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A Level Physics CIE 

4. Forces, Density & Pressure

CONTENTS
4.1 Forces: Turning Effects & Equilibrium
4.1.1 Centre of Gravity
4.1.2 Moments
4.1.3 Turning Effects of Forces
4.1.4 Conditions for Equilibrium
4.2 Forces: Density & Pressure
4.2.1 Density
4.2.2 Pressure
4.2.3 Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h
4.2.4 Upthrust
4.2.5 Archimedes Principle

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4.1 Forces: Turning Effects & Equilibrium YOUR NOTES


4.1.1 Centre of Gravity

Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the object may be
considered to act
For example, for a person standing upright, their centre of gravity is roughly in the middle of
the body behind the navel, and for a sphere, it is at the centre
For symmetrical objects with uniform density, the centre of gravity is located at the point of
symmetry

The centre of gravity of a shape can be found by symmetry

Stability
The position of the centre of gravity of an object affects its stability
An object is stable when its centre of gravity lies above its base

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YOUR NOTES


The object on the right will topple, as its centre of gravity is no longer over its base

The wider base an object has, the lower its centre of gravity and it is more stable
The narrower base an object has, the higher its centre of gravity and the object is more
likely to topple over if pushed

The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of gravity

Centre of gravity v centre of mass

In a uniform gravitational field, the centre of gravity is identical to the centre of mass
The centre of mass does not depend on the gravitational field
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Since weight = mass ✕ acceleration due to gravity, the centre of gravity does depend on YOUR NOTES
the gravitational field 
When an object is in space, its centre of gravity will be more towards the object with larger
gravitational field for example, the Earth’s gravitational field on the Moon

The Earth’s stronger gravitational field pushes the Moons centre of gravity closer to Earth

 Exam Tip
Since the centre of gravity is a hypothetical point, it can lie inside or outside of a
body. The centre of gravity can also move, depending on the shape or the
orientation of the object being considered.
For example, a human body’s centre of gravity is lower when leaning forwards than
when standing upright. And you must notice your own centre of gravity shift
backwards when you pick up your heavy school bag and put it on your back. This is
why you instinctively lean forwards to carry it.

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4.1.2 Moments YOUR NOTES


What is a Moment?
A moment is the turning effect of a force
Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about some pivot
The moment of a force is given by
Moment (N m) = Force (N) × perpendicular distance from the pivot (m)
The SI unit for the moment is Newton metres (N m). This may also be Newton centimetres (N
cm) depending on the units given for the distance

The force might not always be perpendicular to the distance

An example of moments in everyday life is opening a door
The door handle is placed on the other side of the door to the hinge (the pivot) to maximise
the distance for a given force and therefore provides a greater moment (turning force)
This makes it easier to push or pull it

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 Worked Example

A uniform metre rule is pivoted at the 50 cm mark.
A 0.5 kg weight is suspended at the 80 cm mark, causing the rule to rotate about
the pivot.
Assuming the weight of the rule is negligible, what is the turning moment about the
pivot?

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 If not already given, drawing all the forces on an object in the diagram will help you

see which ones are perpendicular to the distance from the pivot. Not all the forces
will provide a turning effect and it is not unusual for a question to provide more forces
than required to throw you off!

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The Principle of Moments YOUR NOTES

The principle of moments states: 

For a system to be in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a point

must be equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments (about the same point)

Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam

In the above diagram:
Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments
Hence: F2 × d2 = (F1 × d1) + (F3 × d3)

 Worked Example
A uniform beam of weight 40 N is 5 m long and is supported by a pivot situated 2 m
from one end.When a load of weight W is hung from that end, the beam is in
equilibrium as shown in the diagram.

What is the value of W?A 10 N B 50 N C 25 N D 30 N

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YOUR NOTES


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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Make sure that all the distances are in the same units and you’re considering the

correct forces as clockwise or anticlockwise, as seen in the diagram below

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4.1.3 Turning Effects of Forces YOUR NOTES


Couples
A couple is a pair of forces that acts to produce rotation only
Unlike moments of a single force, the moment of a couple doesn’t depend on a pivot, only
on the perpendicular distance between the two forces
A couple consists of a pair of forces that are:
Equal in magnitude
Opposite in direction
Perpendicular to the distance between them

Diagram of a couple
Couples produce a resultant force of zero, so, due to Newton’s Second law (F = ma), the
object does not accelerate
The size of this turning effect is given by its torque

 Worked Example
Which pair of forces act as a couple on the circular object?

