SO1: Photoelectric effect

What you already know What you will learn

1. Light as an EM wave 1. Particle vs wave nature

2. Interference and diffraction of 2. Photon theory of light
light 3. Electron emission
3. Scattering of light 4. Photoelectric effect
4. Polarized and unpolarized light
Interference Diffraction

The phenomenon of interference and diffraction can only be explained by the wave nature of light.
Two light beams crossing each other

Let’s assume that light is made up of particles. Thus, the

particles of two light beams should have collided with each
other and should have scattered in the surroundings as shown
in the figure.
Particles after
But instead of scattering, the two light beams cross each other collision
uninterrupted. Hence, once again the wave nature of light is
explained by this example.
Photoelectric effect
Photons Electrons
The wave nature of light was well established by the
discoveries of phenomena like interference, diffraction
and polarization of light.
But the discovery of photoelectric effect by Hertz is
something which can not be proved by the wave
nature of light and for that, we need to assume light as
a particle.
If light is considered as wave, then there should be
sufficient time gap between light incident on a
material and electron gets ejected from that surface.
Because the electron will absorb the energy from Metal surface
incident wavefronts till it gets the necessary amount
for ejection. But experimentally it is observed that the
electron ejection process is instantaneous.
Experimentally it is also observed that above a particular wavelength or below a particular frequency of light, no electron
is ejected even when the intensity of the light is high.
Max Planck’s quantum theory of light
Quantum theory of light explain the particle nature of light.

All electromagnetic radiation is quantized in the form of wave packets or

quanta. In case of light, the quantum of energy is called as photon.
Photon has definite energy and momentum.
Properties of photons
Photons always travel with the speed of light (𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠) in vacuum.
Energy of photon:
ℎ𝑐 Plank constant ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
𝐸= = ℎ𝜈 = 4.14 × 10−15 𝑒𝑉𝑠
𝜆
Speed of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
12400
𝐸= 𝑒𝑉 𝜆 = Wavelength and 𝜈 = Frequency
𝜆(𝑖𝑛 Å) Photon
Properties of photons
Momentum of photon:

𝐸 ℎ ∴
𝑝= =
𝑐 𝜆

Rest mass of photon is zero.

Energy and momentum of a photon is always conserved.
Number of photons may not be conserved.
▪ A particle can absorb a photon and take up its energy. Also, an excited atom can go from one state to
another and emit energy in the form of photon. That’s why the no. of photons may not be conserved.
 The intensity of light is defined as the energy crossing per unit area per unit time
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
▪ The intensity of light is associated with no. of photons ⇒ Intensity ↑ No. of photon ↑ Energy of photon (constant)
▪ The wavelength/frequency of light is associated with energy of photons ⇒ Frequency ↑ Wavelength ↓ Energy
of photon ↑ No. of photon (constant)
 No. of photon emitted per second by a source

Power = 𝑃
Source
Wavelength of photon = 𝜆

ℎ𝑐
Energy associated with one single photon: 𝐸 =
𝜆

If 𝑛 be the no. of photons emitted per second by a

source, then the energy emitted per second i.e., the
power of the source will be:
𝑛ℎ𝑐
𝑃 = 𝑛𝐸 𝑃= Monochromatic light source
𝜆
Therefore, the photon count is given by,

𝑃 𝑃𝜆
𝑛= =
𝐸 ℎ𝑐
 Photon flux 𝜙 : Number of photons incident normally on a surface per
second per unit area.

𝑃 𝑃𝜆
We know, 𝑛 = =
𝐸 ℎ𝑐
If 𝐴 be the area of the surface and photons incident normally on the surface,
then photon flux will be,
𝑛 𝑃𝜆
𝜙= =
𝐴 𝐴ℎ𝑐
𝑃
Now, 𝑃 refers the power of the source i.e., energy incident on the surface per unit time. Thus, will be intensity of
𝐴
the source as it refers energy crossing per unit area per unit time perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Therefore,
𝑛 𝑃𝜆 𝐼 𝐼𝜆
𝜙= = 𝜙= =
𝐴 𝐴ℎ𝑐 𝐸 ℎ𝑐
 Kernels

Free electrons
The free electrons are free to move anywhere inside the material. We may
think that if the electrons can move freely inside the material, then it is also
possible that these free electrons can come out of the material by their own
energy. But this is not true.
If an electron come out because of its own energy, then a void will be created in
the material and the void will carry a positive charge owing to charge neutrality
of the material. As the void has positive charge, it will attract the emitted
electron, and as the electron can’t have the sufficient energy to resist the
attraction (coulombic), it will fill the void again. Therefore, self-ejection of
electron from any material is not possible.
The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from the
metal surface is called work function 𝜙 .
The work function depends on the nature of the metal surface.
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal is called
Electron emission.
Thermionic emission
By suitably heating, sufficient thermal energy can be imparted to the free
electrons to enable them to come out of the metal.

By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 𝑉/𝑚) to a metal,
electrons can be pulled out of the metal.

