Focus

groups
  Section 1 
Sub-heading Slide #

Introduction 3
Literature Review: Why is
it important? 4

A Good Literature Review 5

  Introduction 
0 Two main traditions1 in research: Quantitative and
Qualitative
0 Quantitative research = inferential research
0 Qualitative research = interpretive research
0 Both different in terms of goals, applications,
sampling procedures, types of data, data analysis, etc.
0 Although different, they can be complementary of
one another i.e., in mixed methods2
  Literature Review 
Why is it so important?

0 No matter the tradition you choose, you must critically review all
scholarly literature relevant to your topic.
0 Start with How to Read a Scientific Article
0 It is imperative to know what’s been written on your topic AND
where your study will fit into the current literature base.
0 A good literature review “is a synthesis of available research which
arises from the analysis of the sources accessed to produce a
summary of the knowledge on your topic.”3

0 “…focus on discussion of method and results rather than an

author’s interpretations of their results. Knowledge is advanced
through critical examination of methods and results as a way of
resolving disparate interpretations.”4
 A Good Literature Review3… 
…is/has/does… …is/does NOT…
 Synthesis of available research  An annotated bibliography
 Critical evaluation  Confined to description
 Breadth/Depth
 Narrow/Shallow
 Clarity/Conciseness
 Confusing/Long-winded
 Rigorous/Consistent/Comprehensive search
strategy  Constructed in an arbitrary
 Includes various viewpoints way
 Critical in positive & negative ways  Presentation of only your
 Presents an argument based on literature viewpoint
only  Opinionated, uncritical,
 Focused on the research question over-generalized, unfocused
 Produces a basis for your research AND one  Unsupportive of the
or more researchable question(s) research question

Adapted from Figure 1 in Marshall, Gill. (2010). Writing… a literature review… third in a series. Synergy: Energy &
Therapy Practice, 20-23. Retrieved from www.ebscohost.com
  Section 2 
Sub-heading Slide #

Overview of differences 7
Basic characteristics of… 8
Purpose 9
Research questions 10
Research questions 11
cont’d
Overview of Differences
The qualitative and quantitative
research traditions are different in See the following links for some
many ways. This presentation will good comparison charts:
address some of them:
 http://www.xavier.edu/library/stu
 Basic characteristics
dents/documents/qualitative_quant
 Purpose itative.pdf
 Types of questions asked  https://www.utexas.edu/academic/
 Sample traits ctl/assessment/iar/research/plan/t
 Sampling procedures ypes-compare.pdf
 Data types  http://web20kmg.pbworks.com/w
 Data analysis /file/fetch/82037432/Qualitativea
 Establishing reliability ndQuantitativeEvaluationResearch.
 Establishing validity pdf
 Generalizability of findings
 Basic characteristics of… 

Quantitative research Qualitative research

1. Objectivity 1. Subjectivity
2. Deductive reasoning 2. Inductive reasoning
3. Investigate research 3. Explore a topic
question(s)
4. Make inferences 4. Gain an
5. Find relationships among
understanding of
variables what/who is being
6. Make predictions studied
7. Find causation 5. Explain phenomena
8. Test theory 6. Build theory
9. Generalize results
  Purpose 
Quantitative Qualitative
The main objective in quantitative The main objectives in qualitative
research is to test theory. Researchers (action) research are to build theory
do this by: and essentially solve problems.
Researchers do this by:
0 Conducting experiments
0 Studying everyday life
0 Testing hypotheses 0 Exploring lived
0 Determining association experiences
(relationships between 0 Taking on participants’
variables) points of view
0 Discovering patterns in
0 Finding correlation OR
behavior/ phenomena
0 Causation
 ? Research Questions ¿
Quantitative Qualitative
0 Narrow 0 Broad
0 Seeks explanation 0 Seeks to explore
0 Includes 2 or more 0 Variables not
variables necessarily included
0 Indicates perceived 0 Relationships emerge
relationship throughout the
0 Hypotheses based on research process
data from previous 0 No hypotheses
research necessary

Note: There are always exceptions!

? Research Questions cont’d ?
! Please read What makes a good research question

Bad Good
a) Narrow
a) Broad
a) Ex: “Do females age 18-35 score higher
a) Ex: “Are females smarter than than adult males age 18-35 on the
males?”5 WAIS-III?”5
b) Vague b) Precise
a) Ex: “Why did the chicken cross the a) Ex: “What are some of the
road?”5 environmental factors that occurred in
Durham, NC between January and
c) Compound February 2014 that would cause
a) Ex: Q1- Are people who do yoga chickens to cross Broad Street?”5
generally happier than those who c) Non-compound
don’t and are those who do yoga a) Ex: Q1-Are people who do yoga
weekly happier than those who do it generally happier than those who
less? don’t? Q2-Does frequency of yoga
d) Already answered attendance impact happiness scores?
e) Irrelevant d) New/fresh
f) Immeasurable e) Relevant
f) Measurable
  Section 3 
Sub-heading Slide #
Sample traits 13
Sampling procedures 14
Data types 15
Data analysis 16
Qualitative Data Analysis 17
Reliability, validity, … 18
Establishing Reliability 19
Establishing Validity 20
Importance of Bracketing 21
Conclusion 22
  Sample Traits 
Quantitative Qualitative