ANSWER: A

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In diagram A, the forces are: YOUR NOTES

Equal in size 
In opposite directions
Perpendicular to the distance between them
B is incorrect as the forces are in the same direction
C is incorrect as the forces are different in size
D is incorrect as the distance between the forces is not perpendicular

 Exam Tip
The forces that make up a couple cannot share the same line of action which is the
line through the point at which the force is applied. An example of this is shown in the
diagram below

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Torque YOUR NOTES

The moment of a couple is known as a torque 
You can calculate the torque of a couple with the following equation
Torque τ (N m) = one of the forces (N) × perpendicular distance between the forces (m)

 Worked Example
A steering wheel of diameter 40 cm and the force of the couple needed to turn it is
10 N.Calculate the torque on the steering wheel.

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A rule of length 0.3 m is pivoted at its centre.Equal and opposite forces of
magnitude 4.0 N are applied to the ends of the ruler, created a couple as shown
below.

What is the magnitude of the torque of the couple on the ruler when it is at the
position shown?

 Exam Tip
The forces given might not always be perpendicular to the distance between them.
In this case, remember to find the component of the force vector that is
perpendicular. You can learn more on how to do this in the ‘Resolving Vectors’
section of ‘Scalars & Vectors’

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4.1.4 Conditions for Equilibrium YOUR NOTES


Equilibrium
A system is in equilibrium when all the forces are balanced. This means:
There is no resultant force
There is no resultant torque
An object in equilibrium will therefore remain at rest, or at a constant velocity, and not rotate
The system is in an equilibrium state when applying the principle of moments (see The
Principle of Moments)

 Worked Example
Four beams of the same length each have three forces acting on them.Which beam
has both zero resultant force and zero resultant torque acting?

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YOUR NOTES


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Coplanar Forces in Equilibrium YOUR NOTES

Coplanar forces can be represented by vector triangles 
Forces are in equilibrium if an object is either
At rest
Moving at constant velocity
In equilibrium, coplanar forces are represented by closed vector triangles
The vectors, when joined together, form a closed path
The most common forces on objects are
Weight
Normal reaction force
Tension (from cords and strings)
Friction
The forces on a body in equilibrium are demonstrated below:

Three forces on an object in equilibrium form a closed vector triangle

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A weight hangs in equilibrium from a cable at point X. The tensions in the cables are
T1 and T2 as shown.

Which diagram correctly represents the forces acting at point X?

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 The diagrams in exam questions about this topic tend to be drawn to scale, so make

sure you have a ruler handy!

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4.2 Forces: Density & Pressure YOUR NOTES


4.2.1 Density

Density
Density is the mass per unit volume of an object
Objects made from low-density materials typically have a lower mass
For example, a balloon is less dense than a small bar of lead despite occupying a larger
volume
The units of density depend on the units used for mass and volume:
If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g / cm3
If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg / m3

Gases are less dense than a solid

The volume of an object may not always be given directly, but can be calculated with the
appropriate equation depending on the object’s shape

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YOUR NOTES


Volumes of common 3D shapes

 Worked Example
A paving slab has a mass of 73 kg and dimensions 40 mm × 500 mm × 850 mm.
Calculate the density, in kg m-3 of the material from which the paving slab is made.

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 Exam Tip
When converting a larger unit to a smaller one, you multiply (×)
E.g. 125 m = 125 × 100 = 12 500 cm
When you convert a smaller unit to a larger one, you divide (÷)
E.g. 5 g = 5 / 1000 = 0.005 or 5 × 10-3 kg
When dealing with squared or cubic conversions, cube or square the
conversion factor too
E.g. 1 mm3 = 1 / (1000)3 = 1 × 10-9 m3
E.g. 1 cm3 = 1 / (100)3 = 1 × 10-6 m3

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4.2.2 Pressure YOUR NOTES


Pressure
Pressure tells us how concentrated a force is, it is defined as the force per unit area

Pressure is equal to the force per unit area

This equation tells us
If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure
If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure

Different pressure is exerted for the same force on different areas

The units of pressure depend on the units of area:

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If the area is measured in cm2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/cm2 YOUR NOTES
If the area is measured in m2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/m2 
Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa where 1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2
Pressure, unlike force, is a scalar. Therefore pressure does not have a specific direction
U-tube manometer
A manometer is an instrument to measure pressure and density of two liquids

In Figure 1: The level of liquid is equal because the atmospheric pressure (Patm) is the same
In Figure 2: If the pressure on one side rises, the liquid will be forced down making the liquid
in the other limb rise. The difference between the two levels gives the pressure difference
between the two ends of the tube
In Figure 3: The U-tube now has two different liquids. The density of the blue one is larger
than that of the orange one. The pressure at each point is due to the atmospheric pressure
plus the weight of the liquid above it

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 Worked Example

A cylinder is placed on a horizontal surface as shown below

The mass of the cylinder is 4.7 kg and the diameter is 8.4 cm. Calculate the pressure
produced by the cylinder on the surface in Pa.