When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface, free electrons are
emitted from the metal surface
These photo (light) generated electrons are called photoelectrons.
 Intensity
𝐶: Emitter

UV IR

𝐶 𝐴

Microammeter

Variable source

When light of suitable frequency falls on the photosensitive plate 𝐶 (the cathode which is also known as the
emitter), the photoelectrons are emitted from it which get accelerated towards the anode A (also known as the
collector). These electrons flow in the outer circuit resulting in photoelectric current. Due to this, the
microammeter shows a deflection and it measures the photoelectric current.
 Intensity

UV IR

Above a particular wavelength, no photocurrent is produced even at higher intensity.

Below a particular wavelength, photocurrent is produced even at lower intensity.

Emission of photoelectrons from the metal surface when light of suitable wavelength falls on it is called Photoelectric
effect.
 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
Einstein’s observation
There exists a certain minimum frequency below which no
emission of photoelectrons take place. This minimum
frequency is known as threshold frequency or cut-off 𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0
frequency (𝜈0 ).
Photocurrent was observed only if the frequency of incident
radiation (𝜈) was more than threshold frequency (𝜈0 ).
There is no time lag between the incident of light and emission
of electrons.
The maximum kinetic energy 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 of ejected electron is
given by:

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸 − 𝜙 where 𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0 is the work function of the material

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈0 )
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Threshold Wavelength
If the photoelectric effect has to take place, then the energy
of photon must be greater than the work function of metal.
Thus, the required condition of photoelectric effect becomes:
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝜈 ≥ 𝜙 ≥𝜙 𝜆≤ ………(1)
𝜆 𝜙
We know that:
ℎ𝑐
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸 − 𝜙 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙 = −𝜙
𝜆

Threshold wavelength: The maximum wavelength (𝜆0 ) of the incident radiation above which photoelectric emission
is not possible is known as threshold wavelength.

ℎ𝑐
Therefore, from equation (1), we can write: 𝜆0 =
𝜙
At threshold wavelength, i.e., for 𝜆 = 𝜆0 , the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electron will be zero, and for
𝜆 > 𝜆0 , the phenomena of electron emission will not take place.
 𝜈 > 𝜈0
Threshold Frequency
If the photoelectric effect has to take place, then the energy of
photon must be greater than the work function of metal. Thus, in
terms of frequency, the required condition of photoelectric effect
becomes:
𝜙 ………(1)
ℎ𝜈 ≥ 𝜙 𝜈≥
ℎ
We know that:
ℎ𝑐 𝑐 𝜙 𝜙
𝜆0 = = 𝜈0 =
𝜙 𝜆0 ℎ ℎ

Threshold frequency: The minimum frequency (𝜈0 ) of the incident radiation below which photoelectric emission is
not possible is known as threshold frequency.

𝜙
Therefore, from equation (1), we can write: 𝜈 ≥ 𝜈0 =
ℎ
We know that the maximum kinetic energy of one ejected electron
is:

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈0 ………(1)

𝜈0
𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0
Thus, electrons will be ejected only if 𝜈 > 𝜈0 otherwise kinetic
energy of the ejected electron will be negative which is impossible.
Comparing the equation (1) with the equation of straight line:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, we can say that:
▪ The graph will be a straight line having positive slope = ℎ.
▪ The intercept on the vertical axis will give us the work function 𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0 for the concerned material,
We know that the maximum kinetic energy of one ejected electron
is: Slope = ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸 − 𝜙 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − ………(1)
𝜆 𝜆0
1 1
Thus, electrons will be ejected only if > ⇒ 𝜆 < 𝜆0 otherwise
𝜆 𝜆0
kinetic energy of the ejected electron will be negative which is
impossible.
Comparing the equation (1) with the equation of straight line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, we can say that:
1 ℎ𝑐
𝑦 ≡ 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥≡ 𝑚 ≡ ℎ𝑐 𝑏=−
𝜆 𝜆0
▪ The graph will be a straight line having positive slope = ℎ𝑐.
ℎ𝑐
▪ The intercept on the vertical axis will give us the work function 𝜙 = for the concerned material,
𝜆0
 When the light of frequency 2𝑓0 (where 𝑓0 is threshold frequency) is incident on the metal plate, the
maximum velocity of electrons emitted is 𝑣1 . When the frequency of the incident radiation is increased
to 5𝑓0 , the maximum velocity of electrons emitted is 𝑣2 . The ratio of 𝑣1 to 𝑣2 is

a 1∶2 b 1∶4 c 4∶1 d 2∶1

Solution

The maximum K.E. of emitted electrons is : Case-𝐼𝐼: for 𝑣 = 𝑣2 , 𝑓 = 5𝑓0

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓0 1
𝑚𝑣22 = ℎ(5𝑓0 ) − ℎ𝑓0
2
1 1
𝑚𝑣 2 = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓0 𝑚𝑣22 = 4ℎ𝑓0 ………(2)
2 2
Case-𝐼: for 𝑣 = 𝑣1 , 𝑓 = 2𝑓0 Dividing equation (1) by equation (2), we get,
1 𝑣12 1 𝑣1 1
𝑚𝑣12 = ℎ(2𝑓0 ) − ℎ𝑓0 = =
2 𝑣22 4 𝑣2 2
1
𝑚𝑣12 = ℎ𝑓0 ………(1) Hence, option (𝑎) is the correct answer.
2
SO2: Photoelectric effect-2
What you already know What you will learn

