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Lecture 4

Occupancy and Motion Detectors

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(1) Introduction
• The occupancy sensors detect the presence of people (and
sometimes animals) in a monitored area.
• Motion detectors respond only to moving objects.
• A distinction between the two is that the occupancy sensors
produce signals whenever an object is stationary or not, while the
motion detectors are selectively sensitive to moving objects.
• The following types of detectors are presently used for the
occupancy and motion sensing of people:
1. Air pressure sensors: detect changes in air pressure resulted
from opening doors and windows
2. Capacitive: detectors of human body capacitance
3. Acoustic: detectors of sound produced by people

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(1) Introduction
4. Photoelectric: interruption of light beams by moving objects
5. Optoelectric: detection of variations in illumination or optical
contrast in the protected area
6. Pressure mat switches: pressure sensitive long strips used on
floors beneath the carpets to detect weight of an intruder
7. Stress detectors: strain gauges imbedded into floor beams,
staircases, and other structural components
8. Switch sensors: electrical contacts connected to doors and
windows
9. Magnetic switches: a noncontact version of switch sensors
10. Vibration detectors: react to the vibration of walls or other
building structures. Also, may be attached to doors or windows to
detect movements
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(1) Introduction
11. Glass breakage detectors: sensors reacting to specific
vibrations produced by shattered glass
12. Infrared motion detectors: devices sensitive to heat waves
emanated from warm or cold moving objects
13. Microwave detectors: active sensors responsive to
microwave electromagnetic signals reflected from objects
14. Ultrasonic detectors: devices similar to microwave detectors
except that instead of electromagnetic radiation, ultrasonic
waves are used
15. Video motion detectors: a video equipment that compares a
stationary image stored in memory with the current image from a
protected area

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(1) Introduction
16. Video face recognition system: image analyzers that compare
facial features with database
17. Laser system detectors: similar to photoelectric detectors,
except that they use narrow light beams and combinations of
reflectors
18. Triboelectric detectors: sensors capable of detecting static
electric charges carried by moving objects

• One of the major aggravations in detecting occupancy or intrusion

is a false positive detection.
• The term “false-positive” means that the system indicates an
intrusion when there is none.

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(2) Ultrasonic Detectors

• These detectors are based on transmission to the object and
receiving the reflected acoustic waves.
• If an object moves, the frequency of the reflected wavelength will
differ from the transmitted waves.
• This is called the Doppler effect.
• A distance L0 to the object can be calculated through the speed v
of the ultrasonic waves in the media, and the angle, θ (Fig. 7.42a)

• where t is the time for the ultrasonic waves to travel to the object
and back to the receiver.

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(2) Ultrasonic Detectors

Fig. 7.42 Ultrasonic distance measurement: basic arrangement (a); impedance

characteristic of a piezoelectric transducer (b)

• Figure 7.43a shows that the input voltage applied to the ceramic
element causes it to flex and transmit ultrasonic waves.
• Because piezoelectricity is a reversible phenomenon, the ceramic
generates voltage when incoming ultrasonic waves flex it.
• In other words, the element may work as both the sonic
transmitter and receiver (a microphone).
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(2) Ultrasonic Detectors

Fig. 7.43 Piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer. Input voltage flexes the element and transmits
ultrasonic waves, while incoming waves produce output voltage (a). Open aperture type of
ultrasonic transducer for operation in air (b)

• A typical operating frequency of the transmitting piezoelectric

element is near 32 kHz. (Fig 7.42b)

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(2) Microwave Motion Detectors

• The microwave detectors offer an attractive alternative to other
detectors when it is required to cover large areas and to operate
over an extended temperature range under the influence of
strong interferences, such as wind, acoustic noise, fog, dust,
moisture, and so forth.
• These detectors (sensors) belong to the active sensors as they
provide an excitation signal.
• That is, they emit pulses of the electromagnetic energy.
• The microwave detectors belong to the class of devices known as
radars.
• Radar is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging.

