Plant Biology

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Unit-1 Plant Biology
1. Tissues and Organs
 Plants are multicellular eukaryotes whose bodies are composed of organs, tissues, and cells with highly
specialized functions.
Organs: Roots, Stems, Leaves
Tissues: Ground tissue Vascular tissue Dermal tissue
Ground tissue cells: Vascular tissue cells: Dermal tissue cells:

Cells: Parenchyma*, Collenchyma, Tracheids and Vessel Elements; Epidermal cells, Stomata,
Sclerenchyma* Sieve Tubes and Companion Cells Trichomes
*Parenchyma and sclerenchyma are also associated with xylem and phloem (vascular tissue)
 The stems and leaves together make up the shoot system. Each organ (roots, stems, and leaves) includes all
three tissue types (ground, vascular, and dermal).
 Different cell types comprise each tissue type, and the structure of each cell type influences the function of
the tissue it comprises.
Plant Organ Systems

 Vascular plants have two distinct organ systems: a shoot system, and a root system.
 The shoot system consists stems, leaves, and the reproductive parts of the plant (flowers and fruits). The shoot
system generally grows above ground, where it absorbs the light needed for photosynthesis.
 The root system, which supports the plants and absorbs water and minerals, is usually underground.
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Plant Biology
A. The Root System

 The roots of seed plants have three major functions:
1. Anchoring the plant to the soil
2. Absorbing water and minerals and transporting them upwards
3. Storing the products of photosynthesis
 Some roots are modified to absorb moisture and exchange gases. Most roots are underground. Some plants,
however, also have adventitious roots, which emerge above the ground from the shoot.
 Root systems are mainly of two types:
 Tap root systems have a main root that grows down vertically, and from which many smaller lateral
roots arise. Tap roots penetrate deep into the soil and are advantageous for plants growing in dry soils.
Tap roots are typical of dicots such as dandelions.
 Fibrous root systems are located closer to the surface and have a dense network of roots. Fibrous root
systems can help prevent soil erosion. Fibrous roots are typical of monocots such as grasses.
 Root structures are evolutionarily adapted for specific purposes:

 Bulbous roots store starch.
 Aerial roots and prop roots are two forms of above-ground roots that provide additional support to
anchor the plant.
 Some tap roots, such as carrots, turnips, and beets, are adapted for sugar/starch storage.
 Epiphytic roots enable a plant to grow on another plant
B. The Shoot System : Stems and Leaves

 Stems are a part of the shoot system of a plant. Their main function is to provide support to the plant, holding
leaves, flowers and buds.
 Of course, they also connect the roots to the leaves, transporting absorbed water and minerals from the
roots to the rest of the plant, and transporting sugars from the leaves (the site of photosynthesis) to
desired locations throughout the plant.
Plant Biology
 They may range in length from a few millimetres to hundreds of meters, and also vary in diameter, depending
on the plant type. Stems are usually above ground, although the stems of some plants, such as the potato, also
grow underground.
 Stems can be of several different varieties :
 Herbaceous stems are soft and typically green
 Woody stems are hard and wooded
 Unbranched stems have a single stem
 Branched stems have divisions and side stems
 Plant stems, whether above or below ground, are characterized by the presence of nodes and internodes.
 Nodes are points of attachment for leaves and flowers; internodes are the regions of stem between two nodes.
 The tip of the shoot contains the apical meristem within the apical bud. An axillary bud is usually found
in the area between the base of a leaf and the stem where it can give rise to a branch or a flower.
 Leaves are attached to the plant stem at areas called nodes. An internode is the stem region between two nodes.
 The petiole is the stalk connecting the leaf to the stem. The leaves just above the nodes arose from axillary
buds.
 Leaves are the main sites for photosynthesis: the process by which plants synthesize food. Most leaves are
usually green, due to the presence of chlorophyll in the leaf cells. However, some leaves may have different
colours, caused by other plant pigments that mask the green chlorophyll.
 Typical leaves are attached to the plant stem by a petiole, though there are also leaves that attach directly to
the plant stem.
 The vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) run through veins in the leaf, which also provide structural support.

Plant Biology
 The midrib is a vessel that extends from the petiole to the leaf tip. Veins branch from the midrib. The lamina
is the wide, flat part of the leaf.
 The thickness, shape, and size of leaves are adapted to specific environments. Each variation helps a plant
species maximize its chances of survival in a particular habitat.
 Coniferous plant species that thrive in cold environments, like spruce, fir, and pine, have leaves that are reduced
in size and needle-like in appearance. These needle-like leaves have sunken stomata (pits that allow gas
exchange) and a smaller surface area: two attributes that aid in reducing water loss.
 In hot climates, plants such as cacti have leaves that are reduced to spines, which in combination with their
succulent stems, help to conserve water.
 Many aquatic plants have leaves with wide lamina that can float on the surface of the water, and a thick waxy
cuticle (waxy covering) on the leaf surface that repels water.
Plant Tissues
 Plant tissue systems fall into one of two general types: meristematic tissue, and permanent (or non-meristematic)
tissue.
 Meristematic cells are undifferentiated continue to divide and contribute to the growth of the plant. In contrast,
permanent tissue consists of plant cells that are no longer actively dividing.
 Meristems produce cells that quickly differentiate, or specialize, and become permanent tissue. Such cells take
on specific roles and lose their ability to divide further. They differentiate into three main tissue types: dermal,
vascular, and ground tissue.
 Each plant organ (roots, stems, leaves) contains all three tissue types:
 Dermal Tissue :
 It covers and protects the plant, and controls gas exchange and water absorption (in roots).
Dermal tissue of the stems and leaves is covered by a waxy cuticle that prevents evaporative
water loss. Stomata are specialized pores that allow gas exchange through holes in the cuticle.
 Root hairs, which are extensions of root epidermal cells, increase the surface area of the root,
greatly contributing to the absorption of water and minerals.
 Trichomes, or small hairlike or spikey outgrowths of epidermal tissue, may be present on the
stem and leaves, and aid in defence against herbivores.

Plant Biology
 Ground Tissue :
 It carries out different functions based on the cell type and location in the plant, and includes
parenchyma (photosynthesis in the leaves, and storage in the roots), collenchyma (shoot support
in areas of active growth), and schlerenchyma (shoot support in areas where growth has
ceased) is the site of photosynthesis, provides a supporting matrix for the vascular tissue,
provides structural support for the stem, and helps to store water and sugars.
 Vascular Tissue :
 It transports water, minerals, and sugars to different parts of the plant. Vascular tissue is made
of two specialized conducting tissues : xylem and phloem.
 Xylem tissue transports water and nutrients from the roots to different parts of the plant, and
also plays a role in structural support in the stem.
 Xylem tissue includes vessel elements and tracheids, both of which are tubular, elongated
cells that conduct water.
 Tracheids are found in all types of vascular plants, but only angiosperms and a few other
specific plants have vessel elements.
 Tracheids and vessel elements are arranged end-to-end, with perforations called pits between
adjacent cells to allow free flow of water from one cell to the next.
 Phloem tissue transports organic compounds from the site of photosynthesis to other parts of
the plant. The xylem and phloem always lie adjacent to each other in a vascular bundle.
 Phloem tissue consists of sieve cells and companion cells.
 Sieve cells conduct sugars and other organic compounds, and are arranged end-to-end with
pores called sieve plates between them to allow movement between cells.
 Sieve cells are thus supported by companion cells, which lie adjacent to the sieve cells and
provide metabolic support and regulation.
Plant Cell Types

 Each plant tissue type is comprised of specialize cell types which carry out vastly different functions:
 Vascular Tissue Cells :
 Tracheids
 Vessel Elements
 Sieve Tube Cells
 Companion Cells
Plant Biology
 Dermal Tissue Cells :

 Epidermal Cells
 Stomata or more accurately, guard cells
 Trichomes
 Ground Tissue Cells :
 Parenchyma
 Collenchyma
 Sclerenchyma
2. Primary and Secondary Growth
 Unlike most animals, who grow to a specific body size and shape and then stop growing (determinate growth),
plants exhibit indeterminate growth where the plant will continue adding new organs (leaves, stems, roots)
as long as it has access to the necessary resources.
 Plants are able to continue growing indefinitely like this due to specialized tissues called meristems, which
are regions of continuous cell division and growth. Meristematic tissue cells are either undifferentiated or
incompletely differentiated, and they continue to produce cells that quickly differentiate, or specialize, and
become permanent tissues (dermal, ground, and vascular).
 Meristematic tissues consist of three types, based on their location in the plant. Apical meristems contain
meristematic tissue located at the tips of stems and roots, which enable a plant to extend in length.
 Lateral meristems facilitate growth in thickness or girth in a maturing plant.
 Intercalary (also called basal) meristems occur only in some monocots, at the bases of leaf blades and at nodes
(the areas where leaves attach to a stem). This tissue enables the monocot leaf blade to increase in length from
the leaf base; for example, it allows lawn grass leaves to elongate even after repeated grazing or mowing.
 Meristems contribute to both primary (taller/longer) and secondary (wider) growth. Primary growth is
controlled by root apical meristems or shoot apical meristems, while secondary growth is controlled by the
two lateral meristems, called the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. Not all plants exhibit secondary
growth.
Primary Growth in Roots

 When the plant embryo emerges from the seed, the radicle of the embryo forms the root system. The tip of
the root is protected by the root cap.
 The root cap is continuously replaced because it gets damaged easily as the root pushes through soil. Behind
the root cap, within the first centimetre or so, the root tip can be divided into three zones:
 The zone of cellular division, which contains the apical meristem, is the location immediately behind
the root cap where cells are actively dividing via mitosis.
 The zone of cellular elongation is the location where the newly formed cells are growing, or increasing
in length, to add length to the root. This process requires uptake of water, which literally stretches the
cells and increases their size.
 The zone of cellular maturation is the location where newly elongated cells complete their
differentiation into the dermal, vascular, or ground tissues. Maturation is driven by changes in gene
expression.

Plant Biology
 The root tip is divided into three areas: an upper area of maturation, a middle area of elongation, and a lower
area of cell division at the root tip.
 In the area of maturation, root hairs extend from the main root and cells are large and rectangular.
 The area of elongation has no root hairs, and the cells are still rectangular, but somewhat smaller. A vascular
cylinder runs through the centre of the root in the area of maturation and the area of elongation.
 In the area of cell division, the cells are much smaller. Cells within this area are called the apical meristem.
A layer of cells called the root cap surrounds the apical meristem.
 Plants may also have lateral roots that branch from the main tap root. The lateral roots originate from
meristematic tissue in the pericycle, which is the outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder in the centre of
the root.
 Once they have emerged, lateral roots then display their own primary growth, continually adding length to the
lateral root.
Primary Growth in Shoots

 Primary growth in stems is a result of rapidly dividing cells in the apical meristems at the shoot tip. Subsequent
cell elongation then leads to primary growth.

Plant Biology
 In many plants, most primary growth occurs primarily at the apical (top) bud, rather than axillary buds (buds
at locations of side branching). The influence of the apical bud on overall plant growth is known as apical
dominance, which prevents the growth of axillary buds that form along the sides of branches and stems.
 If the apical bud is removed, then the axillary buds will start forming lateral branches.
Secondary Growth in Shoots (and Roots)

 The process of secondary growth is controlled by the lateral meristems, and is similar in both stems and roots.
Lateral meristems include the vascular cambium and, in woody plants, the cork cambium.
 The vascular cambium is located between the primary xylem and primary phloem within the vascular bundle.
The cells of the vascular cambium divide and form secondary xylem (tracheids and vessel elements) to the
inside, and secondary phloem (sieve elements and companion cells) to the outside.
 The cells of the secondary xylem contain lignin, the primary component of wood, which provides hardiness
and strength. The xylem together with the pith form the wood of a woody stem.
 In woody plants, cork cambium is the outermost lateral meristem. It produces cork cells, which contain a
waxy substance that can repel water.
 The phloem together with the cork cells form the bark, which protects the plant against physical damage and
helps reduce water loss. The cork cambium also produces a layer of cells known as phelloderm, which grows
inward from the cambium.
 The cork cambium, cork cells, and phelloderm are collectively termed the periderm. The periderm substitutes
for the epidermis in mature plants.
 The combined actions of the vascular and cork cambia together result in secondary growth, or widening of the
plant stem.
 A new layer of xylem and phloem are added each year during the growing season. The interior xylem layers
eventually die and fill with resin, functioning only in structural support. The interior, non-functional xylem is
called heartwood. The newer, functional xylem is called sapwood.
 The exterior layers of phloem eventually become crushed against the cork cambium and are broken down.
Thus, a mature tree contains many interior layers of older, non-functional xylem deep within the stem, but only
a small amount of older phloem.

Plant Biology
Secondary Growth and Annual Rings

 The activity of the vascular cambium results in annual growth rings. During the spring growing season, cells
of the secondary xylem have a large internal diameter and their primary cell walls are not extensively thickened.
This is known as early wood, or spring wood.
 During the fall season, the secondary xylem develops thickened cell walls, forming late wood, or autumn
wood, which is denser than early wood.
 This alternation of early and late wood is due largely to a seasonal decrease in the number of vessel elements
and a seasonal increase in the number of tracheids. It results in the formation of an annual ring, which can be
seen as a circular ring in the cross section of the stem.
 An examination of the number of annual rings and their nature (such as their size and cell wall thickness) can
reveal the age of the tree and the prevailing climatic conditions during each season.

