is no longer assumed to be on slab1 and that is why the load on shores under
slab 1 is 2.7D (1.6D + 1.1D) and not 3.2D (1.6D + 1.6D). The loads on shores and slabs are indicated
in Fig. 18.37.
The construction load is assumed to be removed before proceeding for stripping and reshoring.
At this stage, the loads on shores and slabs are as shown in Fig. 18.38. It may be noted that the load
on shores under slab 2 is 1.1D and not 1.6D for the reason explained earlier.
538 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Shores under slab 1 is removed on the 19th day (2T + m days, where T = 7, and m = stripping
period = 5). Thus 0.1D weight of forms and shores are no longer applicable in the system. The
revised shore load of P1 = 2.1D (2.2D-0.1D) will be carried equally by slabs 1 and 2. Thus, S2 = 1.05D,
P2 = 1.1D – 1.05D = 0.05D, S1 = 1.05D, and P1 = 0 (Fig. 18.39).
Now the reshores are placed snugly under slab 1. Due to snug placement of reshores, they are
still not carrying any load other than their self weight of 0.05D. The revised load distribution in
view of this would be thus as below:
The slab loads S2 = 1.05D, P2 = 0.05D, S1 = 1.05D, and P1 = 0.05D (Fig. 18.40)
On day 21, slab 3 is cast. The load 1.6D of slab 3 is carried to the ground by shores under
slabs 3 and 2 and reshores under slab 1. Since the slabs can’t deflect further, they do not carry
any new load as of now. The load carried by slabs and shores at this stage are: S3 = 0, P3 = 1.6D,
S2 = 1.05D, P2 = 2.7D-1.05D = 1.65D, S1 = 1.05D, and P1 = 3.75D-0-1.05D-1.05D = 1.65D. This is shown
in Fig. 18.41.
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 539
As before, the construction load is removed before proceeding for stripping and reshoring. At
this stage, the loads on shores and slabs are as shown in Fig. 18.42. It may be noted that the load on
shores under slab 3 is 1.1 D and not 1.6 D for the reason explained earlier. The load carried by slabs
and shores at this stage are: S3 = 0, P3 = 1.1D, S2 = 1.05D, P2 = 2.2D-1.05D = 1.15D, S1 = 1.05D, and
P1 = (1.1 D + 1.1 D + 1D – 0 – 1.05D – 1.05D + 0.05D = 1.15D). This is shown in Fig. 18.42.
Reshores under slab 1 are removed (Fig. 18. 43). This action will cause all the three slabs S3, S2,
and S1 to deflect together. The reshores load of P1 = 1.15D – 0.05D (self weight of reshores) = 1.1D
is distributed equally among three interconnected slabs 3, 2, and 1. The shores under slabs 3 and
2 carry that portion of the load above them not carried by the slabs. The load carried by slabs and
shores at this stage are:
S3 = initial load + share of new load = 0 + 1.1D/3 = 0.37D
S2 = initial load + share of new load = 1.05D + 1.1D/3 = 1.42D
S1 = initial load + share of new load = 1.05D + 1.1D/3 = 1.41D
P3 = 1.1D load above (weight of slab 3) – load carried by slab 3 = 1.1D – 0.37D = 0.73D
540 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
P2 = 2.2D load above (weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2) – (load carried by slab 3 + load carried
by slab 2) = 2.2D – (0.37D + 1.42D) = 0.41D
P1 = 3.3D load above (weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2 + weight of slab 1) – (load carried by
slab 3 + load carried by slab 2 + load carried by slab 1) = (1.1D + 1.1D + 1D = 3.2D) – (0.37D + 1.42D
+ 1.41D) = 0 (as expected). This is shown in Fig. 18.43.
The shores under slab 2 are removed (Fig. 18.44). The load carried by shores (P2 = 0.41D – 0.1D
= 0.31D) under slab 2 is distributed on two interconnected slabs 3 and 2. Thus each of the two slabs
would have to carry an additional load of 0.31D/2. The load on slabs and shores are computed
below:
S3 = initial load + share of new load = 0.37D + 0.31D/2 = 0.52D
S2 = initial load + share of new load = 1.42D + 0.31D/2 = 1.58 D
S1 = initial load - load carried by shores under slab 2 = 1.41D – 0.41D = 1D
P3 = 1.1D load above (weight of slab 3) – load carried by slab 3 = 1.1D – 0.52D = 0.58D
P2 = 2.1D load above (weight of slab 3 + weight of slab 2) – (load carried by slab 3 + load carried
by slab 2) = 2.1D – (0.52D + 1.58 D) = 0 (as expected)
The reshores under slab 2 are placed (Fig. 18.45). These reshores act as struts. Since the reshores
are snugly placed, there is no change in the load distribution except for the added weight of reshores.
The load on slabs and shores are:
S3 = 0.52D; S2 = 1.58D; S1 = 1.05D; P3 = 0.58D; P2 = 0.05D
On day 28, slab 4 is cast. The load 1.6D of slab 4 is carried equally among the three interconnected
slabs 3, 2, and 1. The shores under slabs 4, and 3 and reshores under slab 2 carry that portion of the
load above them not carried by the slabs. The load carried by the slabs and shores at this stage are
computed below (also see Fig. 18.46).
