WORKSHOP THEORY REPORT

SUBMITTED TO

Mam Aneela Wakeel

SUBMITTED BY

Muhammad Asim
22-ME-160

DEPARMENT OF MECHANICAL AND AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENFINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA

 REPORT ON WOOD TIMBER DEFECTS AND CONVERSION

1-INTRODUCTION:
Timber, also known as wood, has been a fundamental building material for centuries. Its
versatility, durability, and aesthetic appeal have made it a preferred choice for various
construction and design applications. Timber is derived from trees, which are renewable
resources, making it an environmentally friendly option compared to non-renewable building
materials. This introduction aims to provide an overview of timber, highlighting its
properties, uses, and sustainability aspects.

 Properties of Timber:
Timber possesses a unique combination of properties that make it suitable for a wide range of
applications. It is lightweight, yet strong and durable, providing excellent structural integrity.
The natural cellular structure of timber contributes to its thermal insulation properties,
making it an energy-efficient material. Additionally, timber is a good sound insulator,
offering acoustic benefits in construction projects. Its natural beauty, variety of grain patterns,
and warm tones add aesthetic value to both interior and exterior designs.

 Uses of Timber:
Timber finds application in numerous sectors, including residential, commercial, and
industrial construction. It is used in framing structures, flooring, roofing, wall cladding,
doors, windows, furniture, and interior finishes. In addition to traditional applications,
engineered timber products, such as plywood, laminated veneer lumber (LVL), and cross-
laminated timber (CLT), have expanded the possibilities of timber usage. These products
offer enhanced strength, stability, and design flexibility, opening doors to innovative
architectural designs and sustainable construction practices.

 Sustainability of Timber:
Timber is a renewable resource, as trees can be replanted and harvested over time.
Responsibly managed forests ensure the long-term availability of timber without depleting
natural resources. Sustainable forestry practices focus on reforestation, biodiversity
conservation, and minimizing ecological impact. Timber also has a lower carbon footprint
compared to many other construction materials, as trees absorb and store carbon dioxide
during their growth. Using timber in construction projects can contribute to reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change.
 Timber Certification:
To ensure responsible and sustainable sourcing of timber, various certification schemes exist.
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and Programme for the Endorsement of Forest
Certification (PEFC) are globally recognized certification systems that promote sustainable
forest management and chain-of-custody practices. These certifications provide assurance
that timber products originate from well-managed forests and support social, economic, and
environmental aspects.
2-Defects in Engineered Timber Wood:
Timber wood is a natural material that has many advantages for construction and furniture making.
However, timber wood also has some defects that can affect its quality, appearance and performance.
The followings are the five main types of defects in timber:
The followings are the five main types of defects in timber:

1. Defects due to Natural Forces

2. Defects due to Attack by Insects
3. Defects due to Fungi
4. Defects due to Defective Seasoning
5. Defects due to Defective Conversion

Defects due to natural forces

a. Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to natural forces. During the
growth of a tree, branches close to the ground or lower branches die. Bases of those
branches remain in the tree as the trees grow. These bases may create imperfection
known as knots.

Types of Knots: Knots are of two types.

i. Dead knots: The remains of damaged branches after drying out they become
loose and fall out.
 ii. Live knots: They are sound and firm. If small, are not great of a defect.

Live knots are usually not a problem as they remain firmly attached to the timber. But
in dead knots, they are loosely attached and reduce strength. Knots decrease the
strength of the wood and thus lower its value for structural uses. Knots cause serious
defects when the load is perpendicular to the grains.

Dead knot and Live Knot.

Source:woodexportchile.com

b. Twist: Twist in timber rotates the ends of the timber in opposite directions. The main
reason behind this defect is twisting of the trees by the strong wind.

Twisting of the trees by the strong

wind. Source:commons.wikimedia.org
c. Shakes: Shakes are timber defects that occur around the annual ring or growth ring of
a timber. In other words, cracks or splits in the woods are called shakes.
 It may or may not be a structural problem depending upon depth and use. The main
problem is aesthetic. Where the appearance is important, shakes are undesirable.

Types of shakes: Shakes can be classified into three main categories:-

i. Star Shakes: This type of shake starts propagating from the bark towards the
sapwood and sometimes even towards the heartwood along the lines of
medullary rays. Cracks are wider on the outer edge or bark and narrower on
the inside (usually sapwood, sometimes heartwood). The main reasons behind
star shakes are extreme heat or frosting during the growth of the trees and
rapid or uneven seasoning after cutting off the timber. Extreme heat or frost
causes temperature difference, which causes shrinkage leading to the crack.
ii. Cup and/or Ring Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring. It is
capable to separate the growth ring partially or completely. When the crack
separates the annual ring completely, it is called ring shakes. So, all ring
shakes are cup shakes, but all cup shakes are not a ring shape. Excessive frost
action is the main reason for this type of crack.
iii. Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes starts propagating from the
pith to the sapwood along the lines of medullary rays. Shrinkage of the interior
part of the timber causes this crack.

d. Rind Galls: THe meaning of rind is bark and gall is abnormal growth. So abnormal
growth of the bark of the trees is called rind galls. Improper cutting of branches
 causes this abnormal growth. Wood from this portion of the timber lacks strength and
desirable in structure.
e. Upsets: Upsets in various wood indicate that the tree was subjected to crushing or
compression. Improper felling of trees, heavy wind blowing during the young age of
the tree these are the main reasons behind this type of defect.

