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FUNCTIONS
MATHEMATICS M (950)

Emilyn Gan
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Learning Outcomes
1.1 Functions
• state the domain and range of a function, and find composite functions;
• determine whether a function is one-to-one, and find the inverse of a one-to-one
function;
• sketch the graphs of simple functions,

1.2 Polynomial & Rational Functions

• use the factor theorem and the remainder theorem;
• solve polynomial and rational equations and inequalities;
• solve equations and inequalities involving modulus signs in simple cases;
• decompose a rational expression into partial fractions in cases where the
denominator has two distinct linear factors, or a linear factor and a prime
quadratic factor;

1.3 Exponential & Logarithmic Function

• relate exponential and logarithmic functions, algebraically and graphically;
• use the properties of exponents and logarithms;
• solve equations and inequalities involving exponential or logarithmic expressions.
EmilynGan 2

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1.1 Functions
• A technical definition of a function is: a relation from a set
of inputs to a set of possible outputs where each input is
related to exactly one output.
• A function, f(x) relates an input to an output. Each input is
related to exactly one output.

EmilynGan 3

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ONE-TO-ONE RELATION
‘ is square root of ‘
A 1 1 B
4 2 • We have
• A={1, 4, 9, 16, 25} and B={1,
9 3
2, 3, 4, 5}.
16 4 • Each element in set B is the
square root of a
25 5 corresponding Set A.

• The relation between A and B can also be represented by the set of

ordered pairs:
{(1, 1), (4, 2), (9, 3), (16, 4), (25, 5)}
• Each element in A is connected to a unique element in B.
• A relationship such as this is known as ONE-TO-ONE RELATION
EmilynGan 4

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MANY-TO-ONE RELATION
‘ is square of ‘
P -2 Q
1
-1
4
1
9
2
14
3

• We have P={-2, -1, 1, 2, 3} and Q={1, 4, 9, 14}.

• The elements -2 and 2 of set P are connected to the element 4 of set Q.
• The elements -1 and 1 of set P are connected to the element 1 of set Q.
• A relationship such as this is known as MANY-TO-ONE RELATION
EmilynGan 5

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Definition Function
p A relation or expression involving one or more
variables.
p Only one outcome/image

-2
‘ is square of ‘
P Q
1
-1
4
1 RANGE
9
2
14
3

DOMAIN CODOMAIN

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Example1:
‘ is square of ‘
X -2 0 Y
-1
1
0
2
1
2 5

(a) Show that the diagram above defines a function f from set X and set Y.
(b) Find f(x)
(c) State the domain of f and its range

(a) For each element x in set X, there exists a unique image y in set Y.
Hence, f can be defined as a function from set X to set Y
✓
EmilynGan 7

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Example1:
‘ is square of ‘
X -2 0 Y
-1
1
0
2
1
2 5

(a) Show that the diagram above defines a function f from set X and set Y.
(b) Find f(x)
(c) State the domain of f and its range

2
2
()
b ( )
f −2 = 5 ( )
= −2 +1
()
f 1 =2 ()
= 1 +1
2
f (−1) = 2 = (−1) +1 f ( 2) = 5 = ( 2)
2
+1
f ( 0) = 1 = 02 +1
EmilynGan
Hence, f x = x 2 +1
() ✓ 8

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Example1:
‘ is square of ‘
X -2 0 Y
-1
1
0
2
1
2 5

(a) Show that the diagram above defines a function f from set X and set Y.
(b) Find f(x)
(c) State the domain of f and its range

(c) Domain of f is {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}

✓
Range of f is {1, 2, 5}
✓
EmilynGan 9

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Example2:
Determine whether each equation defines y as a function of x. If so, determine
whether the function is one-to-one.
2 2
(a) y = x + 2 ( b) y = x + 3x + 2 (c) y = x−2

(a) y = x + 2
For each value of x ∈ R, the value of y is unique
Thus y is a function of x
No two values of x ∈ R have the same image
Thus the function is one − to − one ✓

EmilynGan 10

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Example2:
Determine whether each equation defines y as a function of x. if so, determine
whether the function is one-to-one.
2 2
(a) y = x + 2 ( b) y = x + 3x + 2 (c) y = x−2

(b) y = x 2 + 3x + 2
For each value of x ∈ R, the value of y is unique
Thus y is a function of x
2
() ()
When x = 0, y = 0 + 3 0 + 2 = 2
2
When x = −3, y = (−3) + 3(−3) + 2 = 2
Then exists two values of x ∈ R have the same image
Thus the function is NOT one − to − one
✓
EmilynGan 11

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Example2:
Determine whether each equation defines y as a function of x. if so, determine
whether the function is one-to-one.
2 2
(a) y = x + 2 ( b) y = x + 3x + 2 (c) y = x−2

(c) y2 = x − 2
y =± x−2
For each value of x ∈ R with x > 2, there exists two possible values of y.
For example, y = ±2 when x = 6
Thus y is not function of x. ✓

EmilynGan 12

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 Algebraic Operations on Functions
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f +g:x! f x +g x () ()
2 3
()
f x = 2x + 3 , g ( x ) = 4x +1
f + g = ⎡⎣2x 2 + 3⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣4x 3 +1⎤⎦
3 2
= 4x + 2x + 4 ✓
Combine like terms & put in descending order

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 Algebraic Operations on Functions
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f −g:x! f x −g x () ()
2 3
()
f x = 2x + 3 , g x = 4x +1()
f − g = ⎡⎣2x 2 + 3⎤⎦ − ⎡⎣4x 3 +1⎤⎦
3 2
= −4x + 2x + 2 ✓

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 Algebraic Operations on Functions
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() ()
f •g : x ! f x •g x
2 3
()
f x = 2x + 3 , g ( x ) = 4x +1
f • g = ⎡⎣2x 2 + 3⎤⎦⎡⎣4x 3 +1⎤⎦
5 3 2
= 8x +12x + 2x + 3 ✓

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 Algebraic Operations on Functions
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f
:x!
f x()
g g x()
2 3
() ()
f x = 2x + 3 , g x = 4x +1
2
f 2x + 3
= 3
g 4x +1 ✓

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 Algebraic Operations on Functions
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()
af : x ! a f x

2
()
f x = x −1
5 f ( x ) = 5( x 2
)
−1 ✓

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 Composite Functions
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f ! g : x " f ⎡⎣ g x ⎤⎦
()
COMPOSITION

OF
g ! f : x " g ⎡⎣ f ( x )⎤⎦

FUNCTIONS

“SUBSTITUTING ONE FUNCTION INTO ANOTHER”

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 Composite Functions
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f ! g : x " f ⎡⎣ g x ⎤⎦
() The DOMAIN of the
Composition Function
g ! f : x " g ⎡⎣ f x ⎤⎦
() The domain of f composition g is the set of all numbers x
in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.
1
f ( x) = g ( x) = x −1
x
1 The domain of g is x ≥ 1
f g =
x −1 domain of f  g is { x x > 1}
We also have to worry about any “illegals” in this composition
function, specifically dividing by 0. This would mean that x ≠ 1 so the
domain of the composition would be combining the two restrictions.

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Example3:
If f x = x 2 and g x = x +1, find
() ()
(a) f ! g ( x) ( b) g ! f ( x )
(c) f ! f ( x ) (d ) g ! g ( x)
()a f !g x () = f ⎡⎣ g x ⎤⎦
() f x = x2
()
2
If f ( a ) = ( a )
= f ⎡⎣ x +1⎤⎦
2
If f (b) = (b)
2
(
= x +1 )✓ If f ⎡⎣ x +1⎤⎦ = ( x +1)
2

EmilynGan 20

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Example3:
If f x = x 2 and g x = x +1, find
() ()
(a) f ! g ( x) ( b) g ! f ( x )
(c) f ! f ( x ) (d ) g ! g ( x)
( b) g ! f ( x ) = g ⎡⎣ f x ⎤⎦
() ()
g x = x +1
If g ( a ) = a +1
= g ⎡⎣ x 2 ⎤⎦
If g (b) = b +1
2
(
= x +1 )✓ ( )
If g x 2 = x 2 +1

EmilynGan 21

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Example3:
If f x = x 2 and g x = x +1, find
() ()
(a) f ! g ( x) ( b) g ! f ( x )
(c) f ! f ( x ) (d ) g ! g ( x)
()c f!f x () = f ⎡⎣ f x ⎤⎦ () f x = x2
()
2
If f ( a ) = ( a )
= f ⎡⎣ x 2 ⎤⎦
2
2 If f (b) = (b)
( )
= x 2

( )
If f ⎡⎣ x 2 ⎤⎦ = x 2
2

4
=x
✓
EmilynGan 22

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Example3:
If f x = x 2 and g x = x +1, find
() ()
(a) f ! g ( x) ( b) g ! f ( x )
(c) f ! f ( x ) (d ) g ! g ( x)
(d ) g ! g ( x) = g ⎡⎣ g x ⎤⎦
() ()
g x = x +1
If g ( a ) = a +1
= g ⎡⎣ x +1⎤⎦
If g (b) = b +1
( )
= x +1 +1 If g ( x +1) = ( x +1) +1
= x+2
✓
EmilynGan 23