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(2) Microwave Motion Detectors

• The radar frequencies are as follows:

• The name microwave is arbitrarily assigned to the wavelengths

shorter than 4 cm (Ka, K, and X bands).
• They are long enough (λ = 3 cm at X band) to pass freely through
most contaminants, such as clouds and airborne dust, and short
enough for being reflected by larger objects.

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(2) Microwave Motion Detectors

• The microwave part of the detector consists of a Gunn oscillator,
an antenna, and a mixer diode.
• The Gunn oscillator is a diode that oscillates at microwave
frequencies.
• The oscillator produces electromagnetic waves (frequency f0), part
of which is directed through an iris into a waveguide and focusing
antenna that directs the radiation toward the object.

Fig. 6.1 Microwave occupancy detector: a circuit for measuring Doppler frequency (a);
circuit with a threshold detector (comparator) (b)
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(2) Microwave Motion Detectors

• An antenna transmits the frequency f0, which is defined by the
wavelength, λ0 as where c0 is the speed of light in air.
• The frequency of the reflected waves (identical to that for the
acoustic waves):

• The Doppler frequency:

• Since c0/v » 1,

• If a person walks toward the detectors with a velocity of 0.6 m/s, a

Doppler frequency for the X-band detector is Δf =0.6/0.03 = 20 Hz.
• When the target moves at angles θ with respect to the detector,
the Doppler frequency is
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(3) Capacitive Occupancy Detectors

• Being a conductive medium with a high dielectric constant, a
human body develops a coupling capacitance to its surroundings.
• This capacitance greatly depends on such factors as body size,
clothing, materials, type of surrounding objects, weather, and so
forth.
• However wide the coupling range is, the capacitance may vary
from few picofarads to several nanofarads.
• When a person moves, the coupling capacitance changes, thus
making it possible to discriminate static objects from moving
objects.

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(3) Capacitive Occupancy Detectors

• Figure 6.4 illustrates a capacitive security system for an
automobile.
• A sensing probe is embedded into a car seat. It can be fabricated
as a metal plate, metal net, a conductive fabric, etc.

Fig. 6.4 Capacitive intrusion detector for automotive applications

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(3) Capacitive Occupancy Detectors

• The probe forms one plate of a capacitor Cp.
• The other plate of the capacitor is formed either by a body of an
automobile, or by a separate plate positioned under a floor mat.
• A reference capacitor Cx is composed of a simple fixed or
trimming capacitor, which should be placed close to the seat
probe.
• The probe plate and the reference capacitor are, respectively,
connected to two inputs of a charge detector (resistors R1 and
R2).
• The conductors preferably should be twisted to reduce the
introduction of spurious signals as much as possible.
• A differential charge detector is controlled by an oscillator, which
produces square pulses (Fig. 6.5).
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(3) Capacitive Occupancy Detectors

• Under a no-seat-occupied condition, the reference capacitor is
adjusted to be approximately equal to Cp.
• Resistors and the corresponding capacitors define time constants
of the networks.

Fig. 6.5 Timing diagrams for

a capacitive intrusion
detector

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(3) Capacitive Occupancy Detectors

• Both RC circuits have nearly equal time constants τ1.
• Voltages across the resistors are fed into the inputs of a
differential amplifier, whose output voltage Vc is near zero.
• Small spikes at the output is the result of some unavoidable
imbalance.
• When a person is positioned on the seat, her body forms an
additional capacitance in parallel with Cp (C = Cp + Cbody) , thus
increasing a time constant of the R1Cp-network from τ1 to τ2.
• This is indicated by the increased spike amplitudes at the output
of a differential amplifier.
• The comparator compares Vc with a predetermined threshold
voltage Vref.

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(3) Capacitive Occupancy Detectors

• When the spikes exceed the threshold, the comparator sends an
indication signal to the logic circuit that generates signal V
manifesting the car occupancy.
• Capacitive detector is an active sensor, because it essentially
required an oscillating test signal to measure the capacitance
value.

