Chemistry for Std.

VI (Int’l)
(Theoretical Part)

Reference Book
Cambridge Lower Secondary Science (Learner’s) Book 7
By Mary Jones, Diane Fellowes-Freeman & Michael Smyth

Md. Zakaria Islam

Junior Teacher (Chemistry)
Bangladesh International School and College
DOHS, Mohakhali, Dhaka Cantonment, Dhaka-1206
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Chemistry
Chemistry is an experimental science.
Definition: Chemistry is the study of matter and its changes from one substance to another.

Figure 1.1 Chemistry, the Experimental Science

Importance of Chemistry
We should study chemistry because it impacts on our everyday lives through:

• Soaps, shampoos and detergents to keep us clean

• Disinfectants and pharmaceuticals to safeguard health
• Additives to foods to keep them fresher longer
• Paints to protect and extend the life of metal and timber
• Insulation materials to save energy in buildings
• The fuel we put in our cars etc.

Figure 1.2: Jabir Ibn Hayyan and John Dalton

 Chapter-2: Materials and Their Structure

2.1 Solids, Liquids and Gases

Matter
Definition: Anything that occupies space and has mass is called a matter.
Example: table, chair, book, pen, air, water etc.
Note: All the things of this universe are divided into two categories. Matter and energy. Energy
doesn’t have any mass and it doesn’t occupy any space. For example, solar energy, nuclear
energy etc.

States of Matter
There are three (3) major physical states of matter. They are: i. Solid, ii. Liquid and iii. Gas
These three states depend on two major criteria. They are: i. the distance between particles
(Intermolecular space) and ii. The movement of the particles (Intermolecular attraction)
Solid: The distance between the particles is minimum, the intermolecular attraction is very high
but the particles vibrate. The particles are tight, squashed together. Examples: Iron, bronze, chair,
plastic etc.
Liquid: Particles are inter-twined and mingling. Intermolecular attraction is quite strong. Their
intermolecular space is more than solids and less than gases. The particles are free to move slowly
along. Examples: Water, oil etc.
Gas: Distance between the particles is very high, particles move freely and randomly. Examples:
air, water vapor etc.

Figure: Particles in Solid, Liquid and Gas

Note:
Molecules: The smallest individual part of a compound.
Intermolecular force of attraction: Attraction between two different molecules. It can be
between two similar type molecules or two different types of molecules.
Intermolecular space: Distance between two different molecules. It can be between two similar
type molecules or two different types of molecules.
N.B.: As the intermolecular space increases, intermolecular attraction decreases and vice versa.
Note: Liquid and gases are called fluids as they can flow.

General Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Solids Liquids Gases
They have definite shape and Liquids have no definite shape Gases have neither a definite
volume. but have a definite volume. shape nor a definite volume.
They are incompressible. Liquids attain the shape of the They are highly compressible.
vessel in which they are kept.
There is little space between They are compressible to a The space between gas
the particles of a solid. small extent. particles is the most.
These particles attract each These particles have a greater The force of attraction is least
other very strongly. space between them. between gaseous particles.
Particles of solid cannot move The force of attraction Gaseous particles are in a
freely. between liquid particles is less continuous, random motion.
than solid particles.
Some examples: cricket ball, Some examples: water, oil etc. Some examples: oxygen,
brick, glass jar etc. hydrogen, methane etc.

Differences among Solids, Liquids and Gases

Parameter Solids Liquids Gases
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume
Shape Fixed shape No fixed shape No fixed shape
Fluidity Cannot flow Can flow Can flow
Compressibility No compressibility Slight compressibility High compressibility
Diffusion No diffusibility Slight diffusibility High diffusibility
Intermolecular Least In between solids and Most
Space gases
Intermolecular Most In between solids and Least
Force of gases
Attraction
Assumption, Concept, Hypothesis and Theory
An assumption is a belief taken for granted without direct evidence. A concept is a general idea or
mental construct. A hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction. A theory is a well-
substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on empirical evidence
and has stood up to repeated testing and scrutiny.

The Particles
• Scientists call the tiny particles atoms.
• The name atom was first used by Greek scientist Democritus.
• Atom means ‘unsplitable’.
• Atoms nearly always join together to make molecules.
• Atoms and molecules are the building bricks of all materials or matter.
• It is impossible to imagine the size of one molecule- it is less than a thousand-millionth of a
meter.

The Particle Theory

This theory says, “All materials are made up of very tiny bits or pieces called particles.” The
particles inside a material are always vibrating or moving. The particles in a material attract each
other.

The Main Ideas of Particle Theory

• Everything is made up of tiny particles
• These particles are always moving
• The particles attract each other
The particle theory can explain: melting, boiling etc.

