ETHNOGRAPHY AS A RESEARCH METHOD - A CRITIQUE

Eka Dev Adhikari

Orcid ID: 0000-0001-9148-591X
MPhil Scholar
Kathmandu University
30 June 2023
Abstract

This article discusses the merits and demerits of ethnography as a research methodology and
provides a critical analysis of a published study that used ethnography to explore the impact of
the neoliberal ideology of linguistic entrepreneurship on language education policies in Nepal.
The article argues that ethnography is a valuable research methodology that can provide a deep
understanding of the culture and practices of a group of people, but that it is important to be
aware of the potential limitations of ethnography, such as the time and resources required, the
difficulty of generalizing findings, and the potential for bias. The article also discusses the
strengths and weaknesses of the study by Phyak and Sharma (2021) and concludes by calling
for more research on the impact of the ideology of linguistic entrepreneurship on Indigenous
communities, and for the development of more equitable language education policies.

Keywords: Ethnography, Linguistic entrepreneurship, Merits and Demerits, Neoliberalism,

Research methodology
 Introduction
Ethnography is a qualitative research method that involves the researcher immersing
themselves in a particular culture or group to understand their way of life. The researcher
typically uses a variety of methods to collect data, including participant observation,
interviews, and document analysis. The purpose of this paper is to overview ethnography as a
research methodology exploring its origin and development. The paper also aims at
discussing merits and demerits of ethnography and finally concludes with a critique of
Origin and Definition
The origin of ethnography as a research method can be traced back to the 19th century
when anthropologists began to study non-Western cultures. One of the earliest and most
influential ethnographers was Bronislaw Malinowski, also considered as the father of modern
ethnography, who conducted extensive fieldwork in the Trobriand islands of Melanesia.
Malinowski’s work helped to establish ethnography as a rigorous and systematic method of
research (Malinowski, 1922; Stocking, 1983). The term “ethnography” comes from the Greek
words “ethnos” (people) and “graphia” (writing). In its original sense, ethnography referred
to the descriptive accounts of non-Western cultures written by European explorers and
missionaries (Fetterman, 2010). However, Malinowski and other early anthropologists argued
that ethnography should be more than just a descriptive account “not an idle pastime, an
armchair study; it is a severe discipline, demanding the utmost powers of observation, of
interpretation, and of theoretical construction (Malinowski, 1922)”. They believed that
ethnographers should also seek to understand the underlying cultural meanings of the
practices and beliefs they observed. In the 20th century, ethnography became increasingly
popular as a research method in anthropology and other social sciences. Ethnographers have
studied a wide range of topics, including kinship, religion, politics, economics, and gender
relations. Ethnography has also been used to study Western cultures, as well as non-Western
cultures. Today ethnography is a well-established research method with a rich tradition.
Ethnographers continue to use a variety of methods to collect data, including participant
observation, interviews, and document analysis. They also use a variety of theoretical
frameworks to analyse their data.
Different scholars have defined ethnography in numerous ways. For Creswell and
Creswell (2018) “Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and
sociology in which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviours, language, and
actions of an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time (p. 50-
51)”. This definition focuses on the development of ethnographic research and the design
specific to the research method. In his book Ethnography: Step-by-Step David M. Fetterman
(2010) defines ethnography as a framework that concerns “about telling a credible, rigorous,
and authentic story [that] gives voice to people in their own local context, typically relying on
verbatim quotations and a ‘thick’ description of events” (p. 1). Fetterman’s definition
concerns the more detailed process of the ethnographer’s work of immersing to the local
context and bringing out the unheard voices for the purpose of finding something with the
help of a detailed observation of the community. Hammersley and Atkinson (2007) define
ethnography as “study of people and cultures through direct observation and participation in
their daily lives.” To sum up one can safely say that ethnography is a qualitative research
method that involves the researcher immersing themselves in a particular culture or group to
understand their way of life. This is done through direct observation and participation in the
group’s daily activities, as well as through interviews and other forms of data collection. The
goal of ethnography is to produce a detailed and accurate description of the group’s culture,
including its beliefs, values, norms, and practices.
Ethnographic Characteristics
As ethnographic research is qualitative research that seeks to understand the culture of
a particular group of people by observing them in their natural setting and interacting with
them. In educational research, ethnography is often used to study the culture of schools,
classrooms, or other educational settings. The essential characteristics of ethnographic
research can be discussed under the points below.