Plant Biology
3. Morphogenesis
After the formation of zygote by fertilization of egg the zygote undergoes a number of changes to produce varies
organs.
Organization of Shoot and Root Apical Meristem

The shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem are bunches of stem cells that will persist in the postembryonic
plant and give rise to most of the sporophyte body. The root meristem is partially derived from the hypophysis in some
species. All other parts of the sporophyte body are derived from the embryo proper. Genetic evidence indicates that the
formation of the shoot and root meristems is regulated independently. This independence is demonstrated by the dek23
maize mutant and the Shootmeristemless (STM) mutant of Arabidopsis, both of which form a root meristem but fail
to initiate a shoot meristem. The STM gene, which has been cloned, is expressed in the late globular stage, before
cotyledons form. Genes have also been identified that specifically affect the development of the root axis during
embryogenesis. Mutations of the HOBBIT gene in Arabidopsis, for example, affect the hypophysis derivatives and
eliminate root meristem function.
The shoot apical meristem will initiate leaves after germination and, ultimately, the transition to reproductive development.
In Arabidopsis, the cotyledons are produced from general embryonic tissue, not from the shoot meristem. In many
angiosperms, a few leaves are initiated during embryogenesis. In the case of Arabidopsis, clonal analysis points to the
presence of leaves in the mature embryo, even though they are not morphologically well developed. Clonal analysis
has demonstrated that the cotyledons and the first two true leaves of cotton are derived from embryonic tissue rather
than an organized meristem.
Meristems
Meristems are bunches of cells that allow the basic body pattern established during embryogenesis to be reiterated and
extended after germination. Meristematic cells are similar to stem cells in animals. They divide to give rise to one
daughter cell that continues to be meristematic and another that differentiates. Meristems fall into three categories:
apical, lateral, and intercalary.
Apical meristems occur at the growing shoot and root tips. Root apical meristems produce the root cap, which consists
of lubricated cells that are sloughed off as the meristem is pushed through the soil by cell division and elongation in
more proximal cells. The root apical meristem also gives rise to daughter cells that produce the three tissue systems
Plant Biology
of the root. New root apical meristems are initiated from tissue within the core of the root and emerge through the
ground tissue and dermal tissue. Root meristems can also be derived secondarily from the stem of the plant; in the case
of maize, this is the major source of root mass.
The shoot apical meristem produces stems, leaves, and reproductive structures. In addition to the shoot apical meristem
initiated during embryogenesis, axillary shoot apical meristems (axillary buds) derived from the original one form in
the axils (the angles between leaf and stem). Unlike new root meristems, these arise from the surface layers of the
meristem.
Root Development
Radial and axial patterning in roots begins during embryogenesis and continues throughout development as the primary
root grows and lateral roots emerge from the pericycle cells deep within the root. Laser ablation experiments eliminating
single cells and clonal analyses have demonstrated that cells are plastic and that position is the primary determinant
of fate in early root development. Analyses of root radial organization mutants have revealed genes with layer specific
activity. We will illustrate these findings by looking at two Arabidopsis genes that regulate ground tissue fate.
Shoot Development
The unique above ground architectures of different plant species have their origins in shoot meristems. Shoot architecture
is affected by the amount of axillary bud outgrowth. Branching patterns are regulated by the shoot tip a phenomenon
called apical dominance and plant hormones appear to be the factors responsible. Auxin is produced by young leaves
and transported toward the base of the leaf. It can suppress the outgrowth of axillary buds. Grazing and flowering often
release buds from apical dominance, at which time branching occurs.
Leaf Development
Leaf development includes commitment to become a leaf, establishment of leaf axes, and morphogenesis, giving rise
to a tremendous diversity of leaf shapes. Culture experiments have assessed when leaf primordia become determined
for leaf development. Research on ferns and angiosperms indicates that the youngest visible leaf primordia are not
determined to make a leaf; rather, these young primordia can develop as shoots in culture. The programming for leaf
development occurs later. The radial symmetry of the leaf primordium becomes dorsal-ventral, or flattened, in all leaves.
Two other axes, the proximal distal and lateral, are also established. The unique shapes of leaves result from regulation
of cell division and cell expansion as the leaf blade develops. There are some cases in which selective cell death
(apoptosis) is involved in the shaping of a leaf, but differential cell growth appears to be a more common mechanism.
Leaves fall into two categories, simple and compound.

Plant Biology
Phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on both mains stem and branches. The following types of phyllotaxy is found
in plants.
1. Alternate For example, Mangifera Indica, Brassica, Nicotiana.
2. Opposite Each node two leaves.
(i) Superposed Eugenia, Ixora, Quisqualis.
(ii) Decussate Calotropis, Ocimum.
3. Whorled For example, Alstonia, Nerium, Vangueria
4. Transport in Vascular Plants
4.1 Uptake, Transport and Translocation Water and Transpiration

Liquid water is necessary for life as we know it. Firstly it is the solvent and reaction medium of all living cells, which
contain some 75-90% water by weight; secondly it is a reactant in many metabolic processes; and thirdly, as the
hydration water of macromolecules, it forms part of the structure of protoplasm, existing as 'liquid ice' in a labile but
ordered structure.
Means of Transport/Uptake
Diffusion : The movement of molecules of gases, liquids and solute from the region of higher concentration or high
diffusion pressure to the region of lower concentration or lower diffusion pressure is known as diffusion. The diffusion
pressure of pure solvent is maximum as compared to same solvent in solution.
Facilitated diffusion A type of passive transport in which substances move across the membrane along their concentration
gradient in the presence of certain carrier protein molecules called permeases present in the membrane. It helps in
transportation of glucose in liver cells and RBCs through their cell membrane. Also helps in absorption of fructose and
nucleotides in small intestine.
Osmosis : The diffusion of solvent from a hypotonic solution (having lower concentration) to hypotonic solution
(having higher concentration) through a semipermeable membrane to keep the concentration in equilibrium. Osmotic
pressure is that equivalent of maximum hydrostatic pressure which is produced in the solution when this solution is
separated from its pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane.
Imbibition : The phenomenon of absorption of water or any other liquid without forming a solution. The liquid which
is imbibed is called adsorbent while the material is called imbibant. The plant cell when placed in pure water swells
but not burst. The hydrostatic pressure developed inside this cell against the cell wall due to endosmosis is called turgor
pressure.
There are two methods of water uptake/absorption.
Active Absorption
This type of absorption need energy. These are two theories of active absorption.
(a) Osmotic Theory : The water is absorbed due to osmotic differences between soil water and cell sap. Absorption
directly requires no expenditure of metabolic energy and higher DPD of cell sap causes endosmosis of soil water across
the semipermeable plasma membrane. Absorption continues till DPD become zero.
(b) Non-Osmotic Theory : Water absorbed with the help of energy provided by respiration in form of ATP.
Plant Biology
Passive Absorption
This is caused due to a force developed by transpiration. Rapid transpiration removes water and reduces the surrounding
root cells to make up water deficit. There are three pathways of water movement in root.
(a) Apoplast Pathway : Water moves exclusively through cell wall without crossing any membrane.
(b) Symplast Pathway : Water moves from one cell to another by plasmodesmata.
(c) Transmembrane Pathway : Water crosses atleast two membranes from each cell in its path.
Translocation of Water/Ascent of Sap

Water rises upwards in the plant through xylem. The upward movement of water from root towards top of plant is called
ascent of sap.
These are three types of theories to explain ascent of sap :
(a) Vital Force Theory (Pulsation Theory) : Upward movement of water takes place due to activity of living cells
of plant. Sir JC Bose (1923) said that living cells of inner most layer of cortex is responsible for pumping the water
in upward direction. He inserted a fine needle into the stem of Desmodium and connected to a galvanometer which
showed slow oscillations.
(b) Root Pressure Theory : When a well-watered plant is cut near the base the xylem sap is seen to flow out through
the cut end with a pressure called root pressure (developed as a result of metabolic activities of root). The value of root
pressure is 2-5 atm. Which is not enough for taller plants like Eucalyptus to raise the water up.
(c) Physical Force Theory (Transpiration Pull Theory) : Originally proposed by Dixon and Jolly (1894). Cohesive
and adhesive properties of water developed an unbroken continuous water column in xylem. The mutual attraction
between water molecules is called cohesion (upto 350 atm). The walls of tracheid's and vessels of xylem are made up
of lignin and cellulose and have strong affinity for water called adhesion. Transpiration develops a negative pressure
or tension in xylem sap, which is transmitted down to the root. Due to transpiration of water DPD in mesophyll cells
increases. Water is therefore absorbed by the cell walls from protoplasm which in turn takes water from vacuole of cell.
DPD of xylem elements increases. Due to these cohesive and adhesive forces water column does not break and pulled
upward by a force called transpiration pull. It does not require metabolic energy.
Water Potential
Water Potential (w) is the chemical potential of water in a system or part of system. It is expressed in the unit of
pressure and compared with chemical potential of pure water in atmospheric pressure at same temperature and pressure.
 Water moves from higher water potential to lower water potential.
 Pure water has higher water potential (zero pascal) and impure water have lower water potential (value always
in negative).
 Diffusion pressure deficit is equal to water potential but opposite in sign.
Unit of Water Potential

It is measured in unit of pressure. e.g., pascal, bar. (pascal = Newton/m2; 1 mega pascal = 10 bar; 1 m bar = 102 pascal).
Water potential is total of three forces.
w = s + p + g
where, s, Solute potential.
p, Pressure potential.
g, Potential due to gravity.
 Water potential is influenced by concentration, pressure, gravity, etc.
Plant Biology
Solute or Osmotic Potential s the solute potential reduces the free energy of water. When solute concentration
increases inside the cell, the solute or osmotic potential (s) is lowered and thus, water potential decreases. At high
temperature osmotic potential increases. Its value is always in negative.
Pressure Potential or Hydrostatic Pressure p the positive hydrostatic pressure is called turgor pressure. The wall
pressure will increase if turgor pressure keeps on increasing. The pressure potential has always positive value.
Gravity : Gravity causes water to move downward unless the force of gravity is opposed by an equal and opposite
force. The term g depends on the height (h) of the water above the reference-state water, the density of water (w),
and the acceleration due to gravity (g). In symbols, we write the following:
g = wgh
where wg has a value of 0.01 MPa m–1. Thus, a vertical distance of 10 m translates into a 0.1 MPa change in water
potential.
The Water Potential Concept Helps us Evaluate The Water Status of a Plant
The concept of water potential has two principle uses. Firstly, water potential governs transport across cell membranes,
as we have described. Second, water potential is often used as a measure of the water status of a plant because of
transpirational water loss to the atmosphere, plants are seldom fully hydrated.
Abscisic acid accumulation
Solute accumulation
Photosynthesis
Stomatal conductance
Protein synthesis
Wall synthesis
Cell expansion
–0 –1 –2 –3 –4
Water potential (MPa)
Pure water Well-wateredPlants under Plants in arid,

plants mild water desert climates
stress
Fig. : Physiological Changes Due to Dehydration
Transport of Ions Across a Membrane Barrier

Diffusion potentials develop when oppositely charged ions move across a membrane at different rates. The cytosol and
the vacuole are the most important intracellular compartments that determine the ionic relations of plant cells. In mature
plant cells, the central vacuole often occupies 90% or more of the cell's volume, and the cytosol is restricted to a thin
layer around the periphery of the cell.

Plant Biology
Compartment A Compartment B
+
Membrane K Cl –
Initial conditions:
[KCl]A > [KCl]B
Diffusion potential exists

until chemical equilibrium
is reached.
Equilibrium conditions:
[KCl]A = [KCl]B
At chemical equilibrium,
diffusion potential equals
zero.
Fig. : Development of a diffusion potential and a charge separation between two compartments separated by a
membrane that is preferentially permeable to potassium. If the concentration of potassium chloride is higher
in compartment A ([KCI]A > [KCI]B), potassium and chloride ions will diffuse at a higher rate into compartment
B, and a diffusion potential will be established. When membranes are more permeable to potassium than to
chloride, potassium ions will diffuse faster than chloride ions, and charge separation (+ and .) will develop.
Plants absorb the mineral from soil and translocated them to other part. The movement of mineral ions take
place by mass flow (along water due to transpiration), ion exchange Donnan equilibrium (fixed or non-
diffusible anions) or active process.
Water in the Soil

The water content and the rate of water movement in soils depend to a large extent on soil type and soil structure. Table
shows that the physical characteristics of different soils can vary greatly. At one extreme is sand, in which the soil
particles may be 1 mm or more in diameter.
Physical characteristics of different soils
Soil Particle diameter (ìm) Surface area per gram (m 2 )
Coarse sand 2000 - 200
 < 1-10
Fine sand 200 - 20 
Silt 20 - 2 10 -100
Clay <2 100 -100
Sandy soils have a relatively low surface area per gram of soil and have large spaces or channels between particles.
At the other extreme is clay, in which particles are smaller than 2m in diameter. Clay soils have much greater surface
areas and smaller channels between particles. With the aid of organic substances such as humus (decomposing organic
matter), clay particles may aggregate into "crumbs" that helps to improve soil aeration and infiltration of water.
Water has a high surface tension that tends to minimize air-water interfaces. As a soil dries out, water is firstly removed
from the center of the largest paces between particles. Because of adhesive, forces, water tends to cling to the surface
of soil particles, so a large surface between soil water and soil air develops.