Support for the Particle Theory

• The evidence or clue was first noticed by a scientist called Robert Brown in 1827.
• He saw pollen grains floating on water and noticed that they were moving around in a zigzag,
haphazard way which is known as Brownian motion.

Figure: Brownian Motion

Explaining the Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases
Solids: The particles in a solid are very close together. This makes it difficult for the volume of a
solid to be made smaller. Solids have a fixed shape because attractive forces hold the particles
together. These forces stop the particles from moving around. The particles can only vibrate. This
means that a solid cannot flow.
Liquids: The volume of a liquid cannot be changed. The particles are very close together and
cannot be compressed. The particles touch each other but they can move past each other. The
attractive forces between the particles are weak enough to allow them to move but strong enough
to hold them together.
Gases: Particles in a gas are a long way apart so they can move quickly in all directions. The
particles can move easily because there are no attractive forces between them. This means that gas
has no fixed shape or volume.

2.2 Changes of State

Changes in Chemistry
There are two types of changes we notice in chemistry. They are: i. Physical change and ii.
Chemical change
Physical change: It is a type of change where the physical properties of matter change. A change
of state of matter, change in color, odor, solubility etc. Melting of ice is an example of physical
change. During a physical change, neither the composition nor the chemical nature of matter is
changed. That means, in physical change no new substance is formed but only the physical
properties of the matter change. Also, physical change is easy to be reversed in its previous form.

Figure: Physical Change

Chemical change: It is the change occurs when a substance combines with another to form a new
substance, called chemical synthesis or alternatively chemical decomposition into two or more
different substances. These processes are called chemical reactions and, in general, are not
reversible by further chemical reactions. That means, they are not easily reversed. For example:
hydrogen and oxygen produce water in presence of electrical spark.

Figure: Chemical Change

Differences between Chemical Change and Physical Change

Physical Change Chemical Change
The identity of matter does not change that The identity of matter changes and new
means no new matter is formed. chemicals are formed.
The physical properties of matter change. The chemical properties of matter change.
This process is generally reversible. This process is not reversible.
Example: Ice melts to form water. Example: Rusting of iron.

Changing State
• To change the physical state of a substance, heat energy is required.
• The general change of physical state for substances is solid turns into liquid and liquid turns
into gases.

Figure: Change of states of matter

Sublimation
Definition: If a solid turns into gases directly having no liquid phase then the process is known as
sublimation.
And the substances that shows this property are known as sublimate.
Example: Iodine, naphthalene, sulfur, carbon dioxide etc.

Melting and Boiling

• Melting means when heat energy is applied to a solid and it turns into liquid.
• When melting, the movement of particles in a solid becomes faster and in a liquid state these
particles can move more easily.
• Boiling means when heat energy is applied to a liquid and it turns into gas.
• When boiling, the movement of particles in a liquid becomes faster and in a gaseous state these
particles can move freely.

Figure: Melting of Ice and Boiling of Water

Melting point: The temperature at which a solid melts is known as its melting point. For example:
melting point of ice is 0oC.
Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid boils is known as its boiling point. For example:
boiling point of water is 100oC.

Figure: Melting Point and Boiling Point

Measuring
In science, measuring involves the determination of the size, quantity or extent of something using
standardized units. It’s a crucial aspect for gathering data and conducting experiments, providing
precise and comparable results in various scientific disciplines.
Measuring Volume
Measuring cylinder is used to measure specific volume of a liquid in chemistry laboratory. Due to
more adhesive force than cohesive force, most of the solvents show upper and lower meniscus like
the figure given below. The curved shape of the liquid inside a glass made apparatus is the
meniscus. For best reading, meniscus level and eye should be in the same horizontal plane.
Upper meniscus and lower meniscus: The terms ‘upper meniscus’ and ‘lower meniscus’
typically refer to the curved surface of a liquid in a container. The upper meniscus is the curved
surface where the liquid meets the air, while the lower meniscus is the curved formed where the
liquid meets the container. This phenomenon is due to adhesive and cohesive forces between the
liquid molecules and the container surfaces.
Adhesive forces are attractive forces between molecules of different molecules of different
substances. In the context of liquids, this can lead to phenomena like capillary action, where a
liquid climbs or falls in narrow tubes due to adhesive forces between the liquid and the tube.
Cohesive forces, on the other hand, are the attractive forces between molecules of the same
substance. These forces give rise to properties like surface tension, where the molecules at the
surface of a liquid are drawn inward, creating a sort of ‘skin’ on the liquid’s surface.
In summary, adhesive forces are between different substances, while cohesive forces are between
the same substance. Both play crucial roles in understanding the behavior of liquids.