Longitudinal data collection
Ethnography is a long-term research method that typically takes months or even years
to complete. This allows the researcher to build relationships with participants and gain a
deep understanding of their culture. This can be helpful for understanding how the group’s
culture is shaped by different factors, such as historical events, changes in social norms, or
new technologies. For example, a researcher might conduct a longitudinal study of a school
to track how the school’s culture changes over time as new students and teachers are hired,
new policies are implemented, or the school’s demographics change. By collecting data over
time, the researcher can get a better understanding of how the schools’ culture is shaped by
these different factors. Longitudinal data collection can also be helpful for understanding how
individuals’ experiences within a culture change over time. For example, a researcher might
conduct a longitudinal study of a group of students to track how their experiences of schools
change as they progress through their academic careers. By collecting data over time, the
researcher can get a better understanding of how the students’ experiences are shaped by their
interactions with teachers, peers, and other members of the school community.
There are a few challenges associated with longitudinal data collection. One challenge
is that it can be time-consuming and expensive to collect data over a long period of time.
Another challenge is that it can be difficult to maintain contact with participants over time,
especially if they move away or change jobs. However, the benefits of longitudinal data
collection can outweigh the challenges. By collecting data over time, researchers can get a
better understanding of how cultures and individuals change over time. This can be helpful
for understanding the factors that influence these changes and for developing interventions
that can promote positive change.
Overall, longitudinal data collection is an essential feature of ethnographic research
because it allows researchers to track changes over time in the culture of the group they are
studying. This can be helpful for understanding how the group’s culture is shaped by
different factors, such as historical events, changes in social norms, or new technologies.
Participant and Non-Participant Observation
Participant and non-participant observation are two essential characteristics of
ethnographic research. Participant observation is a strategy in which the researcher immerses
themselves in the culture they are studying and participates in the activities of the group. This
allows the researcher to gain a firsthand understanding of the group’s culture and to develop
relationships with the members of the group. Non-participant observation is a strategy in
which the researcher observes the group from a distance without participating in their
activities. This allows the researcher to maintain a more objective perspective and to avoid
influencing the group’s behaviour.
Both participant and non-participant observation can be used in ethnographic
research. The choice of which method to use will depend on the specific research question
and the context of the study. In some cases, researchers may choose to use a combination of
participant and non-participant observations. This can be helpful for getting a more complete
understanding of the group’s culture. For example, a researcher might conduct a study of a
school by participating in classroom activities and observing the interactions between
teachers and students. The researcher might also interview teachers, students, and
administrators to get their perspectives on the schools’ culture. By using a combination of
methods, the researcher can get a more complete understanding of the school’s culture and
how it is experienced by different members of the school community.
 Overall, participant, and non-participant observations are two essential characteristics
of ethnographic research. The choice of which method to use will depend on the specific
research question and the context of the study. However, in many cases, using a combination
of methods can be the most effective way to get a complete understanding of the group’s
culture.
Naturalistic Setting
The naturalistic setting is an essential characteristic of ethnography as a research
methodology because it allows the researcher to gain a more authentic understanding of the
culture or group in their native environment. The naturalistic setting means that the researcher
does not control the setting or the participant’s behaviour. Instead, the researcher observes
and participates in the group’s activities as they naturally occur. Naturalistic setting allows the
researcher to get a more accurate understanding of the culture of the group being studied.
When people are in their natural environment, they are more likely to behave in a way that is
consistent with their culture. This is because they are not trying to impress the researcher or
conform to the expectations of a controlled setting.
Naturalistic setting also allows the researcher to develop rapport with the participants,
and to see how the culture of the group being studied is embedded in their everyday life.
Developing the rapport with the participants is important because it allows the researcher to
gain the trust of the participants and get them to open-up about their culture. Without rapport,
the researcher is less likely to be able to collect accurate information. Observing the
embedded nature of the culture and everyday activity is important because it allows the
researcher to understand how the culture shapes the way that people think, feel, and behave.
Overall, naturalistic setting is an essential characteristic of ethnography as a research
methodology. It allows the researcher to get a more accurate understanding of the culture of a
group of people in their natural environment. This is important because it can help us to
understand the way that people think, feel, and behave.
Emic and Etic Perspective
Emic and Etic Perspective are two essential characteristics of ethnography as a
research methodology. They refer to the two different ways that researchers can view and
understand a culture. Emic perspective is the insider’s point of view. It is the way that
members of a culture understand and explain their own culture. The emic perspective
assumes that the best way to understand a culture is to ask the people who live in that culture.
On the other hand, Etic perspective is the outsider’s point of view. It is the way that
researchers from outside a culture understand and explain the culture. The etic perspective
assumes that there are some universal aspects of human culture that can be understood from
an objective standpoint.
Both emic and etic perspective are important in ethnographic research. The emic
perspective helps the researchers to understand the way that members of a culture see the
world, while the etic perspective helps the researchers to see how that culture fits into the
larger context of human society. For example, an Emic perspective could be sued to study the
way that members of a particular culture understand the concept of “family.” The researcher
would ask members of the culture to define what family means to them, and how they define
their own family relationships. However, an etic perspective could be used to study the way
that different cultures define the concept of “family.” The researcher would compare the way
that different cultures define family, and how these definitions shape the way that people in
those cultures interact with each other.