Plant Biology
Fig. : The composition of the soil
Water Absorption by Roots

Intimate contact between the surface of the root and the soil is essential for effective water absorption by the root. This
contact provides the surface area needed for water uptake and is maximized by the growth of the root and of root hairs
into the soil. Root hairs are microscopic extensions of root epidermal cells that greatly increase the surface area of
the root, thus providing greater capacity for absorption of ions and water from the soil. When 4-month-old rye (Secale)
plants were examined, their root hairs were found to constitute more than 60% of the surface area of the roots. Water
enters the root most readily in the apical part of the root that includes the root hair zone. More mature regions of the
root often have an outer layer of protective tissue, called an exoderm or hypodermis, that contains hydrophobic
materials in its walls and is relatively impermeable to water.
1. Water moves in the root via the Apoplast, Transmembrane, and Symplast pathways
2. Solute accumulation in the Xylem can generate "Root Pressure"
Water Transport Through the Xylem

In most plants, the xylem constitutes the longest part of "the pathway of water transport. In a plant 1 m tall, "more than
99.5% of the water transport pathway "through the plant is within the xylem, and in tall trees "the xylem represents
an even greater fraction of the "pathway. Compared with the complex pathway across "the root tissue, the xylem is a
simple pathway of low "resistance. In the following sections we will examine "how water movement through the xylem
is optimally "suited to carry water from the roots to the leaves, and "how negative hydrostatic pressure generated by
leaf "transpiration pulls water through the xylem.
The Xylem Consists of Two Types of Tracheary Elements

The conducting cells in the xylem have a specialized anatomy that enables them to transport large quantities of water
with great efficiency. There are two important types of tracheary elements in the xylem, tracheid's and vessel elements.
Vessel elements are found only in angiosperms, a small group of gymnosperms called the Gnetales, and perhaps some
ferns. Tracheid's are present in both angiosperms and gymnosperms, as well as in ferns and other groups of vascular
plants.

Plant Biology
Fig. : Tracheary elements and their interconnections
Water Movement from the Leaf to the Atmosphere

After water has evaporated from the cell surface into the intercellular air space, diffusion is the primary means of any
further movement of the water out of the leaf. The waxy cuticle that covers the leaf surface is a very effective barrier
to water movement. It has been estimated that only about 5% of the water lost from leaves escapes through the cuticle.
Almost all the water lost from typical leaves is lost by diffusion of water vapor through the tiny pores of the stomatal
apparatus, which are usually most abundant on the lower surface of the leaf.
Transpiration from the leaf depends on two major factors:
1. The difference in water vapor concentration between the leaf air spaces and the external air and
2. The diffusional resistance (r) of this pathway. We will first discuss how the difference in water vapor concentration
controls transpiration rates.
5. Plant Nutrition
Solute Transport
An essential element is defined as one whose absence prevents a plant from completing its life cycle or one that has
a clear physiological role. If plants are given these essential elements, as well as energy from sunlight, they can
synthesize all the compounds they need for normal growth. Table-1 lists the elements that are essential for most, if not
all, higher plants. The first three elements-hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen-are not considered mineral nutrients because
they are obtained primarily from water or carbon dioxide.

Plant Biology
Table : Adequate Tissue Levels of Elements that may be Required by Plants

Element Chemical Symbol Concentration in Dry Matter (% or ppm)
Obtained from water or carbon dioxide
Hydrogen H 6
Carbon C 45
Oxygen O 45
Obtained from the soil
Macronutrients
Nitrogen N 1.5
Potassium K 1.0
Calcium Ca 0.5
Magnesium Mg 0.2
Phosphorus P 0.2
Sulfur S 0.1
Silicon Si 0.1
Micronutrients
Chiorine Cl 100
Iron Fe 100
Boron B 20
Manganese Mn 50
Sodium Na 10
Zinc Zn 20
Copper Cu 6
Nickel Ni 0.1
Molybdenum Mo 0.1
Essential mineral elements are usually classified as macronutrients or micronutrients, according to their relative
concentration in plant tissue. In some cases, the differences in tissues content of macronutrients and micronutrients are
not as great as those indicated in Table. For example, some plant tissues, such as the leaf mesophyll, have almost as
much iron or manganese as they do sulfur or magnesium. As shown in Table-1 the essential elements are classified as
macronutrients and micronutrients. The macronutrients are required in large amounts relative to the micronutrients; in
culture solutions, macronutrients are supplied at 10-3 to 10-2 mol L-1, while the micronutrient concentrations may be as
low as 10-7 mol L-1. Most of the micronutrients become toxic at quite moderate concentrations, say above
10-4 mol L-1.
Table : Classification of Plant Mineral Nutrients According to Biochemical Function
Mineral Nutrient Functions
Group 1 Nutrients that are part of carbon compounds
N Constituent of arnino acids, amides, proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides, coenzymes,
hexoamines, etc.
S Component of cysteine, cystine, methionine, and proteins. Constituent of lipoic acid,
coenzyme A, thiamine pyrophosphate, glutathione, biotin, adenosine-5'-phosphosulfate, and
3-phosphoadenosine.
Group 2 Nutrients that are important in energy storage or structural integrity
P Component of sugar phosphates, nucleic acids, nucleotides, coenzymes, phospholipids,
phytic acid, etc. Has a key role in reactions that involve ATP.
Si Deposited as amorphous silica in cell walls. Contributes to cell wall mechanical properties,
including rigidity and elasticity.
B Complexes with mannitol, mannan, polymannuronic acid and other constituents of cell walls.
Involved in cell elongation and nucleic acid metabolism.

Plant Biology
Group 3 Nutrients that remain in ionic form

K Required as a cofactor for more than 40 enzymes. Principal cation in establishing cell turgor
and maintaining cell electroneutrality.
Ca Constituent of the middle lamella of cell walls. Required as cofactor by some enzymes
involved in the hydrolysis of ATP and phospholipids. Acts as a second messenger in
metabolic regulation.
Mg Required by many enzymes involved in phosphate transfer. Constituent of the chlorophyll
moelcule.
Cl Required for the photosynthetic reactions involved in O2 evolution.
Mn Required for activity of some dehydrogenases, decarboxylates, kinases, oxidases, and
peroxidases. Involved with other cation-activated enzymes and photosynthetic O2 evolution.
Involved with the regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate in C4 and CAM plants. Substitutes
Na
for potassium in some functions.
Group 4 Nutrients that are involved in redox reactions
Fe Constituent of cytochromes and nonheme iron proteins involved in photosynthesis, N2
fixation, and respiration.
Zn Constituent of alcohol dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase, etc.
Cu Component or ascorbic acid oxidase, tyrosinase, monoamine oxidase, uricase, cytochrome
oxidase, phenolase, laccase and plastocyanin.
Ni Constituent of urease. In N2 -fixing bacteria, constituent of hydrogenases.
Mo Constituent of nitrogenase, nitrate reductase, and xanthine dehydrogenase.
Transport Processes
The movement of molecules and ions from one location to another is known as Transport. Plants exchange solutes
and water with their environment and among their tissues and organs. Both local and long-distance transport processes
in plants are controlled largely by cellular membranes. Forces that drive biological transport, which include concentration
gradients, electric-potential gradients, and hydrostatic pressures, are integrated by an expression called the Electrochemical
Potential. Transport of solutes down a chemical gradient (e.g., by diffusion) is known as passive transport. Movement
of solutes against a chemical potential gradient is known as active transport and requires energy input.
When cations and anions move passively across a membrane at different rates, the electric potential that develops is
called the Diffusion Potential. For each ion, the relationship between the voltage difference across the membrane and
the distribution of the ion at equilibrium is described by the Nernst equation.
Ei = Ei – Eo
o
RT  C ö 
and E =  ln t 
z ö P  Cö 
2.3RT  C oö

or E =  log t 
zö P  Cö 
The Nernst equation shows that at equilibrium the difference in concentration of an ion between two compartments is
balanced by the voltage difference between the compartments. That voltage difference, or membrane potential, is seen
in all living cells because of the asymmetric ion distributions between the inside and outside of the cells. The electrical
effects of different ions diffusing simultaneously across a cell membrane are summed by the Goldman equation.
Plant cells have several internal compartments, each of which can differ in its ionic composition. The cytosol and the
vacuole are the most important intracellular compartments that determine the ionic relations of plant cells. In mature
plant cells, the central vacuole often occupies 90% or more of the cell's volume, and the cytosol is restricted to a thin
layer around the periphery of the cell. Because of its small volume, the cytosol of most angiosperm cells is difficult
to assay chemically. For this reason, much of the early work on the ionic relations of plants focused on certain green
algae, such as Chara and Nitella, whose cells are several inches long and can contain an appreciable volume of cytosol.

Plant Biology
 Potassium is accumulated passively by both the cytosol and the vacuole, except when extracellular K+
concentrations are very low, in which case it is taken up actively.
 Sodium is pumped actively out of the cytosol into the extracellular spaces and vacuole.
 Excess protons, generated by intermediary metabolism, are also actively extruded from the cytosol.
This process helps to maintain the cytosolic pH near neutrality, while the vacuole and the extracellular medium are
generally more acidic by one or two pH units.
 All the anions are taken up actively into the cytosol.
 Calcium is actively transported out of the cytosol at both the cell membrane and the vacuolar membrane, which
is called the Tonoplast.
Plasma membrane
Vacuole Tonoplast
Cell wall
Cytosol
K
+
K+ K
+
– –
Cl Cl
–
Cl
+ +
Na+ Na Na
– –
NO 3 NO 3
–
NO3
2+ 2+ 2+
Ca Ca Ca
H2PO –3 H2 PO3– H 2PO3–

+ + +
H H H
Fig. : Ion Concentrations in the cytosol and the vacuole are controlled by passive (dashed arrows) and active (solid
arrows) transport processes.
Electrogenic pumps, which carry out active transport and carry a net charge, change the membrane potential from the
value created by diffusion. Membranes contain specialized proteins channels, carriers, and pumps that facilitate solute
transport. Channels are transport proteins that span the membrane, forming pores through which solutes diffuse down
their gradient of electrochemical potentials. Carriers bind a solute on one side of the membrane and release it on the
other side. Transport specificity is determined largely by the properties of channels and carriers.
To carry out active transport, a carrier must couple the uphill transport of the solute with another, energy-releasing event
so that the overall free-energy change is negative. Primary active transport is coupled directly to a source of energy
such as ATP hydrolysis, an oxidation reduction reaction (the electron transport chain of mitochondria and chloroplasts),
or the absorption of light by the carrier protein (in halo bacteria, bacteriorhodopsin).
In the plasma membranes of plants, fungi, and bacteria, as well as in plant tonoplasts and other plant and animal
endomembrane, H+ is the principal ion that is electrogenically pumped across the membrane. The plasma membrane
H+-ATPase generates the gradient of electrochemical potentials of H+ across the plasma membranes, while the vacuolar
H+-ATPase and the H+-pyrophosphatase (H+-PPase) electrogenically pump protons into the lumen of the vacuole and
the Golgi cisternae.

Plant Biology
In plant plasma membranes, the most prominent pumps are for H+ and Ca2+, and the direction of pumping is outward.
Therefore, another mechanism is needed to drive the active uptake of most mineral nutrients. The other important way
that solutes can be actively transported across a membrane against their gradient of electrochemical potential is by
coupling of the uphill transport of one solute to the downhill transport of another. This type of carrier mediated
cotransport is termed as Secondary Active Transport, and it is driven indirectly by pumps. In plants and fungi, sugars
and amino acids are taken up by symport with proteins. Evidence suggests that in plants, Na+ is transported out the
cell by a Na+-H+ antiporter and that Cl–, NO3–, H2PO4–, sucrose, amino acids, and other substances enter the cell via
specific protein symporters.
Large metabolites such as flavonoids, anthocyanins and secondary products of metabolism are sequestered in the
vacuole. These large molecules are transported into vacuoles by ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. Transport
processes by the ABC transporters consume ATP and do not depend on a primary electrochemical gradient. Recent
studies have shown that ABC transporters can also be found at the plasma membrane and in mitochondria.
Several representative transport processes located on the plasma membrane of plants and the tonoplast are illustrated.
Genetic studies have revealed many genes, and their corresponding transport proteins, that account for the versatility
of plant transport. Patch clamp electrophysiology provides unique information on ion channels, and it enables measurement
of the permeability and gating of individual channel proteins.
Fig. : Overview of The Various Transport Processes on The Plasma Membrane and Tonoplast of Plant Cells.