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.com Example4:
Given that the function f : x ! 2x +1, find the function g if
(a) The composite function f ! g is f ! g : x " 6x +11
(b) The composite function g ! f is g ! f : x " 1 ,x ≠ 1
x −1

(a) f ( x) = 2x +1
f ⎡⎣ g ( x )⎤⎦ = 6x +11 () ()
If f x = 2x +1, then f a = 2a +1
f (b) = 2b +1
f ⎡⎣ g ( x )⎤⎦ = 2⎡⎣ g ( x )⎤⎦ +1
So f ⎡⎣ g x ⎤⎦ = 2g x +1
() ()
2⎡⎣ g ( x )⎤⎦ +1 = 6x +11

2⎡⎣ g ( x )⎤⎦ = 6x +10

g ( x ) = 3x + 5
✓ 24
EmilynGan

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.com Example4:
Given that the function f : x ! 2x +1, find the function g if
(a) The composite function f ! g is f ! g : x " 6x +11
(b) The composite function g ! f is g ! f : x " 1 ,x ≠ 1
x −1
1
() ()
b f x = 2x +1 g ⎡⎣2x +1⎤⎦ =
x −1
1 1
g ⎡⎣ f ( x )⎤⎦ = g ⎡⎣u⎤⎦ =
u −1
x −1 −1
2
1 ⎡ u −1 ⎤
g ⎡⎣2x +1⎤⎦ = = 1÷ ⎢ −1⎥
x −1 ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡ u −1− 2 ⎤
= 1÷ ⎢ ⎥
Let u = 2x +1 ⎣ 2 ⎦
u −1 u−3 2
= 1÷
x= 2 ()
∴ g x = , x≠3
2
g ⎡⎣u⎤⎦ =
2 x−3 ✓
EmilynGan
u−3 25

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.com Exercise1.1:

EmilynGan 26

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 Inverse Functions
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1
()
If given that f x = 2x +1 & g x = () 2
(
x −1 )
Let ()
f −1 x = u ⎡
() ⎤
⎡1
( )
⎤
f ⎣ g x ⎦ = f ⎢ x −1 ⎥ g ⎡⎣ f x ⎤⎦ = g ⎡⎣2x +1⎤⎦
()
⎣2 ⎦
f (u ) = x ⎡1 ⎤
1
= ⎡⎣ 2x +1 −1⎤⎦
( )
( )
= 2⎢ x −1 ⎥ +1 2
2u +1 = x ⎣2 ⎦ 1
= ⎡⎣2x ⎤⎦
= x −1+1 2
x −1
u= =x =x
2
1
⇒ f −1 () ( )
x = x −1
2
⇒ f −1 () ()
x =g x

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 Inverse Functions
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1
From () ()
f x = 2x +1 & g x = x −1
2
( )
Let ()
g −1 x = u
g (u ) = x
1
2
( u −1) = x

u = 2x +1
⇒ ()
g −1 x = 2x +1 = f x ()

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Inverse Functions
ØThe inverse of a function is not necessarily also a function
ØThe inverse of a given function is also a function if the given
function is a one-to-one function
ØThe inverse of a many-to-one function can be a function if
we restrict the domain

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Example5:
Find the inverse of each of the following functions, indicating its domain
2
()a f : x ! 3x + 5, x ∈ R ()
b f :x!
x−3
, x≠3

(a) f ( x) = 3x + 5 (b) f ( x) = x 2− 3
Let f ( x ) = u, −1
Let f ( x ) = u,
−1

f (u ) = x f (u ) = x
2
3u + 5 = x =x
u−3
x −5 ux − 3x = 2
u=
3 2 + 3x
u=
x −5 x
∴ f −1 x = () , x∈R
3 ✓ ()
∴ f −1 x =
2 + 3x
x
, x≠0
✓
EmilynGan 30

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.com Exercise1.2:

EmilynGan 31

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Graph of Linear, Quadratic & Cubic-Functions
y Linear Function
C A
()
f x = ax + b

D b
b
a > 0, b > 0 A

B a > 0, b < 0 B

a < 0, b > 0 C

0 x a < 0, b < 0 D
b
b

EmilynGan 32

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Graph of Linear, Quadratic & Cubic-Functions
y Quadratic Function
f x = ax 2 + bx + c
()
A a>0 A

0 x

EmilynGan 33

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Graph of Linear, Quadratic & Cubic-Functions
y Quadratic Function
f x = ax 2 + bx + c
()
a<0 B

0 B x

EmilynGan 34

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Graph of Linear, Quadratic & Cubic-Functions
y Cubic Function
f x = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
()
a>0 A

0 x

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Graph of Linear, Quadratic & Cubic-Functions
y Cubic Function
f x = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
()
a<0 B

0 x

EmilynGan 36

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.com Example6:
Sketch the graphs of the following functions
a f x = x 2 + 4x + 5
() () b f x = −2x 2 + 3x +1
() ()
(a) Completing the square (i ) The graph cuts the y − axis when x = 0 ⇒ y = 5
f x () = x 2 + 4x + 5 (ii ) As x → ∞, y → ∞ & when x → −∞, y → ∞
2
⎛4⎞ ⎛4⎞
2

= x + 4x + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + 5
2
(iii )When x = −2, y = 1 is the minimum value of f ( x)
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ y
2
= x + 2 − 22 + 5
( )
2 5
= ( x + 2) +1

1
-2 0 x
37
EmilynGan

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Example6:
Sketch the graphs of the following functions
2 2
(a) f ( x) = x + 4x + 5 (b) f ( x) = −2x + 3x +1

(a) Completing the square ⎡⎛

3 ⎞ 9 1⎤
2

= −2⎢⎜ x − ⎟ − − ⎥
f x () = −2x 2 + 3x +1 ⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ 16 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 3 1⎤ ⎡⎛ ⎞ 17 ⎤
2
= −2⎢ x − x − ⎥ 3
⎣ 2 2⎦ = −2⎢⎜ x − ⎟ − ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ 16 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2
⎛ −3 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
2 ⎤
⎢ 2 3 ⎜ 2
2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟ 1⎥ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 17
= −2⎢ x − x + ⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ − 2 ⎥ = −2 ⎜ x − ⎟ +
⎢ 2 ⎜ 2 ⎥ ⎝ 4⎠ 8
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 1⎤
2 2
3
= −2⎢⎜ x − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ − ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 2 ⎥⎦
38
EmilynGan

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Example6:
Sketch the graphs of the following functions
2 2
(a) f ( x) = x + 4x + 5 (b) f ( x) = −2x + 3x +1
2
⎛ 3 ⎞ 17
()
f x = −2 ⎜ x − ⎟ + y
⎝ 4⎠ 8
17/8
(i ) The graph cuts the y − axis when x = 0 ⇒ y = 1
(ii ) As x → ∞, y → −∞ & when x → −∞, y → −∞
3 17
( )
iii When x =
4
, y =
8
is the max imum value of f ( x ) 1

0 x
3/4

39
EmilynGan

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Example7:
Sketch the graphs of:
a f x = x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
() () b f x = x 3 − x 2 − x +1
() ()
(a) Find one of the factor Find others factor u sin g " Long Division"
3 2 x 2 − 4x + 3
()
for f x = x − 2x − 5x + 6
3 2 x + 2 x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
f (−2) = (−2) ( ) ( )
− 2 −2 − 5 −2 + 6
x 3 + 2x 2
=0
−4x 2 − 5x + 6
( )
⇒ x + 2 is one of the
−4x 2 − 8x
factor for f x = x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
() 3x + 6
3x + 6

)(
⇒ f x = x + 2 x 2 − 4x + 3
() ( ) 40
EmilynGan

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Example7:
Sketch the graphs of:
a f x = x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
() () b f x = x 3 − x 2 − x +1
() ()
( ) ( )(
⇒ f x = x + 2 x 2 − 4x + 3 )
= ( x + 2) ( x −1) ( x − 3) When x → ∞, y → ∞
a>0
3 2
When x → −∞, y → −∞
()
The graph of f x = x − 2x − 5x + 6 is cubic
The max point must lie
The graph crosses the x − axis when y = 0 between −2 < x < 1
( )(
0 = x + 2 x −1 x − 3 )( ) The min point must lie
Hence, x = −2, x = 1, x = 3 between 1< x < 3
The graph crosses the y − axis when x = 0
() ( )(
f 0 = 0 + 2 0 −1 0 − 3 = 6 )( ) 41
EmilynGan

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Example7:
Sketch the graphs of:
a f x = x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
() () b f x = x 3 − x 2 − x +1
() ()
y

y = x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
When y = 0 ⇒ x = −2, x = 1, x = 3
When x = 0 ⇒ y=6
Max point between −2 < x < 1 6
Min point between 1< x < 3

-2 0 1 3 x

42
EmilynGan

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Graph of Power Functions
A Power Function is a function that can be represented in the form
f x = kx n
()
where k and n are real numbers, and k is known as the coefficient

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Graph of Power Functions
Even Power Even Power
(k > 0) (k < 0)

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Graph of Power Functions
Odd Power Odd Power
(k > 0) (k < 0)

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Example8:
Sketch of the following curves
5
4
(a) y = 5x ( b) y = 3 ( x − 2)
The graph of y = 5x 4 has a y
()a
minimum point at the origin
and is symmetrical about
the y − axis y = 5x 4

0 x

46
EmilynGan

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Example8:
Sketch of the following curves
5
4
(a) y = 5x ( b) y = 3 ( x − 2)
5

The graph of y = 3x 5 has a point y (

y =3 x−2 )
( b) y = 3x 5
of inflexion at the origin.
5
The shape of the curve y = 3 x − 2 ( )
is similar of to that y = 3x 5 but
0 x
has a point of inflexion at 2, 0 ( ) (2, 0)

47
EmilynGan

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Graph of Rational Functions

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.