Most of the studies have found that the load distribution and the location of the maximum slab
load are close to the simplified analysis presented for various construction techniques and thus
acceptable for practical applications. A detailed discussion on this subject can be found in Ghosh
(1997).
case the allowable load is exceeded, suitable adjustments can be made. For example, changes can
be made in the following parameters:
18.8 ILLUSTRATION
Examples are provided to illustrate the process of ensure the safety of the slab at each step of
construction. The procedure illustrated can be used to answer questions such as: whether the
estimated loads based on a construction technique are adequate and the loads exerted on the slab
are below the allowable load. If not, how to ensure that the loads exerted on a slab are less than the
allowable loads at all stages.
Example 1: Slab thickness = 200 mm; it is assumed that Type I cement is used and concrete curing
temperature = 12.8°C, The concrete is designed to carry a live load of 2.4 kN/m2 and 0.72 kN/m2 for
mechanical systems and partitions.
As before, let’s assume the weight of slab = 1.00D
Weight of forms and shores = 0.10D
Weight of reshores = 0.10D
546 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Table 18.3 Comarison of allowable and estimated loads (Cycle time 4 days, Factor of safety = 1.3)
Remarks (Compare with
x Ux = U28 Ux U values obtained from
= x
factor of safety 1.3 Table 18.2)
0 0 U0 = 0 2.46D = 0 0
4 0.49 U4 = 0.49 2.46D = 1.21D 1.21/1.3 = 0.93D Less than 1.05D, thus unsafe
8 0.72 U8 = 0.72 2.46D = 1.77D 1.77D/1.3 = 1.36D Less than 2.11D, thus unsafe
12 0.82 U12 = 0.82 2.46D = 2.02D 2.02D/1.3 = 1.55D Less than 1.59D, thus unsafe
16 0.88 U16 = 0.88 2.46D = 2.16D 2.16D/1.3 = 1.66D
20 0.92 U20 = 0.92 2.46D = 2.26D 2.26D/1.3 = 1.74D
24 0.97 U24 = 0.97 2.46D = 2.39D 2.39D/1.3 = 1.84D
28 1.00 U28 = 1.00 2.46D = 2.46D 2.46D/1.3 = 1.89D
Similar observations can be made for the factor of safety of 1.4. This is clearly mentioned in the
last column of Table 18.4.
Table 18.4 Comarison of allowable and estimated loads (Cycle time 4 days, Factor of safety = 1.4)
Remarks (Compare with
x Ux = U28 Ux U values obtained from
= x
factor of safety 1.4 Table 18.2)
0 0 U0 = 0 2.46D = 0 0
4 0.49 U4 = 0.49 2.46D = 1.21D 1.21/1.4 = 0.86D Less than 1.05D, thus unsafe
8 0.72 U8 = 0.72 2.46D = 1.77D 1.77D/1.4 = 1.26D Less than 2.11D, thus unsafe
12 0.82 U12 = 0.82 2.46D = 2.02D 2.02D/1.4 = 1.44D Less than 1.59D, thus unsafe
16 0.88 U16 = 0.88 2.46D = 2.16D 2.16D/1.4 = 1.54D
20 0.92 U20 = 0.92 2.46D = 2.26D 1.61D
24 0.97 U24 = 0.97 2.46D = 2.39D 1.71D
28 1.00 U28 – 1.00 2.46D = 2.46D 1.76D
548 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Thus, for both cases, we find that the structure is not safe to carry the estimated loads. There is
a need to change some parameter. The change could be made in the construction technique, cycle
time, either one at a time or in combination. To illustrate the change, let’s assume a revised cycle time
of 8 days. The estimated loads on slabs remain unchanged with the same construction technique of
two levels of shores and one level of reshores. The estimated allowable load will however change.
This can be determined from Fig.18.48, and is produced in Table 18.5. Let’s perform the calculation
for a factor of safety of 1.3 alone.
Table 18.5 Comarison of allowable and estimated loads (Cycle time 8 days, Factor of safety = 1.3)
Remarks (Compare with
x U2 = U28 Ux U values obtained from
= x
factor of safety 1.3 Table 18.2)
0 0 U0 = 0 2.46D = 0 0 0 (Slab 4)
8 0.72 U8 = 0.72 2.46D = 1.77D 1.77D/1.3 = 1.36D More than 1.05D thus safe (Slab 3)
16 0.88 U16 = 0.88 2.46D = 2.16D 2.16D/1.3 = 1.66D Less than 2.11D thus unsafe (Slab 2)
24 0.97 U24 = 0.97 2.46D = 2.39D 2.39D/1.3 = 1.84D More than 1.59D thus safe (Slab 1)
28 1.00 U28 = 1.00 2.46D = 2.46D 2.46D/1.3 = 1.89D
Table 18.5 shows that the slabs, especially 3 and 1 are now be er equipped to sustain the estimated
loads on them; however, slab 2 is still overloaded (overload is 2.11 D-1.66D = 0.45D).