Plant Biology
Ion Transport in Roots

Mineral nutrients absorbed by the root are carried to the shoot by the transpiration stream moving through the xylem.
Both the initial uptake of nutrients and the subsequent movement of mineral ions from the root surface across the cortex
and into the xylem are highly specific, well-regulated processes. Ion transport across the root obeys the same biophysical
laws that govern cellular transport. However, as we have seen in the case of water movement, the anatomy of roots
imposes some special constraints on the pathway of ion movement.
Solutes Move through Both Apoplast and Symplast

Thus far, our discussion of cellular ion transport has not included the cell wall. In terms of the transport of small
molecules, the cell wall is an open lattice of polysaccharides through which mineral nutrients diffuse readily. Because
all plant cells are separated by cell walls, ions can diffuse across a tissue (or be carried passively by water flow) entirely
through the cell wall space without ever entering a living cell. This continuum of cell walls is called the extracellular
space, or apoplast.
Ions Moving through the Root Cross Both Symplastic and Apoplastic Spaces
Ion absorption by the roots is more pronounced in the root hair zone than in the meristem and elongation zones. Cells
in the root hair zone have completed their elongation but have not yet begun secondary growth. The root hairs are
simply extensions of specific epidermal cells that greatly increase the surface area available for ion absorption.
Fig. : Diagram illustrating how plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasm's of neighboring cells
Xylem Parenchyma Cells Participate in Xylem Loading

Once ions have been taken up into the symplast of the root at the epidermis or cortex, they must be loaded into the
tracheid's or vessel elements of the stele to be translocated to the shoot. The stele consists of dead tracheary elements
and the living xylem parenchyma. Because the xylem tracheary elements are dead cells, they lack cytoplasmic continuity
with surrounding xylem parenchyma. To enter the tracheary elements, the ions must exit the symplast by crossing a
plasma membrane a second time.
Photoassimilate Translocation
Flowering plants are described as being autotrophic, 'self-feeding', capable of synthesizing all their organic material via
photosynthesis. But a flowering plant is a complex organism with cells and organs specialized for diverse functions,
and only the green photosynthetic cells are truly autotrophic; they must accordingly supply all the non-photosynthetic
parts with organic carbon. Over small distances, i.e. between individual cells and within small groups of cells, chemicals
can move by diffusion through plasmodesmata, or across plasma membranes by diffusion and by active transport. But
Plant Biology
organic materials must move for long distances; the growing tips of the roots of a tree are many metres away from the
nearest photosynthetic leaves and even in a herbaceous plant diffusion would be too slow for the distances involved.
The xylem and phloem together with the pa renchyma cells form vascular bundles. The xylem (xylon, Greek for
wood) consists of lignified tubes, which translocate water and dissolved mineral nutrients from the root via the
transpiration stream to the leaves. Several translocation vessels arranged mostly on the outside of the vascular bundles
make up the phloem (phloios, Greek for bark), which transports photoassimilates from the site of formation (source)
(e.g., the mesophyll cell of a leaf) to the sites of consumption or storage (sink) (e.g., roots, tubes, fruits, or areas of
growth). The phloem system thus connects the sink and source tissues. The phloem contains elongated cells, joined by
sieve plates, the platter consisting of diagonal cell walls perforated by pores. The single cells are called sieve elements
and their longitudinal arrangement is called the sieve tube.
Fig. : Scheme of the sieve tubes and their loading and unloading via the apo plastic and symplastic pathways. The
plasmodesmata indicated by the double line allow unhindered diffusion of sugar and amino acids. The structures
are not shown to scale. The companion cells participating in apo plastic loading are also called transfer cells.
Intermediary cells are specialized companion cells involved in symplastic phloem loading.
Companion cells, adjacent to the sieve elements of angiosperms, contain all the constituents of a normal living plant
cell, including the nucleus and many mitochondria. Sieve elements and companion cells have developed from a
common precursor cell and are connected to each other by numerous Plasmodesmata. They are an important element
of phloem loading. Depending on the kind of phloem loading, the companion cells are named transfer cells or
intermediary cells.
There are two modes of phloem loading: Photoassimilates generated in the mesophyll cells, such as sucrose and
various oligosaccharides as well as amino acids, diffuse via plasmodesmata to the bundle sheath cells. The further
transport of photoassimilates from the bundle sheath cells to the sieve tubes can occur in two different ways:
(i) Especially in those plants in which oligosaccharides from the raffinose family are translocated in the sieve tubes
(e.g., squash plants), the bundle sheath cells are connected to specialized companion cells, named intermediary
cells, and further to the sieve tubes, by many plasmodesmata. Therefore, in these plants the transfer of the
photoassimilates to the sieve tubes via plasmodesmata is termed symplastic phloem loading.
(ii) In contrast, in apoplastic phloem loading, found for instance in the leaves of cereals, sugar beet, rapeseed, and
potato, photoassimilates are first transported from the source cells via the bundle sheath cells to the extracellular
compartment, the apoplast, and then by active transport into the sieve tube compartment.
Plant Biology
BUNDLE SIEVE
SHEATH CELL APOPLAST TRANSFER CELL ELEMENT
Sucrose Sucrose
 
H H
Amino acids Amino acids

 
H H
ATP

nH
ADP+P
Mitochondrium
Fig. : Apoplastic phloem loading. Transfer of the photoassimilates from the bundle sheath cells to the sieve tubes.
Many observations indicate that active loading takes place in the plasma membrane of the transfer cells and
that the subsequent transfer to the sieve elements occurs by diffusion via plasmodesmata. However, recent results
indicate that part of the assimilates also can be taken up directly from the apoplasts into the sieve elements.
6. Development of Flowering Plants
Anatomy of the Floral Parts

 The flower is a determinate stem with crowded appendages, with internodes much shortened or obliterated.
Parts of The Flower and Their Arrangement

 The flower consists of an axis, also known as receptacle and lateral appendages. The appendages are known
as floral parts or floral organs. They are sterile and reproductive.
 The sepals and petals which constitute the calyx and corolla respectively are the sterile parts. The stamens and
the carpels are the reproductive parts.
 The stamens compose the androecium, whereas the free or united carpels compose the gynoecium.
Sepals
 The sepals resemble leaves in their anatomy. Each sepal consists of ground parenchyma, a branched vascular
system and an epidermis.

Plant Biology
 The chloroplasts are found in the green sepals but usually there is no differentiation in the palisade and spongy
parenchyma. They may contain crystal-containing cells, laticifers, tannin cells and other idioblasts.
 The epidermis of sepals may possess stomata and trichomes.
Petals
 The petals also resemble leaves in their internal structure. They contain ground parenchyma, a branched
vascular system, and an epidermis.
 They may also contain crystal containing cells, tannin cells, laticifers and certain other idioblasts. They contain
pigments containing chromoplasts.
 Very often, the epidermal cells of the petals contain volatile oils which emit the characteristic fragrance of the
flowers. In certain flowers the anticlinal epidermal walls of the petals are wavy or internally ridged, whereas
the outer walls may be convex or papillate.
 The epidermis may also possess stomata and trichomes.
Stamen
 It consists of a two-lobed four-locule anther. The anther is found to be situated on a slender filament which
bears single vascular bundle.
 The structure of filament is simple. The vascular bundle is amphicribral and remains surrounded by parenchyma.
 The epidermis is cutinized and bears trichomes. The stomata may also be present on the epidermis of both
anther and filament.
 The vascular bundle is found throughout the filament and culminates blindly in the connective tissue situated
in between the two anther-lobes.
 The outermost wall of the anther is the epidermis. Just beneath the epidermis there is endothecium which
usually possesses strips or ridges of secondary wall material mainly on those walls which do not remain in
contact with the epidermis.
 The innermost layer is composed of multinucleate cells; this is nutritive in function and known as tapetum.
 On the maturation of the pollen the tapetum disintegrates and the outer wall of the pollen sac now consists of
only the epidermis and endothecium. At the time of dehiscence of the anthers the pollen is released out through
stomium.
Gynoecium
 The unit of gynoecium is called carpel. A flower may possess one carpel or more than one. If two or more
carpels are present, they may be united or free from one another.
 When the carpels are united the gynoecium is known as syncarpous; when they are free the gynoecium is said
to be apocarpous.
 The apocarpous gynoecium is termed simple pistil, whereas the syncarpous gynoecium is termed compound
pistil. The carpel is commonly interpreted as foliar structure.
 The carpel of an apocarpous or syncarpous gynoecium is being differentiated into the ovary and the style. The
upper part of the style is differentiated as a stigma. The stigma is sessile.
 The ovary consists of the ovary wall, the locule or locules and in a multilocular ovary, the partitions. The ovules
are found to be situated on the inner or adaxial (ventral) side of the ovary wall.
 The ovary and style are composed of epidermis, ground tissue of parenchyma, and vascular bundles. The outer
epidermis is cuticularized and may have stomata.
 The ovule consists of a nucellus which encircles the sporogenous tissue.
 There are two integuments of epidermal origin, and a stalk, funiculus. The ovule consists of parenchyma and
contains a dominant vascular system.
Plant Biology
Vascular Anatomy
Pedicel
 It has normal vascular cylinder. The cylinder may be unbroken, or it may contain a ring of vascular bundles.
 In the region where floral organs are borne, the pedicel expand into the receptacle. The vascular cylinder also
expands, and the vascular bundles increase somewhat in number, and finally traces begin to diverge.
 The appendage traces are derived from the receptacular stele exactly as leaf traces are derived in typical stems.
When the floral organs are numerous and closely placed, the gap of traces break the receptacular stele into a
meshwork.
Sepals
 A sepal usually receives three traces derived from the same or different sources. They have often been
considered as equivalent to bracts and foliage leaves.
Petals
 In their vascular supply the petals are sometimes leaf like, but much more often they are like stamens. The
petals may have one, three or several traces.
Stamens
 A stamen generally receives a single trace which remains almost unbranched throughout its course in the
filament. In the anther region it may undergo some branching. In some families three traces are present in each
stamen.
Carpels
 The carpel is commonly looked upon as a leaf-like organ folded upward, i.e., ventrally with its margins more
or less completely fused and bearing the ovules.
 The carpel has one, three, five or several traces. The median trace which leaves the stele below the other carpel
traces, is known as the dorsal trace because it becomes the dorsal (midrib) bundle of the folded organ.
 The outermost traces are known as ventral or marginal traces because they become the bundles that run along
the ventral edge of the carpel, i.e., along or near the margins of the organ if it were unfolded.
 The upward and inward folding of the sides of the carpel brings about the inversion of these ventral bundles.
 The phloem remains on the ventral side in the carpel, whereas it is on the dorsal side in the midrib (dorsal)
bundle.
 When floral parts are fused, the vascular bundles of these parts may also be fused. If carpels are united, the
lateral bundles, either those of the same carpel or those of two adjacent carpels, may be fused in pairs.
 In syncarpy, the lines that separate the carpels and their margins have been disorganized. The inverted ventral
bundles form a ring of bundles in the center. These bundles usually lie in pairs. Here each pair consists of the
ventral bundles, of the same carpel, or more often of bundles from each of two adjacent carpels.
 In the center of a three carpellary syncarpous ovary there may be a ring of six or three ventral bundles.
 In angiospermous flower the carpel may become joined by their margins to the receptacle, or they may grow
together laterally in a closed folded condition, or they may become laterally united in an open folded condition.
 The junction of carpels in an open condition may result in a unilocular ovary showing parietal placentation.
 Folding combined with union of carpels with each other may form an ovary with as many locules as there
are carpels. In such cases the ovules are borne on the central column of tissue where the carpels come together
showing axile placentation.

Plant Biology
The Inferior Ovary

 The inferior ovary is formed by the adnation of the sepals, petals and stamens to the carpels or by the sinking
of the gynoecium in a hollowed receptacle with fusion of the receptacle walls about the carpels.
 In certain flowers with inferior ovary (e.g., Calycanthaceae, Santalaceae and Juglandaceae) there is evidence
that the ovary is partially enclosed in hollowed receptacle. Here the vascular bundles are prolonged from the
axis to the level below the insertion of floral parts, other than the carpels, where traces to the parts diverge.
 The main bundles continue farther from the periphery in a downward direction with a corresponding inversely
oriented position of the xylem and the phloem. These bundles at lower levels give branches to the carpels. This
type of orientation of the vascular system is thought to be the result of the invagination of the receptacular axis.
Gametophytic and Sporophytic Generations

 In flowering plants, the reproductive organs are in the flower. Meiosis and fertilization are two essential
processes in the sexual cycle of flowering plants.
 Sexual reproduction consists of two generations: sporophytic and gametophytic.
 Gametophyte is characterized by nutritionally independent extremely short haploid phase.
 The sporophytic generation begins when an egg nucleus unites with a sperm nucleus, producing an embryo,
and the second sperm nucleus fuses with the polar nuclei (secondary nucleus) producing triploid endosperm
and continues with the development of seed, seedling, mature plant and flowers.
 Sporophytic tissues contain a diploid chromosome number. The flower contains spore-forming organs called
anthers and ovaries.
 Anthers and the ovaries produce (n) microspores and megaspores, respectively, Thus, alternation of sporophytic
and gametophytic generations occur during the life cycle of flowering plants and this form of life cycle is
termed as haplodiplontic life cycle.
Sporophyte Generation
 Sporophyte bears spore-producing organs and produces spores by the process of sporogenesis (micro and mega
sporogenesis).
 Microsporogenesis is the formation of the microspores, The microspores give rise to the male gametophyte.
 The anther of the microsporophyll or stamen bears the microsporangia or pollen sacs, the function of which
is to produce the microspores or pollen grains.
 Anther is the fertile portion of the stamen. A typical anther is tetrasporangiate type. Each anther lob has two
microsporangia (pollen sac).
 A mature anther wall comprises an epidermis followed by a laver of endothecium, 2 or 3 middle layers ans
a single layered tapetum.
 Tapetum supply nutrients to the developing microspores. It synthesizes enzyme that degrades the callose wall
for the release of microspores present in the tetrad.
 The primary Sporogenous cells may directly function as microspore mother cell (also called pollen Mother
Cell, PMC) or they may undergo a few mitosis to add up to their number before entering meiosis.
 Each PMC, by meiotic division, give rise to a group of four haploid microspores. The aggregates of four
microspores are referred to as microspore tetrads.
 Microspores after their release from the tetrads are referred to pollen grains. The pollen grain has apertures
(pores), that is, limited thin-walled areas in the exine through which the pollen tube usually emerges during
germination.
 Pollen wall has the sporopollenin which is resistant to various chemicals, high temperature and to agents of
natural decay of organic matter, and is mainly responsible for the preservation of pollen in fossil plant deposits.
Plant Biology
 Megasporogenesis is the formation of megaspores within the megasporangiurn (integumented Ovule). Megaspores
result from the meiotic division of the megaspore mother cell, megasporocyte,
 The megasporocyte undergoes meiotic division resulting in the formation of a linear tetrad of haploid megaspores.
In most of angiospermic families, three of the four megaspore degenerate and one remains functional, which
usually lies towards the chalazal end (polygonum type).
 The ovule developing from the placenta of the ovary is the site of formation of megaspores and development
of the embryo sac (female gametophyte). The ovule commonly consists of the following principal parts:
nucellus, the central body with vegetative cells enclosing the sporogenous cells; one or two integuments
enclosing the nucellus and funiculus, the stalk connecting the ovule with the placenta,
 The region where the nucellus, the integuments and the funiculus merge is called the chalaza. An opening, the
micropyle, remains where the inner integument arches over the nucellus.
Gametophyte Generation
 Gametophyte body forms gametes. The male gametophyte forms male gametes. Before the pollen is shed, a
mitotic division into vegetative tube cell and generative cell gives rise to the two-celled gametophyte.
 The tube cell guides the pollen germination and the growth of the pollen tube after the pollen lands on the
stigma of carpel. The generative cell may immediately divide mitotically into two sperms, or male gametes, or
the second mitotic division may occur after the pollen grain germinates.
 The mitotic division resulting in the formation of the generative nucleus is followed by cytokinesis resembling
that in somatic cells.
 Megaspores give rise to the embryo sac; Embryo sac is also known as female gametophyte. The most common
type of embryo sac formation is polygonum type. The polygonum type of embryo sac is called monosporic
because it is derived from one of four megaspores from meiosis.
 In monosporic condition, the nuclei of megaspore undergo three successive mitotic divisions and gives an
eight-nucleated embryo sac. The eight-nucleate cell is organized into the seven-celled embryo sac.
 The three cells at the micropylar end constitute the egg apparatus which is composed of the egg and two
synergids. At the opposite end of the embryo sac are three antipodal cells.
 Between the two groups of cells is the large central cell containing the two polar nuclei derived one from each
of the two groups or four nuclei.
 The two polar nuclei eventually come together and fuse to form a diploid secondary nucleus. Thus, the mature
embryo sac is seven-celled structure. All the cells of embryo sac are haploid, except the central cell which is
diploid (due to fusion of two polar nuclei).
Plant Biology
7. Different Developmental Phases
 Flower development has been divided into 12 stages using a series of landmark events. Stage 1 begins with
the initiation of a floral buttress on the flank of the apical meristem.
 Stage 2 commences when the flower primordium becomes separate from the meristem.
 Sepal primordia then arise (stage 3) and grow to overlie the primordium (stage 4).
 Petal and stamen primordia appear next (stage 5) and are soon enclosed by the sepals (stage 6). During stage
6, petal primordia grow slowly, whereas stamen primordia enlarge more rapidly.
 Stage 7 begins when the medial stamens become stalked. These soon develop locules (stage 8).
 A long stage 9 then commences with the petal primordia becoming stalked. During this stage all organs
lengthen rapidly. This includes the gynoecium, which commences growth as an open-ended tube during stage
6.
 When the petals reach the length of the lateral stamens, stage 10 begins.
 Stigmatic papillae appear soon after (stage 11), and the petals rapidly reach the height of the medial stamens
(stage 12). This final stage ends when the 1-millimeter-long bud opens.
8. Genetic Control of Flowering
ABC Model of Floral Organ Patterning

