COURSE 6 SCIENCE TERM 2 NOTES

HEARTING CURVE

Heating curves show how the temperature changes as a substance is heated up. Heating
curves have horizontal flat parts where the state changes from solid to liquid, or from liquid to
gas.
Cooling curves are the opposite. They show how the temperature changes as a substance is
cooled down. Just like heating curves, cooling curves have horizontal flat parts where the state
changes from gas to liquid, or from liquid to solid.

CONDUCTIVITY
Electricity----- is the flow of electrical energy from one place to another.
Electricity flows through conductors, but it cannot flow through insulators.
Insulator-- is a material in which electric current does not flow freely.
A conductor, or electrical conductor -- is a material that allows electricity to flow through it.

A closed circuit is needed for electricity to flow and power our electronics.

Examples of good conductors of electricity

Copper, Brass, Steel, Gold, and Aluminium are good conductors of electricity. We use them in
electric circuits and systems in the form of wires. Mercury is an excellent liquid conductor. Thus,
this material finds use in many instruments.
Examples of Bad Conductors
Materials like glass, plastic, rubber, air, and wood are used as insulators.

use of electricity
lighting,
heating,
cooling,
electronics,
machinery,
public transportation systems.

main electrical hazards/ dangers

 electric shock and burns from contact with live parts.
 injury from exposure to arcing (when electricity jumps from one circuit to another)
 fire
 explosion

Reversable Physical changes

Physical change- is a change from one state to another without chemical reaction taking place.
This types of changes are reversable
Reversable – Able to be change back to its previous state .

Dissolving sugar in water is a physical change because sugar molecules are dispersed within
the water, but the individual sugar molecules are unchanged.
A change of state is a physical change in a matter. Common changes of the state
include melting, freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation, and vaporization. Some
physical changes such as chopping up wood or crushing rocks are not reversable. you don’t
get new substances and you cannot put the crush materials back into its original form.
Temperature and dissolving

Temperature – is the degree of hotness and coldness.

Solvent - is a substance that dissolves a solute. A solvent is usually a liquid. i.e water
Solute - A solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solution i.e sugar and salt .
A solution -is a mixture of two or more components.

Effects of temperature
As the temperature of a solid, liquid or gas increases, the particles move more rapidly.
As the temperature falls, the particles slow down. If a liquid is cooled sufficiently, it forms a
solid. If a liquid is heated sufficiently, it forms a gas.
Chemical reactions
A Chemical Reaction is a process that occurs when two or more molecules interact to form a
new product(s).
Compounds that interact to produce new compounds are called reactants whereas the newly
formed compounds are called products.
- When an ice lolly melts the substances used to make the lolly don’t change – it is still
an ice lolly and you can refreeze it to remake the frozen shape .
- Some changes are not reversable because the chemicals that make up the
substances are changed in the process .
- Burning is a Permanente chemical change . when wood burns it gives out heat and
smoke and you are left with ash . you cannot turn the ash to wood .
Some substances react when they are missed together and new substance are
formed . for example , when iron is exposed to the oxygen in air it rust . Rusting is
chemical reaction that is irreversible.

If there is a colour change it means a reaction has taken place.

Iron + oxygen rust ( iron oxide)
(reactants) ( products )

The iron and the oxygen in this change is the reactants . the reaction produces orange-
red flakes of rust . These are a different substance , which is called the product of the
reaction.

Characteristics of chemical reactions

a) Change in color.
b) Change in temperature.
c) Change in state.
d) Formation of new substances.
 Identifying chemical reactions
Chemical reactions can be identified via a wide range of different observable factors
including change in color, energy change (temperature change or light produced), gas
production, formation of precipitate and
change in properties.
UNIT 4 - FORCE

Push or pull of an object is considered a force. Push and pull come from the objects interacting with one
another. Terms like stretch and squeeze can also be used to denote force.
In Physics, force is defined as:

The push or pull on an object with mass causes it to change its velocity.

Force is an external agent capable of changing a body’s state of rest or motion. It has a magnitude and a
direction. The direction towards which the force is applied is known as the direction of the force, and the
application of force is the point where force is applied.

The Force can be measured using a spring balance. The SI unit of force is Newton(N).