1. Light as an EM wave 1. Failure of wave theory

2. Particle vs wave nature 2. Effect of intensity of light and
3. Photon theory of light potential on photocurrent
4. Electron emission 3. Effect of frequency on
5. Photoelectric effect stopping potential
4. Stopping potential vs frequency
graph
 Photons Electrons
The wave nature of light was well established by the
discoveries of phenomena like interference, diffraction
and polarization of light.
But the discovery of photoelectric effect by Hertz is
something which can not be proved by the wave
nature of light and for that, we need to assume light
as a particle.
If light is considered as wave, there should be
sufficient time gap between light incident on a
material and electron gets ejected from that surface.
But experimentally it is observed that the electron Metal surface
ejection process is instantaneous.
Experimentally it is also observed that above a particular wavelength or below a particular frequency of light, no electron
is ejected even when the intensity of the light is high.
 Max Planck’s quantum theory of light
All electromagnetic radiation is quantized in the form of wave packets or
quanta. In case of light, the quantum of energy is called as photon.
Quantum theory of light explain the particle nature of light.
Photon has definite energy and momentum.

Photons always travel with the speed of light (𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠) in vacuum.

Energy of photon:
12400
ℎ𝑐 𝐸= 𝑒𝑉
𝐸= = ℎ𝜈 𝜆 (𝑖𝑛 Å)
𝜆

Plank constant ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34

𝐽𝑠 Speed of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
Photon
= 4.14 × 10−15 𝑒𝑉𝑠 𝜆 = Wavelength and 𝜈 = Frequency
Momentum of photon:
Thermionic emission: By suitably heating, sufficient
𝐸 ℎ thermal energy can be imparted to the free electrons
𝑝= =
𝑐 𝜆 to enable them to come out of the metal.
Field emission: By applying a very strong electric field
Rest mass of photon is zero.
(of the order of (108 𝑉/𝑚) to a metal, electrons can
be pulled out of the metal.
Energy and momentum of a photon is always
conserved. Photo emission: When light of suitable frequency
illuminates a metal surface, electrons are emitted
from the metal surface.
There exist a certain minimum frequency below which
no emission of photoelectrons take place. This 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
minimum frequency is called as threshold frequency or
cut-off frequency (𝜐0 ). 𝜙 = ℎ𝜐0
Photocurrent was observed only if the frequency of
incident radiation (𝜐) was more than threshold
frequency (𝜐0 ).

There is no time lag between the incident of light and

emission of electrons.

The maximum kinetic energy 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 of ejected electrons is given by:

𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸 − 𝜙
 Threshold wavelength: The maximum wavelength of the incident
radiation above which photoelectric emission is not possible.
For 𝜆 > 𝜆0 , emission will not take place.
ℎ𝑐
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙 = −𝜙 Threshold frequency: The minimum frequency of the incident
𝜆 radiation below which photoelectric emission is not possible.
ℎ𝑐
0= −𝜙
𝜆0

ℎ𝑐
𝜆0 =
𝜙
𝜆0 ℎ
=
𝑐 𝜙
𝜙
𝜈0 =
ℎ
 𝜈 𝜆

𝜈 > 𝜈𝑜 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜆 < 𝜆𝑜

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

Frequency, 𝜈 𝜙=
ℎ𝑐 1/𝜆
𝜙 = ℎ𝑣0 𝜆0

Slope = ℎ Slope = ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈0 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
𝜆 𝜆0
The intensity of light falling on metal is increased by The maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron
increasing the amplitude of electric field associated with doesn’t depend on the intensity of the incident light.
the light wave. Due to which the force acting on the
electrons should increase.
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸 − 𝜙

Where, 𝐸 = Energy of incident photon

𝜙 = Work function of metal

K.E. of emitted photoelectrons

should also increase.
 Photoelectrons will eject only when frequency is more
than threshold value.

𝜙
Threshold frequency, 𝜈0 =
ℎ

The photoelectric effect should occur for any frequency

of the light, provided that the light is intense enough to
eject the photoelectrons.
 Whole of the energy associated with a
photon is absorbed by a free electron,
Hence emission is instantaneous.

Light energy is uniformly distributed among the electrons.