Measuring Temperature
A simple thermometer is used to measure temperature. To measure heat energy, calorimeter is
used.
The General Scales Used for Temperature Measurement:
The scales that are used for temperature measurement are:

• Celsius scale

• Fahrenheit scale

• Kelvin scale
Relationship between Celsius, Kelvin and Fahrenheit Scale:
𝑪 𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
= =
𝟓 𝟗 𝟓
Here, C= Celsius temperature, F=Fahrenheit temperature, K=Kelvin temperature
Problem: At which temperature Celsius and Fahrenheit scale shows same value?
Solution: As the value is equal in Celsius and Fahrenheit, we can write C = F in the equation
𝐶 𝐹−32
So, =
5 9

𝐹 𝐹−32
Or, 5 = 9

Or, 9F = 5F – 160
Or, 4F = -160
So, F = - 40
Answer: At -40o Celsius and Fahrenheit scale show equal value.
Absolute Zero Temperature: The temperature at which all the gases turn into liquid or solid (that
means the volume of all gases becomes zero theoretically) is known as the absolute zero
temperature. Its value is 0K or -273oC.
Note: Kelvin temperature (starting from 0K) is also called absolute temperature.

2.3 Explaining Changes of State

Heating Solids
When solids are heated, they expand. The particles in solids are arranged in a fixed pattern. The
particles are held together strongly and are tightly packed. The particles in the solid vibrate. When
the solid is heated, heat energy is transferred to the particles in the solid. The more energy the
particles have, the more they vibrate. As the particles vibrate more, they take up more space. The
particles are still held in position by the attractive forces between them.

Melting Solids
When solids are heated more strongly, they melt. They become liquid. Heating more strongly
means that even more heat energy is transferred to the particles. The particles in a solid vibrate
more and more as heat energy is transferred to them. The particles vibrate so much that the
attractive forces between them are not strong enough to hold them in a fixed pattern. The particles
can slide past one another – they can now move, not just vibrate. The forces are still strong enough
for the particles to stay in touch with one another. The more the liquid is heated, the more energy
is transferred to the particles and the more the particles vibrate and move.

Boiling Liquids
When liquids are heated, they evaporate and boil. The particles in liquids touch each other. The
particles are held together weakly. The particles move more as heat energy is transferred to them.
Some particles have enough energy to break the weak attractive forces holding them together.
These particles can move freely and escape as gas particles.
Cooling Gases
The particles in a gas are free to move anywhere and spread out. There are no forces holding them.
When a gas gets cooler it condenses to form a liquid. When gas particles reach a cold surface,
some of the heat energy from the particles transfers to the surface. The particles move less and get
closer together. They form a liquid.

Freezing Liquids
When a liquid freezes it becomes a solid. The particles in a liquid can move and flow past each
other. As heat energy is transferred from the particles to the surroundings, the particles move more
slowly and the liquid gets cooler. The cooler the liquid, the less energy the particles have. The less
energy the particles have, the less able they are to move or slide past one another. Eventually, the
particles have so little energy they cannot move and floe anymore – they can only vibrate. They
become arranged in a fixed pattern to form a solid.

2.4 The Water Cycle

Water Cycle

Figure: The Water Cycle

Water on earth is constantly moving. The water moves between rivers, lakes, oceans, the
atmosphere and the land. It is recycled over and over again in a continuous system called the water
cycle. We are still using the same water that the ancient Greeks and the Romans used. The earth
has been recycling water for more than four billion years.
Water on the Earth’s surface- in seas, lakes, rivers and puddles- is changed into vapor by heat from
the sun. It evaporates. As the damp air rises, over a hill or a mountain, it cools down until some of
the water vapor condenses to make a cloud. If the air rises high enough, the water may even freeze
to make snow or hail. In a rain cloud, the water droplets collect together until they are so heavy
they fall as rain. The rain fills the rivers that flow into the sea or lakes and the whole cycle begins
again. This is the water cycle.

What Happens During the Water Cycle?