0 Sample size very important 0 N is not as important

for statistical analysis 0 Usually smaller
0 Typically larger 0 Phenomenology: 1-50
0 60+ participants (at least 30 0 Ethnography: 30-50
per group) 0 Grounded theory: 30-50
0 N should be appropriate for 0 Ethological studies:
the statistical tests/methods 100-2006
of analysis and research 0 Researchers strive for
question(s) saturation
0 Must be representative of the 0 Not necessarily
population being studied
representative of the
population
  Sampling Procedures 
Quantitative Qualitative
0 Sometimes randomly 0 Most often purposeful
selected (i.e., probability 0 Purposive sampling
sampling) 0 Convenience
0 Often purposefully 0 Snowball
selected (convenience) 0 Criterion
0 Frequently randomly 0 Deviant case
assigned to groups 0 Opportunistic, etc.
0 Most often anonymous 0 Identified, not anonymous
http://www.socialresearchmethods. http://www.socialresearchmethods
net/kb/sampling.php .net/kb/sampnon.php
  Data Types 
Quantitative7 Qualitative8
0 Must be measurable and 0 Observations (non-
quantifiable
0 Nominal participant, partial
0 Ordinal Categorical participant, participant)
0 Dichotomous
0 Interviews (individual,
0 Interval
Continuous focus groups, etc.)
0 Ratio
0 Numeric form 0 Documents
0 Surveys
0 Audiovisual materials
0 Closed-ended questions
0 Tests/Inventories (photos, CDs, videos,
0 Questionnaires etc.)

Note: Many more examples exist. This is not an exhaustive list.

 Data Analysis
Quantitative9 Qualitative10
0 Descriptive statistics 1. Prepare and organize data
0 Measures of central a) Transcribe verbal data to
tendency -- mean, median, written data
mode b) Organize data for
0 Measures of spread -- range, manageability
variance, deviation 2. Read & take notes/memo
0 Inferential statistics 3. Describe, classify, interpret
0 Estimation of parameter a) Coding
0 Testing of hypotheses i. In vivo codes
0 Run tests using statistical ii. Preexisting codes
software packages (SPSS, b) Themes
SAS, Stata, etc.) 4. Represent and visualize
0 Appropriate tests depend on a) Comparison table
variable types & research
questions! b) Hierarchical tree, etc.
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA)
Researchers conducting qualitative research often choose to use Computer
Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis tools/software rather than coding
manually, by hand. These tools can aid researchers in completing the
meticulous task of organizing and coding often extensive amounts of data.
Many of the available programs also offer visualization tools (graphs, charts,
etc.) for presentation. Some of the QDA programs available online include:

WordStat HyperRESEARCH
 Reliability, Validity, and/or
 Trustworthiness 
The purpose of establishing reliability, validity, and/or
trustworthiness in research is essentially to ensure data are sound
and replicable and that studies are accurate.

Techniques used to establish reliability and validity in quantitative

research are clear and well-established. There are particular steps to
take when attempting internal validity, test-retest reliability, etc.
Many of these steps can be completed by a couple clicks of a mouse.

On the other hand, the steps to obtaining trustworthiness in

qualitative research are more ambiguous and less established.
Relevant literature even lacks a consensus on what to call this
process. Some of the most common terms used to describe this
process include trustworthiness, authenticity, goodness, and
credibility.8
Establishing Reliability 
Would your study/instrument yield the same results if repeated?

Quantitative Qualitative
“Reliability” “Trustworthiness”
0 Test-retest … 0 Saturation
0 Inter-rater… 0 Triangulation
0 Parallel forms… 0 Member checking
0 Internal 0 Collaboration
consistency…9 0 Thick, rich
description
0 Peer debriefing8

Note: this is not an exhaustive list

 Establishing Validity
Quantitative “Trustworthiness”
“Validity” cont’d
0 Reflexivity. “…the writer is conscious of the
0 Internal validity biases, values, and experiences that he or
0 No confounding she brings to a qualitative research study.”10
“It is not possible to view without viewing from
variables! somewhere.”11
0 External validity 0 Bracketing. “…an investigator’s
identification of vested interest,
0 Face validity personal experience, cultural factors,
assumptions, and hunches that could
0 Construct validity influence how he or she views the
study’s data.”11
0 Criterion-related… 1. “identification and temporary setting
aside of the researcher’s assumptions.”11
0 Formative validity 2. “hermeneutic revisiting of data and one’s
evolving comprehension of it in light of a
0 Sampling validity9 revised understanding…”11

Note: See “Other Resources Mentioned” for more confounding variables resources.
! Importance
Importance of
of Bracketing
Bracketing !
In most qualitative studies, you will need to employ reflexivity and
bracketing. There are no set rules or guidelines for how to do so.