The electron will take some time to accumulate enough
energy to escape from the metal surface. Hence there
should be a time lag.
 Wave-Particle duality holds that light and matter
exhibit properties of both waves and of particles.
Reflection

Refraction

Interference

Diffraction

Polarization

Photoelectric effect
The propagation of energy as a wave can be understood by drawing an
analogy, where water is being sprayed on the flowers in a garden. Here,
spraying water represent the energy in the form of wave and flowers
represent the electrons.
Just like, here a flower can receive water in any amount, the
electrons also can get any amount of energy when energy
propagates as a wave. Thus, the energy distribution is continuous.
Similarly, just like each flower receives nearly same amount of
water, all the electrons also receive energy uniformly when energy
propagates as a wave. Therefore, energy is uniformly distributed.
The propagation of energy as particles can be understood by drawing an
analogy, where packets of water are being thrown on the flowers in a
garden. Here, packets of water represent the photons which carry
energy and plants represent the electrons.
Just like a flower can receive only one packet of water at a time, an
electron can only absorb one photon. Therefore, we can say that, here
energy is quantized.
Similarly, just like the flowers which get the packet are going to
receive water, the electrons which absorb the photons are going to
receive the energy. Therefore, here the energy is non uniformly
distributed.
 Intensity

0 100 %
UV IR
400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚

𝐶 𝐴

𝜇𝐴

𝑉
When light of suitable frequency obtained from the source fall on the photosensitive plate 𝐶 (the cathode which is
also known as the emitter), the photoelectrons are emitted from it which get accelerated towards the anode A (also
known as collector plate). These electrons flow in the outer circuit resulting in photoelectric current. Due to this, the
microammeter shows a deflection. The reading of microammeter measures the photoelectric current.
 Intensity

0 100 %
UV IR
400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚

𝐶 𝐴

𝜇𝐴

As the intensity of light increases, the no. of photons incident per second increases. Due to which, the
photoelectrons emitted per second also increases and hence, the photocurrent increases.

Photocurrent ∝ Intensity of light

 Intensity

0 100 %
UV IR
400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚

𝐼1 𝐶 𝐴
Saturation
Current
𝜇𝐴
𝑂
𝑉

When all the photoelectrons reach plate 𝐴, the current reaches maximum value which is called as Saturation
current.
 Intensity
0 100 %
UV IR
400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚

𝐶 𝐴

𝐼1 𝜇𝐴
Stopping Saturation 𝑉
potential Current
−𝑉0 𝑂 𝑉 = 𝑉0
The negative potential of plate 𝐴 at which the photocurrent
becomes zero is called Stopping Potential.
Now, the potential is reversed i.e., the emitter is now connected to the positive terminal and the collector is connected
to the negative terminal.
Electrons being negative charged are repelled by the collector plate. So, as the potential increases, fewer and fewer
photoelectrons reaches the collector plate and hence, the photocurrent keeps on decreasing and at a potential equal
to 𝑉0 , even the most energetic photoelectron can not move to the collector plate and hence, the photocurrent
becomes zero.
Saturation current increases with increase in intensity.
𝐼3 > 𝐼2 > 𝐼1
𝐼3
No. of photoelectrons emitted ∝ Intensity
𝐼2
𝐼1
Stopping
potential
−𝑉0 𝑂

At a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is independent of its intensity.
Stopping potential is sufficient to repel most energetic photoelectron.

𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0 (1)

Also, 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸 − 𝜙 (2)

Where, 𝐸 = Energy of incident photon Stopping Saturation

𝜙 = Work function of metal potential Current
−𝑉0 𝑂
From eqn (1) and (2)

ℎ 𝜙 ⇒ Stopping potential varies linearly with frequency 𝜈

𝑉0 = 𝜈 −
𝑒 𝑒
 Intensity

0 100 %
UV IR
𝜈3 > 𝜈2 > 𝜈1 400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚

𝐶 𝐴
Saturation
𝜈3 𝜈2 𝜈1 Current 𝜇𝐴
−𝑉0 𝑂 𝑉

Max. K.E of photoelectrons varies linearly with frequency (Intensity constant).

Stopping Potential is more negative for higher frequencies.

 Stopping potential varies linearly with the
frequency for a given photosensitive material.

Potential, 𝑉0
Stopping
ℎ 𝜙 𝜈 > 𝜈𝑜
𝑉0 = 𝜈 −
𝑒 𝑒

Comparing the above eqn with the eqn

of straight line Frequency, 𝜈

𝜙
for all metals 𝑒

𝜙
y- intercept =
𝑒
 𝐼3 > 𝐼2 > 𝐼1
𝐼3
𝐼2
𝐼1 𝐼1
Stopping Stopping
Saturation
potential potential
Current
−𝑉0 𝑂 −𝑉0 𝑂
 Metal 𝐴
𝜈3 > 𝜈2 > 𝜈1 Metal 𝐵
𝜈 > 𝜈𝑜

