Module 2– Cell Cycle

Cell Cycle
Module 2

2.1. Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points.
2.2. Describe the stages of mitosis/meiosis.

Your cells are too microscopic that it cannot be seen by our naked eye. Therefore, we find it
hard to appreciate how many cells we lose whenever we do our everyday routine. Worry not, as these
lost cells would be replaced eventually. As an example, every day we lose some of our skin cells, but
due to a certain biological process, it gets replaced in due time. How does a single cell give rise to a
multicellular organism? What processes occur during the three stages of interphase?

From the cell theory, pre-existing cells divide to form new cells. This remarkable process
enables an organism to grow, repair damaged parts, and reproduce. Cells serve as the essential link
between generations. Even the simplest cell contains a large amount of precisely coded genetic
information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). When a cell divides, the information
contained in the DNA must be faithfully replicated and the copies is then transmitted to each daughter
cell through a precisely choreographed series of steps.

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 Module 2– Cell Cycle

You have learned that living organisms follow a hierarchy of organization. How does a single
cell give rise to a multicellular organism? In order to attain a functional organism, cells need to be
reproduced at a fast rate and our body does produce millions of cells per second. This is manifested
during cell division. Why do cells divide? In order to be considered as a functional whole, the
organism’s cells must be able to undergo growth, development, repair, and reproduction. Cell division
follows one of the postulates of the cell theory which is, “Cells come from pre-existing cells.” How do
chromosomes behave during the meiotic and mitotic phase? Eukaryotes practice cell division, while
prokaryotes do binary fission as a way of cell reproduction. How does the process of binary fission in
prokaryotes differ from cell division in eukaryotes? What causes uncontrolled cell growth and why
does it often cause cancer?

Cell Cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that produces
two new daughter cells. The cell has two major phases: interphase and mitotic phase (cell division).

Before discussing the steps a cell must

undertake to proliferate, a deeper understanding of
the structure and function of the cell’s genetic
information is necessary. A cell’s DNA, known as the
deoxyribonucleic acid, is packaged as a double-
stranded molecule. A complete set of DNA in an
organism is known as the genome. In prokaryotes,
the genome is composed of a single double-
stranded DNA molecule in a form of a loop or circle.
Since they have no nucleus, the region in the cell Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: Similarities
containing the genetic material is called and Differences
a nucleoid. Some prokaryotes also have smaller
loops of DNA called plasmids that are not essential for their normal growth. Bacteria can exchange
these plasmids with other bacteria, sometimes receiving new genes that the recipient can add to their
chromosomal DNA. Antibiotic resistance is one trait that often spreads through a bacterial colony
through plasmid exchange.

Just before a eukaryotic cell divides, several thread-like structures gradually become visible
inside the nucleus. They are easily seen because they stain intensely with particular stains. They are
known as chromosomes because chromo means “colored” and somes means “bodies”.

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The isolation and microscopic observation of chromosomes form the basis of cytogenetics and
is the primary method by which clinicians detects chromosomal abnormalities in human. A karyotype
is the number and appearance of chromosomes, which includes their length, banding pattern and
centromere position. There are matching pairs of chromosomes known as homologous pairs. Each
pair is given a number. In the original zygote, one of each pair came from the mother and the other
one from the father. The pair of chromosomes can be distinguished because each pair has a distinctive
banding pattern when stained.

Two chromosomes are displayed on one side. These are the sex chromosomes (Chromosome
#23), which determine the sex of the organism. Females have two X chromosomes while males have
one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. The Y chromosome has one portion missing and is,
therefore, smaller than the X chromosome.

Haploid and Diploid Cells

When animals other than humans are examined, we find that cells usually contain two sets of
chromosomes. Such cells are described as diploid which is represented as 2n where n is equivalent to
the number of chromosomes in one set of chromosomes. For humans, 2n is equivalent to 46.

Comparison of Chromosome Number in Various Organisms

Not all cells are diploid. We’ll learn that gametes or sex cells such as sperm and egg contain
only one set of chromosomes and they are known to be haploid cells. A haploid cell is represented
as n. In humans, a 2n body cell has 46 chromosomes and a gamete has 23.

In each species, chromosomes can be identified by their number, size, centromere position,
and banding pattern. In human cells, there are 46 chromosomes in each cell as with that of the
roundworm, they only have 4 chromosomes in each cell.

Structure of Chromosomes

• Chromatids – These are two identical

structures due to DNA replication
during the interphase. Each chromatid
has one DNA molecule coiled in it.
• Centromere – It holds chromatids
together and may be located
anywhere along the length of the
chromosome.
• P arm – It is the short arm of the
chromosome pointing upwards.

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• Q arm – It is the long arm pointing downward.

• Telomere – It is the tips of the chromosome.