Water moves into the atmosphere: Energy from the sun heats the earth and the temperature of
the water in the rivers, lakes and oceans increases. When this happens, some of the liquid water
forms water vapor, which moves into the atmosphere. This is called evaporation. This happens
because some of the particles in the liquid water gain enough energy to break free from the forces
holding them together and they change to a gas. Water can also evaporate into the atmosphere
from plants; this is called transpiration.
Water in the atmosphere cools down: As the water vapor goes up into the atmosphere, it cools
and changes back into little droplets of water in the air, forming clouds. This process is called
condensation. It happens because the particles in the water vapor lose energy and cannot move so
quickly. Air currents high in the atmosphere move the clouds around the world.
Water falls from clouds: When a lot of water has condensed, the water droplets in the clouds
become too heavy for the air to hold them. The droplets fall back to earth as rain. If the drops
become colder they may form snow, hail or sleet. This process is called precipitation.
Water falls on the earth: The precipitation that falls then collects in rivers and open water such
as large lakes and the oceans. How it is collected depends on where it lands. Some precipitation
will fall directly onto the rivers, lakes and oceans and will evaporate, then the cycle starts again.
If the precipitation falls on plants it may evaporate from the leaves back to the atmosphere or
trickle down to the ground. The plant roots in the ground may then take up some of this water.
Water in the ground: Some of the water from precipitation will soak into the soil and rocks as
groundwater. Some of this water will stay in the shallow soil layer and will move towards streams
and rivers. When groundwater soak deeper into the soil, it refills underground stores. In cold
climates the precipitation may build up on land as snow, ice or glaciers. If the temperatures rise,
this solid snow and ice will melt into liquid water, which soaks into the ground or flows into rivers
or the ocean. Some of the precipitation will soak into the soil and move through the ground until
it reaches the rivers or the open water, large lakes and the oceans. Water that reaches the surface
of the land may flow directly across the ground into the rivers, lakes and oceans. This water is
called surface run-off. When there is a lot of surface run-off, soil can be carried off the land and
into the rivers. This can cause them to become silted up and blocked.

2.5 Atoms, Elements and The Periodic Table

What are Atoms?
The ancient Greeks were the first to suggest that everything is made up from tiny particles.
Scientists still believe this now. These particles are too small to be seen. These cannot be seen by
using even the most powerful microscopes. Nowadays, scientists have developed special probes
that can measure very small forces. These probes can be used to detect particles, and even position
them where you want. Around 400BC (over 2000 years ago) Democritus put forward his ideas
about particles.
Democritus called his tiny pieces of matter atoms. The term atom has come from two Greek words,
‘A’ means ‘no’ and ‘tomos’ means ‘splitable’. So, atom means ‘cannot be divided’ or ‘something
that is unsplitable’.
Definition of Atom: An atom is the smallest unit of an element that makes up all matter and
directly takes part in a chemical reaction.
Definition of Element: An element is a substance that consists of only one type of atom.

History of Atom
• The word atom comes from a Greek word meaning ‘something that can’t be split’.

• Democritus was the first scientist who gave the idea of atom.
• 400 BC: Democritus suggested that all things are made of particles.

• 1805: John Dalton’s atomic theory. Atoms of the same element are all alike. They combine to
make compounds.

• Dalton, a British scientist gave a theory of atoms in 1805.

• In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered electron and proposed the ‘plum pudding’ atomic model
theory.

• In 1909, E. Rutherford discovered the nucleus of atom.

• 1897: J.J. Thomson found the electron.

• 1909: Ernest Rutherford discovered the proton.

• 1913: Niels Bohr suggested that electrons are found in shells around the nucleus.
• 1932: James Chadwick proved that neutrons exist.

Inside the Atom

• There are 3 types of particles inside an atom. These are protons, neutrons and electros.
• The protons and neutrons are found squashed together in the center of the atom.
• The center, called the nucleus, is incredibly small and dense.
• The tiny electrons whizz around this nucleus.
There are 2 major parts of an atom. They are:
Nucleus: It contains protons and neutrons
Electron shells: Electrons exist in these shells

Particles Inside an Atom

There are 3 major particles inside an atom. They are:
i. Protons
ii. Neutrons
iii. Electrons
Electron is a fundamental particle because we cannot break it. Proton and neutron are called
composite particles because they are made of quarks.

Figure: Model of Atomic Structure

General Properties of Proton, Neutron and Electron

 Proton Neutron Electron
Positively charged particle Neutral particle Negatively charged particle
Actual charge is +1.606×10-19 Actual charge is 0 Actual charge is -1.606×10-19
C C
Relative charge is +1 Relative charge is 0 Relative charge is -1
Actual mass is 1.673×10-27 kg Actual mass is 1.675×10 kg Actual mass is 9.11×10-31 kg
-27

Relative mass is 1 Relative mass is 1 Relative mass is almost 0

Discovered by Ernest Discovered by James Discovered by J.J. Thomson
Rutherford in 1909 Chadwick in 1932 in 1897
It is denoted by p or H+ It is denoted by n It is denoted by e-
Exists inside the nucleus Exists inside the nucleus Exists in the shells

