CELL AND NUCLEAR DIVISION

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8.3 CELL AND NUCLEAR DIVISION

THE CELL CYCLE

KEY OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED LEARNING SUGGESTED
CONCEPT Learners should be (ATTITUDES, ACTIVITIES AND NOTES RESOURCES
able to: SKILLS AND
KNOWLEDGE)
8.3.1 The 1. outline the cell cycle - Interphase  Illustrating the cell  ICT tools
Cell Cycle - Mitosis cycle  Braille
2. describe interphase - Cytokinesis  Outlining DNA software/Jaws
- Growth replication.  Print media
- DNA replication
8.3.2 1. describe the behaviour - Prophase  Observing behavior of
Mitosis of chromosomes, - Metaphase chromosomes in a root
nuclear envelope, cell - Anaphase tip squash
membrane, centrioles - Telophase  Drawing of diagrams
and spindles during showing phases of
mitosis mitosis.
2. distinguish between - Cytokinesis  Discussing
cytokinesis in plants cytokinesis in plant
and animals and animal cells.
3. explain the - Growth  Discussing the
importance of mitosis - Repair importance of mitosis.
- Asexual
reproduction
- Production of
genetically
identical cells
4. identify factors that - Carcinogens  Discussing factors
increase chances of - Mutations associated with
cancerous growth - Radiation cancerous growth.
5. outline the stages - Uncontrolled  Watching video clips.
involved in the cell division  Analysing video clips.
development of
cancer
 CELL CYCLE is the process of cell growth and cell division. It has three main
phases: interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
 Cell growth has one phase called interphase which has three sub-phases
namely G1, S and G2.
 Interphase is a period of synthesis and growth. The cell produces many
materials required for its own growth and for carrying out all functions. DNA
replication occurs during interphase.
 Cell division consists of two phases, mitosis and cytokinesis.
 Mitosis (a.k.a. M-phase) is the division of the nucleus (nuclear division). It
has four sub-phases namely prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.

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 Cytokinesis (a.k.a. C-phase) is the division of the cytoplasm into two

daughter cells which usually, but not always, occurs immediately after nuclear
division.
 Mitosis only takes up about 5 - 10% of the cell cycle. The majority of the cell
cycle is taken up by Interphase

DIAGRAM: The phases of the cell cycle.

 The length of the cell cycle depends on:

1. the type of cell
2. external factors such as temperature, food and oxygen supplies.
— Bacteria may divide every 20 minutes, growing yeast cells divide every 30 minutes,
cells epithelial cells of the intestine wall divide every 8-10 hours, animal sperm-
producing cells every 18 to 24 hours, onion root-tip cells may take 20 hours to divide
whilst many cells of the nervous system never divide at all.
— Fully differentiated cells generally remain arrested in the G1 stage and will not
normally divide again. Some cells remain arrested in the G2 stage, for example,
human cardiac muscle cells.

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DIAGRAM: Phases of the cell cycle

— The stages of the cell cycle are explained fully below.

INTERPHASE
— Interphase consists of three sub-phases:
1) G1
 organelles are duplicated
 centrioles replicate
 Normal life processes:
 Respiraton
 Protein synthesis
2) S
 Chromosomes are
duplicated/replication of
DNA
 Semi-conservative
replication of DNA
3) G2
 Duplicated chromosomes are
checked for any errors that
may have occurred when
copying them.

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MITOSIS
— Mitosis is the division of the nucleus (nuclear division) that leads to the formation of
two identical daughter cells.
— Mitosis is also called karyokinesis. [The division of the nucleus is called
karyokinesis as opposed to cytokinesis which is the division of the cytoplasm].
— Mitosis is copying division where chromosomes are copied accurately and
passed on when cells divide to give identical cells.
— Mitosis consists of four sub-phases:
1. Prophase - Replicated
chromosomes supercoil
(shorten and thicken)
 Chromosomes shorten
and thicken
(supercoil),
 Chromosomes become
visible
 Chromosomes consist
of two chromatids
 Chromatids are joined
by a centromere
(central body).
 Centrioles migrate to
the poles of the cell
(Not in Plant cells)
 Spindle fibres form
 Nuclear envelope
breaks down
2. Metaphase - Replicated
chromosomes line up along
the cells equator
 Homologous pairs of
chromosomes arrange
themselves in a line
along the cell’s
equator.
 Spindle fibres attach
to the centromere
which holds the
homologous pair
together.