 Exam Tip
The area referred to is the ‘cross-sectional’ area of a 3D object. This is the area of the
base that the force is applied on. For a cylinder, this will be a circle.

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4.2.3 Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h YOUR NOTES


Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point
within the fluid, due to the force of gravity
The derivation for this equation is shown below:

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

Hydrostatic pressure derivation

 Exam Tip
You will be expected to remember all the steps for this derivation for an exam
question. If any equations which look unfamiliar, have a look at the notes for
“Density” and “Pressure”.

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Using the Equation for Hydrostatic Pressure YOUR NOTES

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point 
within the fluid, due to the force of gravity
This is when an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid will exert a pressure, squeezing the
object
The size of this pressure depends upon the density (ρ) of the liquid, the depth (h) of the
object and the gravitational field strength (g):

When asked about the total pressure remember to also add the atmospheric pressure
Total pressure = Hydrostatic pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure (also known as barometric pressure) is 101 325 Pa

 Worked Example
Atmospheric pressure at sea level has a value of 100 kPa. The density of sea water
is 1020 kg m-3.At what depth in the sea would the total pressure be 250 kPa?A. 20
m B. 9.5 m C. 18 m D. 15 m

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 These pressures can vary widely and depend on metric prefixes such as kPa or MPa.

When you’re doing calculations make sure all the pressures are in the same units
(otherwise you may be out by a factor of 1000!). To be on the safe side, you can
convert them all to Pascals.

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4.2.4 Upthrust YOUR NOTES


Upthrust
Upthrust is a force which pushes upwards on an object submerged in a fluid i.e. liquids and
gases
Also known as buoyancy force, upthrust is due to the difference in hydrostatic pressure at
the top and bottom of the immersed object
The force of upthrust is significantly larger in liquids than in gases, this is because liquids are
much denser than gases
Recall that hydrostatic pressure depends on the height (h) or depth that an object is
submerged in from P = ρgh
Therefore, the water pressure at the bottom of an object is greater than the water pressure
at the top, as shown in the diagram below:

This can will experience upthrust due to the hydrostatic pressure difference
Upthrust is a force and is directly proportional to the pressure. The force on the bottom of
the can will be greater than the force on top of the can
This resultant pressure causes a resultant upward force on the can known as upthrust
Upthrust is why objects appear to weigh less when immersed in a liquid. If the upthrust is
greater than the weight of the object, the object will rise up
For an object to float, it must have a density less than the density of the fluid it is immersed
in

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 Worked Example

A steel cube with cross-sectional area of 2 m2 is totally immersed in water.The scale
balance reading is reduced when the cube is immersed.

The cube experiences pressures of 3000 Pa and 7700 Pa at the top and bottom of
the cube respectively.Which value is equal to the upthrust on the cube during
immersion?A. 9400 N B. 6000 N C. 15400 N D. 92210 N

 Exam Tip
Since upthrust is force it is influenced by pressure, not by the density of the object as
commonly misunderstood.

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4.2.5 Archimedes Principle YOUR NOTES


Archimedes' Principle
Archimedes’ principle states that an object submerged in a fluid at rest has an upward
buoyancy force (upthrust) equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object
The object sinks until the weight of the fluid displaced is equal to its own weight
Therefore the object floats when the magnitude of the upthrust equals the weight of the
object
The magnitude of upthrust can be calculated by:

Upthrust equation
Since m = ρV, upthrust is equal to F = mg which is the weight of the fluid displaced by the
object
Archimedes’ Principle explains how ships float:

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YOUR NOTES


Boats float because they displace an amount of water that is equal to their weight

 Worked Example
Icebergs typically float with a large volume of ice beneath the water. Ice has a
density of 917 kg m-3 and a volume of Vi.The density of seawater is 1020 kg m-
3.What fraction of the iceberg is above the water?A. 0.10 V B. 0.90 Vi C. 0.97
i
Vi D. 0.20 Vi

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

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