Differences among Proton, Neutron and Electron

Parameter Proton Neutron Electron
Charge Positive Neutral Negative
Location Nucleus Nucleus Shells
Relative Charge +1 0 -1
Relative Mass 1 1 0 (almost)
Discovered by E. Rutherford J. Chadwick J.J. Thomson

Electron Shells
The circular shaped (actually they are not circular) energy levels surrounding the nucleus of an
atom where electrons exist are generally called shells.
Shells are also known as energy levels or orbits. The nearest shell to the nucleus is the first shell.
Then comes the second shell, third shell, fourth shell etc.
First shell is denoted by ‘K’, second shell by ‘L’, third shell by ‘M’, fourth shell by ‘N’ etc.
 Figure: K, L, M and N shells of an atom

Atomic Number
Definition: The number of protons of an atom is its atomic number.
Every element has its own atomic number. When the atomic number changes, the element also
changes. Atomic number is the identity of an element.
Atomic number = number of protons of the atom

Example: Carbon has an atomic number of 6. For all the carbon atoms, this number is same. Any
atom that has 6 protons, it must be carbon. It cannot be any other atom. So, atomic number is fixed
for a particular atom or element. Some examples are:
• Atomic number of Helium = 2

• Atomic number of Sodium = 11

• Atomic number of Oxygen = 8

Atoms are Generally Neutral

Atoms are generally neutral, because in an atom, there exists equal number of protons and
electrons. And also, the relative and actual charges of protons and electrons are equal in value but
they are oppositely charged. Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged.
So, the oppositely charged particles cancel out the charges of each other and the atom becomes
neutral.

• Relative charge of a proton = +1

• Relative charge of an electron = -1

• Actual charge of a proton = +1.606 × 10-19 C
• Actual charge of an electron = -1.606 × 10-19 C

Mass Number
Definition: Mass number is the sum of number of protons and neutrons present in an atom.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
So, Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons
Or, number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
Example:
• Sodium has 11 protons and 12 neutrons in its atom. So, its mass number = number of protons
+ number of neutrons = 11 + 12 = 23

• Aluminum has 13 protons and 14 neutrons in its atom. So, its mass number = number of protons
+ number of neutrons = 13 + 14 = 27

Isotope
Definition: Isotopes are atoms of the same elements that have different number of neutrons.
As the number of neutrons are different, their mass number will also be different.
Example: Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37
Isotopes of Hydrogen: Hydrogen has 7 (seven) isotopes. First 3 isotopes of hydrogen are natural
and other 4 are artificial. Natural hydrogen isotopes are: 1H (protium), 2H (deuterium) and 3H
(tritium). Artificial hydrogen isotopes are: 4H, 5H, 6H and 7H.

Figure: Natural Isotopes of Hydrogen

Different Types of Atoms

There are different types of atoms. Scientists have discovered 94 different types of atoms that
occur naturally in the universe. Another 24 kinds of atoms have been made in laboratories. Some
substances are made up of just a single kind of atom. A substance made of just a single kind of
atom is called an element. For example, carbon is made only of carbon atoms. Gold is made only
of gold atoms. Silver is made only of silver atoms. Carbon, gold and silver are examples of
elements. Each type of atom has different properties. This is why different elements have different
properties.

Atoms Joining Together

In six of the elements (noble gases – helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon), atoms move
around freely, not attached to one another. But in most elements, such as gold and other metals,
atoms are packed closely together. In a small number of elements, such as oxygen and sulfur,
atoms join together to form small particles. An oxygen particle is made from two oxygen atoms.
A sulfur particle is made from eight sulfur atoms. Phosphorus has 4 atoms in its molecule.

The Periodic Table

Scientists have developed a very useful way of arranging the elements. This is called the periodic
table.

Figure: The Modern Periodic Table

The modern periodic table has 7 periods and 18 groups. Elements are arranged in periodic table in
7 rows and 18 columns. Each row is called a period and each column is called a group. Some
groups have their special names. Like: Group-1 is called alkali metals group, Group-2 is called
alkaline earth metals group, Group-17 (or Group-7) is called halogen group, Group-18 (or Group-
8) is called noble gases group etc. In Group-11, Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag) and Gold (Au) are called
coin metals because these metals were used to make coins.

Importance of Periodic Table

Periodic table is important because:

• It is the most useful tool to a chemist.

• One can get to use it on every chemical test.
• It organizes lots of information about all the known elements.