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EmilynGan 49

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.com Example9: 2x −1
Sketch the curve with equation y =
State the asymptotes of the curve. x +1
⎛ 1⎞
x ⎜2 − ⎟ 1
2 −
⎝ x⎠ x
Re writting the equation as y = , so we get y =
⎛ 1⎞ 1
x ⎜1+ ⎟ 1+
⎝ x⎠ x
1
When x → ±∞, → 0 and y → 2
x 2x −1
Hence, y = 2 is an asymptote to the curve y =
x +1
2x −1
When x = −1, y = is undifined . Hence, x = −1 is also an asymptote to the curve
x +1
1
When x = 0, y = −1. When y = 0, x =
2
50
EmilynGan

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.com Example9: 2x −1
Sketch the curve with equation y =
State the asymptotes of the curve. x +1

2x −1 2x −1 y
The graph of y = is y=
x +1 x +1 (
Asymptote x = −1 )
as shown below
(
Asymptote y = 2 )
The asymptotes to the curve
2
are y = 2 and x = −1

-1 0 ½ x
-1

EmilynGan

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Graph of Functions Involving Modulus Sign

y y
y=x y= x

0 x 0 x

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.com Example10:
Sketch the graph of y = x 2 − 3x + 2, noting the points of intersection of graph with the
x-axis.
2
On the separate diagram, sketch the graph of y = x − 3x + 2 .

y = x 2 − 3x + 2 y

2
2 y = x 2 − 3x + 2
⇒ x − 3x + 2 = 0
( x −1) ( x − 2) = 0
x = 1 or x = 2
0 1 2 x
Look for y-intercept, x=0:
when x=0, y=2
53
EmilynGan

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.com Example10:
Sketch the graph of y = x 2 − 3x + 2, noting the points of intersection of graph with the
x-axis.
2
On the separate diagram, sketch the graph of y = x − 3x + 2 .
y

y = x 2 − 3x + 2
2

y = x 2 − 3x + 2

0 1 2 x

✓
54
EmilynGan

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Example11:
Sketch the graph of y = 2x − 3 .
By drawing the graph of y=x on the same diagram, determine the values of x such
that 2x − 3 > x

y = 2x − 3
()
When x = 0, y = 2 0 − 3 = −3
When x = 3, y = 2 (3) − 3 = 3

55
EmilynGan

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Example11:
Sketch the graph of y = 2x − 3 .
By drawing the graph of y=x on the same diagram, determine the values of x such
that 2x − 3 > x

When y = 0, 0 = 2x − 3
3
x=
2

ALL y-value only

When y = 2x − 3 appear in +VE

()
When x = 0, y = 2 0 − 3 = 3

When x = −1, y = 2 (−1) − 3 = 5

56
EmilynGan

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Example11:
Sketch the graph of y = 2x − 3 .
By drawing the graph of y=x on the same diagram, determine the values of x such
that 2x − 3 > x

y1
y2 2x − 3 > x
y1
y2
y1 > y2

y1
y2 x < 1 or x > 3
✓
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Graph of Piecewise Functions

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Example12:
Sketch the graph of the function f defined by
y
⎧ 2
⎪ x −3 ≤ x < 2 9
()
f x =⎨ 5 x=2 8
⎪ 8− x 2 < x ≤ 4
⎩ 7
6
For the −3 ≤ x < 2, the graph is quadratic 5
For the x = 2, y = 5 4
For the 2 < x ≤ 4, the graph is straight line 3
2
1

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
EmilynGan 59
✓
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.com Example13:
For x ∈ R, {x} is defined as the greatest integer not exceeding x, for example,
⎡ 5⎤
⎢ ⎥ = 2, ⎡⎣3⎤⎦ = 3, and ⎡⎣−1.2⎤⎦ = −2
⎣2⎦
()
Sketch the graph of f defined by f x = ⎡⎣ x ⎤⎦ for −2 ≤ x < 3
y
⎧ 2
−2 for −2 ≤ x < −1
⎪
⎪ −1 for −1 ≤ x < 0 1
⎪
()
f x =⎨ 0 for 0 ≤ x < 1
⎪
1 for 1 ≤ x < 2
⎪ 0 x
-2 -1 1 2 3
⎪ 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3
⎩
1

EmilynGan 2 60
✓
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.com Ex1.3 (Pg19)

EmilynGan 61

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.com Ex1.3 (Pg19)

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1.2 Polynomial & Rational Functions

Ø Polynomial Functions
• A polynomial function is a function such as a quadratic, a cubic, a
quartic, and so on, involving only non-negative integer powers of x.
• We can give a general definition of a polynomial, and define its
degree.
is identically
A function of x in the form equal to

()
P x ≡ a 0 x n + a1 x n−1 + a 2 x n−2 + ...+ a r x n−r + ...a n−1 x + an
where ar ∈ R and a 0 ≠ 0, n ∈ Z + is called a polynomial function of deg ree n

EmilynGan 63

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Degree of n Functions Example
0 Constant f(x)=5
1 Linear f(x)=5x+4
2 Quadratic f(x)=5x2+4x+3
@ f(x)=5x2+4x
@ f(x)=5x2+3
@ f(x)=5x2
3 Cubic f(x)=5x3+4x2+3x+2
@ f(x)=5x3+4x2+3x
@ f(x)=5x3+4x2+2
@ f(x)=5x3+4x
@ f(x)=5x3
4 Quartic f(x)=5x4+4x3+3x2+2x+1
@ f(x)=5x4+4x3+3x2+1
@ f(x)=5x4+4x3+2x
@ f(x)=5x4+4x2
EmilynGan
@ f(x)=5x4 64

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Ø Algebraic Operations On Polynomials
Addition of Polynomials

(x2 + 3x + 1) + (4x2 +5) = (x + 4x ) + 3x + (1 + 5)

2 2

= 5x2 + 3x + 6

Step 1:
Underline like terms
Notice: ‘3x’ doesn’t have a like term.

Step 2:
Add the coefficients of like terms, do not change the powers of the variables

EmilynGan 65

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Ø Algebraic Operations On Polynomials
Addition of Polynomials

(x2 + 3x + 1) + (4x2 +5) = (x + 4x ) + 3x + (1 + 5)

2 2

= 5x2 + 3x + 6
OR
Stack and add these polynomials
** Be sure to line up the like terms!

x2 + 3x + 1
+ 4x2 +5
5x2 +3x +6

EmilynGan 66

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Ø Algebraic Operations On Polynomials
Subtraction of Polynomials

(3x2 + 2x + 7) – (x2 + x + 4) = (3x2 – x2) + (2x – x) + (7 – 4)

= 2x2 + x + 3

Step 1:
Underline like terms

Step 2:
Subtract the coefficients of like terms, do not change the powers of the variables

EmilynGan 67

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Ø Algebraic Operations On Polynomials
Subtraction of Polynomials

(3x2 + 2x + 7) – (x2 + x + 4) = (3x2 – x2) + (2x – x) + (7 – 4)

= 2x2 + x + 3
OR
Stack and add these polynomials
** Be sure to line up the like terms!