Phases of Cell Cycle

• G1 (Growth Phase 1) - The cell grows fast

along with the execution of is routine
metabolic processes such as synthesis of
proteins and organelles needed for cell
division. The cell is active at the
biochemical level. The cell is
accumulating the building blocks of
chromosomal DNA and the associated
proteins as well as accumulating
sufficient energy reserves to complete
the task of replicating each chromosome
in the nucleus.
• S phase (Synthesis of DNA) – The
cell’s DNA is being copied through the Cell Cycle
process of DNA replication.
• G2 phase (Growth Phase 2) – The cell makes final preparation before its division. There may
be additional cell growth during G2. The final preparation for the mitotic phase must be
completed before the cell can enter the first stage of mitosis.
• M Phase – In this phase, the cell will undergo prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
of cell division. The type of M-phase or cell division will vary on the type of cell involved.

In addition to the above-mentioned basic phases, G0 (resting phase) is the state in which the
cell leaves the cell cycle. It may be temporary or permanent. An example is a neuron that has lost its
ability to divide as it has achieved the highest possible differentiation rate.

Eukaryotic Cell Division

There are two types of cell division in higher living organisms such as vertebrates.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Takes place in somatic or body cells Takes place in germinal or sex cells

Only one cell division (PMAT) Two cell divisions (PMAT I and II)

Produces two daughter cells that are genetically Produces four cells that are genetically
identical different
Diploid cells as products Haploid cells as products
Synapses are absent on the chromatids of homologous chromosomes

Relevant mechanism for tissue repair and Necessary for the production of gametes
replacement of dead or damaged cells

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 Module 2– Cell Cycle

MITOSIS

Prophase. If the requirements for M checkpoint are met, cell division will start with prophase.
Here, the nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate (prometaphase), and the chromatin condenses
into chromosomes. Aside from this, mitotic spindles/spindle fibers start to develop which is vital
for chromosomal migration. During prometaphase, sister chromatids of each duplicated
chromosome becomes attached at their kinetochores to spindle microtubules extending from
opposite poles of the cell.

Metaphase. During metaphase, chromosomes align at the equatorial/metaphase plate. The

centrioles align on opposite poles and the polar fibers extend to the middle or center of the cell.
Each chromatid is completely condensed and appears distinct during metaphase.

Anaphase. During the anaphase, the centromere splits and two chromatids of each chromosome
migrate toward opposite poles. The chromatids move to opposite poles, using the spindle
microtubules as tracks. The rest of the spindle fibers, not connected to chromatids, lengthen and
elongate the cell. Both poles will contain a complete set of chromosomes at the end of anaphase.

Telophase. During the final stage of mitosis, chromosomes arrive at poles, and there is a return to
interphase-like conditions. The chromosomes decondense by partially uncoiling. A new nuclear
envelope forms around each set of chromosomes, made at least in part from small vesicles and
other components derived from the old nuclear envelope. The spindle microtubules disappear,
and the nucleoli reorganize.

Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis

Karyokinesis is the process by which nucleus divides before cytokinesis.

Cytokinesis is the actual division of the cytoplasm that marks the production of two identical
daughter cells.

Stages of Mitosis
MEIOSIS

Meiosis I

Prophase I. During this stage, the nucleolus and nuclear envelope start to disintegrate.
Chromosomes are already distinct, with sister chromatids fused together by a
centromere. Synapsis also occurs which is the pairing of homologous chromosomes that
came from paternal and maternal genetic material. Tetrad is the term for the four sister
chromatids from the pair of chromosomes that are visible during prophase. Crossing

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over, which is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes to

produce genetic variation occurs in this stage.

Metaphase I. During metaphase I, the tetrads line up at the equatorial plane of the cell
along with an increase in the number of the spindle fibers. The spindle fibers facilitate
the movement as it attaches into the kinetochore.

Anaphase I. During anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes migrate toward each

pole. Half of the total chromosome number will move to one pole and another half to
the other pole.

Telophase I. In this stage, the daughter cells completely divide with an equal amount of
chromosomes along with the reappearance of the nuclei. The chromosomes grow less
visible.

Interkinesis. This stage pertains to the short pause before entry into meiosis II. This is
not similar to interphase since there is no DNA replication during this stage.

Meiosis II

Prophase II. In the same manner as

prophase I, the nuclear envelope
disintegrates again, while the
chromosome shortens and becomes
thicker. As the spindle fiber arranges
and elongates, the centrioles move
toward opposite poles.

Metaphase II. In this stage, the

spindle fibers from opposite poles
bind to two kinetochores of every
centromere. The chromosomes
migrate to a new equatorial plate.