𝜈 > 𝜈′𝑜
Saturation 𝜈𝑜 𝜈0′
𝜈3 𝜈2 𝜈1 Current
𝜙𝐴 Frequency, 𝜈
−𝑉01 𝑂 𝑒
𝜙𝐵
𝑒
The photoelectric threshold wavelength of silver is 3250 × 10−10 𝑚. The velocity of the electron
ejected from a silver surface by ultraviolet light of wavelength 2536 × 10−10 𝑚 is [Given ℎ =
4.14 × 10−15 𝑒𝑉 𝑠 and 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 ]

a ≈ 0.6 × 105 𝑚𝑠 −1 NEET 2017

b ≈ 61 × 103 𝑚𝑠 −1

c ≈ 0.3 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −1

d ≈ 6 × 105 𝑚𝑠 −1
Solution We know that the maximum K.E. of a photoelectron is given by,

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − (𝜆0 is threshold wavelength)
𝜆 𝜆0
1 2
1 1
𝑚𝑣 = ℎ𝑐 −
2 𝜆 𝜆0
1 2
1 1
𝑚𝑣 = 12420 − = 1.076 𝑒𝑉
2 2536 3250

1.076 2.152 × 1.6 × 10 −19

𝑣2 = 2 × =
𝑚 9.1 × 10−31
𝑣 ≈ 6 × 105 𝑚𝑠 −1

Hence, option (𝑑) is the correct answer.

A source of light is placed at a distance of 50 𝑐𝑚 from a photocell and the stopping potential is
found to be 𝑉0 . If the distance between the light source and photocell is made 25 𝑐𝑚, the new
stopping potential will be:

a 𝑉0 /2 NEET 2013
b 𝑉0

c 4𝑉0

d 2𝑉0

Solution Stopping potential is independent of distance (Only intensity depends upon

distance).
The stopping potential will be same i.e., 𝑉0 .
Hence, option (𝑏) is the correct answer.
In photoelectric emission process from a metal of work function 1.8 𝑒𝑉, the kinetic energy of most
energetic electrons is 0.5 𝑒𝑉. The corresponding stopping potential is

a 1.8 𝑉 NEET 2011

b 1.3 𝑉

c 0.5 𝑉

d 2.3 𝑉
Solution Given: 𝜙 = 1.8 𝑒𝑉
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.5 𝑒𝑉

In a photoelectric effect, the maximum kinetic energy of electron,

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.5 𝑒𝑉
𝑉0 = = = 0.5 𝑉
𝑒 𝑒

Hence, option (𝑐) is the correct answer.

SO3: Radiation pressure
What you already know What you will learn

1. Particle vs wave nature Radiation pressure

2. Photon theory of light 1. For complete absorption in
3. Electron emission normal and oblique incidence
4. Photoelectric effect 2. For partial reflection in normal
5. Failure of wave theory and oblique incidence
3. For complete reflection in
normal and oblique incidence
Wave-Particle duality holds that light and matter exhibit properties of both waves and of particles.

Reflection

Refraction

Interference

Diffraction

Polarization

Photoelectric effect
 𝐼1
Stopping
Saturation
potential
Current
−𝑉0 𝑂

When all the photoelectrons reach plate 𝐴, the current reaches maximum
value which is called as Saturation current.
Photocurrent ∝ Intensity of light
The negative potential of plate 𝐴 at which the photocurrent becomes zero
is called Stopping Potential.
 𝐼3 > 𝐼2 > 𝐼1 𝜈3 > 𝜈2 > 𝜈1
𝐼3
𝐼2
𝐼1 Saturation
Stopping 𝜈3 𝜈2 𝜈1 Current
potential
−𝑉0 𝑂
−𝑉0 𝑂

Max. K.E of photoelectrons varies linearly with

frequency (Intensity constant).
At a given frequency of incident radiation, the Stopping Potential is more negative for higher
stopping potential is independent of its intensity. frequencies.
 Stopping potential varies linearly with the frequency for a given
Stopping Potential, 𝑉0

photosensitive material.

𝜈 > 𝜈𝑜
ℎ 𝜙
𝑉0 = 𝜈 −
𝑒 𝑒
Frequency, 𝜈
Comparing the above eqn
𝜙 with the eqn of straight line,
𝑒
for all metals

𝜙
y-intercept =
𝑒
 𝑣 𝜃
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 𝑚
𝑣 𝜃
𝑣 𝑣
𝑣=0

Initial momentum, 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣 Initial momentum, 𝑝𝑖 = −𝑚𝑣 Initial momentum, 𝑝𝑖 = −𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜃

Final momentum, 𝑝𝑓 = 0 Final momentum, 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑚𝑣 Final momentum, 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜃

Change in momentum, Change in momentum, Change in momentum,

 Radiation pressure: The pressure experienced by the surface exposed to the radiation.