3x2 + 2x + 7
– ( x2 + x + 4)
2x2 + x +3

EmilynGan 68

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Ø Algebraic Operations On Polynomials
Multiplication of Polynomials

Evaluate.
1. 32 9
2. 24 16
3. 102 100

Simplify
4. 23Ÿ24 27
5. y5Ÿy4 y9
6. (53)2 56
7. (x2)4 x8
8. -4(x-7) -4x+28

EmilynGan 69

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Ø Algebraic Operations On Polynomials
Multiplication of Polynomials

• When multiplying powers with the same base, keep the base and
add the exponents.
x2 Ÿ x3 = x2+3 = x5

( )( )
5x + 4 3x −1 =15x 2 −5x +12x −4
= 15x 2 + 7x − 4

EmilynGan 70

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.com Example14:
If P x = 2x 3 + 4x 2 − x + 3 dan Q x = 3x 2 + x −1, find
() ()
(a) P ( x) + Q ( x)
( b) P ( x ) − Q ( x )
(c) P ( x) •Q ( x)

(a) P ( x) + Q ( x) = (2x 3
) ( )
+ 4x 2 − x + 3 + 3x 2 + x −1
= 2x 3 + 4x 2 − x + 3+ 3x 2 + x −1
= 2x 3 + 7x 2 + 2 ✓
(b) P ( x) − Q ( x) = (2x 3
) (
+ 4x 2 − x + 3 − 3x 2 + x −1 )
= 2x 3 + 4x 2 − x + 3− 3x 2 − x +1
= 2x 3 + x 2 − 2x + 4
✓
EmilynGan 71

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Example14:
If P x = 2x 3 + 4x 2 − x + 3 dan Q x = 3x 2 + x −1, find
() ()
(a) P ( x) + Q ( x)
( b) P ( x ) − Q ( x )
(c) P ( x) •Q ( x)
(c) P ( x) •Q ( x) = (2x 3
)(
+ 4x 2 − x + 3 3x 2 + x −1)
( ) ( ) ( ) (
= 2x 3 3x 2 + x −1 + 4x 2 3x 2 + x −1 − x 3x 2 + x −1 + 3 3x 2 + x −1 )
= 6x 5 + 2x 4 − 2x 3 +12x 4 + 4x 3 − 4x 2 − 3x 3 − x 2 + x + 9x 2 + 3x − 3
= 6x 5 +14x 4 − x 3 + 4x 2 + 4x − 3 ✓

EmilynGan 72

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.com Example15:
3 2
Determine the quotient and remainder when 2x − 7x − 9x + 38 is divided by ( x − 3)
2
LONG DIVISION
2x −x −12
x − 3 2x 3 − 7x 2 − 9x + 38
3 2
− 2x − 6x

−x 2 − 9x + 38 Quotient
2
− −x + 3x
Remainder
−12x + 38
− −12x + 36
2
Using the long division method, the quotient is 2x 2 − x −12
and remainder 2.
EmilynGan
✓ 73

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Example16: 3 2
Find the quotient if x − 4x + 5x − 2 can be divided by x − 2 exactly. ( )
x 3 − 4x 2 + 5x − 2
x−2
=q x ()
x 3 − 4x 2 + 5x − 2 ≡ q ( x ) • ( x − 2) q(x) is a polynomial quadratic function

(
x 3 − 4x 2 + 5x − 2 ≡ ax 2 + bx + c x − 2 )( )
= ax 3 + bx 2 + cx − 2ax 2 − 2bx − 2c
x 3 − 4x 2 + 5x − 2 = ax 3 + b − 2a x 2 + c − 2b x − 2c
( ) ( )
Equating Coefficients of x3: a =1
Equating Coefficients of x2: b − 2a = −4 ()
⇒ b − 2 1 = −4 ⇒ b = −2
Equating Coefficients of x: c − 2b = 5 ( )
⇒ c − 2 −2 = 5 ⇒ c =1
∴ q x = x 2 − 2x +1
()
EmilynGan
✓ 74

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Example17:
Find the constants A, B, and C, such that
x 2 − 5x +12 ≡ A x −1 x − 2 + B x +1 x −1 + C x − 2 x + 3
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
2
When x = 1, () () ( )( ) ( )( ) (
⇒ 1 − 5 1 +12 = A 1−1 1− 2 + B 1+1 1−1 + C 1− 2 1+ 3 )( )
⇒ 8 = A (0) + B (0) + C (−1) ( 4)
⇒ 8 = −4C
⇒ C = −2 ✓
2
When x = 2, () () ( )( ) ( )(
⇒ 2 − 5 2 +12 = A 2 −1 2 − 2 + B 2 +1 2 −1 + C 2 − 2 2 + 3) ( )( )
⇒ 6 = A (0) + B (3) (1) + C (0)
⇒ 6 = 3B
B =2
EmilynGan ⇒
✓ 75

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Example17:
Find the constants A, B, and C, such that
x 2 − 5x +12 ≡ A x −1 x − 2 + B x +1 x −1 + C x − 2 x + 3
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
2
When x = 0, () () ( )( ) ( )( ) (
⇒ 0 − 5 0 +12 = A 0 −1 0 − 2 + B 0 +1 0 −1 + C 0 − 2 0 + 3 )( )
⇒ 12 = A ( 2) + B (−1) + C (−6)
⇒ 12 = 2A − B − 6C
⇒ 12 ( )
= 2A − 2 − 6 −2
⇒ 2A = 2
⇒ A =1
✓
∴ A = 1, B = 2, C = −2
EmilynGan ✓ 76

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Ex1.4 (Pg24)

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The Remainder Theorem

When the polynomial 2x3-7x2+11x-7 is divided by (x-2), the quotient is
2x2-3x+5 with remainder 3.

2x 3 − 7x 2 +11x − 7 3 Remainder
= 2x 2 − 3x + 5 +
x−2 x−2
Quotient

OR Divisor

2x 3 − 7x 2 +11x − 7 = ( )(
2x 2 − 3x + 5 x − 2 ) + 3 Remainder

Quotient

EmilynGan 78

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The Remainder Theorem

Generally,

( ) =Q
P x R
x−a
()
x +
x−a

OR

() ()(
P x ≡Q x ⋅ x−a +R )
()
By Substituting x = a, P a = R
EmilynGan 79

© presentationgo.com
.com Example18:
(
Find the remainder when the polynomial P x = x 3 + 7x 2 − 5x − 4 is divided by x + 3
() )

P x = x 3 + 7x 2 − 5x − 4
()
Since x + 3 is the divisor, choose a value of x such that x + 3 = 0, i.e. x = −3
3 2
( ) ( )
P −3 = −3 + 7 −3 − 5 −3 − 4 ( ) ( ) = 20

Hence, the remainder when the polynomial P(x) is divided by (x+3) is 20

✓

EmilynGan 80

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Example19:
(
Find the remainder when the polynomial 2x 4 − 5x 3 + x 2 − 7x +1 is divided by 2x +1 )

Let Q x = 2x 4 − 5x 3 + x 2 − 7x +1
()
1
Since 2x +1 is the divisor, we choose a value of x such that 2x +1= 0, i.e. x = −
2
4 3 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Q ⎜ − ⎟ = 2 ⎜ − ⎟ − 5⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜ − ⎟ − 7 ⎜ − ⎟ +1
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
11 1
= @5
2 2
1
Hence, the remainder when the polynomial Q(x) is divided by (2x+1) is 5
2 ✓
EmilynGan 81

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.com Example20:
4 3 2
The polynomial ax − 5x + bx − 7x +11 leaves a remainder of -8 when it is divided by
(x −1 , and a remainder of 11 when divided by 2x +1 . Determine the values of a
) ( )
and b. 2

Lets P x = ax 4 − 5x 3 + bx 2 − 7x +11
() ⎛ 1 ⎞ 11
Given P (1) = −8 And P ⎜− ⎟ =
⎝ 2⎠ 2
4 3 2
4 3 2 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 11
() ()
Hence, a 1 − 5 1 + b 1 − 7 1 +11 = −8 () () And , a ⎜ − ⎟ − 5⎜ − ⎟ + b ⎜ − ⎟ − 7 ⎜ − ⎟ +11 =
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 2
a+b =3 − − − (1) a 5 b 7 11
+ + + +1 =
16 8 4 2 2
a + 4b = 6 −−− 2 ()

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.com Example20:
4 3 2
The polynomial ax − 5x + bx − 7x +11 leaves a remainder of -8 when it is divided by
(x −1 , and a remainder of 11 when divided by 2x +1 . Determine the values of a
) ( )
and b. 2

(2) − (1) : 3b = 3
b =1
✓
Substitute b = 1 int o 1 : ()
a +1 = 3
a=2 ✓

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.com Example21:
When the polynomial P(x) is divided by (x-1), its remainder is 5
When P(x) is divided by (x-2), its remainder is 7. Given that P(x) may be written in
the form (x-1)(x-2).Q(x) +Ax+B, where Q(x) is a polynomial, A and B are constant,
find the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x-1)(x-2).