A careful examination of Fig. 18.47 shows a maximum estimated slab load of 2.07D (Fig. 18.47-
17), but the maximum load allowed on any slab during construction never exceeds its allowable
1.76D (see Table 18.4 last row fourth column) based on 28-day strength adjusted to allow a factor
of safety of 1.4 and 1.89D (see Table 18.5 last row fourth column) to allow a factor of safety of
1.3. Therefore the assumed structure cannot be built with these safety factors, using two levels of
shores and one level of reshores. Measures such as: increasing more levels of shores and reshores,
further increase in cycle time, higher curing temperature, improved concrete mix with enhanced
early strength development, etc. can be adopted either in isolation or in different combinations of
the stated parameters.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1. Let’s assume the weight of slab = 1.00D, Weight of forms and shores = 0.10D
Weight of reshores = 0.10D, Construction live load = 0.50D, N =15
Factor of safety = 1.3 for concrete buildings under construction. It is assumed that Type I cement
is used, Temperature = 22.8°C. Construction technique: two floors of shoring and two floors of
reshoring. Check the safety and recommend the suitable cycle time for the given condition.
Hint: For a construction technique of two floors of shoring and two floors of reshoring, cycle time
of 7 days, casting period of each concrete slab = 1 day, and concrete curing period of 5 days, it can
be observed that slabs 4 through 13 will be in danger during construction. To avoid the failure,
the number of floors of shores or reshores or the construction cycle must be changed.
For a construction technique of two floors of shoring and three floors of reshoring, cycle time of 7
days, casting period of each concrete slab = 1 day, and concrete curing period of 5 days, it will be
noticed that the loads on slabs would not be exceeded beyond the available strength of the slab
and thus the failures can be avoided at the time of construction. The slabs would still be safe if the
FORMWORK ISSUES IN MULTI-STORY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 549
following changes are made: cycle time = 14 days, casting period of each concrete slab = 2 days,
and concrete curing period = 10 days.
Q2. A construction technique using two levels of shores and one level of reshores is proposed. Concrete
curing temperature of T = 22.8°C are used. Two construction cycles of 4 and 7 days per floor are
proposed. Check the safety and recommend the suitable cycle time for the given conditions.
Hint: It will be observed that the 4-day cycle is not acceptable and that a casting cycle of 7 days
per floor is required.
Q3. A construction technique using two levels of shores and one level of reshores and a casting cycle
of 7 days is proposed. Concrete curing temperatures of 22.8°C and 12.8°C are proposed. Which
one would you recommend?
Hint: If the concrete can be maintained at only 12.8°C, the slab load will exceed the capacity at the
age of 14 days.
Q4. Construction techniques using one, two or three levels of shores and one level of reshores are being
proposed. A casting cycle of 5 days at a temperature of 15.6°C is planned. Which construction
scheme should be recommended for the given conditions?
Hint: As can be seen, if three levels of shores are used, the maximum slab load, while larger than
that for the other two techniques, is less than the predicted slab capacity.
Glossary of Formwork Related Terms
1. Accessories Accessories are small items other than the main items, such as frames, braces,
or post shores. These are used to facilitate the construction of scaffold and
shoring.
2. Access Door (Access Access door is a removable panel in the formwork for a high li . This is
Trap or Inspection also known as access trap, inspection door, or porthole, or trap door. This is
Door or Porthole or provided to give (a) access for inspection or (b) for placing and compacting
Trap Door) concrete.
3. Adjustable Base Adjustable base plate is a base plate with provisions for vertical adjustment.
Plate
4. Adjuster Adjuster is a mechanical device provided for assuring correct line or level or
both for formwork.
5. Anchor An anchor is a device for providing a fixing to a concrete surface.
6. Anchor Bolt An anchor bolt is a bolt which passes through the member to be anchored, and
engages with the anchor.
7. Anchor Plate An anchor plate is a plate on the embedded end of an anchor. This increases
the resistance of an anchor to being pulled out of the concrete.
8. Angle Fillet (Corner An angle fillet is a strip which is used to form an internal or external intersection
Mould) which is to be other than a sharp angle.
9. Arris An arris is a sharp edge or protruding corner formed by meeting of two
surfaces. The surfaces can be plane or curved. An arris is applied to edges in
moldings and edges separating fluting.
10. Back Form Back form is a form for a concrete surface which will be unseen in the finished
structure. For example, the outer form for a foundation wall.
11. Back Propping Propping provided to cast concrete floors to support formwork for higher
floors.
12. Ballies Ballies are thin poles in the round usually without bark. These were very
commonly used for supporting and aligning formwork in conventional
construction.
13. Bar Spacer A bar spacer is a device for maintaining the correct position of reinforcement
within the formwork.
14. Base Plate A base plate is a plate for distributing the load from an upright or raker.
GLOSSARY OF FORMWORK RELATED TERMS 551
15. Ba er Boards Ba er boards are pairs of horizontal boards which are nailed to wood stakes
adjoining an excavation. They act as a temporary reference markers to retain
the location of the building lines while the foundation is being excavated.