Emic and etic perspectives are often used together in ethnographic research. This
allows the researchers to get a more complete understanding of a culture by seeing it from
both the inside and outside perspective. Altogether emic and perspective are essential tools
for ethnographic research. they allow researchers to get a more comprehensive picture of a
culture, and to see how that culture fits into the larger context of human society.
In-depth Interview
In-depth interviews are an essential characteristic of ethnography as a research
methodology because they allow the researchers to collect detailed information about the
culture of a group of people. In-depth interviews are typically conducted with a small number
of participants, and they are designed to be open-ended and flexible. This allows the
researcher to explore the participant’s experiences and perspectives in depth.
There are several reasons why in-depth interviews are important in ethnographic
research. First, they allow the researchers to get a more comprehensive information about the
culture of the group being studied. In-depth interviews can provide researchers with insights
into the participant’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences. This information can be used to
understand how the culture shapes the way that people think, feel, and behave. Second, in-
depth interviews allow researchers to develop rapport with the participants. This is important
because it allows the researcher to gain the trust of the participants and get them to open-up
about their culture. Without rapport, the researcher is less likely to be able to collect accurate
data. Third, in-depth interviews allow researchers to see how the culture of the group being
studied is embedded in their everyday lives. This is important because it allows researchers to
understand how the culture shapes the way that people interact with each other and with their
environment.
Overall, in-depth interviews are an essential tool for ethnographic research. They
allow the researchers to collect detailed information about the culture of a group of people,
and they can be used to develop a deep understanding of the way that people think, feel, and
behave.
Document Analysis
Document analysis is an essential characteristic of ethnographic research in education
because it allows researchers to gain insight into the culture and practices of educational
settings. Documents can include a wide range of materials, such as school records, student
work, teacher lesson plans, and policy documents. By careful analysis of these documents,
researchers can learn about the values, beliefs, and norms that shape educational experiences.
For example, a researcher might analyse school records to see how students are tracked into
different education pathways. This information could help the researcher to understand how
race, class, and gender intersect to shape educational opportunities. Similarly, a researcher
might analyse student work to see how students are developing their understanding of
concepts. This information could help the researcher to identify areas where students are
struggling and to develop more effective teaching strategies.
Document analysis is a valuable tool for ethnographic research because it allows
researchers to collect information that would not be accessible through other methods, such
as interviews or observations. Documents can provide researchers with a historical
perspective on educational settings, and they can also provide insights into the perspectives of
different stakeholders, such as students, teachers, and administrators. In addition to providing
insights into the culture and practices of educational settings, document analysis can also be
used to triangulate data from other sources. For example, a researcher might use document
analysis to corroborate findings from interviews or observations. This can help to ensure the
accuracy of the researcher’s findings and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of
the educational setting.
Overall, document analysis is an essential characteristic of ethnographic research in
education because it allows researchers to gain insights into the culture and practices of
educational settings. Documents can provide researchers with a wealth of information that
would not be accessible through other methods. As a result, document analysis is a valuable
tool for researchers who are interested in understanding how schools work and how they can
be improved.
Ethnography: Merits and Demerits
As seen in the discussion above, ethnography is a qualitative research method that
involves the researcher immersing themselves in a particular culture or setting to understand
it from the inside out. This method is often used in educational settings to gain insights into
the experiences of students, teachers, and administrators. Ethnography as a research
methodology has several merits and demerits. These merits and demerits are discussed
hereunder.
Merits
Ethnographic research provides a deep understanding of the culture and practices of
educational settings. Ethnographers spend a significant amount of time in the field, observing
and interacting with participants. This allows them to develop a deep understanding of the
culture and practices of the setting, which can be difficult to obtain through other methods.
Another merit of ethnographic research is that it can be used to study a variety of educational
issues. Ethnographic research can be used to study a wide range of issues from the
experiences of students in different classrooms to the impact of school policies on teachers
and administrators. This flexibility makes ethnography a valuable tool for educational
researchers.
Furthermore, ethnography can be used to generate new knowledge about education.
Ethnographers often use their findings to generate new knowledge about education. This
knowledge can be used to inform educational policy and practice, and it can also help to
improve our understanding of how schools work. Ethnography can help to build relationships
between researchers and participants and illuminate the perspectives of marginalized groups.
Ethnography is a collaborative process, and it requires researchers to build relationships with
participants. This can be beneficial for both the researcher and the participants, as it can help
to ensure that the research is conducted in a respectful and ethical way. The rapport building
between the researcher and participant is beneficial in illuminating the perspectives of
marginalized groups. Ethnography can be a valuable tool for giving voice to marginalized
groups in educational settings. By providing a platform for these groups to share their
experiences, ethnographers can help to improve our understanding of how schools work for
these groups.