First 20 Elements in Periodic Table

Name of the element Symbol Atomic number
Hydrogen H 1
 Helium He 2
Lithium Li 3
Beryllium Be 4
Boron B 5
Carbon C 6
Nitrogen N 7
Oxygen O 8
Fluorine F 9
Neon Ne 10
Sodium Na 11
Magnesium Mg 12
Aluminum Al 13
Silicon Si 14
Phosphorus P 15
Sulfur S 16
Chlorine Cl 17
Argon Ar 18
Potassium K 19
Calcium Ca 20

Symbols of Elements
Definition: Symbol of an atom is the shortest form of their names to express them.
It can be expressed by one capital letter or a capital letter with a small letter (in case of atoms
starting their names with same letter). Their names are originated from Latin, Arabic or English
languages.
Example:

Name of the atom Symbol of the atom

Hydrogen H
Helium He
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Chlorine Cl
Iron Fe
Copper Cu
Lead Pb
Sodium Na
Potassium K
Carbon C
Formation of Molecules of Elements
Two or more atoms of an element form bonding between them which makes a molecule of that
element. For example: Molecule of hydrogen- H2, molecule of sulfur- S8 etc.

Figure: Hydrogen (H2) and Sulfur (S8) Molecules

Compounds
Definition: When two or more types of atoms (2 or more elements) are chemically bonded together
in a fixed ratio and they make a totally different substance of different chemical properties from
their atoms, it’s known as a compound.
Example: methane (CH4), nitric acid (HNO3) etc.

Figure: Structure of Water

Chemical Formula of Molecules

Definition: The short form of a molecule of a chemical compound is known as its chemical
formula.
To express a chemical formula of a compound we use the symbols of the atoms which make that
compound and also the number of atoms present in that compound.
Example: Water is the most well-known compound/chemical. It consists of two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom. The symbols for hydrogen and oxygen are H and O respectively. So, the
chemical formula of water will be - H2O.
Some more examples: Oxygen molecule- O2, Ammonia- NH3, Sulfuric acid- H2SO4 etc.

Classification of Elements in the Periodic Table

a) According to the physical states of the elements:
There are three types of elements based on their physical states. They are: i. Solid elements, ii,
Liquid elements and iii. Gaseous elements

Figure: Solid, Liquid and Gaseous Elements in Periodic Table

Solid elements: Most of the elements in the periodic are in solid state. Some of them are: Sodium
(Na), Potassium (K), Gold (Au), Zinc (Zn) etc.
Liquid elements: There are only two liquid elements in the periodic table. They are: Bromine (Br)
and Mercury (Hg). Some say Cesium (Ce) Francium (Fr) are also liquid.
Gaseous elements: Eleven elements are gas in the periodic table. They are: Hydrogen (H), Helium
(He), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), Fluorine (F), Neon (Ne), Chlorine (Cl), Argon (Ar), Krypton
(Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn).
b) According to metallic and non-metallic properties:
There are three types of elements based on their metallic and non-metallic properties. They are: i.
Metals, ii. Non-metals and iii. Metalloids or semi-metals
 Figure: Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids in Periodic Table
Metals: Elements which are hard, shiny, can be beaten into sheets, drawn into wires and are good
conductor of heat and electricity are generally metals. For example: Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Gold
(Au), Tin (Sn) etc.
Non-metals: The elements which are brittle, dull, cannot be beaten into sheets or drawn into wires
and are poor conductors of heat and electricity are generally non-metals. For example: Carbon (C),
Oxygen (O), Fluorine (F) etc.
Metalloids or semi-metals: Elements which have properties between metals and non-metals are
called metalloids or semi-metals. For example: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Arsenic (As), Boron
(B) etc.
Note: There exists a zigzag line of metalloids in the periodic table which separates the metals
and non-metals.

2.6 Compounds and Formulae

What is a Compound?
Definition: In chemistry, a compound is a substance formed when two or more chemical elements
are chemically bonded together. The resulting compound has a unique set of properties distinct
from its constituent elements.
Examples: Water (H2O) - One of the most common compounds, water is formed by the chemical
bonding of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Table salt (NaCl) - Sodium chloride is a compound formed by the combination of one sodium (Na)
atom and one chlorine (Cl) atom.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) - This compound consists of one carbon (C) atom bonded to two oxygen
(O) atoms.
Methane (CH4) - Methane is a compound found in natural gas, consisting of one carbon atom
bonded to four hydrogen atoms.
Glucose (C6H12O6) - A simple sugar, glucose is a compound composed of six carbon atoms, twelve
hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms.
Ammonia (NH3) - Ammonia is a compound formed by one nitrogen (N) atom bonded to three
hydrogen (H) atoms

Properties of Elements and Compounds

A compound is very different from the elements from which it is made. When two different
elements are bonded, they completely lose the properties of the individual elements. The
compound has totally new properties.
the first two photographs show the two elements sodium and chlorine. The third photograph shows
the compound that is made when sodium and chlorine atoms bond together. This compound –
sodium chloride – is not at all like either sodium or chlorine.
You may have eaten some sodium chloride today. Sodium chloride is common salt. You would
not want to eat any sodium or chlorine, though.