 The transition from shoot vegetative meristem to floral meristem requires floral meristem identity genes that
both specify the floral organs and cause the termination of the production of stem cells.
 These group of genes include LEAFY (LFY), APETALA1 (AP1) and CAULIFLOWER (CAL), which are
expressed in early floral stages and responsible for their floral fate. The proteins encoded by these genes are
transcription factors that likely control the expression of other genes, whose products are involved in the
formation and/or function of floral organs.
 In Arabidopsis, these genes include APETALAI (API), APETALA2 (AP2), APETALA3 (AP3), PISTILLATA
(PI) and AGAMOUS (AG).
Role of Floral Organ Identity Genes

 Floral organ identity genes directly control floral organ identity. The proteins encoded by these genes are
transcription factors that interact with other protein cofactors to control the expression of down-stream genes
whose products are involved in the formation or function of floral organs.
 The flowers of Arabidopsis consist of 4 concentric whorls of organs: sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
respectively, the carpels being located in the centre of the flower.
 The floral parts are each derived from a single whorl of cells in the floral meristem. Expression of homeotic
genes in these 4 whorls results in the production of transcription factors which control the phenotype of the
organs derived from them.
 Three classes of homeotic genes, A, B and C determine organ identity by their expression in different whorls
of cells (called as ABC model).

Plant Biology
Fig. : ABC Model of Flowering
 In the wild-type flower of Arabidopsis, whorl 1 is determined to be sepals by the product of A genes (APETALAI
and APETALA2) alone; whorl 2 is determined as petals by the combined actions of A genes and B genes
(APETALA3 and PISTILLATA); whorl 3 is determined as stamens by the combined actions of B genes and
C genes (AGAMOUS) and whorl 4 is determined as carpels by the action of C gene alone.
Mechanism of Floral Induction in Vernalized Plants

 Vernalization involves epigenetic changes in the expression of gene, FLC (flowering locus C). FLC encodes
a MADS-box transcription factor that represses flowering.
 It is expressed predominantly in mitotically active regions. In Arabidopsis, FLC works by directly repressing
the expression of FT gene in leaves and SOCI and FD genes at the shoot apical meristem.
 In response to vernalization, the amount of FLC mRNA and protein is reduced. The reduction in FLC expression
by vernalization involves chromatin remodeling of FLC that requires the VIN3 (vernalization insensitive 3)
protein.
 The products of two other genes, VRNI (VERNALIZATIONI) and VRN2, are also responsible for repression
of FLC gene but in a very different manner. Its products are needed for maintenance but not for initiation of
FLC silencing. In this way vernalization promotes flowering by reducing ELC expression.
9. Gametogenesis
Production of Gametes in Plants

For completion of sexual reproduction male gametes and female gametes are required which are formed by meiosis in
male and female reproductive organs respectively.

Plant Biology
Development of Male Gametophyte

The male gametes producing structures called pollen grains, are formed within the pollen sac of anthers.
Microsporangium
In angiosperm, anther bears the sporangial tissue which is generally tetrasporangiate with two lobes. Each lobe bears
two microsporangia, which are separated by a column of sterile tissue called connective. In Moringa and Wolffia each
anther lobe has only one microsporangium.
The mature anther wall comprises an epidermis followed by a layer of endothecium, middle layers and single layered
tapetum. Endothecium is hygroscopic. This nature of endothecial cell helps in dehiscence of anther at maturity. In Pisum
and Lens, endothecium wall contains small amount of pectin and lignin. In Najadaceae and Lamnaceae middle layers
are absent.
Tapetum is physiologically important and provides food materials for sporogenous tissue. In Alectra thomsonii tapetal
cell is dimorphic, larger towards interior (C-tapetum) and smaller on the outer side (P-tapetum). DNA content is
enormously increased in tapetal cells due to endomitosis, polyteny and restitution nuclei. Tapetum secreted callose
enzyme which dissolves callose.
Undifferentiated Anther
Epidermis Primary parietal cells Archesporium
Primary sporogenous cells
Secondary parietal Secondary parietal

cells cells Secondary sporogenous
cells
Endothecium Upper middle layer Lower middle layer Tapetum Microspore mother
cells
Microspore mother
Epidermis Endothecium Middle layer Tapetum cells
Fig. : Typical Development Pathway of Microsporangium (Alectra Thomsonii)
Tapetal cells contain numbers of spherical bodies called pro-ubisch bodies, produced only by glandular tapetum and
not by amoeboid tapetum. They rapidly become coated with sporopollenin called ubisch bodies.
Pollen Wall
Intine (Pectocellulosic) Exine (Sporopollenin)
Ektexine Endexine
Tectum Baculum Foot-layer

Fig. : Different Sections of Pollen Wall
Sporopollenin is derived from carotenoids by oxidative polymerization. It is resistant to physical and biological
decomposition. Pollen kit is an oily layer found outside the mature pollen grains of insect pollinated species. It is
contributed by tapetum and is made up of lipid and carotenoids.
Auxin, maleic hydrazide and dalapon selectively induce male sterility.
Plant Biology
Development of Male Gamete

Microspore is the male gametophyte in higher plant. In the gametogenesis process pollen grains divide to form
generative cell and vegetative cell. The generative cell produces two male gametes by mitosis.
Microspore is in tetrad during mitosis, the microspore is united into pollinia in Orchidaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Mimosaceae,
etc., or as massulae in Neottia.
Nemec phenomenon is the appearance of pollen grain like embryo sac in plant. It is found in Hyacinthus and discovered
by Nemec (1898).
(a) Pollen of Ambrosia (Compositae) cause hay fever.
(b) Pollens of Serjania lethalis are poisonous.
Fig. : Development of Angiosperm Gametophytes Involves Meiosis and Mitosis
Embryo Sac Development or Development of Female Gametophyte

The female gametophytes are egg-producing structures called embryo sacs, which form within the ovules in ovaries.
Megasporangium
Megasporangium is the female gametophytic structure with a protective coating and called ovule. The ovules attached
to the wall of ovary by a placenta. The ovule is attached to placenta by a stalk called funicle or funiculus. The point
of attachment of funicle to the ovules is called hilum.

Plant Biology
The ovules may be as unitegmic ovule (single integument) or bitegmic ovules (two integuments). The unitegmic ovule
is the characteristics of gamopetalous and bitegmic ovules are the characteristics of polypetalae and monocotyledons.
The ovules without any integument are called ategmic ovules, e.g., Solanum, Loranthus, Liriosma and Oxalix. Endothecium
is the innermost layer of embryo sac function as nutritive tissue. These tissues found in sympetalae with unitegmic,
tenuinucellate ovule. In some bitegmic ovules endothelium is generally single layered. In compositae it is multilayered,
e.g., in sunflower it is twelve-layered.
Obturator is the structure associated with ovules, which direct the growth of pollen tube towards the micropyle. It is
originated from placenta or funiculus or both. In Acanthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Labiatae, Megnoliaceae, etc., obturator
formed by swelling of funicle. In Crinum, the funicle becomes knee-shaped. Placental obturator occurs in Euphorbiaceae,
Cuscutaceae, etc.
Tenuinucellate condition of ovule is found in advanced families. Most of the families show the crassinucellate condition.
Perisperm is the remnant of nucellus, e.g., Mirabilisjalapa, Nymphaea, Zingiber, Portulaca, etc.
Fig. : The carpel contains one or more ovules, these contain megasporangia protected by two layers of integument
cells. The megasporangia divide meiotically to produce haploid megaspores, all the carpel is diploid except for
the megaspores, which divide mitotically to produce the embryo sac (the female gametophyte)
Types of Ovules
Orthotropous or Atropous ovules This is primitive and simplest type of ovule, e.g., Polygonaceae, Piperaceae.
Anatropous or Inverted ovules This is most common type of ovules in angiosperms, e.g. Sympetalae.
Hemianatropous or Hemitropous, e.g. Malpighiaceae, Primulaceae.
Campylotropous, e.g. Capparidaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cruciferae.
Amphitropous, e.g. Papaveraceae, Alismaceae, Butomaceae.
Circinotropous Ovules are straight but later, due to more growth on one side the ovule, inverted and completely
rounded.

Plant Biology
Fig. : Types of Ovule in Longitudinal Section. (a) Orthotropous (b) Anatropous (c) Hemianatropous (d) Campylotropous
(e) Amphitropous (f) Circinotropous
The single hypodermal cell of nucellus functions as archesporium. In tenuinucellate and pseudocrassinucellate ovules,
the archesporial cell directly function as megaspore mother cell while in crassinucellate ovule, it divides to form parietal
cell and inner primary sporogenous cell, the latter function as megaspore mother cell. The megaspore mother cell
divides to form tetrad of four cells.
Normally, it is the chalazal megaspore of the tetrad, which functions and gives rise to embryo sac, another megaspore
degenerate and disappears. In Onagraceae, Compositae (in a few members), Balanophora, Langsdorffia and Erhytranthe
the micropylar megaspore give rise to embryo sac.
Development of Female Gamete

The female gametophyte is also called as embryo sac. The angiosperm gametophyte can be classified into following
types
Monosporic Embryo Sacs

It is developed from single megaspore. It has following types of embryo sac.
 Polygonum type the embryo sacs formed by chalazal megaspore of the tetrads, embryo sac comprises of an
egg apparatus, three antipodal cells, and a binucleate central cell.
 Oenothera type the embryo sac is derived from micropylar megaspore of the tetrad. It comprises of an egg
apparatus and a uninucleate central cell.
 Schisandra chinesis have similar type of embryo sac, in this species chalazal megaspore is functional.
Bisporic Embryo Sacs

The megaspore mother cell divides to form dyad. Only one dyad cell undergoes meiotic division and other degenerates.
The embryo sac is organized similar to Polygonum type. It has following types of embryo sacs.
 Allium type Embryo sac is derived from chalazal dyad cell.
 Endymion type Embryo sac is derived from micropylar dyad cell.

Plant Biology
Tetrasporic Embryo Sac

The megaspore mother cell divides to form four haploid nuclei. All the four nuclei take part in the formation of embryo
sac. There are three types of arrangement of these four nuclei.
 One nucleus each at the micropylar end and chalazal end, and one nucleus each at two lateral sides, e.g.,
Peperomia, Penaea and Plumbago.
 One nucleus at micropylar end and three nuclei at chalazal end, e.g., Drusa, Fritillaria and Plumbagella.
 Two nuclei at micropylar and two nuclei at chalazal end, e.g., Adoxa.
On the basis of presence or absence of nuclear fusion following types of tetrasporic embryo sac are found.
Megaspore Nuclear Fusion Not Occurs

 Adoxa type the organization of embryo sac is similar to Polygonum type.
 Plumbago type the embryo sac comprises of an egg cell, a four nucleate central cell and three nuclei at the
periphery.
 Penaea type the embryo sac comprises of group of three nuclei each at micropylar, chalazal and two groups
present laterally. Four nuclei behave as polar nuclei. Triad at micropylar function as egg apparatus.
 Peperomia type the embryo sac comprises of an egg, a synergid, six peripheral cells and a central cell with
eight polar nuclei.
 Drusa type the embryo sac comprises of three called egg apparatus, two polar nuclei and eleven antipodal
cells.
Megaspore Nuclei Fuse to form Triploid

 Fritillaria type the embryo sac comprises of an egg, an apparatus of three haploid cells, three triploid antipodal
cells and a central cell with two polar nuclei, one is haploid, and one is triploid.
 Plumbagella type the embryo sac comprises of an egg apparatus of haploid nuclei at the micropylar end, one
triploid antipodal cell and two polar cells, one is haploid and other is triploid.
 The three haploid nuclei at chalazal end fuse to form triploid in Fritillaria and Plumbagella type of embryo sac.
This phenomenon was first reported by Bambacioni (1928). This phenomenon is often called Bambacioni
Effect.