These are used as (a) a guide to elevations and (b) to outline the building.
16. Beam Clamp (Beam Beam clamp is also known as beam cramp, clamp, or cramp. This is a yoke
Cramp or Clamp, or or other device for holding a beam box tightly against the pressure of freshly
Cramp) placed concrete.
17. Beam Hanger (Form Beam Hanger also known as Form Hanger or Beam Saddle is a support to the
Hanger or Beam soffit form for the encasement to a steel joist where the form is hung from the
Saddle) joist itself. This is also defined as a wire, strap, or other hardware device that
supports formwork from structural members.
18. Beam Sides Beam sides are vertical side panels or parts of a beam form.
19. Bevel Bevel is the intersection of one plane surface with another plane surfaces at an
angle other than a right angle. By doing so, the panels or boards can easily be
struck.
20. Bind Bind is the adherence of forms to the concrete when the supports are removed
and striking is a empted.
21. Block (Blocking Block, also referred to as Blocking Piece, is a piece of wood or other material to
Piece) pack out or separate, or; when glued, to stiffen other members used.
22. Blowhole Blowhole is a small hole across in a concrete face caused by an air pocket.
23. Board Board is a piece of square-sawn so wood/timber under 50 mm thick and 100
mm depth over wide. This is manufactured in rigid or semi-rigid sheets, such
as laminated board, wood chipboard and other particle board or hard-board.
24. Box Box is a formwork for a beam or column.
25. Box-Out Box-out is the form for a pocket or aperture in concrete.
26. Bracing Bracing is the system of members which stiffens a frame against deformation.
This is usually diagonal, and acts in compression or tension.
27. Bridle Bridle is a horizontal tube slung between putlogs for the purpose of supporting
intermediate putlogs. This is required where due to window openings and the
like it is impossible to support a putlog in the wall.
28. Bulkhead Bulkhead is a vertical partition within the forms which blocks fresh concrete
from a section of forms. At construction joints bulkhead closes the end of a form.
29. Camber Camber is the intentional curvature of a beam or formwork. This is either
formed initially to compensate for subsequent deflection under load or
produced as a permanent effect for aesthetic reasons.
30. Carcassing Timber Carcassing timber, also referred to as framing timber, is the timber used for
(Framing Timber) any structural purpose in the support of the forms. This is normally not in
contact with the concrete.
31. Cast-in-Socket Cast-in-socket is an anchor which consists of a female-threaded metal socket
cast into concrete as a fixing for a bolt.
32. Castor Castor is a swiveling wheel a ached to the lower end of a tubular column. This
is provided for moving and supporting scaffolding.
552 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
33. Chamfer Chamfer is the surface produced in concrete work by placing a three-
corner piece of wood in the form corner. The surface produced is usually
symmetrically, of an external edge.
34. Chase Chase is a long groove or recess formed in the concrete surface.
35. Chase Form Chase form is a form for molding a chase which is o en a wooden molding
planted on the face of the main form.
36. Check Check is a small piece of timber fixed to the face of a form to indicate the top of
a concrete li and to form a clean line at the joint with the next li .
37. Check Out Check out is a piece of wood or other material fixed to the face of a form to
form a recess in concrete.
38. Cleanout Trap Cleanout trap or cleanout hole is a removable section at the base of the column
(Cleanout Hole) or wall formwork. This allows rubbish to be removed before concreting from
the inside of formwork.
39. Cleat Cleat is a block fixed to a main member to provide a bearing or to resist a
thrust. A small board used to connect formwork members or used as a brace
is also referred as cleat.
40. Climbing Formwork Climbing formwork also referred to as moving formwork is a formwork for
(Moving Formwork) vertical or near vertical structures which are constructed in successive li s and
- which is supported by the previously poured li .
41. Collapsible Forms Collapsible forms are forms which get activated by mechanical means to
reduce their volume or surface area in order to permit striking.
42. Column Box Column box also referred to as column casing is the assembled forms for a
(Column Casing) column.
43. Column Clamp Column clamp also referred to as a column cramp is a yoke or other device
(Column Cramp) which holds a column box tightly close against the pressure of freshly placed
concrete.
44. Column Guard Column guard is a length of metal angle cast into a corner of a column. This is
provided to protect the corner of column against damage.
45. Cone A cone, as the name indicates, is a cone-shaped piece of wood, rubber or other
material. This is placed over the end of a form tie to form a neat hole in the
surface of the concrete.
46. Coupler Coupler is a fi ing by which a grip is applied to the external surfaces of two
tubes. This is provided to hold the two tubes together. A right angled coupler
connects tubes at right angle. Swivel coupler is used for connecting two tubes
at any angle other than a right angle. Putlog coupler is a non load bearing
coupler used for fixing a putlog or transom to a ledger. Sleeve coupler is used
to connect two tubes end to end.