𝐼
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

Where, 𝑃: Radiation pressure

𝐹: Normal force on plate due to photons
𝐴
𝐴: Area of the plate
 𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴 𝐼
Absorption coefficient 𝑎 = 1 , Reflection coefficient (𝑟 = 0)
ℎ
Initial momentum of one photon, 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆

Final momentum of one photon, 𝑝𝑓 = 0

𝐴
ℎ
∴ Change in momentum of one photon, ∆𝑝 =
𝜆 Radiation falling perpendicularly
𝐸
Energy incident per unit time,
∴
= 𝐼𝐴
𝑡
𝐼𝐴𝜆 ∴ 𝐼𝐴
No. of photons incident per unit time, 𝑁 = Force on plate due to photons, 𝐹 =
ℎ𝑐 𝑐
ℎ 𝐼𝐴𝜆 ℎ 𝐼𝐴 𝐹 𝐼
Total change in momentum per unit time = 𝑁 = = Radiation pressure, 𝑃 = =
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐
𝐴 𝑐
∴ Total change in momentum per unit time = force on plate due to photons
 𝐼
𝐸
Energy incident per unit time, = 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
∴
𝑡 𝐹 𝐴 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝜃
ℎ
Change in momentum of one photon, ∆𝑝 =
𝜆
𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆
No. of photons incident per unit time, 𝑁 =
ℎ𝑐 Radiation falling at an angle
ℎ 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆 ℎ 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
Total change in momentum per unit time = 𝑁 = =
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐
𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
Total change in momentum per unit time = Force 𝐹 =
𝑐
𝐼𝐴 cos 2 𝜃
On plate: component of force perpendicular to surface = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 =
𝑐
𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝐼
So, Radiation pressure, 𝑃= = cos 2 𝜃
𝐴 𝑐
0 < 𝑎 < 1, 0 < 𝑟 < 1 𝑎+𝑟 =1 𝑎 =1−𝑟

Change in momentum of one photon when it is reflected = 2ℎ/𝜆

𝐴
Change in momentum of one photon when it is absorbed = ℎ/𝜆
Radiation falling perpendicularly
𝐼𝐴𝜆
No. of photons incident per unit time, 𝑁 =
ℎ𝑐

𝐼𝐴𝜆
No. of photons reflected per unit time, 𝑁𝑅 = 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑟
ℎ𝑐
2ℎ 𝐼𝐴𝜆 2ℎ 2𝐼𝐴
Force on plate due to reflected photons, 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑟 = 𝑟
λ ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐

𝐼𝐴𝜆
No. of photons absorbed per unit time, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝑎 = (1 − 𝑟)
ℎ𝑐
0 < 𝑎 < 1, 0 < 𝑟 < 1 𝑎+𝑟 =1 𝑎 =1−𝑟

Force on plate due to absorbed photons,

ℎ 𝐼𝐴𝜆 ℎ 𝐼𝐴
𝐹𝐴 = 𝑁𝑎 = (1 − 𝑟) = (1 − 𝑟)
λ ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐 𝐴
Total force on plate,
2𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴 Radiation falling perpendicularly
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐴 = 𝑟+ 1 − 𝑟 = (1 + 𝑟 )
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
So, Radiation pressure,

𝐹 𝐼
𝑃 = = (1 + 𝑟)
𝐴 𝑐
Absorption coefficient 𝑎 = 0 , Reflection coefficient (𝑟 = 1) 𝐼

The radiation pressure for partial reflection, when 𝐼

radiation is falling normally on the surface is given by,
𝑃 = (1 + 𝑟)
𝑐
𝐴
For complete reflection, 𝑟 = 1
Radiation falling perpendicularly
∴ Radiation pressure for complete reflection and 2𝐼
normal incidence, 𝑃=
𝑐
 𝐼

𝐹𝑅
0 < 𝑎 < 1, 0 < 𝑟 < 1 𝑎+𝑟 =1 𝜃
2ℎ
Change in momentum of one photon when it is reflected = cos 𝜃
𝜆
𝐴
ℎ
Change in momentum of one photon when it is absorbed =
𝜆 Radiation falling at an angle
𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆
No. of photons incident per unit time 𝑁 =
ℎ𝑐
𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆
No. of photons reflected per unit time 𝑁𝑅 = 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑟
ℎ𝑐
Force on plate due to reflected photons:
2ℎ 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆 2ℎ
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑁𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
λ ℎ𝑐 λ
𝐼𝐴 cos 2 𝜃
𝐹𝑅 = 2𝑟 (Vertically downward)
𝑐
 𝐼
𝐹𝐴
𝐹𝑅
0 < 𝑎 < 1, 0 < 𝑟 < 1 𝑎+𝑟 =1 𝜃
𝐹𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜃
𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆
No. of photons absorbed per unit time, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝑎 = (1 − 𝑟)
𝐴
ℎ𝑐
h 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆 ℎ Radiation falling at an angle
Force on plate due to absorbed photons, 𝐹𝐴 = 𝑁𝑎 = (1 − 𝑟)
λ ℎ𝑐 𝜆
𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝐹𝐴 = (1 − 𝑟)
𝑐
𝐼𝐴 cos 2 𝜃 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
Total force on plate, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 2𝑟 + 1 − 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑐 𝑐
𝐼𝐴 cos 2 𝜃
𝐹= (1 + r)
𝑐
2
𝐹
So, Radiation pressure, 𝑃 = = 𝐼 cos 𝜃
(1 + 𝑟)
𝐴 𝑐
 𝐼