Defects of Timber due to Attack by Insects

Insects like bettles or marine boars eat wood, make holes and weaken the strength of the
wood.

Beetles are small insects that make holes in almost all the sapwoods. The larvae make tunnels
through the sapwood in all directions and turn wood into powder.

Termites live in a colony. They are very fast in eating woods and making tunnels through it.
Only a few good kinds of wood can withstand the action of termites.

Marine boars are found in salt water. Usually, they make tunnels in wood to take refuge or
shelter. All kinds of wood or timber are vulnerable to this kind of insect.

Defects in Timber due to Attack by Fungi

a. Stain: When fungi feed only on sapwood, where the food materials are stored, it
causes a stain. Heartwood doesn’t contain these kinds of food materials and is not
affected by it. Stain action causes color but does not affect the strength of the wood.
b. Decay: wood eating or wood destroying fungus is responsible for this type of defect
in wood. This type of fungi breaks down the cell structure. Both sapwood and
heartwood are affected by them. Considerable strength reduction occurs.

Defect in Timber due to Defective Seasoning

Faulty method of seasoning causes serious defects in woods. During seasoning of timber,
exterior or surface layer of the timber dries before the interior surface. So, stress is developed
due to the difference in shrinkage. In a perfect seasoning process, stress is kept minimum by
controlling the shrinkage. Some of the defects resulting from defective seasoning are as
follows:-

a. Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the timber is called bow.
b. Cup: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the timber is called a cup.
 c. Check: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it doesn’t extend from one
end to another.
d. Split: Split is a special type of check that extends from one end to another.

e. Honey Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood during the drying process or
seasoning. For these stresses, cracks are created in the form of honeycomb texture.

Defects of Timber due to Defective Conversion

a. Boxed Heart: This term is applied to the timber, which is sawn in a way that the pith
or the center heart falls entirely within the surface throughout its length.
b. Machine Burnt: Overheating is the main reason for this defect.
c. Machine Notches: defective holding and pulling causes this defect.
d. Miscut: erroneous cutting or sawing of wood causes this defect. Lack of experience
in sawing and carelessness is the main reason for erroneous cutting.
e. Imperfect Grain: Mismatch in grain alignment.

3-Conversion Techniques of Timber Wood

Timber wood, as a natural material, undergoes various conversion techniques to

enhance its properties, increase its usability, and improve its performance in
construction and design applications. These techniques involve transforming raw
timber into processed products with specific characteristics. This section provides an
overview of three commonly used conversion techniques: sawing, drying, and
preservative treatment.

1. Sawing:

Sawing is the primary conversion technique that involves cutting timber into desired
shapes and sizes. It is a crucial process that determines the structural stability,
appearance, and utility of the timber. Sawing can be done through various methods,
 including plain sawing, quarter sawing, and rift sawing, each yielding different grain
patterns and visual effects. Sawing helps create timber planks, boards, and other
profiles required for construction purposes.

2. Drying:

After sawing, timber contains a high moisture content that needs to be reduced to
enhance its stability and prevent issues such as warping, shrinking, and decay. Drying
is the process of reducing the moisture content in timber to a suitable level for its
intended use. This can be achieved through air drying or kiln drying. Air drying
involves stacking timber in a controlled outdoor environment, allowing natural
airflow to gradually remove moisture. Kiln drying involves using specialized
chambers where heat, humidity, and airflow are controlled to accelerate the drying
process. Proper drying ensures dimensional stability and improves the strength and
durability of the timber.

3. Preservative Treatment:

Timber is susceptible to decay, insect infestation, and fungal attack. To enhance its
resistance to these detrimental factors and increase its longevity, preservative
treatments are employed. Preservative treatments involve applying chemicals to the
timber to protect it against decay organisms and wood-boring insects. The treatment
process can be accomplished through pressure treatment, where the preservative is
forced into the timber under high pressure, or through a dipping or brushing method.
Preservative-treated timber is commonly used in outdoor applications, such as decks,
fences, and utility poles, where exposure to moisture and biological threats is
significant.

These conversion techniques play a vital role in transforming raw timber into processed
products that meet specific requirements for construction and design purposes. Sawing
enables the customization of timber into various shapes and sizes, catering to specific
structural and aesthetic needs. Drying ensures the stability, durability, and usability of timber
by reducing its moisture content. Preservative treatment enhances the timber's resistance to
decay and pests, extending its lifespan in outdoor environments.

Conclusion:
Conversion techniques such as sawing, drying, and preservative treatment are essential steps
in transforming raw timber into usable products. Sawing allows for customization and
shaping of timber, while drying ensures its stability and durability by reducing moisture
content. Preservative treatment enhances the timber's resistance to decay and pests, extending
its lifespan. These conversion techniques, when employed effectively, contribute to
maximizing the potential of timber wood in construction and design applications, providing
sustainable and versatile solutions for various projects.