Plant Biology
Fig. : Female Gametophyte Development of Different Types of Embryo Sacs in Angiosperms
Double Fertilization in Plants

 SG Nawaschin (1898) was first to report that both the sperms are involved in fertilization. One sperm is fused
with egg and other fuse with secondary nuclei. This process is called double fertilization which is unique to
angiosperms.
 Most of the plants have two polar nuclei and therefore, second fusion involves the fusion of three nuclei. This
process is called triple fusion.
 Fusion of male nuclei and polar nuclei takes place earlier than the fusion of male nuclei and egg. Fusion of
egg nucleus with sperm nucleus is called syngamy.
10. Incompatibility
Pollen Incompatibility
Interspecific incompatibility refers to the failure of pollen from one species to germinate and/or grow on the stigma of
another species. Intraspecific incompatibility is incompatibility that occurs within a species.
Self-incompatibility is incompatibility between the pollen and the stigmas of the same individual. It is an example of
intraspecific incompatibility. Self-incompatibility blocks fertilization between two genetically similar gametes, increasing
the probability of new gene combinations by promoting outcrossing.
Based on origin of factors which determining mating type is categorized into following types :
(a) Gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI), the incompatibility is determined by genotype of male gametophyte,
e.g. Gramineae, Liliaceae, Solanaceae, Trifolium.

Plant Biology
(b) Sporophytic self-incompatibility (SSI), the incompatibility process is controlled by genotype of sporophytic
tissue of plant, e.g. compositae, Cruciferae.
Fig. : Self-incompatibility. S1, S2 and S3 are different alleles of the self-incompatibility (S) locus
(a) Plants with gametophytic self-incompatibility reject pollen only when the genotype of the pollen matches one
of the carpel's two alleles.
(b) In sporophytic self-incompatibility, the genotype of the pollen parent, not just of the haploid pollen grain itself,
can trigger an incompatibility response.
Opposition S-alleles hypothesis has described the Genetic basis of sexual incompatibility. It was first proposed by East
and Mangelsdorf (1925). This hypothesis describes the incompatibility reaction is controlled by single gene called S-
gene with its several alleles. The pollen component of gametophytic self-incompatibility in the petunia, SLF (S-locus,
F-box), is an F-box gene within the S locus.
In Brassica, one of the genes of the S locus encodes a transmembrane serine-threonine kinase (SRK) that functions in
the epidermis of the stigma and binds a cysteine-rich peptide (SCR) from the pollen. Self-incompatibility results from
the binding of SRK and SRC proteins of self (from allelic S loci) rather than nonself.
1. Gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI) Recognition and rejection reaction, irrespective of S-alleles, occurs in
style after the pollen tube has grown to a certain length. The recognition factor is contributed by male
gametophyte. In grasses (Gramineae and Oenothera) rejection occurs on stigma rather than in style. At molecular
level there are two mechanism of rejection. The RNase mechanism in this case, pollen tube elongation is halted
when pollen tube reached a one-third the way through style. The S-glycoprotein mechanism in this case, pollen
growth is inhibited within a minute of its placement on stigma.
2. Sporophytic Self-incompatibility (SSI) In this case plants behave similarly to GSI irrespective of S-allele they
carry. A plant with S1 S2 alleles produces pollen S1 and S2 would behave in similar way, i.e., both pollens
is non-functional with respect to style. Here pollen fails to germinate or malformed tube unable to penetrate
stigma. This clearly suggests that barrier is restricted to stigma. SSI is determined by diploid genotype.
Incompatibility
Characters
SSI GSI
Pollen
l Cytology 3-Celled 2-Celled
l In Vitro Germination Difficult Easy
l Respiration Rate High Low
Pistil
l Stigma Dry Wet
Rejection Reaction On Stigma In style

Plant Biology
Feature of GSI and SSI

Gametophytic self-incompatibility occurs when the S allele of the pollen grain matches either of the S alleles of the
stigma. In this case, the pollen tube begins developing, but stops before reaching the micropyle. Sporophytic self-
incompatibility occurs when one of the two S alleles of the pollen-producing sporophyte (not the gametophyte) matches
one of the S alleles of the stigma. Most likely, sporophyte contributions to the exine are responsible. A ligand on the
pollen is thought to bind to a membrane-bound kinase receptor in the stigma that starts a signaling process leading to
pollen rejection.
Exception Three-celled pollen with high respiratory rate is an example of GSI in Gramineae, Oenothera organesis and
Theobroma cacao.
11. Embryogenesis
Embryogenesis and Establishment of Symmetry in Plants

In plants, the term embryogenesis covers development from the time of fertilization until dormancy occurs. The basic
body plan of the sporophyte is established during embryogenesis, the major events of embryogenesis are
1. To establish the basic body plan. Radial patterning produces three tissue systems, and axial patterning establishes
the apical-basal (shoot-root) axis.
2. To set aside meristematic tissue for postembryonic elaboration of the body structure (leaves, roots, flowers, etc.).
3. To establish an accessible food reserve for the germinating embryo.
Two important processes in plant growth at the cellular level are :

1. Cell division
2. Cell expansion
These two processes are responsible for the change in the shape and size of a plant and its various organs. These two
processes share no casual relationship. Growth of plant cells depend mainly on water consumption although they
consume many other compounds also the cell division of plant cells consist of the duplication of nucleus and the
building of cell wall to separate the two new nuclei. The parent cell gives rise to complete two daughter cells. A plant
shoot is approximately a cylinder, so it is convenient to use a cylindrical coordinate system to indicate position on a
shoot. Cell division is classified into three types according to the orientation of the new cell wall with respect to the
three mutually orthogonal directions of the cylindrical coordinate system. In transverse cell division, the new cell wall
is roughly orthogonal to the axis of the shoot, in periclinal cell division the new cell wall is parallel to the surface of
the plant and in anticlinal cell division the new wall is contained in a plane passing through the axis of the shoot.
There are two basic types of development in plants :
1. Embryonic
2. Meristematic
The embryonic development results in seed or spore. After dormancy period is over seed starts to absorb water and cells
undergo expansion, this results in the bursting of new plant, this is known as germination. After germination, if all goes
well, the seedling has a root growing down into the ground and a shoot growing up from the ground. The line formed
by the root and shoot form the main axis of the plant.
In meristematic development, some species of plants have meristems that are present before germination while in other
species the meristems form after germination. In the plant, there may be present a clear boundary between embryonic
and meristematic development.
Development of seedling Plant embryogenesis is followed by germination. Germination marks a switch from an
anabolic phase of nutrient accumulation to a catabolic phase of nutrient consumption and growth. There are two stages
separated by period of quiescence, where embryo become desiccated and is stored in seed.

Plant Biology
Environmental influences to which seedling respond :

 Gravity : It ensures shoot grows upward and root grows downwards.
 Light : It enables seedling to extend through soil in dark and then switch to vegetative growth once it has
emerged at surface.
12. Dormancy, Germination and Environmental Influence
Transition to Germination
It is controlled by abscisic acid and gibberellic acid. Abscisic acid inhibits growth and gibberellic acid promotes growth.
There are number of genes which affect transition when mutated but are not involved in hormone synthesis. Instead
these genes encode regulatory proteins that control downstream embryo specific and seedling specific gene expression.
Mutations in these genes cause appearance of trichomes on cotyledons. Trichomes are epidermal hair usually found on
leaves. For example, LEC1 and FUSCA 3.
Dark Development or Skotomorphogenesis

It is the first stage of the germination. It is characterized by begins extension of shoot upwards through soil. Shoot is
pale and spindly, condition described as etiolated. Light development or Photomorphogenesis It is the type of development
where seedling emerges from soil and is exposed to light.
Shoot and Root Development

The vascular plant begins its existence as a single cell, the zygote. The zygote grows into embryo; the early embryo
is globular whereas a mature embryo has a defined apical basal growth axis. This polar structure has two distinct zones
during longitudinal axis formation. The two zones have the capacity of continuous growth and are set apart at opposite
poles. These regions are the apical meristems, one producing the shoot system, the other producing the root system.
These are open ended indeterminate growth systems from which the same kinds of organs and/or tissues are produced
continuously, and which result in the primary plant body.
Seed Formation and Germination

The seeds of some plant species are capable of germinating as soon as they have matured. But many other species have
seeds that are dormant at maturity. There are three principal strategies dominate.
1. Exclusion of water or oxygen from the embryo by means of an impermeable seed coat.
2. Mechanical restraint of the embryo by means of a tough seed coat.
3. Chemical inhibition of embryonic development.
Advantages of Seed Dormancy

Seed dormancy helps annual plants encounter the effects of year-to-year variation in the environment. The seeds of
other plants germinate at specific times during the year, increasing the likelihood that at least some of the seedlings
will encounter conditions favorable for their growth. Dormancy may also increase the likelihood of a seed's germinating
in the right place. Some cypress trees, for example, grow in standing water and their seeds germinate only if inhibitors
are leached by water.
The first step in germination is the uptake of water, called Imbibition's. In germinating barley and other cereal seeds,
the embryo secretes gibberellins. Gibberellins diffuse through the endosperm to a surrounding tissue called the aleurone
layer, which lies inside the seed coat. The gibberellins trigger a cascade of events in the aleurone layer, causing it to
synthesize and secrete enzymes that digest proteins and starch stored in the endosperm.

Plant Biology
Fig. : Embryos Mobilize Their Reserves During Seed Germination
The process of germination is irreversible, i.e. once germination begins it cannot be reverting to dormant state.
There are two types of seed germination :
1. Epigeal Germination
When hypocotyl grows it first pushes the cotyledonary and other part of seed out of soil. This is called Epigeal
Germination. This type of germination is shown by dicotyledons and few monocotyledons. Examples,
(i) Dicotyledonous exalbuminous seeds Cucurbits, mustards, tamarind, French bean, sunflower.
(ii) Dicotyledonous albuminous seeds Castor.
(iii) Monocotyledonous exalbuminous seeds Alisma plantago.
(iv) Monocotyledonous albuminous seeds Rare, occur in onion.
2. Hypogeal Germination
When epicotyl grows, it first pushes the plumule out of soil. The cotyledonary nodes and cotyledons remains under the
soil. This type of germination is called Hypogeal Germination, this type of germination is shown by most of the
monocotyledons. Examples,
(i) Dicotyledonous exalbuminous seeds Gram, broad beans, mango and jackfruit.
(ii) Monocotyledonous albuminous seeds Rice, maize, wheat, coconut, date, areca nut and palmyra.

Biotechnology (MSP)
Biotechnology (BT)
Model Solved Paper
Duration : 180 minutes Maximum Marks : 100
Read the following instructions carefully.
1. This test paper has a total of 60 questions carrying 100 marks. The entire question paper is divided into Three
Sections A, B and C. All sections are compulsory. Questions in each section are of different types.
2. Section – A contains Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ). Each MCQ type question has four choices out
of which only one choice is the correct answer. This section has 30 Questions and carry a total of 50 marks.
Q.1 – Q.10 carry 1 mark each and Questions Q.11 – Q.30 carry 2 marks each.
3. Section – B contains Multiple Select Questions (MSQ). Each MSQ type question is similar to MCQ but
with a difference that there may be one or more than one choice(s) that are correct out of the four given
choices. The candidate gets full credit if he/she selects all the correct choices only and no wrong choices.
This section has 10 Questions and carry 2 marks each with a total of 20 marks.
4. Section – C contains Numerical Answer Type Questions (NAT). For these NAT type questions, the answer
is a real number which needs to be entered using the virtual numerical keypad on the monitor. No choices
will be shown for these type of questions. This section has 20 Questions and carry a total of 30 marks. Q.1
– Q.10 carry 1 mark each and Questions Q.11 – Q.20 carry 2 marks each.
5. In all sections, questions not attempted will result in zero mark. In Section – A (MCQ), wrong answer will
result in NEGATIVE marks. For all 1 mark questions, 1/3 marks will be deducted for each wrong answer.
For all 2 marks questions, 2/3 marks will be deducted for each wrong answer. In Section – B (MSQ), there
is NO NEGATIVE and NO PARTIAL marking provisions. There is NO NEGATIVE marking in
Section – C (NAT) as well.
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Biotechnology (MSP)
Section-(A) Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. The process of epithelial cell formation in leaf starting from a lateral meristem may be referred to as
(A) Transformation (B) Regeneration
(C) Differentiation (D) Dedifferentiation
2. RNAi takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of:

(A) Cellular defence (B) DNA proof reading
(C) Transcription (D) Translation
3. The nematodes that infects roots of tobacco plants and causes a great reduction in yield is:
(A) Meloidogyne incognita (B) Bacillus thuringiensis
(C) Agrobacterium tumefaciens (D) Rhizobium melilot
4. If A and B are two matrices such that AB = B and BA = A, then A2 + B2 =

(A) 2AB (B) 2BA
(C) A + B (D) AB
5. The lines lx + my + n = 0, mx + ny + l = 0 and nx + ly + m = 0 are concurrent if

(A) l + m + n = 0 (B) l + m – n = 0
(C) l – m + n = 0 (D) l2 + m2 + n2  lm + mn + nl
   
6. If a  i  j  k,
 b  4i  3j  4k and c  i  j  k are linearly dependent vectors and | c |  3, then
(A)  = 1,  = –1 (B)  = 1,  = ±1
(C)  = –1,  = ±1 (D)  = ±1,  = 1
7. Choose the right combination of components required to set up a polymerase chain reaction from the following
(A) template DNA, two primers, dNTP and DNA ligase.
(B) template DNA, two primers, NTPs and DNA ligase.
(C) template RNA, two primers, NTPs and DNA polymerase.
(D) template DNA, two primers, dNTPs and DNA polymerase.
8. Three restriction endonculeases P, Q and R recognize 4bp, 6bp and 8bp sequences, respectively. The relative
frequency of occurrence of these sequence on a bacterial genome is
(A) P > Q > R (B) P > R > Q
(C) R > Q > P (D) Q > R > P

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9. Which of the following is the strongest base?