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3. Anaphase - The replicas of

each chromosome are separated
from each other and pulled
towards the poles of the cells
 Centromeres divide
 Separating each pair of
chromatids
 The spindles contract and
shorten
 Pulling chromatids to
opposite ends of the cell,
 Centromere first.

4. Telophase - Two new nuclei

are formed
 The chromatids reach each
pole of the cell.
 The chromatids uncoil and
become long and thin again
 They are now referred to
chromosomes again.
 A new nuclear envelope
forms around each group of
chromosomes so they are
now two nuclei.

CYTOKINESIS
— Cytokinesis is cell division but specifically division of the cytoplasm to give two
daughter cells. It occurs shortly after mitosis/karyokinesis.
 The cytoplasm divides and the plasma membrane nips in half forming two new
cells.
 In animal cells this occurs by infolding of the plasma membrane, followed by
formation of a cleavage furrow along the cell equator. The cleavage furrow
deepens and eventually cuts the cell in two.
 In plants this starts with the formation of a phragmoplast or cell plate which is
laid down along the cell equator. A new membrane and cell wall is laid down along
this cell plate (phragmoplast).

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 The two new genetically identical cells formed then pass into the G1 phase of the
cell cycle.

DIAGRAM: Cytokinesis in an animal cell.

DIAGRAM: Cytokinesis in a plant cell.

 The two new daughter cells formed are;

 Diploid 2n (46 chromosomes as 23 of homologous pairs in humans).
 Genetically identical to each other and the parent cell.

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 Most animal cells are capable of undergoing mitosis and cytokinesis.

 In plants only meristem cells can divide in this way.

 What are homologous chromosomes?

 A pair of identical chromosomes (1 from father and 1 from mother)
 Same genes but can have either the same or different alleles
 Humans have 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes

DIAGRAM: A pair of homologous chromosomes

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

Explain the significance of mitosis for growth, repair and asexual

reproduction in plants and animals.

1) Mitosis is type of cell division involving somatic or normal body cells.

2) It is important that the cells divide and replace old worn out cells/repair
tissues and more importantly be able to replicate the duties of the cells they
replace.
3) Mitosis is important for growth of tissues to take place. Mitotic divisions enable
a single cell to grow e.g. from conception, repeated cell division has allowed us to
developed into multicellular organisms.

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4) It is also important for genetic stability/maintains chromosome number

(ploidy). By duplicating the exact copy of our genetic material it ensures that our
genetic material is stable and able to carry out its function correctly because the
instructions from the previous cells would have been passed on to the new daughter
cells.
5) It’s also important in asexual reproduction e.g. in plants and yeast cells the
offspring produced are identical to the parent since they are produced as a result of
mitotic cell division. As a consequence, the offspring have all the advantages of the
parents in mastering the same habitat – and any disadvantages, too
6) Produces genetically identical cells/clones.
CANCER
— The process of development of cancer is called oncogenic transformation.
— Normal cells have the property of contact inhibition (stoppage of growth on coming
in contact with other cells), but cancer cells lose this property.
— Cell division in normal healthy cells is controlled by factors such as cell cycle
regulators and external chemical signals. Cancerous cells do not respond to
these regulatory signals.
— As a result, cancer cells divide uncontrollably to give rise to mass of cells called
tumours.
— Tumours are of 2 types − benign and malignant.
1. Benign tumours − Remain confined to their original location and do not spread.
 Most benign tumours (e.g. warts – see picture below) do not cause problems and
can be successfully removed.

PICTURE: Warts are an example of a benign tumour.

2. Malignant tumours− These exhibit metastasis i.e., the cells that break off from
such primary tumours spread via the circulatory system and lymphatic system and
wherever they reach, new tumours called secondary tumours are formed.
 Malignant tumours actually represent cancer. The cells actively divide, grow, and
starve the normal cells of vital nutrients. Metastasis is what usually kills the
patient.
 Cancers become more common as one gets older.