Naming Compounds
Writing the name of a compound involves using a set of rules based on the nomenclature system
for that particular type of compound. Here are some general guidelines for naming compounds:
Ionic Compounds:
1. Cation (Metal): Write the name of the metal.
2. Anion (Non-metal): Write the stem of the non-metal's name and add "-ide.”
Examples:
NaCl → Sodium chloride
CaO → Calcium oxide
Covalent Compounds:
1. Name the first element: Use the element's name.
2. Name the second element: Use the stem of the element's name and add "-ide."
3. Use prefixes to indicate the number of atoms: Use prefixes (mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, etc.)
to indicate the number of atoms of each element. However, "mono-" is usually omitted for the
first element.
Examples:
CO2 → Carbon dioxide
N2O4 → Dinitrogen tetroxide

Particle Diagram
Particle diagrams, like those for carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, show which atoms of which
elements make up the particle. It is easy to decide if a substance is a compound by looking at the
particle diagram. If there are different kinds of atom bonded together, then it is a compound.
Carbon dioxide, water and methane are all the compounds because their particles are made up of
different kinds of atoms. Oxygen is an element because the atoms in the particle are both oxygen
atoms.

Using Formulae
Every compound has a chemical name. for example, the compound of sodium and chlorine is
sodium chloride. Some compounds also have an everyday name. for example, sodium chloride is
also known as common salt/table salt.
Every compound also has a formula (plural form of this word is formulae). The formula contains
symbols of the elements that are bonded together in the compound. The table shows the chemical
names and formulae of some compounds.

Chemical name Formula What the compound contains

Calcium oxide CaO 1 Ca atom, 1 O atom
Carbon dioxide CO2 1 C atom, 2 O atoms
Carbon monoxide CO 1 C atom, 1 O atom
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 2 H atom, 1 S atom
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 1 Ca atom, 1 C atom, 3 O atoms
Sodium hydroxide NaOH 1 Na atom, 1 O atom, 1 H atom
Sodium chloride NaCl 1 Na atom, 1 Cl atom
Silver nitrate AgNO3 1 Ag atom, 1 N atom, 3 O atoms
Hydrochloric acid HCl 1 H atom, 1 Cl atom
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 2 H atoms, 1 S atom, 4 O atoms

2.7 Compounds and Mixtures

Compounds and Mixtures
When atoms of elements are bonded tightly to form a compound, the properties of the compound
are completely different from the properties of the elements that it is made from. For example, iron
is a metal. It is hard, grey, strong, conducts heat and electricity and is magnetic. Sulfur is a non-
metal. It is yellow, brittle, does not conduct heat or electricity and is not magnetic. When these
two elements are heated, they combine together to form the compound iron sulfide. Iron sulfide is
not magnetic and does not conduct heat or electricity.

Mixture
Definition: A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in any proportion.

Figure 2.1: A mixture of sand and water

Example: mud (mixture of dirt and water), sea water (mixture of water and salt), cement (mixture
of sand, water and gravel) etc.

Classification of Mixture
There are 2 types of mixture. They are- (i) homogeneous mixture and (ii) heterogeneous mixture
Homogeneous Mixture: A homogeneous mixture is a gaseous, liquid or solid mixture that has
the same proportions of components throughout a given sample. It is uniform in composition
throughout. There is only one phase of matter observed in a homogeneous mixture.
Some examples of homogeneous mixture are- coffee, air, bronze, blood, vinegar, natural gas, steel
etc.
Heterogeneous Mixture: A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is not
uniform throughout the mixture. A phase is a separate layer in a heterogeneous mixture.
Some examples of heterogeneous mixture are- salad, ice cube in drinks, mixture of sand and water
etc.
 Figure 2.2: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixture

Difference between Homogeneous Mixture and Heterogeneous Mixture

Homogeneous Mixture Heterogeneous Mixture
Have a uniform composition throughout the Have a mixed composition which may vary
mixture from point to point
Components are not visible easily Components can be seen easily
Whole mixture is in the same phase Substances can be of two phases and layers
may separate
Particle size is often at atomic or molecular Have large particle size
level
Components cannot be separated easily Components can be separated easily