47. Cradling Cradling is light timber framing in formwork.
48. Cross Brace Cross brace is a pair of diagonal braces.
49. Dead Shore Dead shore is a support to hardening concrete designed to be le in place
when the soffit form is struck.
50. Deal Deal is a piece of square-sawn so wood timber of thickness varying between
50 to 100 mm and width varying between 230 to 280 mm.
GLOSSARY OF FORMWORK RELATED TERMS 553
51. Deck or Decking Deck or decking is the form upon which concrete for a slab is placed. This is
the sheeting to a soffit form.
52. Distance Piece Distance piece also referred to as spacer or spreader is a short piece of timber
(Spacer, Spreader) or other material. This is used to hold parallel forms for walls or beams at the
correct spacing.
53. Double-Headed Nail Double-headed nail is a round-wire nail with a second head formed in the
shank, just below the head struck by the hammer. The provision of the second
head makes for easy withdrawal.
54. Dovetailed Anchor Dovetailed anchor also referred as anchor slot or slot anchor is a device made
(Anchor Slot or Slot from sheet steel or other metal. This is cast into the concrete surface to produce
Anchor) a chase which is narrower at the surface than at its base into which shaped
metal tongues are inserted to form an anchor.
55. Dowel Dowel is a cylindrical piece of wood. This is used for positioning and fixing
one member to another.
56. Dowel Bar (Dowel Dowel bar also referred as dowel pin is a short metal rod or bar cast into
Pin) concrete with part of its length le projecting as a fixing or as a means of
transferring forces acting in the plane of a joint from one member or slab to
another.
57. Edge Form Edge form is the formwork to the edge of a road or other slab.
58. Fair Face Fair face is a plain concrete finish which is be er than that produced from
rough formwork.
59. False work False work is the temporary structure erected to support work in the process
of construction. It is composed of shores, formwork for beams or slabs (or
both), and lateral bracing. This is also defined as that part of formwork which
supports the forms usually for a large structure, such as a bridge.
60. Feather Edge Feather edge is the sharp edge produced when two surfaces meet at an acute
angle.
61. Fillet Fillet is a piece of timber of triangular cross-section. This is fixed at the
intersection of two forms to produce a chamfer on the concrete.
62. Fin Fin is an undesirable projection from the face of the concrete caused by grout
escaping into a gap along a joint in the form.
63. Floor Centre Floor centre, also known as telescopic centre, is a beam of adjustable length,
(Telescopic Centre) usually a metal-la ice or sheet-metal box beam. This is used to support decking
for a floor slab. Some manufacturers also term this as telescopic beam span.
64. Folding Wedges Folding wedges also referred to as easing wedges are timber or metal wedges
(Easing Wedges) used in pairs. They are used (a) for leveling and adjusting formwork during
erection and or (b) to release loads on formwork prior to striking, and (c) to
tighten or slacken connections between formwork members.
65. Form (Shu er) Form or shu er is that part of formwork which consists of the sheeting and
its immediate supporting or stiffening members. This is also defined as a
temporary structure or mould for the support of concrete while it is se ling
and gaining sufficient strength to be self supporting.
554 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
66. Form Anchor Form anchor is a device normally embedded in the concrete during placement.
This is used in the securing of formwork to previously placed concrete of
adequate strength.
67. Form Plucking Form plucking or scabbing is removal of the surface of the form due to adhesion
(Form Scabbing) of the form to the concrete.
68. Form Tie (Wall Tie Form tie also referred to as wall tie or tie is a device for holding the opposing
or Tie) faces of wall, beam or other forms at the correct distance apart against the
pressure of fresh concrete. This is also defined as a tensile unit adapted to holding
concrete forms against the active pressure of freshly placed plastic concrete.
69. Formwork Formwork or shu ering is defined as a complete system of temporary
(Shu ering) structure built to contain fresh concrete so as to form it to the required shape
and dimensions, and to support it until it hardens sufficiently to become self
supporting. Formwork includes the surface in contact with the concrete and
all necessary supporting structure.
70. Gang Mould Gang mould is a series of moulds arranged in such a manner that a number of
identical precast units can be formed on the same base.
71. Ganged Form Ganged form is a number of panels fixed together and stiffened with waling,
strongbacks or soldiers, or combinations of these.
72. Grillage Grillage is an assemblage of timber or steel members placed parallel to each
other under a sill to spread the load from the sill. For heavier loads a grillage
may consist of two or more layers of parallel members placed across each
other at right angles.
73. Guard Rail or Guard rail or handrail is a member incorporated in the structure at all points
Handrail from where an operative may fall.
74. Hanger Hanger is a vertical member giving support from above.
75. Hanging Formwork Hanging formwork is a formwork which is supported from above.
76. Hollow Form Hollow form is a form for producing weight-reducing recesses in the slit of a
suspended slab.
77. Insulation (Lagging) Insulation or lagging is a cover of insulating material intended to reduce loss
of heat. It is used on forms in cold weather to reduce loss of heat from the
concrete.