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 Cancer cells contain mutated genes known as oncogenes. The mutations are
found in genes that are involved in mitosis; that is, in genes that control the cell
cycle. These genes are proto-oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes.
 Proto-oncogenes encode proteins that act as growth factors by stimulating cell
division. The proteins allow cells to pass the checkpoints in the cell cycle and are
part of the normal tight control of cell division in organisms. Normally the proto-
oncogene proteins are only expressed when needed for growth, but if a mutation
causes a proto-oncogene to be expressed all the time, then it causes uncontrolled cell
division, which can lead to cancer. The mutated gene is then called an
oncogene.
 Tumour-suppressor genes encode proteins that inhibit cell division by blocking
the cell cycle checkpoints. Some tumour suppressor genes also initiate cell death
(apoptosis). Tumour suppressor genes thus override the effect of oncogenes,
and so are also known as anti-oncogenes. For a cancer to occur, one or more
tumour suppressor genes must also be mutated, so their control is removed and cells
divide out of control.

 So a cancer is usually the result of several different mutations building up.

Steps in the development of cancer

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— Causes of cancer
 Carcinogens − Physical, chemical, and biological agents that cause cancer
Example - ionizing radiations (X-rays and radioactive sources emitting α, β and
gamma radiation), non-ionizing radiations (UV), tar in tobacco smoke, asbestos
dust.
 Oncogenic (cancer-causing) viruses − they have viral oncogenes (cancer-
causing genes) e.g. human papilloma virus (HPV) which causes cervical cancer.
 Mutations of proto-oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes:
Sometimes, due to mutations, normal genes in our body called proto-
oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes get converted into cellular
oncogenes that cause cancer.
 Hereditary predisposition-it runs in some families due to inherited genes.
Individuals can inherit oncogenes or mutant alleles of tumor-suppressor genes
e.g. in breast cancer.

— Diagnosing cancer
 Biopsy and histopathological studies
 Biopsy − Suspected tissue is cut into thin sections and examined
microscopically
 Radiography, CT scan (computed tomography), and MRI (Magnetic
resonance imaging) are techniques of diagnosing cancers.
 C T Scan − 3-D imaging of internals of an organ is generated by X-rays.
 MRI Scan − Pathological and physiological changes in a living tissue are
detected by using magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations.
 Immunological and molecular biological diagnostic techniques can all be used
to detect cancers.
 Identifying certain genes, which make an individual susceptible to cancers, can
help to prevent cancers.
— Treatment of cancer
 Radiotherapy − Tumour cells are irradiated to death. Also, proper care is taken
for protecting surrounding normal tissues.
 Chemotherapy − Drugs specific for particular tumours are used to kill cancer
cells. They have side effects such as hair loss, anaemia, etc.
 Immunotherapy− Biological response modifiers such as α- interferons are
used. They activate the immune system of patient and helps in destroying the
tumour.

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MEIOSIS
KEY OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
CONCEPT Learners should be able (ATTITUDES, LEARNING RESOURCES
to: SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES AND
KNOWLEDGE) NOTES
8.3.3 1. explain the meanings - Haploid  Illustrating haploid  ICT tools
Meiosis of the terms haploid, - Diploid cells, diploid cells and  Braille
diploid and - Homologous homologous software/Jaws
homologous - Chromosomes chromosomes.
chromosomes
2. Describe the behaviour - Interphase  Observing behaviour
of chromosomes, - Meiosis I of chromosomes  Print media
nuclear envelope, cell - Meiosis II during pollen grain
membrane, centrioles - Cytokinesis formation
and spindles during  Drawing of diagrams
meiosis showing phases of
meiosis.
3. discuss the importance - Gamete  Discussing the
of meiosis formation importance of meiosis.  Microscope
- Genetic variation  Prepared
slides
4. compare and contrast - Similarities and  Discussing the
mitosis and meiosis differences similarities and  Flowers
between mitosis differences.
and meiosis
 The division of the nucleus of cells occurs in one of two ways:
 Mitosis produces 2 daughter nuclei with the same number of chromosomes as the
parent cell and as each other. Occurs in somatic cells. Mitosis is copying division.
 Meiosis produces 4 daughter nuclei, each with half the number of chromosomes as
the parent cell. Occurs in germline cells in gonads to produce gametes (sex cells).
— Meiosis is a type of cell division known as a reduction division.
— Produces gametes (Sex cells such as sperm, egg, pollen and plant egg cells)
— Produces 4 haploid (n) cells from one parent diploid (2n) cell.
 This is important as fusion of gametes nuclei at fertilization will need to result in
a diploid (2n) cell.
 Meiosis also mixes the genetic material before it is passed to the gametes so
allowing for variation.

— Why is meiosis necessary?