Air is a Mixture
Pure substance: A pure substance in chemistry is a substance that consists of only one type of
chemical (particle, either atoms or molecules). It has a fixed and definite composition. For
example, elemental oxygen (O2) or pure water (H2O) are considered pure substances because they
contain only one type of chemical.
When you mix iron and sulfur together, you make a mixture of two elements. In science, the word
pure is used to describe something that only contains a single substance. Pure water contains only
water, with no other substances mixed with it.
A mixture is not pure. It is made up of different kinds of particles that are mixed together. The
mixture may be of elements, compounds or both. There are solids, liquids and gases that are
mixtures. For example, air is a mixture of several different elements and compounds. Air contains
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor and small quantities of some other gases.
The composition of air varies because the amount of water vapor changes all the time, depending
on the weather. The amount of carbon dioxide and other gases also change. This can be a result of
natural emissions, such as when animals and plants produce carbon dioxide when they respire.
Plants also use carbon dioxide when they make food, so this removes carbon dioxide from the air.
The changes in the composition of air can also be as a result of human activity increasing the
amount of carbon dioxide that is given out as a result of burning fossil fuels. Other forms of
pollution also change the composition of the air.
The composition of air has changed over millions of years; at one time there was much less oxygen
in the atmosphere.

Mineral Water is a Mixture

The label on a bottle of mineral water lists many minerals. There is more than just water in the
bottle. The bottle contains a mixture of water and other substances. The minerals are dissolved in
the water. The mineral water is a solution. A liter of water may have about of minerals dissolved
in it.

Chapter-5: Properties of Materials

5.1 Metals and Non-metals

Metals
Definition: Metals are those substances (elements) that have high electrical conductivity, luster
and malleability and can easily donate electrons from their outer-most shell to form cations
(positive ions).
Examples: Sodium (Na), Iron (Fe), Gold (Au), Copper (Cu) etc.
Metals are very useful materials. Materials are the substances from which objects are made. There
are many different metals. Metals are used to do different jobs. Metal mixture is called alloy. Steel
is an alloy of iron. It contains iron and carbon. When nickel and chromium is mixed in a fixed
proportion with steel, it is called stainless steel.

Properties of Metals
• Metals are strong and tough.
• They do not shatter when dropped and they do not crack easily.
• They can hold large weights without breaking.
• Metals are shiny when they are freshly cut or polished.
• Metals can be bent to shape them.
• Metals are malleable, which means they can be hammered into shape.
• Metals are ductile, which means that they be drawn out into wires.
• Metals make a ringing sound like a bell when they are hit; the word for this is sonorous.
• Metals do not melt easily. They have high melting points and high boiling points. Mercury is
the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.
• Metals are good conductors of heat. When you touch them, they conduct heat energy away
from the hand so they feel cold.
• Some metals are magnetic. Iron, nickel, cobalt are magnetic.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity. This means that an electric current can flow
through them.
Note: The surface of most metals will become dull after a while. Big lumps of metal are hard
to test for flexibility. Bottles and cups also make a ringing sound when they are hit, but they
are not made of metal.

Non-Metals
Definition: Non-metals are those substances (elements) that can easily accept electrons to form
anions (negative ions).
Examples: Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H) etc.
Non-metals are often very useful because of the chemical reactions they have with other
substances. There is a lot of variation between non-metals.

Properties of Non-metals
• Non-metals look dull. They do not reflect light very well and the surface is not as smooth as
metals.
• Non-metals that are solids are brittle. If you drop them, they may shatter.
• Most non-metals do not conduct heat energy well. This is very useful because some of them
can be used to make handles for cooking pans, for example.
• Most non-metals do not conduct electricity. This is very useful because some can be used to
make coverings for electric plugs and cables, for example. They are known as insulators; this
means they do not conduct heat or electricity.
• Non-metals are not as hardwearing as metals.
• Many non-metals are gases.
• The non-metals that are not gases have low melting points and low boiling points.

5.2 Comparing Metals and Non-metals

Differences between Metals and Non-metals
Metals Non-metals
Most metals are solid at room temperature. Many are gases at room temperature.
They are shiny. They are dull.
They do not shatter. Some of them may shatter.
They conduct heat energy well. They do not conduct heat energy well.
They conduct electricity. They do not conduct electricity.
Most of them have high melting points. Most of them have low melting points.
Most of them have high boiling points. Most of them have low boiling points.

5.3 Metal Mixtures

5.4 Using the Properties of Materials to Separate Mixtures
5.5 Acids and Alkalis
5.6 Indicators and the pH Scale

Chapter-8: Changes on Materials

8.1 Simple Chemical Reactions

8.2 Neutralization
8.3 Investigating Acids and Alkalis
8.4 Detecting Chemical Reactions