78. Jack Jack is a mechanical device for raising heavy loads.
79. Jack Rod Jack rod is a steel rod upon which jacks act in order to raise slipforms.
80. Joint Pin Joint pin is an internal fi ing for jointing two tubes end to end.
81. Jois Joist is a horizontal or sloping timber beam, which carries decking for a
suspended concrete.
82. Lacing Lacing is a horizontal member which holds together and positions props or
other vertical supports.
83. Lagging Lagging is narrow timber fixed to a shaped frame for forming curved surfaces.
84. Lap Lap is the part of the length or height of a form which covers the previously
placed concrete when the form is fixed in place for the next li .
GLOSSARY OF FORMWORK RELATED TERMS 555
85. Leapfrog Form Leapfrog form is a form for a method of casting vertical surfaces in which two
or more sets of forms are used so that the form for the last poured li may be
le fixed in place while that from a lower li is struck and re-erected on top of
it, the process being repeated, if necessary.
86. Ledge (Cleat) Ledge or cleat is a member nailed across a number of boards to hold them
together.
87. Ledger (Runner) Ledger or runner is a horizontal timber supported on posts or hangers and,
carrying joists. Other definitions of ledger are: (a) A timber fixed to the side of
a beam box, or elsewhere to support the ends of joists carrying decking. (b) A
longitudinal member spanning across a number of support members to lace
them together.
88. Li Li is that height of concrete which is poured in one continuous operation.
89. Loose Tongue Loose tongue is a strip of wood which is inserted into grooves in the edges of
adjacent boards where these are to be joined edge to edge.
90. Mould Mould is a form for casting precast concrete units.
91. Mould Oil Mould oil is oil or emulsion applied to the face of forms. This acts primarily
as a release agent.
92. Nogging Piece Nogging piece is a short wooden strut fixed between and at right angles to
cleats, joists, studs, walings, etc. in order to stiffen them.
93. Pallet Pallet is a flat timber or metal plate on which precast concrete units are cast
and handled until they have hardened.
94. Pan Pan is a form of stiffened steel sheet which is a component of a system of
formwork. A number of pans may be fixed together to construct a larger area.
95. Panel Panel is a prefabricated form of limited size, designed for repeated re-use, a
number of which may be fixed together to form a larger surface.
96. Permanent Form Permanent form or shu er is a form permanently le in place to provide a
(Permanent Shu er) facing to the concrete.
97. Placing Rate Placing rate is the rate at which the free surface of the concrete rises in the
forms during placing.
98. Pocket A recess formed in a concrete surface is known as pocket.
99. Post A post is a vertical support.
100. Profiled Form Profiled form or shu er is a form for casting a concrete surface which is curved
(Profiled Shu er) or unusual in shape.
101. Prop Prop is a strut which is light enough to be man-handled. A prop can be adjustable
in length.
102. Raking Strut (Raker) Raking strut or raker is an inclined strut.
103. Random Board Random board form is a form, the sheeting of which is made with so wood
Forms boards of random widths or lengths or both.
104. Release Agent Release agent is a substance, usually applied to the form face, to prevent
adhesion of the concrete to the form and thus facilitate stripping.
556 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
105. Re-Propping (Re- Re-propping or re-shoring is the application of posts or props to the soffit of a
Shoring) concrete slab or beam to enable it to carry an excess superimposed load, or to
carry superimposed loads when the concrete is not fully mature.
106. Ribbon Ribbon is a runner connecting beam bo om support members to prevent
spreading of the lower edges of the side of a beam box.
107. Road Form Road form is an edge form used in the construction of a road or other ground
slab. The term is normally used to describe specially designed proprietary
steel products.
108. Rough Formwork Rough formwork is formwork for concrete where no special surface finish is
required.
109. Sawn Timber Timber which has not been planed on any surface
110. Scaffold Scaffold or scaffolding is a temporary structure for gaining access to higher
(Scaffolding) levels of the permanent structure during construction.
111. Scaffold Board Scaffold board is a so wood board used with similar boards to form walkways
and as toe boards on a scaffold.
112. Sheeting (Sheathing) Sheeting or sheathing is that part of the form which is in contact with the concrete.
113. Side Form Side form is a form for the side of a concrete member where the height of the
member is not great in proportion to the width of its cross-section.
114. Sill (Sole Plate) Sill or sole plate is a horizontal timber under the foot of a jack or post used to
spread the load from the member above.
115. Slip Form (Moving Slipform, also referred to as moving or sliding formwork, is a form which
Formwork, or moves, usually continuously, during placing of the concrete. The movement
Sliding Formwork) may be either horizontal or vertical.
116. Snap Tie Snap tie is a form tie which is designed to be broken off beneath the concrete
surface a er use.
117. Soffit Soffit is the under surface of concrete, for example, of a concrete arch, or
suspended beam or slab.
118. Soffit Form Soffit form is the form to a soffit.
119. Soldier Soldier is a vertical member, acting as a beam or cantilever, and used in
conjunction with form ties or struts to support and prevent movement of forms.
120. Square-Edged Square-edged boards are boards of rectangular cross-section with plain edges
Boards suitable for bu jointing.