— In sexual reproduction two gametes fuse to give rise to new offspring. The
gametes must contain only one set (haploid number) of chromosomes to give a
full set of chromosomes after fertilisation. If each gamete has a full set of
chromosomes then the cell they produce has double the number.
— This doubling of the number of chromosomes would continue at each
generation.
— In order to maintain a constant number of chromosomes in the adults the
number must be halved during meiosis (reduction division).

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— Meiosis has two main stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II, each with several sub-phases.
Meiosis I

 Prophase I

 Chromatin condenses and undergoes super-coiling, resulting in it becoming

shorter, thicker and visible under a light microscope.
 The chromosomes now come together to form homologous pairs (bivalents)
 At this point, each homologous chromosome pair is visible as a bivalent, a tight
grouping of two chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids.
 A Bivalent (picture below)

 The sites of crossing-over are seen as crisscrossed non-sister chromatids and are
called chiasmata (singular: chiasma).

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 These allow swapping of paternal and maternal alleles.

 The nuclear envelope and nucleolus break down.
 Centrioles and spindle fibres form (no centrioles in plant cells).

 Metaphase I

 Centrioles (not in plant cells) migrate to the poles of the cell

 Bivalents are arranged on a plane equidistant from the poles called the
metaphase plate or equator
 Independent random assortment of Bivalents, where the orientation of the
bivalent on the metaphase plate is random and independent of the orientation of
the bivalents either side of it.
 Spindle fibres attach to the centromeres of sister chromatids.

 Anaphase I

 Two chromosomes of each bivalent separate and start moving toward opposite
poles of the cell as a result of the action of the spindle.
 The sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres and move together
toward the poles.
 A key difference between mitosis and meiosis is that sister chromatids remain
joined after metaphase in meiosis I, whereas in mitosis they separate (centromeres
break)
 At this point recombinants are formed from the crossing over events of prophase I.
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 Telophase I (Not in plant cells)

 The homologous chromosome pairs complete their migration to the two poles as
a result of the action of the spindle.
 A nuclear envelope reforms around each chromosome set, the spindle
disappears, and cytokinesis follows.
 In animal cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, resulting
in the pinching of the cell into two cells.

Meiosis II

 Prophase II

 The centrioles duplicate. This occurs by separation of the two members of the
pair, and then the formation of a daughter centriole perpendicular to each
original centriole.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down, and the spindle apparatus forms.

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 Metaphase II

 Each of the daughter cells completes the formation of a spindle apparatus.

 Single chromosomes align on the metaphase plate, much as chromosomes do in
mitosis. This is in contrast to metaphase I, in which homologous pairs of
chromosomes align on the metaphase plate.
 Independent random assortment of chromatids, where the orientation of the
recombinant chromatids on the metaphase plate is random and independent of
the orientation of the recombinant chromatids either side of it.
 Spindle fibres attach to the centromeres of recombinant chromatids
 Anaphase II

 The centromeres separate, and the two chromatids of each chromosome move
to opposite poles on the spindle.
 The separated chromatids are now called chromosomes in their own right.

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 Telophase II

 A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.

 Cytokinesis takes place, producing four daughter cells (gametes, in animals),
each with a haploid set of chromosomes.
 Because of crossing-over, some chromosomes are seen to have recombined
segments of the original parental chromosomes.

Why is Meiosis Important?

1. Chromosome number is halved- prevents chromosome number from doubling each
generation
2. Meiosis ensure genetic variation
(a) Crossing over: exchange of genetic info ensures gametes carry different gene
combos therefore different offspring from same parent
(b) Segments of chromatids of homologous chromosomes are exchanged
(c) Chiasmata develop at a point where 2 pairs cross- mixing of genes
(d) Metaphase 1: homologous chromosome pairs are arranged randomly on equator
Random Assortment= variation of genes, the Law Of Independent Assortment
(e) Metaphase 2: chromatids line up randomly of equator- random assortment
3. Therefore, crossing over, metaphase 1 and 2 = genetic variation.