Absorption coefficient 𝑎 = 0 , Reflection coefficient (𝑟 = 1) 𝜃

The radiation pressure for partial reflection, when radiation is falling at 𝐴

an angle 𝜃 on the surface is given by 2
𝐼 cos 𝜃
𝑃= (1 + 𝑟) Radiation falling at an angle
𝑐
For complete reflection, 𝑟 = 1

∴ Radiation pressure for complete reflection and 2𝐼 cos 2 𝜃

incidence at an angle 𝜃, 𝑃=
𝑐
 The intensity of direct sunlight before it passes through the earth’s atmosphere is 1.4 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2 . If it
is completely absorbed find the corresponding radiation pressure.

a 6.8 × 10−4 𝑁𝑚−2 b 4.7 × 10−6 𝑁𝑚−2

c 3.4 × 10−4 𝑁𝑚−2 d 2 × 10−6 𝑁𝑚−2

Solution
𝐼 1.4 × 103
For completely absorbing surface, 𝑃 = =
𝑐 3 × 108
𝑃 = 4.7 × 10−6 𝑁𝑚−2

Hence, option (𝑏) is the correct answer.

SO4: Matter waves

What you already know What you will learn

1. Light as an EM wave 1. Properties of matter waves

2. Photon theory of light 2. Davisson and Germer
3. Electron emission experiment
4. Photoelectric effect 3. Heisenberg’s uncertainty
5. Radiation pressure principle
❖ For complete absorption in normal incidence
Absorption coefficient 𝑎 = 1 , Reflection coefficient (𝑟 = 0)

𝐹 𝐼
𝑃= =
𝐴 𝑐

❖ For complete absorption in oblique incidence

Absorption coefficient 𝑎 = 1 , Reflection coefficient (𝑟 = 0)

𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝐼
𝑃= = cos 2 𝜃
𝐴 𝑐
❖ For partial reflection in normal incidence
0 < 𝑎 < 1, 0 < 𝑟 < 1 𝑎+𝑟 =1

𝐹 𝐼
𝑃 = = (1 + 𝑟)
𝐴 𝑐

❖ For complete reflection in normal incidence

Reflection coefficient (𝑟 = 1)

2𝐼
𝑃=
𝑐
❖ For partial reflection in oblique incidence
0 < 𝑎 < 1, 0 < 𝑟 < 1 𝑎+𝑟 =1

𝐹 𝐼 cos2 𝜃
𝑃= = (1 + 𝑟)
𝐴 𝑐

❖ For complete reflection in oblique incidence

Reflection coefficient (𝑟 = 1)

2𝐼 cos 2 𝜃
𝑃=
𝑐
A beam of white light is incident normally on a plane surface absorbing 70% of the light and
reflecting the rest. If the incident beam carries 10 𝑊 of power, find the force exerted by it on the
surface.

a 3.2 × 10−6 𝑁

b 1.6 × 10−6 𝑁

c 4.3 × 10−8 𝑁

d 2 × 10−8 𝑁
Solution Given: 𝑎 = 0.7
𝑎 + 𝑟 = 1 ⇒ 𝑟 = 0.3

Power delivered by the incident beam = 10 𝑊 = 𝐼𝐴

𝐼
10
⇒𝐼=
𝐴
Force exerted by it on the surface is given by,
𝐹 𝐼 𝐴
= (1 + 𝑟)
𝐴 𝑐
Radiation falling perpendicularly
𝐹 10
⇒ = 1 + 0.3
𝐴 𝐴𝑐
13 −8 𝑁
⇒𝐹= = 4.3 × 10
3 × 108
Hence, option (𝑐) is the correct answer.
In 1924, the French physicist Louis Victor de-Broglie put forward the bold hypothesis that moving particles of
matter should display wave like properties under suitable conditions.
The waves associated with moving particles are called Matter waves or de-Broglie waves.

The wavelength associated with a moving particle is known as de-Broglie wavelength.

ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = Where, p = Momentum
𝑝 𝑚𝑣

𝑝2
𝐾. 𝐸. = ⇒ 𝑝 = 2𝑚 𝐾. 𝐸.
2𝑚

ℎ
𝜆=
2𝑚 𝐾. 𝐸.
 When charge 𝑞 accelerated through a potential difference 𝑉 from rest.

Work done, 𝑊 = 𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑞𝑉

ℎ
𝜆=
2𝑚 𝑞𝑉

de-Broglie

Mass of an electron,
ℎ
𝜆=
2𝑚 𝑞𝑉 Charge on an electron,

ℎ 6.62 ×10−34 12.27

𝜆= = ⇒ 𝜆= Å
2𝑚 𝑞𝑉 2 × 9.1 × 10−31 ×1.6 × 10−19 𝑉 𝑉
An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 𝑉 volt. If the de-Broglie
wavelength of the electron is 1.227 × 10−2 𝑛𝑚, the potential difference is….

a 10 𝑉

b 102 𝑉

c 103 𝑉

d 104 𝑉
Solution
Given: de-Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = 1.227 × 10−2 𝑛𝑚 = 0.1227 𝐴ሶ

The de-Broglie wavelength of an electron is given by

ℎ 12.27
𝜆= = 𝐴ሶ
2𝑚𝑒𝑉 𝑉

12.27
⇒ 𝑉= = 100
0.1227

⇒ 𝑉 = 104 𝑉

Hence, option (𝑑) is the correct answer.