CH 2NH2 NHCH3
(A) (B)
NH2 NH2
CH 3
(C) (D)
10. Identify the product ‘Z’ in the following series of reactions;

HCN H2O HI
C6H12O6 (glucose)   X   Y   Z:
(A) Hexanoic acid (B) -methyl caproic acid
(C) Heptanoic acid (D) None of these
11. Arrange the following in order of increasing dipole moment (I) Toluene (II) m-dichlorobenzene (III) o-dichlorobenzene
(IV) p-dichlorobenzene.
(A) I < IV < II < III (B) IV < I < II < III
(C) IV < I < III < II (D) IV < II < I < III
12. The coefficient of volume expansion of glycerine is 49 × 10–5 °C–1. What is the fractional change in density for
a 30°C rise in temperature?
(A) 0.0145 (B) 0.0289
(C) 0.9855 (D) 0.2205
13. What is a genomic library ?

(A) A collection of recombinant molecules with inserts that contain all of the genes of an organism.
(B) A collection of recombinant molecules with inserts that contain all of an organism’s genome.
(C) A collection of recombinant molecules that express all of the genes of an organism.
(D) A collection of recombinant molecules that have been sequenced.
14. The structure of the major product formed in the given reaction
CH2Cl
NaCN
 is
DMF
I
CH2CN CH2Cl
(A) (B) CN
CN I
CH2Cl CH2CN
(C) (D)
CN I

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ZnX 2
15. For the reaction, C2H5OH + HX   C2H5X, the order of reactivity is:
(A) HI > HCI > HBr (B) HI > HBr > HCI
(C) HCI > HBr > HI (D) HBr > HI > HCI
13
16. How many signals are expected in the C NMR spectrum of the following substance?
O
||
COCH3
COCH3
||
O
(A) 5 (B) 6
(C) 8 (D) 10
17. Which vector is mostly used in crop improvement?

(A) Plasmid (B) Cosmid
(C) Phasmid (D) Agrobacterium
18. Absorption of UV-visible energy by a molecule results in:

(A) Vibrational transitions (B) Electronic transitions
(C) Rotational transitions (D) Nuclear transitions
19. A wheel rotates with a constant acceleration of 2.0 rad/s2. If the wheel starts from rest, how many revolutions
will it make in the first 10 seconds ?
(A) 15 (B) 16
(C) 20 (D) 10
20. A stone is thrown horizontally with a speed 2gh from the top of a wall of height h. It strikes the level ground
through the foot of the wall at a distance x from the wall. What is the value of x?
(A) h (B) 2h
(C) 3h (D) 4h
21. In a multi-electron atom, which of the following orbitals described by the three quantum numbers will have the
same energy in the absence of magnetic field ?
(i) n = 1, l = 0, m = 0 (ii) n = 2, l = 0, m = 0
(iii) n = 2, l = 1, m = 1 (iv) n = 3, l = 2, m = 1
(v) n = 3, l = 2, m = 0
Codes :
(A) (i) and (ii) (B) (ii) and (iii)
(C) (iii) and (iv) (D) (iv) and (v)

Biotechnology (MSP)
22. Choose the incorrect statement.

(A) Secondary succession is more rapid as compared to primary succession.
(B) Autogenic succession begins in a predominantly inorganic environment.
(C) Successful establishment of the species as a result of an adjustment with the condition ecesis.
(D) The ratio of primary productivity and community respiration in heterotrophic succession us greater than one.
23. Lichens are important in the studies on atmospheric pollution because they
(A) can grow in polluted atmosphere
(B) can readily multiply atmosphere
(C) efficiently purify the atmosphere
(D) are very sensitive to pollutants like Sulphur dioxide
24. Half of the patients with allergic diseases have increased serum
(A) IgE levels (B) IgD levels
(C) IgG levels (D) IgM levels
25. Which type of selection is industrial melanism observed in moth, Biston betularia?
(A) Stabilizing (B) Directional
(C) Disruptive (D) Artificial
26. The theory of spontaneous generation stated that:

(A) life arose from living forms only
(B) life can arise from both living and non-living
(C) life can arise from non-living things only
(D) life arises spontaneously, neither from living nor from the non-living.
27. According to classical genetics, which of the following statements is true?

(A) Recessive alleles are detected by the phenotype of F1 generation.
(B) The closer two genes are, the more frequently they recombine.
(C) Genes on different autosomes segregate independently.
(D) Gene on sex chromosome segregate with the same pattern as autosomal genes.
28. Comma shaped bacteria are known as

(A) Spirilta (B) Vibrio
(C) Cocci (D) Bacilli
29. In the Cre-loxP system, if loxP are oriented in opposite direction then the floxed segment will be:
(A) Deleted (B) Translocated
(C) Inverted (D) No change
30. The action potential for initiating and maintaining the rhythmic contraction of heart is generated by.
(A) Sino-atrial node (B) Atrio-ventricular mode
(C) Bundle of his (D) Atrio-ventricular bundle

Biotechnology (MSP)
Section-(B) Multiple Select Questions (MSQ)
1. Which of the following statement/s is/are correct?

(A) Loss of genetic variation occurs within a small population due to genetic drift.
(B) The number of deleterious alleles present in the gene pool of a population is called the genetic load.
(C) Genetic erosion is a reduction in levels of homozygosity.
(D) Inbreeding depression result from increased homozygosity for deleterious alleles.
2. Which of the following statements regarding gene therapy is/are correct?

(A) It is an application of biotechnology, in which a defective gene is manipulated by introduction of a normal, healthy
and functional gene.
(B) The genetic disorders that are being investigated for gene therapy, range from sickle cell anemia to severe combined
immuno-deficiency (SCID).
(C) The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-years old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency.
(D) None of these
3. The Rec A protein of E.coli has several functions. Which of the following statement/s is/are true?
(A) Rec A acts as a co-protease.
(B) Rec A protein has an affinity for ssDNA.
(C) Rec A binds pyrimidine dimers and initiated their repair.
(D) Rec A is required for homologous recombination.
4. All of the following are true of antigen, which one of the following?
(A) They contain epitopes (B) They will react with antibodies
(C) They contain antigenic determinants (D) They contain paratopes
5. Photoreactivation in DNA repair requires:

(A) An endonuclease (B) Pyrimidine dimers
(C) Activation by ultraviolet light (D) An enzyme that cleaves -C-C- bonds
6. Which of the following statements is (are) true?

(A) At any point in time, it is impossible for consumers to outnumber producers in an ecosystem
(B) An ecosystem’s trophic structure determines the rate at which energy cycles within the system
(C) Chemoautotrophic prokaryotes near deep-sea vents are primary producers
(D) There has been a well-documented increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past several decades
7. Which of the following is the characteristics of plant hormone?

(A) They are active in small concentration.
(B) They are pleiotropic in their effect.
(C) They are synthesized in specific glands and tissues.
(D) Plant hormone responses are tissue and time specific.

Biotechnology (MSP)
8. Tyrosine Kinase receptors:

(A) Should be trimerized to be active.
(B) Play important role in activating signal transduction cascade.
(C) Have phosphate-removing active sites in their cytosolic tails.
(D) Can be oncogenes.
9. Which one of the following is function of Photosystem II?

(A) ATP synthesis (B) Light collection
(C) NADPH synthesis (D) Charge separation
10. Substrate consumption in lag phase of microbial growth is primarily used for:
(A) Turn over of the cell material (B) Maintenance of intracellular pH
(C) Non-motility (D) Increase in cell number
Section-(C) Numerical Answer Type Questions (NAT)
1. Consider the transistor circuit shown in the figure assume VBEQ = 0.7V, VBB = 6V and leakage current is negligible.
What is the required value of RB is kilo ohms, if the base current is to be 4A.
iC
RC +
+ V CC
RB B –
VCE
+ –
iB
E
–VBB
IE
2. A 30 kg shell is flying at 48 ms–1. When it explodes, its one part of 18 kg stops, while the remaining part files on.
Find the velocity of the later.
3. The spin only magnetic moment of [CoF6]3– is _________.
4. For the equation 3x2 + px + 3 = 0, p > 0, if one of the roots is square of the other, then p =____.
5. If x  R, then the least value of 7x2 + 3x + 10 is _____.
1
6. The greatest value of the expression 2 is ________.
4x  2x  1
7. The total number of isomers exhibited by the complexes, [Co(en)2Br]+ and [Co(en)3]3+, respectively, are _______.
{'en' is ethylene diamine}
8. The rate of reaction (r) is expressed as, r = k[A]m = [B]n. The rate constant (k) for this reaction is 2L2 mol–2
s–1. The possible values of m and n are _______.

Biotechnology (MSP)
9. The secretory IgA was electrophoresed on SDS-PAGE under reduced and denaturing condition. The number of
polypeptide bands detected on gel is/are:
10. There is an irregular mating population. If the frequency of an autosomal recessive lethal gene is 0.4, then the
frequency of the carriers in a population of 200 individuals is:
11. In a Mendelian cross between pea plants that are heterozygous for flower colour (Rr), what is the probability of
the offspring being a heterozygote ?
12. How many different disaccharides containing D-galactopyranose plus D-glucopyranose are possible?
13. A Bacillus sp. divides every 30 min. If a culture is inoculated with 1000 cells, how many cells will be generated
after 3 hrs ?
14. You have 80 ng of a 1.1 kb plasmid. Calculate number of copies______(in terms of 1011)?
15. The restriction endonuclease HindIII recognizes the sequence AAGCTT. If the genomic DNA of a random
sequence is cleaved with HindIII, what will be the average size of fragment produced if the GC content of genomic
DNA is 40%?
16. 10% energy transfer law in food chain given by Lindeman was first proposed in:
17. The pH of nutrient medium in plant tissue culture is adjusted between:
18. For a mammalian skeletal muscle, if the extracellular potassium ion concentration, [K+]out = 4mM and the intracellular
potassium ion concentration, [K+]in = 128mM, the approximate potassium ion (K+) potential (in mV) is:
19. 0.1 M solution has water potential of:
20. When dc/dx is the concentration gradient per unit length is 20 kg/m4 and D = 80 × 10–3 m2/s is the diffusion
constant. Calculate the diffusion flux is kg/m2-sec.

Biotechnology (MSP)
Answer Key

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C A A C A D D A A D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A B D B C D B B B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D D D A B C C B C A

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A,B,D A,B,C A,B,D A,B,C B,D C,D A,B,D B,D A,B,C A,B

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1325 120 4.9 –6 9.678 1.33 5 1,2 4 96
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0.5 20 64000 0.6737 3086 1942 5-5.8 -94 -2.43 1.6

Biotechnology (MSP)
Solutions
1. (C) Differentiation.
2. (A) RNAi takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of cellular defence. This method involves a specific
mRNA silencing.
3. (A) Meloidogyne incognita infects roots of tobacco plants. It causes a great reduction in yield.
4. (C) We have, AB = B and BA = A.

Therefore, A2 + B2 = AA + BB = A (BA) + B (AB) = (AB) A + (BA) B
= BA + AB = A + B. [ AB = B and BA = A]
5. (A) The given lines are concurrent if

l m n
m n l 0
n l m
if (l + m + n) (l2 + m2 + n2 – lm – mn – nl) = 0.
  
6. (D) Since a, b, c are linear dependent, therefore, they are coplanar..

Hence [a b c] = 0
1 1 1
4 3 4 0

1  
 3 – 4 – (4 – 4) + 4 – 3 = 0
 –  = –1   = 1.
 