TYPES OF FORCE

1. Gravitational force
this is the force of attraction between two bodies of given masses.
Earth’s gravitational force is the force which pulls a body towards its center. This pull of gravity
is called weight.
2. Force of friction
this is a force which opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact with each other.
Friction in fluids is known as viscosity.
3. Tension force
this is the pull or compression of a string or spring at both its ends.
4. Upthrust force
this is the upward force acting on an object immersed in a fluid.
5. Cohesive and adhesive forces
cohesive is the force of attraction of molecules of the same kind while adhesive is the force of
attraction of molecules of different kinds.
6. Magnetic force
this is a force which causes attraction or repulsion in a magnet.
7. Electrostatic force
this is the force of attraction or repulsion of static charges.
8. Centripetal force
this is a force which constrains a body to move in a circular orbit or path.
What are the Effects of Force

The Force has different effects, and here are some of them.

 Force can make a body that is at rest to move.

 It can stop a moving body or slow it down.
 It can accelerate the speed of a moving body.
 It can also change the direction of a moving body along with its shape and size.

MASS , WEIGHT AND GRAVITY

Mass (symbolized m) is a dimensionless quantity representing the amount of matter in a particle

or object. The standard unit of mass in the International System (SI) is the kilogram (kg). and
the instrument that is used to measure mass is a beam balance.
 Weight is the force acting on an object due to gravity. The instrument for measuring
weight is Weighing Scale.
 To calculate the weight, use the following general formula: W = mg. Here, “W” is the
weight of the object, “m” is the mass of the object, and “g” is the acceleration due to
gravity.

Differences between mass and weight

Mass Weight
Its a quantity of matter on a body. It is a pull of gravity on a body
It’s measured in kg. It is measured in (N)
Same everywhere Varies from one place to another.
Measured using a beam balance. Measured using a spring balance
Has magnitude only (scalar
Has both magnitude and direction.(vector quantity)
quantity)

Why do objects have weight

Weight is the force of gravity on an object. Mass always stays the same, but weight can change
depending on how much gravity is acting upon an object. Cool fact: Any two masses have a
gravitational attraction for one another, and the greater the mass, the greater the pull.

BALANCE AND UNBALANCE FORCES

Balanced forces are characterized by forces of the same magnitude acting in opposite
directions. They cancel each other out, resulting in an object that remains in its original state of
motion

Balanced Forces Examples

Suppose you are pushing a wall, and as expected, the wall does not move and neither do you. It means
that you and the wall are exerting a balanced force on each other.

Unbalanced Force – When forces applied to an object are of different magnitude (or not in opposite
directions to cancel out each other), such forces are unbalanced forces.

• Unbalanced forces can alter the state of rest or motion of an object.

• Unbalanced forces can cause acceleration in an object.
• Unbalanced forces can change the shape and size of an object.
Floating and sinking
Upthrust – the upward force exerted on a solid body when it is submerged in a fluid.
When a body is immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward force which is called upthrust or
buoyant force.

Objects can only float on water when their weight is equal to the force of the upthrust exerted by
the water. When their weight is greater than the upthrust they sink.

Explaining why ships can float in water?

It comes from the famous principle of Archimedes which says that the net upward force on an
object immersed in water is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the object.

Examples of object that floats

 Plastic bottle.
 Piece of paper.
 Wood.
 Plastic ball.
 Cork.
Examples of object that sink
.
 Coin
 Rock
 toy cars
 metal spoon
 eraser

Staying safe in car

Cars are designed to protect passengers in case of an accident. We can thank various vehicle
designers for the following safety features that are either the responsibility of the driver (like the
lights and clipping in your seatbelt) or play a role regardless of the driver’s habits:

 The headlights which alert oncoming drivers to the presence of the vehicle at night
and also assist the driver in finding their way in the dark.
 Seatbelts limit the movement of the passenger in the event of an accident where
shock and force can catapult them forward.
  Airbags inflate in the event of a collision and act as a pillow to soften the movement
and shock of the vehicle’s crumple zones.

Inertia is the tendency of objects in motion to stay in motion, and objects at rest to stay at
rest, unless a force causes its speed or direction to change.
When a moving bus suddenly applies brakes, the passengers sitting in it fall in the forward
direction. This can be explained by Newton's first law. This is true because of the law of inertia
when the bus was moving with some constant velocity hence passengers will also move with
the bus.

Uses of seat belt

 allow you to decelerate at the same rate as the vehicle in a crash.
 prevent you from colliding with the interior parts of the vehicle.
 reduce your risk of being thrown out of the vehicle.