( ) ( )( ) ( )
Given P x ≡ x −1 x − 2 ⋅ Q x + Ax + B (2) − (1) ⇒ 2A + B = 7
A+ B = 5
When P ( x ) divided by ( x −1) , the remainder is 5
A =2
P (1) ≡ (1−1) (1− 2) ⋅ Q (1) + A (1) + B = 5 ()
Substitute A = 2 int o 1
A+ B = 5 − − − (1) ⇒ 2+ B = 5
When P ( x ) divided by ( x − 2) , the remainder is 7 ⇒ B=3
P ( 2) ≡ ( 2 −1) ( 2 − 2) ⋅ Q ( 2) + A ( 2) + B = 7
2A + B = 7 − − − ( 2)
EmilynGan 84

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.com Example21:
When the polynomial P(x) is divided by (x-1), its remainder is 5
When P(x) is divided by (x-2), its remainder is 7. Given that P(x) may be written in
the form (x-1)(x-2).Q(x) +Ax+B, where Q(x) is a polynomial, A and B are constant,
find the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x-1)(x-2).

Therefore, ( ) ( )( ) ( )
P x ≡ x −1 x − 2 ⋅ Q x + 2x + 3
P ( x) ( x −1) ( x − 2) ⋅ Q ( x ) 2x + 3
≡ +
( x −1) ( x − 2) ( x −1) ( x − 2) ( x −1) ( x − 2)

∴The remainder is 2x + 3( )✓

EmilynGan 85

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The Factor Theorem

(x-a) is a factor for P(x)

IF AND ONLY IF
P(a)=0

EmilynGan 86

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 Example22:
.com
3 • Long Division
()
Factorise P x = x − 7x − 6
• Try and Error
3
Let x = 1, () ()
P 1 = 1 −7 1 −6 () Hints:
- Notice that the constant
= −12 ≠ 0 term for P(x) is -6.
Hence, the (x-1) is not a factor of P(x) - If (x-a) were a factor of
P(x), then a must be a
factor of -6.
3 - i.e. a=±1,±2,±3 or ±6.
Let x = −1, ( ) ( ) ( )
P −1 = −1 − 7 −1 − 6
=0
Hence, the (x+1) is a factor of P(x)

EmilynGan 87

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.com Example22:
3
()
Factorise P x = x − 7x − 6

3
Let x = 2, () ()
P 2 = 2 −7 2 −6 () Hints:
- Notice that the constant
= −12 ≠ 0 term for P(x) is -6.
Hence, the (x-2) is not a factor of P(x) - If (x-a) were a factor of
P(x), then a must be a
factor of -6.
3 - i.e. a=±1,±2,±3 or ±6.
Let x = −2, ( ) ( ) ( )
P −2 = −2 − 7 −2 − 6
=0
Hence, the (x+2) is a factor of P(x)

EmilynGan 88

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.com Example22:
3
Factorise P x = x − 7x − 6 ()
3
Let x = 3, () ()
P 3 = 3 −7 3 −6() Hints:
- Notice that the constant
=0 term for P(x) is -6.
Hence, the (x-3) is a factor of P(x) - If (x-a) were a factor of
P(x), then a must be a
factor of -6.
- i.e. a=±1,±2,±3 or ±6.
By using long division,
P x = x 3 − 7x − 6
()
( )( )(
= x +1 x + 2 x − 3 )✓
EmilynGan 89

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.com Example23: 3 2
Show that (x+2) is a factor of f x = 6x +13x −4 ()
Hence, factorise f(x) completely and find the values of x such that f(x)=0

1. Show (x+2) is a factor for f(x)

f x = 6x 3 +13x 2 − 4
()
3 2

( ) ( )
f −2 = 6 −2 +13 −2 − 4 ( )
= −48 + 52 − 4
=0

Hence, by factor theorem, (x+2) is a factor of f(x)

EmilynGan 90

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.com Example23: 3 2
Show that (x+2) is a factor of f x = 6x +13x −4()
Hence, factorise f(x) completely and find the values of x such that f(x)=0

2. Factorise : Use Long Division

()
f x = 6x 3 +13x 2 − 4
6x 2 +x −2
( )(
= x + 2 6x 2 + x − 2 )
x+2 6x 3 +13x 2 −4
3
6x +12x 2
= ( x + 2) (3x + 2) ( 2x −1)
x 22
x + 2x ()
f x =0
−2x − 4
−2x − 4 ( x + 2) (3x + 2) (2x −1) = 0
x+2=0 or 3x + 2 = 0 or 2x −1= 0
2 1
x = −2 or x=− or x=
EmilynGan
✓ 3 ✓ 2 ✓ 91

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.com Example23:
Given that (x-2) is a factor of f(x), where f x ≡ ax 3 −10x 2 + bx − 2, a, b ∈ R
()
When f(x) is divided by (x-3), its remainder is 16. Find the values of a and b.

By u sin g factor theorem,

()
f 2 =0 ()
f 3 = 16
3 2
3
a ( 2) −10 ( 2)
2
a (3) −10 (3) ()
+ b 3 − 2 = 16
()
+b 2 −2 =0
8a − 40 + 2b − 2 = 0 27a − 90 + 3b − 2 = 16
8a + 2b = 42 27a + 3b = 108
4a + b = 21 ()
−−− 1 9a + b = 36 −−− 2 ()
(2) − (1) ⇒ 5a = 15 ()
Substitute a = 3 int o 1 , ()
4 3 + b = 21
⇒ a=3 b=9

EmilynGan
∴ Hence, f x = 3x 3 −10x 2 + 9x − 2
() ✓ 92

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.com Ex1.5 (Pg29)

EmilynGan 93

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Polynomial & Rational Inequalities

Basic Rules governing inequalities involving real numbers are as follows:

For any a, b ∈ R with a > b

(a) a + c > b + c, c ∈ R

( b) ac > bc, c ∈ R, c > 0

(c) ac < bc, c ∈ R, c < 0

© presentationgo.com
.com Example25:
If x>0, find the range of values of x which satisfy each of the following inequalities:
3 5 1
(a) 5x − 2 < x +
2 8
( b) 3x ≥ 2 +
x

3 5
5x − 2 < x +
2 8
3 5
5x − x < + 2
2 8
7 21
x< Since x > 0, the range of values x
2 8
3 3 5 3
x< for 5x − 2 < x + is 0 < x <
4 2 8 4✓
EmilynGan 95

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.com Example25:
If x>0, find the range of values of x which satisfy each of the following inequalities:
3 5 1
(a) 5x − 2 < x +
2 8
( b) 3x ≥ 2 +
x
Let 3x +1 ≥ 0 & x −1 ≥ 0
1
3x ≥ 2 + 1
x x≥− & x ≥1
1 3
3x − − 2 ≥ 0
x - - +
3x 2 −1− 2x
x
≥0 - + +
3x 2 − 2x −1
x
≥0 + −
1
3 - 1 +
( )(
3x +1 x −1
≥0
) 1
x
⇒ x≤−
3
& x ≥1 ⇒ x ≥1 ✓
EmilynGan 96

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.com Example26:
Show that the following inequalities are true for all x ∈ R
()a 2x 2 + 8x + 9 > 0 ()
b −3x 2 + 2x − 5 < 0

(a) Let f x = 2x 2 + 8x + 9
()
⎡ 9⎤
= 2⎢ x 2 + 4x + ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤
4 4 9
= 2⎢ x 2 + 4x + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎥ 2
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎥⎦ ( )
Now, for all x ∈ R, x + 2 ≥ 0
Hence, 2x 2 + 8x + 9 > 0 for all x ∈ R
⎡
( )
2
= 2⎢ x + 2 − 4 + ⎥
⎣
9⎤
2⎦
✓
⎡ 2 1⎤
( )
= 2⎢ x + 2 + ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
2
( )
= 2 x + 2 +1
EmilynGan 97

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Alternative Method: a>0

()a Let f x = 2x 2 + 8x + 9 with a = 2, b = 8, c = 9
()
2
2
()
b − 4ac = 8 − 4 2 9 ( )( )
= −8

b2 − 4ac < 0

2
Hence, b − 4ac < 0 and the graph of y=f(x) does not intersect the x-axis
Since a>0, the graph of y=f(x) is always above x-axis
2
Hence, 2x + 8x + 9 > 0 for all x ∈ R ✓

© presentationgo.com
.com Example26:
Show that the following inequalities are true for all x ∈ R
() a 2x 2 + 8x + 9 > 0 ()b −3x 2 + 2x − 5 < 0

Let g x = −3x 2 + 2x − 5 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎤
()b () 1 ⎞
= −3⎢⎜ x − ⎟ + ⎥
14
⎡ 2 2 5⎤ ⎢⎣⎝ 3 ⎠ 9 ⎥⎦
= −3⎢ x − x + ⎥
⎣ 3 3⎦ 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 14
⎡ 2
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
2 ⎤ = −3⎜ x − ⎟ −
⎢ − ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ ⎥ ⎝ 3⎠ 3
2 ⎜ 5
= −3⎢ x 2 − x + ⎜ 3 ⎟ − ⎜ 3 ⎟ + ⎥
⎢ 3 ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟ 3⎥ ⎛ 1 ⎞
2

⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ Now, for all x ∈ R, −3⎜ x − ⎟ ≤ 0

⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 3⎠
⎡⎛ 2 ⎤ 2
1 ⎞
= −3⎢⎜ x − ⎟ − + ⎥
1 5 Hence, −3x
✓
+ 2x − 5 < 0 for all x ∈ R
⎢⎝ 3 ⎠ 9 3⎥⎦
EmilynGan ⎣ 99

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Alternative Method: a<0

b Let g x = −3x 2 + 2x − 5 with a = −3, b = 2, c = −5
() ()
2
2
()
b − 4ac = 2 − 4 −3 −5 ( )( )
= −56

b2 − 4ac < 0

2
Hence, b − 4ac < 0 and the graph of y=g(x) does not intersect the x-axis
Since a<0, the graph of y=g(x) is always below the x-axis
2
Hence, −3x + 2x − 5 < 0 for all x ∈ R ✓

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.com Example27:
Find the set of values of x which satisfy the inequality 2x 2 + x > 3
y
Given 2x 2 + x > 3
2x 2 + x − 3 > 0
(2x + 3) ( x −1) > 0 f(x) > 0

Intersection Points :
⇒ 2x + 3 = 0 or x −1= 0 x
3 0 1
3 −
⇒ x = − or x = 1 2
2 3
⇒ x<− or x > 1
2
⎧ 3 ⎫
∴ The solution set of the inequalities is ⎨ x < − or x > 1⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ✓
EmilynGan 101

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.com
Example: 2
Find the set of values of x which satisfy the inequality 2x + x > 3

Given 2x 2 + x > 3
2x 2 + x − 3 > 0 - + +
(2x + 3) ( x −1) > 0 f(x) > 0
- - +
Let 2x + 3 > 0 or x −1> 0 3 1
3 + −
2 - +
⇒ x > − or x > 1
2
3
⇒ x<− or x > 1
2
⎧ 3 ⎫
∴ The solution set of the inequalities is ⎨ x < − or x > 1⎬
2
EmilynGan
⎩
✓⎭
102

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.com Example28:
3 2
()
If f x = 2x − 9x + 3x +14 , factorise f(x)
Sketch the graph of y=f(x)
Hence, find the set of values of x such that f x ≥ 0 ()
f x = 2x 3 − 9x 2 + 3x +14
() On y − axis,
3 2
3 2
f (−1) = 2 (−1) − 9 (−1) + 3(−1) +14 = 0 () () () ()
f 0 = 2 0 − 9 0 + 3 0 +14 = 14

Hence, ( x +1) is a factor of f ( x ) y

14
By u sin g long division, 7
−1 ≤ x ≤ 2 or x ≥
2
( ) ( )(
f x = x +1 2x 2 −11x +14 ) ✓
= ( x +1) ( x − 2) ( 2x − 7)

f ( x ) = 0, i.e. ( x +1) ( x − 2) ( 2x − 7) = 0
7
x = −1 or x = 2 or x = -1 0 2 x
2 7
EmilynGan 103
2
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.com Example29: 6
Find the set of values of x such that x > +1
x
6 x < -2 -2 < x < 0 0 < x < 3 x>3
Given that x> +1
x (x-3) – – – +
6 (x+2) – + + +
x − −1> 0
x x – – + +
x2 − 6 − x f(x) – + – +
>0
x
x2 − x − 6
>0
x
The set of value of x is { x : −2 < x < 0 or x > 3}
(x−3 x+2 )( ) >0 ✓
x

EmilynGan 104

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.com
Example30:
If x ≤ 1 , find the set of values of x which satisfied the inequality.
x + 8 x −1
x 1 ( x − 4) ( x + 2) ≥ 0 & ( x + 8) ( x −1) > 0
Given that ≤
x + 8 x −1 x ≥ 4, x ≥ −2 & x > −8, x > 1
x 1
− ≤0
x + 8 x −1
- + + + +
( ) ( ) ≤0
x x −1 − x + 8
- +
- - +
( x + 8) ( x −1) +
- - + +
x2 − x − x + 8
≤0 - - - - +
( )(
x + 8 x −1 )
-8 -2 1 4
x 2 − 2x + 8 + - + - +
≤0
( )( )
x + 8 x −1

( x − 4) ( x + 2) ≤ 0
( x + 8) ( x −1) The set of values of x is { x : −8 < x ≤ −2 or 1< x ≤ 4 }✓
EmilynGan 105

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.com
Inequalities Involving Modulus Signs
Example31:
Find the values of x such that | 2x +1|< 3

Given that | 2x +1|< 3

This means −3 < 2x +1< 3
−3−1< 2x < 3−1
−4 < 2x < 2
−2 < x < 1
Hence, the inequality is valid if −2 < x < 1
✓

EmilynGan 106

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.com Example32:
Find the values of x such that 2 | x −1| ≤ | x + 3|

Given that 2 | x −1| ≤ | x + 3| y

2
⎡2 x −1 ⎤ 2
⎣ ( ⎦ ) ≤ ⎡⎣ x + 3⎤⎦
2 2
( )
4 x −1 ≤ x + 3 ( )
( )
4 x 2 − 2x +1 ≤ x 2 + 6x + 9
4x 2 − 8x + 4 ≤ x 2 + 6x + 9
1 0 5 x
3x 2 −14x − 5 ≤ 0 −
3
(3x +1) ( x − 5) ≤ 0 -5
If x = 0, y = −5
1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
()
f x ≤ 0 if − ≤ x ≤ 5 ⇒ ⎢− , 5⎥
3 ⎣ 3 ⎦
EmilynGan
✓ 107

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.com Example33:
Using graphical method, find the range of values of x for which the inequality
3
| 2x −1| ≤ | x | + is valid
2

Have two graphs here ( )

y = − 2x −1 y y = 2x −1
3
3
y = x+ 2x −1 = x +
2 2
y1 =| 2x −1| 3 5
y = −x + x=
3 2 2
3
y2 = | x | + 3 | 2x −1| ≤ | x | +
2 2
2
3 1 y1 ≤ y2
( )
− 2x −1 = −x +
2
3 1 0 1 5 x
−2x +1 = −x + 3 −
2 2x −1 = x + 2 2
2 2
1 1 5
∴ − ≤x≤
x=−
2
EmilynGan
x=
5
2 2 2 ✓ 108

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.com Ex1.6 (Pg36)

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.com

Partial Fractions

EmilynGan 110

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.com Example34: 2x + 3
Express in partial fractions
x −1 x + 2 ( )( )
2x + 3 A B When x = −2 ( ) ( ) ( )
⇒ 2 −2 + 3 ≡ A −2 + 2 + B −2 −1
Let ≡ +
( x −1 x + 2 x −1 x + 2
)( ) −1 = −3B
() ( )
A x + 2 + B x −1 1
B=
≡ 3
( x −1) ( x + 2)
2x + 3 ≡ A ( x + 2) + B ( x −1)

When x = 1 ()
⇒ 2 1 + 3 ≡ A 1+ 2 + B 1−1 ( ) ( )
5 = 3A
5
A= 2x + 3 5 1
3 ∴ ≡ +
EmilynGan
( )( ) ( ) (
x −1 x + 2 3 x −1 3 x + 2 ) ✓ 111

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.com Example35: 3x + 4
Express in partial fractions
2
(
x + 2 x − x +1 )( )
3x + 4 A Bx + C
Let ≡ + 2
( x + 2) ( x 2
− x +1 ) x + 2 x − x +1

≡
( ) (
A x 2 − x +1 + Bx + C x + 2
)( )
( x + 2) ( x − x +1)
2

(
3x + 4 ≡ A x 2 − x +1 + Bx + C x + 2) ( )( )
⎡ 2 ⎤
When x = −2 ⇒ 3 −2 + 4 ≡ A⎢ −2 − −2 +1⎥ + ⎡⎣ B −2 + C ⎤⎦ −2 + 2
( ) ⎣ ( ) ( )
⎦ ( ) (( ) )
−2 = 7A
2
A =−
EmilynGan
7 112

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.com Example35: 3x + 4
Express in partial fractions
2
(
x + 2 x − x +1 )( )
( ) (
3x + 4 ≡ A x 2 − x +1 + Bx + C x + 2
)( )
We found that the coefficient of x 2 is 0
( ) (
3x + 4 ≡ A x 2 − x +1 + Bx + C x + 2
)( )
Ax 2 Bx 2
0 = A+ B
2
0=− +B
7
2
B=
7

EmilynGan 113

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.com Example35: 3x + 4
Express in partial fractions
2
(
x + 2 x − x +1 )( )
(
3x + 4 ≡ A x 2 − x +1 + Bx + C x + 2 ) ( )( )
Equating the constan ts :
3x + 4 A Bx + C
≡ + 2
( 2
) ( )(
3x + 4 ≡ A x − x +1 + Bx + C x + 2 ) ( x + 2) ( x 2
− x +1 ) x + 2 x − x +1
A 2C 2 2 15
− x+
7 =−2 ÷ x+2 7 7 = ⎡⎢ 2 x + 15 ⎤⎥ ÷ x 2 − x +1
4 = A + 2C x+2 7
( ) x 2 − x +1 ⎣ 7 7⎦
( )
2 1 2x +15 1
2 =− × = × 2
4 = − + 2C 7 x+2 7 x − x +1
7 −2 2x +15
= =
30 7 x+2 ( ) (
7 x 2 − x +1 )
2C =
7 3x + 4 −2 2x +15
∴ ≡ +
15
EmilynGan
C=
7
( x + 2) ( x 2
− x +1 ) ( ) (
7 x + 2 7 x 2 − x +1 )✓ 114