121. Staging Staging is a temporary structure on which persons work. Staging is formed
from prefabricated frames which are sometimes mounted on casters.
122. Standard or Upright Standard or upright is a tube used as a vertical support or column in the
construction of a scaffold and transmi ing a load to the ground or a base plate.
123. Stop End Stop end is the form for a construction joint in the vertical plane.
124. Striking Piece Striking or stripping piece is a narrow, o en splayed, member intended to
(Stripping Piece) facilitate striking in a confined space.
125. Striking Time Striking or stripping time is the time specified for the earliest removal of forms
(Stripping Time) and other support from the concrete.
GLOSSARY OF FORMWORK RELATED TERMS 557
145. Waling Waling is a long horizontal member acting as a beam and used in conjunction
with form ties, struts or strong backs to support and prevent movement of
forms. These are also referred to as wales or walers.
146. Wall Clamp (Wall Wall clamp also known as wall cramp, clamp, or cramp is like an adjustable
Cramp or Clamp or yoke to support wall forms in such a way as to avoid the use of form ties
Cramp) - through the concrete.
147. Wedge Wedge is a piece of wood or metal tapering to a thin edge. This is used to
adjust elevation and tightening of formwork.
148. Wrecking Strip Wrecking strip is a striking piece which is intended to be destroyed in the
course of formwork striking.
149. Yoke Yoke is an assembly of members which restrains forms from movement by
encircling, or nearly encircling, them. In case of a column form, yoke acts as
a tie or clamping device around column forms to keep them from spreading
because of the lateral pressure of concrete. In the case of a vertical slipform,
a yoke is in the form of an inverted ‘U’. A yoke in the case of slipform carries
the wall forms. Yokes themselves are carried and raised by a jack in case of
slipform.
References and Bibliography
1. ACI (2005). 347-Guide to Formwork for Concrete. Commi ee 347, American Concrete Institute.
2. ACI, I. (2004). 347-Guide to Formwork for Concrete. American Concrete Institute International.
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Index
C shoring collapse 3
Column formwork 153, 155–156, 161, 166, 173, 175 lateral bracing 1, 3, 484
conventional column formwork 10, 153 ergonomic studies 3, 481
L-shape column 155 formwork carpenters 3, 481
octagonal column 155 formwork operation 2, 301–302, 317
plus shape column 155 falling of objects 5
proprietary column formwork 155–156 working platform 5, 104–105, 118, 177, 505–506
L&T column formwork 156, 158–160 economy 5, 176–177, 213, 436, 473
Column formwork Frami Xlife 165–166 formwork cost 5, 324, 452–453, 467
LICO light weight column formwork investment cost 5
formwork 171–172 standardization of form 6
Vario Qua ro column formwork 171–172 selection of formwork 6–7, 435,
Y-shaped columns 160–161 analytic hierarchy process (AHP) 6–7
National games stadium 160 supporting organization 8
all metal column formwork 175 local condition 7
design for column form 178 job specification 7
illustration of column formwork design 179 building design 7
computation of force in diagonal tie rod classification (types) of formwork 8
of column 184 conventional 8–10, 13, 15, 81, 102, 153
proprietary or patented 8
F modular system 8
Formwork 1–3, 6, 8–12, 15, 2–22 advantages offered by the modular
requirements from any formwork 6 formwork 12
quality 2–4, 310 classification based on Hanna (1999) 8, 14
fare faced concrete surfaces 3 horizontal formwork system 12, 15
joints in the formwork 3 stick form 15
tolerance limits 3, 231 improved stick form 15
defects 3–4, 23 crane set formwork 15
honeycombing 3–4, 280, flying formwork system 8, 15, 17
bulging 3, 83, column mounted shoring system 15, 315–317
safety 3, 28, 55, 299, 355, 501 tunnel forming system 15
OSHA 3, 481, 496 vertical formwork system 15
formwork collapse 3, 186, 493 crane dependent system 8
568 INDEX
sha corner plate 252 for slab and beam formwork 375–376
sha beam extensions 252 shoring tower classification 366
sha main beam end 252 standard 366
sha corner spindle 252 heavy duty 366
corner waling 252 extra heavy duty 366
waler square plate 252 type A 366
formwork for bridge structures 255 type B 366
formwork arrangement for caisson 256 type C 366
cu ing edge 256–257, 259 type D 366
formwork for piers and pier cap 260 design of proprietary shoring towers 373
piers of large height 260, 262 design of lacing 380
octagonal pier 262 work input for shoring towers 380
deck slab and girder supported by tubular
work inputs in erecting and dismantling
steel scaffolding 269
shoring towers 381
construction of Saryu bridge 269
shoring towers reuse and erection sequence 381
steel scaffolding for casting bridge deck 269
recommendations 282
heavy duty tower system 271–272
Formwork for precast concrete 406
for deck slab and girder 271–272
advantages 406–407, 409
deck forms supported by steel cribs/trestles 274
limitations 407–409
tower modules 3 m high 277
reasons for low share of precast construction 409
deck forms supported from girder 278
formwork for bridge railings/parapets/edge moulds for precast concrete 409
beams 279 horizontal and vertical castings 410
forms accessible from only one side 279 stationary and mobile system 411