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(4) Triboelectric Detectors

• Any object can accumulate, on its surface, static electricity.
• These naturally occurring charges arise from the triboelectric
effect, which is a process of charge separation due to object
movements, friction of clothing fibers, air turbulence, atmosphere
electricity, etc.
• Any object, which at least temporarily is isolated from the ground,
can exhibit some degree of its bulk charge imbalance.
• In other words, it becomes a carrier of electric charges.

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(4) Triboelectric Detectors

• Figure 6.8 shows a monopolar triboelectric motion detector.
• It is comprised of a conductive electrode connected to an analog
impedance converter made with a MOS transistor Q1, a bias
resistor R1, an input capacitance C0, a gain stage, and a window
comparator .
• While the rest of the electronic circuit may be shielded, the
sensing electrode is exposed to the environment and forms a
coupling capacitor Cp with the surrounding objects.

Fig. 6.8 Monopolar

triboelectric motion
detector

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(4) Triboelectric Detectors

• Static electricity is exemplified by positive charges distributed
along the person’s body.
• Being a charge carrier, the person becomes a source of an electric
field, having intensity E.
• The field induces a charge of the opposite sign in the electrode.
• Under the static conditions, when the person does not move, the
field intensity is constant and the input capacitance C0 is
discharged through a bias resistor R1.
• To make the circuit sensitive to relatively slow motions, the
resistor R1 should be selected of a very high value: on the order of
1010 Ω or higher.
• When the person moves, intensity E of the electric field changes.

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(4) Triboelectric Detectors

• This induces a corresponding variable electric charge in the input
capacitor C0 and results in appearance of a variable electric
voltage across the bias resistor.
• That voltage is fed through the coupling capacitor into the gain
stage whose output signal is applied to a window comparator.
• The comparator compares the signal with two thresholds, as it is
illustrated in a timing diagram of Fig. 6.9b.

Fig. 6.9b: The

element responds
with a signal that is
amplified and
compared with a
window
threshold in a
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(4) Triboelectric Detectors

• A positive threshold is normally higher than the baseline static
signal, while the negative threshold is lower.
• During human movement, a signal at the comparator’s input
deflects either upward or downward, crossing one of the
thresholds.
• Output signals from the window comparator are square pulses
which can be utilized and further processed by the conventional
data processing devices.
• A triboelectric detector is passive.
• It may be hidden in or behind nonmetallic objects such as wood,
bricks, etc.

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(5) Optoelectronic Motion Detectors

• By far the most popular intrusion sensors are the optoelectronic
motion detectors.
• They rely on electromagnetic radiation in the optical range,
specifically having wavelengths from 0.4 to 20 µm.
• This covers the visible, near, and part of far infrared (IR) spectral
ranges.
• The detectors are primarily used for indication of movement of
people and animals.
• They operate over distances ranging up to several hundred
meters.
• The operating principle of the optical motion detectors is based on
detection of light (either visible or infrared) reflected or emanated
from surface of a moving object into the surrounding space.
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(5) Optoelectronic Motion Detectors

• Such radiation may be originated either by an external light
source (active sensor) and then reflected by the object or it may
be produced by the object itself in form of a natural IR emission
(passive sensor).
• An active detector requires an additional light source, for
instance, daylight, electric lamp, infrared (IR) light emitting diode
(LED) projector, laser, etc.
• The passive detectors perceive mid- and far-infrared natural
emission from objects having temperatures that are different from
the surroundings.
• Both types of detectors use an optical contrast as means of the
object recognition.