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.com Example36: 2
x +1
Express 3
in partial fractions
x −1 x +1( )( )
x 2 +1 A B C D
Let 3
≡ + + +
x −1 x +1 x +1 2 x +1 3
( x −1) ( x +1) ( ) ( )
3 2
A ( x +1) + B ( x −1) ( x +1) + C ( x −1) ( x +1) + D ( x −1)
≡ 3

3 2
( x −1) ( x +1)
x 2 +1 ≡ A ( x +1) + B ( x −1) ( x +1) + C ( x −1) ( x +1) + D ( x −1)
2 3 2
When x = 1 () ( ) ( )( )
⇒ 1 +1 ≡ A 1+1 + B 1−1 1+1 + C 1−1 1+1 + D 1−1 ( )( ) ( )
2 = 8A
1
A =
EmilynGan 4 115

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 Example36: 2
.com
x +1
Express 3
in partial fractions
x −1 x +1 ( )( )
3 2
⇒ x 2 +1 ≡ A x +1 + B x −1 x +1 + C x −1 x +1 + D x −1
( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 3 2
When x = −1 ( ) ( ) (
⇒ −1 +1 ≡ A −1+1 + B −1−1 −1+1 + C −1−1 −1+1 + D −1−1 )( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 = −2D
D = −1
3 2
2
( )
x +1 ≡ A x +1 + B x −1 x +1 + C x −1 x +1 + D x −1( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) (
≡ A x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x +1 + B x 3 + x 2 − x −1 + C x 2 −1 + D x −1 ) ( ) ( )
Ax 3 Bx 3
We found that the coefficient of x 3 is 0
0 = A+ B
1 1
⇒0= +B ⇒ B=− 116
EmilynGan 4 4
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 Example36: 2
.com
x +1
Express 3
in partial fractions
x −1 x +1 ( )( )
3 2
⇒ x 2 +1 ≡ A x +1 + B x −1 x +1 + C x −1 x +1 + D x −1
( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 3 2
When x = 0 () ( ) (
⇒ 0 +1 ≡ A 0 +1 + B 0 −1 0 +1 + C 0 −1 0 +1 + D 0 −1)( ) ( )( ) ( )
1 = A− B −C − D
1 ⎛ 1⎞
= − ⎜ − ⎟ − C − −1
4 ⎝ 4⎠
( )
3
1 = −C
2
1
C =
2
x 2 +1 1 1 1 1
∴ 3
≡ − + −
4 x −1 4 x +1 2 x +1 2 x +1 3
( ) ( ) (
EmilynGan
( x −1) ( x +1) ) ( ) ✓
117

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Partial Fractions

Let
( )
f x
is improper rational fraction,
g ( x)
then f ( x ) must be devided by g ( x ) before expres sin g in terms of partial fraction

EmilynGan 118

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.com Example37: 2
Express x + 2x + 3 in partial fractions
(
x + 2 x −1 )( )
x 2 + 2x + 3 x 2 + 2x + 3 1
≡ 2
( )(
x + 2 x −1 )
x + x−2 ( x2 + x − 2 ) x 2 + 2x + 3
x +5
≡ 1+ 2 x 2 +x −2
x + x−2
x +5
x +5
= 1+ Partial fraction
(
x −1 x + 2 )( )
x +5 A B
Let ≡ +
( x −1 x + 2 x −1 x + 2
)( )
≡
( ) ( )
A x + 2 + B x −1
( x −1) ( x + 2)
⇒ x + 5 ≡ A ( x + 2) + B ( x −1)

© presentationgo.com
.com Example37: 2
Express x + 2x + 3 in partial fractions
(
x + 2 x −1 )( )
⇒ x + 5 ≡ A ( x + 2) + B ( x −1)

When x = 1 → 1+ 5 = A (1+ 2) + B (1−1)

6 = 3A
A=2
When x = −2 ( ) ( )
→ −2 + 5 = A −2 + 2 + B −2 −1
3 = −3B
B = −1
x 2 + 2x + 3 2 1
≡ 1+
( )(
x + 2 x −1 )
−
x −1 x + 2 ✓
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.com Example38: 3
Express x +1 in partial fractions
x −1 x + 2( )( )
x 3 +1 x 3 +1 x 3 +1 3x −1
≡ 2 (
≡ x −1 + )
( )(
x −1 x + 2 ) x + x−2 ( )(
x −1 x + 2 ) ( )(
x −1 x + 2 )
x 3 +1 A B
(
≡ x −1 + ) +
x −1 x + 2
(x 2
+ x−2 ) xx3 +−1 1 ( )(
x −1 x + 2 )
2

(x 2
+ x − 2) x3 + 1
3
x +1
≡
( x −1) ( x + 2) + A( x + 2) + B ( x −1)
3 2
( )(
x −1 x + 2 ) ( x −1) ( x + 2)
x + x − 2x
2
2
−x + 2x +1 x 3 +1 ≡ x −1( ) ( x + 2) + A( x + 2) + B ( x −1)
−x 2 − x + 2
3x −1

EmilynGan 121

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.com Example38: 3
Express x +1 in partial fractions 2
x 3 +1 ≡ x −1
( ) ( x + 2) + A( x + 2) + B ( x −1)
(
x −1 x + 2 )( )
3 2
When x = 1, ()
⇒ 1 +1 ≡ 1−1 ( ) (1+ 2) + A(1+ 2) + B (1−1)
2 = 3A
2
A=
3
3 2
When x = −2, ⇒ −2 +1 ≡ −2 −1( ) ( ) (−2 + 2) + A(−2 + 2) + B (−2 −1)
−7 = −3B
7 2 7
B= 3
x +1
3 ≡ x −1 + 3 + 3
( )
( )(
x −1 x + 2 ) x −1 x + 2
x 3 +1 2 7
∴ ≡ x −1+ +
EmilynGan
( )(
x −1 x + 2 ) ( ) (
3 x −1 3 x + 2 ) ✓ 122

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.com Ex1.7 (Pg42)
Express each of the following expressions in partial fractions

!" #

$% &

'()* '(), +

( %
-+% .
%
-+%

!- #

/0-%
,

!- #

%12 #

)-3 &

! #

1/ #

$0%

$ #4-3 #

/%

!
$5% .
%
6% 7% !

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.com

1.3 Exponential & Logarithmic Functions

This is the general Exponential Function (see below for ex):

a is any value greater than 0

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.com

1.3 Exponential & Logarithmic Functions

Properties depend on
value of “a”
• When a=1, the
graph is a horizontal
line at y=1
• Apart from that
there are two cases
to look at:

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1.3 Exponential & Logarithmic Functions

In General:
• It is always greater than 0, and never crosses the x-axis
• It always intersects the y-axis at y=1 ... in other words it passes
through (0,1)
• At x=1, f(x)=a ... in other words it passes through (1,a)
• It is an Injective (one-to-one) function

ü Its Domain is the Real Numbers: Real Numbers

ü Its Range is the Positive Real Numbers: (0, +∞)

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1.3 Exponential & Logarithmic Functions

Logarithmic Function

Properties depend on value of "a”

• When a=1, the graph is not defined
• Apart from that there are two cases to look at:

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For a between 0 and 1 For a above 1:

• As x nears 0, it heads to infinity • As x nears 0, it heads to -infinity
• As x increases it heads to -infinity • As x increases it heads to infinity
• It is a Strictly Decreasing function • it is a Strictly Increasing function
• It has a Vertical Asymptote along the y-axis • It has Vertical Asymptote along the y-axis
(x=0). (x=0).

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In general, the logarithmic function:

• is always on the positive side of (and never crosses) the y-axis
• always intersects the x-axis at x=1 ... in other words it passes
through (1,0)
• equals 1 when x=a, in other words it passes through (a,1)
• is an Injective (one-to-one) function

ü Its Domain is the Positive Real Numbers: (0, +∞)

ü Its Range is the Real Numbers: R

EmilynGan 129

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.com

• The inverse of a logarithmic function is an exponential function.