forms accessible from both side 280 brick/masonry moulds 411
precast railings/parapets 280 wooden moulds 412
bridge edge beam formwork 283 steel moulds 412–413
failure of temporary support structures of vibratory moulds 414
bridges 284 stressing moulds 414
failure of launching girder 284 precasting process 414
failure of cantilever portion of pier cap 284 methods of crew organization in precast
deck slab failure 284 construction 419
Formwork supports 362 case studies 419
horizontal supports 385 precast beams, columns, spiral staircase,
vertical supports 372 precast pre-stressed beams for a natural
single leg type 362 dra cooling tower 420
timber shore arrangement 363 precast waffle slab and bubble dome 420
jointing of shores/props 363 I-girder 419, 422
steel shores 363 dome elements 423
dropheads 362, 364 crash barrier 426
shoring tower 365 precasting in Delhi Metro Rail construction 427
multi-legged shoring towers 366 Formwork failure 481
trestle (crib) shoring 371 ergonomic studies 481
design of trestles/cribs 374 risks 481–482
arrangement of shoring towers 375 exposure 481–483
INDEX 571
techniques in multi-story RC construction 515 se ing out and timber stay fixing 204
shoring 515–517 curve shaped gallery beams 195
shoring and reshoring 516–517 achieving economy in slab construction 213
shoring and backshoring 516 design of slab and beam formwork 213
shoring, preshoring and reshoring 517 illustration of slab and beam formwork
distribution of loads on shores and slabs in multi- design 215
story structures-simplified analysis 518 illustration of proprietary slab formwork
load distribution for slabs and shores in one, two, design 218
three and four levels of shores 518 Slipform construction 327–330, 336–340
one level of shores 516, 519, 521, 529 sliding form construction 327
two level of shores 529 extrusion process 327
three levels of shores 515, 518, 525, 529—530 CN tower in Toronto 327–329
load distribution for slabs and shores in two TV tower in Pitampura 327–328
levels of shores and one level of reshores 530 vertical slipform 329
only dead load of slab considered In the horizontal slipform 329
analysis 530 types of slipform 329
two level of shoresand one level of reshores- straight slipform 330–331, 336
dead weight of slab, self weight of shores tapered slipform 332
and reshores, and construction live loads inclined slipform 333
considered 536
functions of various slipform components 333
limitations of simplified analysis and discussion
sheathing 333, 335
on other developments 542
yokes 327, 334,
computation of strength of concrete slab 543
yoke legs 334
illustration 518, 543, 545
yoke beams 334
S jacks 327, 331, 334,
jack rods or climbing rods 334, 336
Slab and beam formwork 9, 186, 190, 213, 215
working or storage decks 335
traditional slab and beam
walkway brackets (inside and outside) 335
formwork 186–187, 189
hydraulic pump 335
joints in traditional slab and beam
inside and outside mason’s (hanging)
formwork 189
scafold 335
joints between posts and joists 189
assembly, sliding and dismantling of
joints between beam bo oms and posts 189
slipform 335
L&T flex 190
assembly of straight slipform 336
L&T beam forming support system 191 sliding operation 340
L&T heavy duty tower 191 recommendations of ACI 347
Skydeck aluminum panel slab Dismantling of slipform 343
formwork 196–198
slipform design issues 343
Gridflex aluminum grid slab formwork 198 some cases in slipform 344
beam and slab formwork solution by chimneys 345
Mivan 201
columns, pylons and towers 347
advantages 201 elevator and stair core 349
components of Mivan formwork 202 simultaneously slipforming of four
construction steps in Mivan formwork pylons 351
application 204 silos 351–352
INDEX 573
Figure 14.7 Further Blow Up of Space for Mould Shown in Fig. 14.6.
Figure 14.8 Plan of Footing P-2. Figure 14.9 Section 1-1 of Figure 14.6.
Figure 14.21 Section 2-2 of Figure 14.20. Figure 14.22 Section 3-3 of Figure 14.20.
Figure 14.23 Section 4-4 of Figure 14.20. Figure 14.24 Section 5-5 of Figure 14.22
Figure 6.27 Formwork Arrangement for a Circular Column.
Author’s Profile
Dr. Kumar Neeraj Jha is with the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi. He started his career with Larsen and Toubro Ltd as Graduate
Engineer Trainee in 1993 and held a number of positions in the same
company till 2005. He was instrumental in successful completion of
a number of construction projects of national importance. He then
joined the Department of Civil Engineering-IIT Kanpur for a brief
period. Therea er he has been with the Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi. He has been involved with a number of construction projects
as consultant and specialises in project management and formwork.
He has published in a number of international and national journals
and conference proceedings. His book on Construction Project
Management published by Pearson Education is widely accepted
as a text book in different universities. He teaches various courses
in construction technology and management. He has conducted a
number of training programs for industry and has also been involved
with a number of consultancy projects. He is a reviewer of all the leading journals in construction
management and also on the editorial board of two International Journals.