It is important to understand that it is NOT a “there, that’s done”

kind of concept NOR “…a simplistic claim that bias has now been
ruled out.”11

“The goals are to check whether one is imposing meanings on the

data and to re-look to see what other meanings might appear”;
“…to encourage reflexivity and reflection throughout a study.”11

Please refer to the following sources for help with bracketing:

(Ahern, 1999; Fischer, 2009; Tufford & Newman, 2010)
  Conclusion 
Although the quantitative and qualitative approaches to research are different,
they can be complementary when used together2; e.g., a researcher may
conduct a focus group first to aid in the development of an instrument such as a
survey. On the other hand, a researcher who completes a quantitative analysis
may choose to look more in depth at a particular trend or phenomenon that
was discovered during the data analysis and/or interpretation phases.

Researchers may also use techniques from both traditions simultaneously. For
example, a researcher might decide to conduct a content analysis of an online
forum AND quantitatively analyze data obtained from a survey instrument.
Using mixed methods is a good way of employing triangulation, particularly
“methodological triangulation.”2

It will be up to you, the researcher, and your advisor to decide which

methods will work best for your research questions and goals. It is
important that you understand that you are not locked into using one tradition
or the other when writing your thesis or dissertation, and both are valuable.
 References
1. Mahoney, J. & Goertz, G. (2006). A tale of two cultures: Contrasting quantitative and qualitative research.
Political Analysis, 14, 227-249. Retrieved from http://public.wsu.edu/~tnridout/mahoney_goertz20061
.pdf
2. Alzheimer Europe. (2009, Aug 21). The four main approaches. Retrieved from http://www.alzheimer-
europe.org/Research/Understanding-dementia-research/Types-of-research/The-four-main-
approaches/(language)/eng-GB
3. Marshall, Gill. (2010). Writing… a literature review… third in a series. Synergy: Energy & Therapy Practice,
20-23. Retrieved from www.ebscohost.com
4. Zelhart, Paul. (n.d.). Dissertation Timeline: Preparing for doctoral studies. Retrieved June 2, 2015 from
http://www.tamuc.edu/academics/graduateSchool/documents/thesis--dissertation-
services/PreparingforDoctoralStudiesCOEHS.pdf
5. Duke University Thompson Writing Program. (n.d.). What makes a good research question? Retrieved
from http://twp.duke.edu/uploads/media_items/research-questions.original.pdf
6. Sandelowski, M. (1995). Focus on Qualitative Methods: Sample size in qualitative research, 18, 179-183.
Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nur.4770180211/epdf
7. Laerd Statistics. (2013). Types of variable. Retrieved from https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-
guides/types-of-variable.php
8. Creswell, J. W. & Miller, D. L. (2000). Determining Validity in Qualitative Inquiry, Theory Into Practice,
39(3), 124-130, doi: 10.1207/s15430421tip3903_2
9. Trochim, W. M. (2006, Oct 20). The research methods knowledge base (2nd ed.). Retrieved from
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/
10. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches. Los
Angeles: Sage.
11. Fischer, C. T. (2009). Bracketing in qualitative research: Conceptual and practical matters. Psychotherapy
Research, 19(4-5), 583-590. Retrieved from www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080
/10503300902798375
 Other Resources Mentioned
0 Inferential statistics: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statinf.php
0 Interpretive research: http://www.ipia.utah.edu/imps/html/research.html
0 Comparison charts:
http://www.xavier.edu/library/students/documents/qualitative_quantitative.pdf
https://www.utexas.edu/academic/ctl/assessment/iar/research/plan/types-
compare.pdf
http://web20kmg.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/82037432/QualitativeandQuantita
tiveEvaluationResearch.pdf
0 Confounding variables: Experimental Research Design section in
http://www.tamuc.edu/academics/graduateSchool/documents/thesis--
dissertation-services/DevelopingaDoableResearchTopic.pdf
And for how to match to control for these variables:
http://www.tamuc.edu/academics/graduateSchool/Thesis%20and%20Dissertat
ion%20Services/research-tools.aspx
0 Bracketing:
Ahern, K. J. (1999). Ten tips for reflexive bracketing. Qualitative Health Research,
9(3), 407-411. doi: 10.1177/104973239900900309
Tufford, L. & Newman, P. (2010). Bracketing in qualitative research. Qualitative
Social Work, 11(1), 80-96. doi: 10.1177/1473325010368316
 Presentation created by:

Christina Gammon, MS
Thesis and Dissertation Services
Texas A&M University-Commerce

http://www.business2community.com/