- When you graph both the logarithmic function and its inverse,
and you also graph the line y = x, you will note that the graphs
of the logarithmic function and the exponential function are
mirror images of one another with respect to the line y = x.

y=x The basic properties of a logarithmic

function g(x)=logax, a>1, are as follows:
(a) Then function is undefined for x≤0
(b) When x=1, g(x)=0, i.e. g(1)=0
y = ax y = log a x (c) For x>1, g(x)>0 and when xè∞, g(x)è∞
(d) For 0<x<1, g(x)<0 and when xè0,
g(x)è−∞

EmilynGan 130

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.com

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 Example39:
y = 3x. Hence, sketch the graphs of
.com

Sketch the graph of

(a) y = 3x +1 ( b) y = 3− x (c) y = −3x

(a)

EmilynGan ✓ 132

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 Example39:
y = 3x. Hence, sketch the graphs of
.com

Sketch the graph of

(a) y = 3x +1 ( b) y = 3− x (c) y = −3x

(b)

EmilynGan ✓ 133

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 Example39:
y = 3x. Hence, sketch the graphs of
.com

Sketch the graph of

(a) y = 3x +1 ( b) y = 3− x (c) y = −3x

(c)

EmilynGan
✓ 134

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.com
Ex1.8 (Pg46)

EmilynGan 135

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.com
Properties of Exponents and Logarithms
Exponents
Let a and b be real numbers and m and n be integers. Then the following
properties of exponents hold, provided that all of the expressions
appearing in a particular equation are de︎fined.

© presentationgo.com
.com Example40: −
2
2 3 ⎛8⎞ 3
Evaluate.
(a) 8 3
( b) 16 4
(c) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 27 ⎠
2 2 2
−
2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 3 3 ⎛8⎞ ⎛ 27 ⎞
3 3
(a) 8 = ⎜⎜8
3 3 ⎟⎟
( b) 16 = 2
4
( )4 4 (c) ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝8⎠
⎝ ⎠
2 3 2
4×
⎛ 3 27 ⎞
= ( 8)
3
=2
3
4
= ⎜⎜
3
⎟
⎟
=2 2 = 2() ⎝ 8 ⎠
2
=4 ✓ =8 ✓ ⎛ 3⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
9
=
4 ✓
EmilynGan 137

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.com
Properties of Exponents and Logarithms
Surds

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.com
Example41:
Rationalise the denominator in each of the following cases
2 3 1 3− 5
(a) 3 5
( b) 2 +1
(c) 1+ 3 5

3− 5 3− 5 1− 3 5
2 3 2 3 5 1 1 2 −1 (c) = ×
(a) 3 5
=
3 5
×
5
( b) = × 1+ 3 5 1+ 3 5 1− 3 5
2 +1 2 +1 2 −1
2 3 5 =
(3− 5) (1− 3 5)
2 −1
= = (1+ 3 5) (1− 3 5)
3 5 5
( 2 +1 )( 2 −1 ) 3− 9 5 − 5 + 3 5 ()
2 15 =
= 2 −1 2 2

3 5() =
2 −1
() ( )
1 − 3 5

2 15 18 −10 5
=
15 ✓
= 2 −1
✓ =
−44

=
(
−2 5 5 − 9 )
−2 22( )
5 5 −9
EmilynGan =
22 ✓ 139

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.com
Properties of Exponents and Logarithms
Logarithms

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.com Example42:
Evaluate: a log 1000 () ( b) log10 0.01 (c) log3 243
10

(a) Let x = log10 1000 ( b) Let y = log10 0.01 (c) Let z = log3 243

Then 10 = 1000x Then 10 y = 0.01 Then 3z = 243

= 10 3 = 10−2 = 35
x=3 y = −2 z =5
∴ log10 0.01= −2 ∴ log3 243 = 5
∴ log10 1000 = 3 ✓ ✓ ✓

EmilynGan 141

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.com Example43:
Express as a single logarithm
1
(a) log 2 25+ log 2 3− 2log 2 15 ( b) log a p 2 + 2log a q
2

1
(a) log 25+ log 2 3− 2log 2 15 ( b) log a p 2 + 2log a q
2 2
1 = log a p 2 + log a q 2
= log 2 25 + log 2 3− log 2 152
2

= log 2 5+ log 2 3− log 2 225

(
= log a p 2 q 2 )
2
⎛ 5× 3 ⎞ ( )
= log a pq
= log 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 225 ⎠ = 2log ( pq)
✓
a

⎛1⎞
= log 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 15 ⎠
= log 2 1− log 2 15 log a 1 = 0
= −log 2 15
✓
EmilynGan 142

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.com Change of base of a Logarithm Change the base to Logarithm base 10

Calculators / Logarithmic Tables

Example44:
Given that log102=0.3010 and log105=0.6990, find the value of log25
Let x = log 2 5
Then 2 x = 5 log c b
log a b =
Taking logarithms to base 10 for both sides of equations log c a
log10 2 x = log10 5
log10 5
x log10 2 = log10 5 OR log 2 5 =
log10 2
log10 5
x= 0.6990
log10 2 =
0.3010
=
0.6990
0.3010
= 2.322 ✓(4s. f .)
EmilynGan = 2.322
✓ (4s. f .) 143

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Change of base of a Logarithm

log c b log b b
log a b = log a b =
log c a log b a
1
=
log b a

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Ex1.9 (Pg52)

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Ex1.9 (Pg52)

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Equations & Inequalities Involving Exponential & Logarithmic Expressions
Example45:
Solve the following exponential equations
a 8 x = 32
() b 22 x − 5⋅ 2 x + 4 = 0
()
(a) x
8 = 32 ( b) 22 x − 5⋅ 2 x + 4 = 0
x 2

(2 ) 3
=2 5
( )
2 x
− 5⋅ 2 x + 4 = 0
3x
2 =2 5 Let y = 2x
3x = 5 y 2 − 5y + 4 = 0

x=
5 ( y −1) ( y − 4) = 0
3 y =1 @ y=4
✓ 2x = 1 @ 2x = 4
2 x = 20 @ 2 x = 22
x=0 ✓ @ x=2 ✓
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.com Example46:
x+1 x+3 x
Solve the equation 9 − 3 − 3 + 3 = 0
9 x+1 − 3x+3 − 3x + 3 = 0
9 ⋅ 9 x − 33 ⋅ 3x − 3x + 3 = 0
x
9⋅ 3( ) 2
− 33 ⋅ 3x − 3x + 3 = 0
2
9 ⋅ (3 ) x
− 27 ⋅ 3x − 3x + 3 = 0
2
9 ⋅ (3 ) x
− 28⋅ 3x + 3 = 0
Let k = 3x
1
9k 2 − 28k + 3 = 0 3x = @ 3x = 3
9
(9k −1) (k − 3) = 0 3x = 3−2 @ 3x = 31
1
k=
9
@ k =3 x = −2
✓ @ x =1
✓
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.com Example47:
Solve the following equations
a() 5x = 8 b ()
log3 x − 4log x 3+ 3 = 0

()a 5x = 8
log10 5x = log10 8
x log10 5 = log10 8
log10 8
x=
log10 5
0.9031
=
0.6990
= 1.292
✓ (4s. f .)

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.com Example47:
Solve the following equations
a() 5x = 8 b ()
log3 x − 4log x 3+ 3 = 0

( b) log3 x − 4log x 3+ 3 = 0
l og3 3
log3 x − 4 +3= 0
log3 x
2
(log x)
3
− 4l og3 3+ 3 l og3 x = 0
2 log3 x = 1 @ log3 x = −4
(log x)
3
+ 3l og3 x − 4 = 0
x=3 @ x = 3−4
Let y = log3 x
1
⇒ y 2 + 3y − 4 = 0 x=3
✓
@ x=
81 ✓
( y −1) ( y + 4) = 0
y =1 @ y = −4

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.com Example48:
Find the set of values of x which satisfy each of the following inequalities.
7 x
⎛ 2 ⎞
()
a 5x > 120 b ()
x 2 < 49 c ⎜ ⎟ < 0.001 ()
⎝ 3⎠
7
()a 5x > 120
( b) x < 49
2

log10 5x > log10 120 ⎛ 7⎞

x log10 5 > log10 120 log10 ⎜⎜ x 2 ⎟⎟ < log10 49
⎝ ⎠
log10 120
x> 7
log10 5 log10 x < log10 49
2
2.0792 2
> log10 x < log10 49 log10 x < 0.4829
0.6990 7
x > 2.975 x < 100.4829
✓ 2
(
< 1.6902 )
7 x < 3.0402
✓
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.com Example:
Find the set of values of x which satisfy each of the foll0wing inequalities.
x
7 ⎛ ⎞
2
()
a 5x > 120 ()
b x 2 < 49 () c ⎜ ⎟ < 0.001
⎝ 3⎠
x
⎛2⎞
c () ⎜ ⎟ < 0.001
⎝ 3⎠
x
⎛2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟ < log10 0.001
⎝ 3⎠
−3
x ⎡⎣log10 2 − log10 3⎤⎦ < −3 −x <
0.1761
x ⎡⎣0.3010 − 0.4771⎤⎦ < −3 −x < −17.036
−0.1761x < −3 x > 17.036 ✓

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Ex1.10 (Pg55)

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Ex1.10 (Pg55)

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