Explain how meiosis and fertilisation can lead to variation through the
independent assortment of alleles.
— Meiosis and fertilisation create huge levels of variation in individuals of the next
generation.
— This results from 6 major events:
 Crossing Over
 Prophase I
 Homologous pairs of Chromosomes (Bivalents) form
 Chiasma(ta) form between homologous chromosomes
 Alleles swap between paternal and maternal chromatids.
 Maybe 3 or 4 crossing over events per Bivalent
 Independent random assortment of Bivalents
 Metaphase I
— Bivalents line up along the cell equator randomly and independent of each other

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 Independent random assortment of (recombinant) chromatids

 Metaphase II
— Chromatids line up along the cell equator randomly and independent of each
other.
 Random mating
 Choices of mates is random
 Random fusion of gametes
 Chances of gamete fertilising another specific gamete
 Chromosome mutations
 Any changes to DNA further increases the variation

Differences between mitosis and meiosis

 Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome sets, producing cells that are
genetically identical to the parent cell
 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid),
producing cells that differ genetically from each other and from the parent cell

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the significance of mitosis.

 It brings about the growth of an organism:

 It brings about asexual reproduction.
 Ensures that the chromosome number is retained/ensures genetic stability.
 Ensures that the chromosomal constitution of the offspring is the same as the
parents /production of clones.
 Replacement of old worn out cells/repair tissues.

2. Explain the significance of meiosis.

 Formation of gametes that contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent
cells.
 Restoration of the diploid chromosomal constitution in a species at fertilisation.
 It brings about new gene combinations that lead to genetic variation in the
offspring.
3. Although mitosis is a continuous process, for ease of reference it is conventionally
divided into the following stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
(a) Name the stages of mitosis during which,
(i) the chromatids separate and move to the poles. [1]
(ii) the nuclear membrane reforms and cytokinesis follows. [1]
(iii) the chromosomes align on the equator of the spindle. [1]
(iv) the chromosomes become stainable and the spindle starts to
form. [1]
(b) If the amount of DNA present in the cell at metaphase is 20 units, how much
DNA will be present in each nucleus:
(i) at the start of prophase. [1]
(ii) immediately after telophase? [1] [Total:6]

3 (a) (i) anaphase; (ii) telophase; (iii) metaphase; (iv) prophase; 4

(b) (i) 20 units; (ii) 10 units; 2

4. Read through the following passage about mitosis and then complete it by writing
the most appropriate word or words in the spaces.

In flowering plants the process of mitosis is restricted to the apical

................................ and to ................................... . In growing mammals
mitosis can occur throughout the body.
However, not all regions of the young mammal grow at the same rate and this is called
................................. growth.

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In the cell cycle, replication of DNA occurs in the...........................phase, after which

there is a lag or gap phase, called the ......................... phase, before actual mitosis
starts. The chromosomes also replicate before the onset of mitosis, but this replication
is not visible until the middle of the .............................. stage.
At this stage, each chromosome consists of two ..................................held together by
a ................................. .
In the kangaroo, there are 10 pairs of chromosomes. Thus in mitosis an anaphase cell
will contain ............................ chromosomes with ....................................... migrating
to each pole. The daughter cells therefore have the ......................... number of 2n =
................ . [12]

4. meristems; buds/intercalary meristems; allometric; S; G2; prophase; chromatids;

centromere; 40/20 pairs; 20/10 pairs; diploid; 20; [12]

5. The drawing below shows a dividing animal cell nucleus at the anaphase stage of
mitosis

(a) Briefly describe what you can see happening in this stage of mitosis. [4]
(b) (i) Draw accurately the appearance of the same nucleus at the
metaphase stage of mitosis. [3]
(ii) On your drawing label a centromere and a centrosome(aster). [2] [Total 9]

5 (a) spindles formed from centrosomes/centrioles; (daughter/replicated) chromosomes

migrating to the poles; pulled by contracting spindles; which are attached to the
centromeres; one set of chromosomes goes to one pole and other set to the other
pole; max [4]
(b) (i) and (ii)
Drawing:
4 chromosomes not yet replicated;
attached to spindles by their centromeres;
same chromatid length/centromere positions as in anaphase drawing; [5]

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6. (a) The statements in the list below the table describe some of the stages of mitosis.
Complete the table by writing in the correct statement with the appropriate
stage.
nuclear membranes reappear
DNA replicates
division of the cytoplasm occurs
chromosomes become shorter and thicker
chromosomes attach to spindle ends at equator
daughter chromosomes move to the poles [6]

(b) How does cytokinesis in plants differ from cytokinesis in animals? [2]
[Total 8]

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6 (a)

(b) (in animals) cytoplasm divides by constriction (between daughter nuclei); (in plants)
a phragmoplast/cell plate/new cell wall is synthesised (between the daughter
nuclei); [2]

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