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(5) Optoelectronic Motion Detectors

• Optoelectronic detectors are used almost exclusively to detect
presence or absence of movement qualitatively rather than
quantitatively.
• They are very useful to indicate whether an object moves or not,
while they can not distinguish one moving object from another
and they cannot be utilized to accurately measure distance to a
moving object or its velocity.
• The major application areas for the optoelectronic motion
detectors are in security systems (to detect intruders), in energy
management (to turn lights on and off) where they can control
various appliances, such as air conditioners, cooling fans, stereo
players.
• The most important advantage of an optoelectronic motion
detector is simplicity and low cost.
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(5) Optoelectronic Motion Detectors

• A general structure of an optoelectronic motion detector is shown
in Fig. 6.9a.
• It consists of a focusing device (a lens or curved mirror), a light
detecting element, and a threshold comparator.
• Its focusing component creates on a focal plane an image of the
field of view.
• The element converts the focused light into an electric signal.

Fig. 6.9a General

arrangement of an
optoelectronic motion
detector.

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(5) Optoelectronic Motion Detectors

• Moving people in the room caused the image to change in such a
way as the optical contrast changed across the serpentine pattern
of the photoresistor.
• In turn, its resistive value was changing, resulting in modulation of
the electric current passing through the photoresistor.

Fig. 6.13 A simple optical motion detector for a light switch and toys: (a) a sensitive
surface of a photoresistor forms a complex sensing element; (b) a flat mirror and a
pinhole lens form an image on a surface of the photoresistor; (c) pinhole lenses
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(5) Optoelectronic Motion Detectors

• This signal was further amplified and compared with a
predetermined threshold.
• Upon crossing that threshold, the comparator generated electric
pulses that reset a 15-min timer.
• If no motion was detected within 15 min from the last movement,
the timer disabled the solid-state relay to turn lights off.
• Then, light could be turned on back only manually, because this
motion detector cannot function in darkness.

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(5) Optoelectronic Motion Detectors

Fig. 6.14 Motion sensing light switch with a photoresistor and pinhole
lens (a), interactive toy (b) that reacts to a child movement; the dog
barks when motion is detected

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(6) Optical Presence Sensors

• A reflection of light is the optical phenomenon that is used quite
extensively in detecting not only motion but a mere presence of
an object in a monitored area.
• The sensor contains two key components: a source of light
(usually a near-infrared LED) and a photodetector.
• The LED emits a light beam that illuminates surroundings in the
field of view of the photodetector.
• First, the background reflection from the surrounding objects
(background) is established.
• In terms of the output voltage from the photodetector, the light
reflected from the background is V0.
• A new object that appears in a foreground either absorbs more
light or reflects more.
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(6) Optical Presence Sensors

• In most cases, it alters the background signal by the increment ∆V,
which can be detected by a threshold detector in the electronic
processor.
• This sensor is a reflectance monitor.
• It will not measure a distance to the object because the value of
∆V depends on many factors, such as size of the object, its shape,
material, surface finish, and distance to the sensor.
• The sensor is merely a presence detector, yet in many practical
cases it is just what is needed.
• An example of the sensor application is a presence detector for a
bathroom faucet that is used to control flow of water when hands
are placed under the water outlet.

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(6) Optical Presence Sensors

• A similar detector is frequently employed in hand dryers, toilet
tanks, light switches, robotic vacuum cleaners, and many other
products.
• Placement of hands under the faucet controls the actuator of
water flow (a solenoid-valve assembly).

Fig. 6.20 Installation of the optical

presence detector into a spout (a) and
faucet (b).

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(6) Optical Presence Sensors

Automatic faucet

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(6) Optical Presence Sensors

Auto flush urinals

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(6) Optical Presence Sensors

• Figure 6.21 shows a block diagram of the water flow control
system.
• The light pipe can be a bundle of the optical fibers or a solid
translucent rod molded of polycarbonate resin.
• Usually, the emitted light is modulated by pulses.
• This helps to separate the reflected light signals into a background
(ambient) component and that controlled by the pulsing LED
driver, since the ambient light is a d.c. or slow changing signal.
• Note that the background component also may contain a pulsing
signal since some light will be constantly reflected from it, for
example, from a sink surface.
• This can be taken care both the sensitivity adjustment and by
detecting only a variable component of signal ∆V.
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(6) Optical Presence Sensors

Fig. 6.21 Block diagram of the water flow

controller with optical presence detector

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