The de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron in thermal equilibrium with heavy water at a temperature
𝑇 (𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛) and mass 𝑚, is ….

ℎ
a
3𝑚𝑘𝑇

2ℎ
b
3𝑚𝑘𝑇

2ℎ
c
𝑚𝑘𝑇

ℎ
d
𝑚𝑘𝑇
Solution

The average K.E. of gas molecules is given by,

Where, 𝑓 = Degree of freedom

𝑘 = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽Τ𝐾
𝑇 = Temperature in absolute scale
For neutron, degree of freedom, 𝑓 = 3

3
∴ K.E. of neutron, 𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑘𝑇
2
ℎ
de-Broglie wavelength is given by, 𝜆 =
2𝑚 𝐾. 𝐸.
ℎ
Substituting the value of K.E., we get, 𝜆 =
3𝑚𝑘𝑇

Hence, option (𝑎) is the correct answer.

When the Tungsten filament which is coated with
Barium oxide (have low work function) is heated,
thermionic emission of electrons takes place, and
the electrons are then accelerated using an
accelerator which produces an electron beam.

This electron beam is then incident normally on a

nickel target. The incident electron beam is
scattered in different directions by the atoms of the
nickel target.

The intensity of the electron beam, scattered in a

given direction, is found by rotating the movable
collector in a circle. The movable collector is
attached to a galvanometer which gives the
reading of the photocurrent and hence, the
intensity of the electron beam can be found.
Obtained the variation of the intensity (𝐼) of
the scattered electrons by changing the
angle of scattering 𝜃 .
The experiment was performed by varying
the accelerating voltage from 44 𝑉 to 68 𝑉.
It was noticed that a strong peak appeared
in the intensity 𝐼 of the scattered electron
for an accelerating voltage of 54 𝑉 at a
scattering angle 𝜃 = 50°.
This peak was the result of constructive
interference of the electrons scattered from
nickel target .
Extra path covered by second ray =

∴ Path difference b/w the two rays = 2𝑑 sin 𝜃

For constructive interference, Where, 𝑑 = Interplanar spacing

From the electron diffraction measurements, the
wavelength of matter waves was practically
found to be 0.165 𝑛𝑚.
Theoretically, the de-Broglie wavelength λ
associated with electrons
For 𝑉 = 50 𝑉

ℎ 1.227
𝜆= = 𝑛𝑚 𝜆 = 0.167 𝑛𝑚
𝑃 𝑉

Thus, Davisson and Germer experiment confirms

the wave nature of electrons and the de-Broglie's
hypothesis.
Matter waves are related to moving particles and independent of the charge of particle.
The phase velocity of matter waves can be greater than the speed of light.
The wave and particle nature of moving bodies are mutually exclusive i.e., they can never be observed at the
same time.
Matter wave represents the probability of finding a particle in space.
In ordinary situation, de-Broglie wavelength is very small and wave nature of matter can be ignored.

Mass: 138 𝑔 Mass: 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔

Speed: 30 𝑚/𝑠 Speed: 3 × 106 𝑚/𝑠

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34 ℎ 6.63 × 10−34

𝜆= = 𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 0.138 × 30 𝑚𝑣 9.1 × 10−31 × 3 × 108

𝜆 = 1.6 × 10−34 𝑚 𝜆 = 2.42 × 10−9 𝑚

For macroscopic objects wave For microscopic particles wave
characteristics can not be observed. characteristics can be observed.
It is not possible to measure both the position and momentum of a particle at the same time exactly.
Uncertainty principle exists because everything in universe behaves both as particle and wave at the same time.

𝑦 A particle exist in single

place at any instant in time.

A wave doesn’t exist at a single place, good

Δ𝑥 probability of finding in lots of different places.
PARTICLE

Δ𝑦

𝑥 We can measure its wavelength and thus its

momentum.
 ℎ
𝑝= 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
𝜆

A fast-moving object has lots of momentum, which corresponds to very short wavelength.
A heavy object has lots of momentum, which again means a very short wavelength.

This is the reason why we don’t notice the wave nature of everyday objects.
 WAVE PARTICLE

Momentum can be measured, but it Position can be measured, but it is difficult to

has no definite position. measure momentum accurately.

If Δ𝑥 is uncertainty in specification of position and Δ𝑝 is uncertainty in specification of momentum, then

ℎ
Δ𝑥 x Δ𝑝 ≥
4𝜋

Means if the position is measured very accurately then the momentum will have a lot of uncertainty and
vice versa.