Demerits
There is no research methodology without any loopholes. Ethnography is not an
exception to this. As a research methodology, ethnography also has several demerits. First,
ethnography can be time-consuming and expensive. Researchers must spend a significant
amount of time in the field, and they may also need to travel to different locations. This can
make ethnography a challenging method for researchers with limited resources. Another
demerit of ethnography is that sometimes it can be difficult to generalize findings.
Ethnography is a qualitative method, which means that it is difficult to generalize findings
from one setting to another. this is because each educational setting is unique, and the
findings of an ethnographic study may not be applicable to other settings.
Additionally, ethnographic studies can be biased. Ethnographers are human beings,
and they are susceptible to bias. This means that their findings may be influenced by their
own personal experiences and beliefs. Yet another demerit of ethnography as a research
method especially in educational setting is that it can be difficult to access participants. In
some educational settings, it can be difficult to gain access to participants. This is especially
true in schools where there is a lot of distrust of outsiders. Researchers may need to spend a
significant amount time building relationships with gatekeepers to gain access to participants.
In conclusion, ethnography is a valuable research methodology that can provide a
deep understanding of the culture and practices of educational settings. However, it is
important to be aware of the potential limitations of ethnography, such as the time and
resources required, the difficulty of generalizing findings, and the potential for bias. Despite
these limitations, ethnography can be a powerful tool for generating new knowledge about
education and for giving voice to marginalized groups.
Critical analysis of a published study
A research article by Phyak and Sharma (2021) explores the impact of the neoliberal
ideology of linguistic entrepreneurship on language education policies in Nepal. The authors
use ethnography as the research methodology and use a combination of strategies and tools
for the research design including interview, ethnographic observation, and instructional
practices in the classroom. The article makes two major claims regarding how the neoliberal
ideology of linguistic entrepreneurship has shaped the perceptions and practices of
Indigenous people in a rapidly transforming society, one regarding the promotion of the
English language in education, and another the ideology of linguistic entrepreneurship.
The use of ethnography as a methodology well suits the purpose of the author as the
use of multiple tools and strategies allows them to triangulate their findings and provide a
more comprehensive understanding of the issue. The detailed description of the research
methods allows other researchers to replicate their study to bring in thick and rich description
of the information featured in qualitative research methods like ethnography. The research
design of the authors is well-conceived. They begin by introducing the concepts like
neoliberalism, linguistic entrepreneurship and affective regime linking them with language
education policy in Nepal followed by a detailed description of the methodology and a
thorough analysis of information bringing out the excerpts from the interview to discuss in
their analysis.
The article argues that the ideology of linguistic entrepreneurship is powerful and
hegemonic because it has been able to shape the way people think about language and
education. This has led to a situation where English is seen as the only language that matters,
and Indigenous languages are seen as being of less value. This has had a negative impact on
Indigenous communities, as it has made it more difficult for them to maintain their languages
and cultures. The article also argues that this ideology has created new forms of inequality.
Only those who can afford to send their children to English-medium private schools are able
to give them the best possible education. This means that children from poorer families are at
a disadvantage, as they are less likely to have access to this type of education.
Finally, the article by calling for more research on the impact of the ideology of
linguistic entrepreneurship on Indigenous communities, and for the development of more
equitable language education policies.
Conclusion
In conclusion, ethnography is a valuable research methodology that can provide a
deep understanding of the culture and practices of a group of people. It is a qualitative
method, which means that it is not possible to generalize findings from one setting to another.
However, ethnography can be a powerful tool for generating new knowledge about culture
and for giving voice to marginalized groups.
The article by Phyak and Sharma (2021) provides a good example of how
ethnography can be used to study the impact of language education policies on indigenous
communities. The authors used a combination of ethnographic methods, including participant
observation, interviews, and document analysis, to provide a rich and nuanced understanding
of the ways in which the ideology of linguistic entrepreneurship has shaped the perceptions
and practices of indigenous people in Nepal. The article’s findings have important
implications for language education policy and practice. They suggest that we need to be
more critical of the ideology of linguistic entrepreneurship and its impact on indigenous
communities. We also need to develop more equitable language education policies that do not
privilege English over other languages.
The article by discussed above is a valuable contribution to the literature on
ethnography and language education. It provides a valuable starting point for further research
on this important issue. In addition to the article by Phyak and Sharma (2021), there are many
other articles that have used ethnography to study the impact of language education policies
on indigenous communities. Online and print journals and books are full of such articles that
provide a comprehensive overview of the use of ethnography in language education. As a
result of the research done in the area, we can see that ethnography is a method that can be
used to generate new knowledge about culture and to give the voice to marginalized groups
like indigenous people in the article discussed above.

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