Also, | c |  3,  | c |2  3
 1 2 + 2 +  2 = 3
 1 + 2 + 1 = 3
 2 = 1   = ± 1
7. (D) template DNA, two primers, dNTPs and DNA polymerase.
8. (A) P > Q > R
9. (A) Aliphatic amines are stronger base than aromatic amines.
10. (D) These usually contain —SO3H gp.
11. (B) In o-, m-, p- derivatives vectors are at 60°, 120° and 180°. Thus, para has zero dipole moment. Also ortho
form has more dipole moment than meta form.
12. (A) Here,  = 49 × 10–50C–1, T = 30ºC

As, V = V + V = V(1 + T)
V' = V(1 + 49 × 10–5 × 30) = 1.0147V
Biotechnology (MSP)
m n m m
Since   ,   V  0.9855
V V ' 1.0147
  '   0.9855
Fractional change in density    0.0145
 
13. (B) A collection of recombinant molecules with inserts that contain all of an organism’s genome.
14. (D)
CH 2Cl CH2CN
NaCl
DMF
(side chain is attacked)
I I
15. (B) HI reacts with C2H5OH even in absence of ZnX2. Larger is bond length, more is reactivity.
16. (C)
O
2
||
sp C – OCH3
2
sp
sp2
sp
2
C – OCH3
||
O
In above compound there is plane of symmetry is present so that there are 8c-atoms are different. so 5 signals are
expected in the 13C NMR spectrum.
17. (D) The ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genes to plants and fungi is used in biotechnology, in particular, genetic
engineering for plant improvement, which resulted in the development of methods to alter Agrobacterium into an
efficient delivery system for gene engineering in plants.
18. (B) Absorption of UV-visible energy by a molecule results in Electronic transitions.
1 2
19. (B) The angular displacement is 0 = 0t + t
2
1
(2.0 rad/s2) (10s)2 = 100 rad.
2
100
as the wheel turns by 2 radian in each revolution, the number of revolutions in 10 sec. is h   16
2
1 2
20. (B) As, h = gt
2
2h
 t =
g
Dis tan ce
Speed =
Time
x
2gl 
2h / g
2h
or x  2gh   2h.
g

Biotechnology (MSP)
21. (D) Orbitals having (n + l) same possess same energy in absence of magnetic field.
22. (D) The ratio of primary productivity and community respiration in heterotrophic succession us greater than one.
23. (D) Lichens are therefore excellent bio indicators and bio monitors. As bioindicators, the presence/absence of
sensitive species is used to look for distribution patterns that reflect pollutant deposition. Voids in distributions may
indicate whether lichens have died out due to heavy metals and/or sulfur oxide pollution.
24. (A) The term "atopy" for any IgE-mediated reaction (even those that are appropriate and proportional to the
antigen), but many pediatricians reserve the word "atopy" for a genetically mediated predisposition to an excessive IgE
reaction. Some patients with atopy display what is referred to as the “allergic triad” of symptoms.
25. (B) In directional selection, the population changes towards one particular direction. It means this type of selection
favors small or large-sized individuals and more individuals of that type will be present in next generation. The mean
size of the population changes.
26. (C) The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) was one of the earliest recorded scholars to articulate the theory
of spontaneous generation, the notion that life can arise from nonliving matter.
27. (C) The Law of Independent Assortment (Law of Reassortment) states that the alleles of different genes segregate
independently of one another during gametogenesis and are distributed independently of one another in the next
generation.
28. (B) F.J. Cohn classified bacteria into 4 types according to their shapes. Comma shaped bacteria are known as vibrio
bacteria e.g., Vibrio comma.
29. (C) In the Cre-loxP system, if loxP are oriented in opposite direction then the floxed segment will be inverted; If
loxP are oriented in same direction then the floxed segment will be deleted.
30. (A) Sino-atrial node (SA node) normally generates the action potential i.e. the electrical impulse that initiates
contraction.
 The SA node excites the right atrium (RA), travels through Bachmann’s bundle to excite left atrium (LA).
 The impulse travels through internodal pathways in RA to the atrioventricular (AV) node.
1. (A,B,D)
Genetic erosion (also known as genetic depletion) is a process where the limited gene pool of an endangered species
diminishes even more when reproductive individuals die off before reproducing with others in their endangered low
population.
2. (A,B,C)
Gene therapy is a technique for correcting defective genes responsible for disease development. Under intensive
investigation are, disease ranging from the rare genetic diseases caused by single mutations like sickle cell anemia to
killer diseases such as severe combined immuno-deficiency (SCID). The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990
to a 4-years old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. This enzyme is very important for the immune system
to function. ADA deficiency can lead to severe combined immuno-deficiency (SCID).
3. (A,B,D)
A pyrimidine dimer can be repaired by photoreactivation. Photoreactivation is a light-induced (300–600 nm) enzymatic
cleavage of a thymine dimer to yield two thymine monomers. It is accomplished by photolyase, an enzyme that acts
on dimers contained in single- and double-stranded DNA.
Biotechnology (MSP)
4. (A,B,C)
The paratope is the part of an antibody which recognizes an antigen, the antigen-binding site of an antibody. It is a
small region (of 15–22 amino acids) of the antibody's Fv region and contains parts of the antibody's heavy and light
chains. So A, B, C are true for antigen.
5. (B,D)
Photoreactivation is a light-induced (300–600 nm) enzymatic cleavage of a thymine dimer to yield two thymine
monomers. It is accomplished by photolyase, an enzyme that acts on dimers contained in single- and double-stranded
DNA.
6. (C,D)
Chemoautotrophs use inorganic energy sources, such as hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, ferrous iron, molecular
hydrogen, and ammonia. Most are bacteria or archaea that live in hostile environments such as deep sea vents and
are the primary producers in such ecosystems. There has been a well-documented increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide over the past several decades.
7. (A,B,D)
In plants, hormones travel large throughout the body via the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) and cell-to-cell via
plasmodesmata. Potentially every cell in a plant can produce plant hormones.
8. (B,D)
RTK comprise an extracellular domain containing a ligand binding site, a single hydrophobic transmembrane á-helix and
a cytosolic domain that includes a region with protein-tyrosine kinase activity. They play important role in activating
signal transduction cascade. Receptor tyrosine kinases have been shown not only to be key regulators of normal
cellular processes but also to have a critical role in the development and progression of many types of cancer.
9. (A,B,C)
Photosystem II is the first protein complex in the Light-dependent reactions. It is located in the thylakoid membrane
of plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. The enzyme uses photons of light to energize electrons that are then transferred
through a variety of coenzymes and cofactors to reduce plastoquinone to plastoquinol.
10. (A,B)
During lag phase of the bacterial growth cycle, synthesis of RNA, enzymes and other molecules occur. So, in this
phase microorganisms are not dormant.
1. 1325
VBEQ = 0.7V, VBB = 6V
TB = 4A
Apply KVL at input
VBB = IBRB + VBE
6 = 4RB + 0.7
6  0.7
RB = = 1.325
4
= 1325 k

Biotechnology (MSP)
2. 120
Mass of shell, M = 30 kg.
Velocity of shell, u = 48 ms–1
After explosion, mass of first part m1 = 18 kg
Velocity of first part, v1 = 0
Mass of second part, m2 = 30 – 18 = 12 kg
If v2 is the velocity of second part, then from the law of conservation of momentum,
Mu = m1v1 + m2v2
or 30 × 48 = 18 × 0 + 12 × v2
30  48
or v2 = = 120 ms–1.
12
3. 4.9
[CoF6]–3
27
Co = [Ar]18 4
s2 3
d7
Co+3 = [Ar]18 3
d6 4
s0
 [Ar]18
3d 4s
Unpaired electron = n = 4
 B.M. = n(n  2) = 4.9
4. –6
Let the roots be  and 
p
then  +  = – ...(1)
3
and   = 1 ...(2)
From (2),  = 1,  or  
p
When  = 1, 1 + 1= –
3
p = –6
5. 9.678
 3 
7x2 + 3x + 10 = 7  x 2  x  + 10
 7 
 3 9  63
 7 x 2  x    10  196
 7 196 
2
 3  271 271
 7 x      9.678.
 14  28 28
6. 1.33
 2 1 1
4x2 + 2x + 1 = 4  x  x  
 2 4
 1 1 1 1 
 4 x2  x    
 2 16 4 16 

Biotechnology (MSP)
2
 1 3
 4 x    .
 4 4
3
 Least value of 4x2 + 2x + 1 is or 0.75
4
1 1 4
and Greatest value of 2
   1.33
4x  2x  1 3 / 4 3
7. 5
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. Isomers do not necessarily
share similar properties, unless they also have the same functional groups. There are many different classes of isomers,
like stereoisomers, enantiomers, geometrical isomerism: structural isomerism and stereoisomerism (spatial isomerism).
2 + 3 = 5 not individuals 2 and 3
8. 1,2
Rate = k[A]m[B]n, overall order of reaction = m + n
order 1
 Mole  L2
Unit of k =   sec–1 = sec1
 litre  Mole 2
2
 Mole 
(Given) =   sec–1
 litre 
Comparing
 Order – 1 = 2 or (m + n) – 1 = 2
 m + n = 3; possible only when m = 1, n = 2
9. 4
There would be 4 residues. Secretory IgA has 2 molecules of IgA attached. As it is being treated under Reduced
condition so even Sulfide bond Will break. It Will lead to the complete separation & 4 equal bands Will be detected
on the Gel.
10. 96
The frequency of a recessive lethal allele is (q = 0.4). Frequency of wild-type allele :
p = 1 – q, i.e., 1 – 0.4 = 0.6
Hence, the frequency of carrier genotype in total population
(2pq) = 2 X 0.6 X 0.4 = 0.48.
And the number of carriers in the population of 200 is = 0.48 X 200= 96.
11. 0.5
There are two ways in which a heterozygote may be produced: the dominant allele (R) may be in the egg and the
recessive allele (r) in the sperm or the dominant allele may be in the sperm and the recessive in the egg. Consequently,
the probability that the offspring will be heterozygous is the sum of the probabilities of those two possible ways:
Probability that the dominant allele will be in the egg with the recessive in the sperm is
1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4.
Probability that the dominant allele will be in the sperm and the recessive in the egg is
1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4
Therefore, the probability that a heterozygous offspring will be produced is
1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2 = 0.5

Biotechnology (MSP)
12. 20
There are 20 possible disaccharides containing galactose plus glucose in the pyranose ring form:
Galactosides : 1 – 2, 1 – 3, 1 –4 and 1 – 6 = 4
linked  or  ×2
= 8
Glucosides : 1 – 2, 1 – 3, 1 – 4 and 1 – 6 = 4
linked  or  ×2
= 8
Non-reducing disaccharides :  – ,  – ,  –  and  –  = 4 Total : 20
(1 – 1 linked)
13. 64,000
Let 30 min time is denoted by T minutes. So, number of T in 3 hours
3  60
  6 min ut es
30
Now, in every T minutes, number going to be double, i.e., common ratio (r) = 2
Number of Sp. in 3 hours
= 1000 × (2)6 = 64,000
14. 0.6737
Number of copies = (ng * 6.022 × 1023)/ (Length *1 × 109 X 650)
 ng is the amount of DNA (plasmid, primer etc.) you have in nanograms
 6.022 × 1023 = Avogadro's number
 length is the length of your DNA fragment in base pairs. Just multiply by 1000 if you are working in kb.
 We multiply by 1 × 109 to convert our answer to nanograms
Calculation: Number of copies = (80*6.022 × 1023)/(1,100*1 × 109*650)
= (481.76 × 1023) / (1100 × 109 × 650)
= (481.76 × 1023) / (715 × 1012)
= 0.6737 × 1011
15. 3086
GC content is 40% so AT content will be 60%. Hence G and C will be 20% each while A and T will be 30% each.
So, average size of fragment will be :
(30/100) * (30/100) * (20/100) * (20/100) * (30/100) * (30/100) = ~ 3086
16. 1942
The ten percent law for the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next was introduced by Raymond
Lindeman in 1942.
17. 5-5.8
The optimal pH for most tissue cultures is in the range of 5.0-6.0 as at pH higher than 7. and lower than 4.5 the plant
cells stop growing in cultures. pH above 6.0 gives the medium hard appearance while pH below 5.0 does not allow
gelling of the medium.

Biotechnology (MSP)
18. -94
Ecell = E°cell – 2.303RT/nF log ([K+]in/[K+]out)
E°cell = 0
Ecell = -2.303* 8.31* 310/1* 9.65*104 log (128/4)
= -93.5 ~ -94
19. –2.43
Water potential of all solutions is negative because water potential of pure water is maximum which is zero. Magnitude
of water potential can be worked out by relation PV = nRT
Here, n is the number of moles, R the universal gas constant and T the temperature in kelvin. We can substitute the
value of T as 298, n as 0.1 and R as .08314 and find out the value of water potential.
20. 1.6
V 
Fick's first law : J   D  c 
 Vx 
J = – 80 × 10 m /s [20 kg/m4]
-3 2
J = – 1600 × 10-3 kg/m2 – sec

J = – 1.6 kg/m2 – sec

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Holistic Learning Platform for Higher Education Exams

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1. Tissues and Organs

Organs: Roots, Stems, Leaves

Tissues: Ground tissue Vascular tissue Dermal tissue

Ground tissue cells: Vascular tissue cells: Dermal tissue cells:

Plant Organ Systems

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A. The Root System

 Root structures are evolutionarily adapted for specific purposes:

B. The Shoot System : Stems and Leaves

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Plant Cell Types

 Dermal Tissue Cells :

2. Primary and Secondary Growth

Primary Growth in Roots

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Primary Growth in Shoots

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Secondary Growth in Shoots (and Roots)

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Secondary Growth and Annual Rings

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Organization of Shoot and Root Apical Meristem

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4. Transport in Vascular Plants

4.1 Uptake, Transport and Translocation Water and Transpiration

Translocation of Water/Ascent of Sap

Unit of Water Potential

Abscisic acid accumulation

Pure water Well-wateredPlants under Plants in arid,

Transport of Ions Across a Membrane Barrier

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Diffusion potential exists

Water in the Soil

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Fig. : The composition of the soil

Water Absorption by Roots

Water Transport Through the Xylem

The Xylem Consists of Two Types of Tracheary Elements

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Fig. : Tracheary elements and their interconnections

Water Movement from the Leaf to the Atmosphere

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Table : Adequate Tissue Levels of Elements that may be Required by Plants

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Group 3 Nutrients that remain in ionic form

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H2PO –3 H2 PO3– H 2PO3–

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Ion Transport in Roots

Solutes Move through Both Apoplast and Symplast

Xylem Parenchyma Cells Participate in Xylem Loading

Amino acids Amino acids

6. Development of Flowering Plants

Anatomy of the Floral Parts

Parts of The Flower and Their Arrangement