Anaphase II. In this stage,

centromeres separate, permitting
Stages of Meiosis 1 & 2

microtubules to attach to the kinetochore for

chromatid migration toward opposite poles. Upon
What do you think will movement toward opposite poles, the sister
happen if certain details chromatids are now called sister chromosomes.
are missed in respective
checkpoints? Telophase II. At this stage, the chromosomes start to
uncoil and lengthen, along with the disappearance of
spindle fibers and the reformation of the nuclear
envelope and cleavage furrow. This produces two
haploid cells. The total number of daughter cells
produced is four (all haploid).

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Prokaryotic Cell Division

BINARY FISSION

In prokaryotes, the mode of reproduction

is mostly via binary fission, which takes place as
soon as the cell achieves having duplicated circular
chromosomes, the required cell size, among
others. The cell elongates and separates into two
cells. The partition between cells is known as the
septum. The daughter cells pinch off after the cell
membrane and cell wall go towards the opposing
direction. As soon as the cell divides into two Binary Fission
daughter cells, the cell grows again, and the cycle
repeats.

Stages:

1. DNA Replication
2. Chromosome Segregation
3. Cytokinesis

Cell Cycle Checkpoint

Cell Cycle Checkpoint is an essential regulatory requirement before the cell cycle continues. Each
checkpoint plays a crucial/critical role to ensure normal cell physiology.

• G1 or Cell Growth Checkpoint where the

checking occurs towards the end of the G1
phase, in which it makes surveillance if the cell is
large enough and has made the required protein
for the synthesis phase.
• G2/DNA Synthesis Checkpoint in which the
checking occurs during the S phase, in which the
cell’s DNA is being checked for correct
replication down to the last nucleotide. If so, the
cell proceeds to mitosis.
• Mitosis Checkpoint is the final checkpoint
before division. The checking occurs during
mitosis to make sure that the cell has already
completed the mitotic processes. If the requirement is fulfilled, the cell divides and the cell
cycle repeat.

Some of the key molecules involved in regulating the cell cycle are protein kinases. These are
enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating (adding phosphate groups to)
them. The protein kinases involved in controlling the cell cycle are cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks).
The activity of various Cdks increases and then decreases as the cell moves through the cell cycle. Cdks
are active only when bind tightly to regulatory proteins called cyclins. The cyclins are so named
because their levels fluctuate predictably during the cell cycle. When a specific Cdk associates with a
specific cyclin, it forms a cyclin-Cdk complex. Cyclin-Cdk complexes phosphorylate enzymes and other

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proteins. Some of these proteins become activated when they are phosphorylated, and others
become inactivated.

Eukaryotic cells form four major

cyclin-Cdk complexes: G1-Cdk, G1/S-Cdk,
S-Cdk, and M-Cdk. Each cyclin-Cdk
complex phosphorylates a different
group of proteins. G1-Cdk prepares the
cell to pass from the G1 phase to the S
phase, and then G1/S-Cdk commits the
cell to undergo DNA replication. S-Cdk
initiates DNA replication. M-Cdk
promotes the events of mitosis,
including chromosome condensation,
nuclear envelope breakdown, and
mitotic spindle formation. M-Cdk also
activates another enzyme complex, the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), toward the end of
metaphase. APC initiates anaphase by allowing degradation of the cohesins and other proteins that
hold the sister chromatids together during metaphase. As a result, the sister chromatids separate as
two daughter chromosomes. At this point, cyclin is degraded to negligible levels and M-Cdk activity
drops, allowing the mitotic spindle to disassemble and the cell to exit mitosis.

Books
Rea, M.A., et. al., (2018) General Biology 1, First Ed. Sta. Mesa Heights, Quezon City. Rex Book Store,
Inc.
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Ramos, A.C.M. (2017). Exploring Life through Sciences: General Biology 1. Quezon Ave., Quezon City.
Phoenix Publishing House Inc.
Dela Pena, et. al., (2016). General Biology. Pasay City, Philippines. JFS Publishing Services.
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Chromosome Structure (Image). (2020). Microbe Notes. https://microbenotes.com/chromosome-

structure-types-and-functions/
Stages of Mitosis (Image). (2020). Biology Dictionary. https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-
1-cell-biology/16-cell-division/mitosis.html

Stages of Meiosis 1 and 2 (Image). (2020). Biology Dictionary. https://biologydictionary.net/meiosis/

Binary Fission (Image). (2020). Byju’s, The Learning App. https://byjus.com/biology/binary-fission/
Normal Cell Division (Image). (2020). Pursuit. https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/putting-cancer-
cells-to-sleep

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Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells (Image). (2019). Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/prokaryotic-vs-

eukaryotic-cells-similarities-differences-13717689.html
Cell Cycle (Image). (2018). University of Leicester.
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Module Creator/Curator: Ms. Larisa Mae C. Agtay

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