CLIMBERS ON FREEDOM:

“It is fair to say that Freedom is the definitive guide to mountains and climbing.”
—Conrad Anker

“Not long after I learned to read, I would grip the flashlight in my teeth and stay awake late into the
night scouring my parent’s copy of the 3rd edition of Freedom of the Hills. . . . What this book
captured, what it meant, what it hinted at that was so crucial to my fascination with mountaineering
was this: Freedom, itself, was the most important thing. Freedom to explore who I am. Freedom
afforded by learned skills to explore any mountain wilderness. Freedom to move, to climb. It’s what
still drives me today.”
—Steve House

“Freedom is truly the Everest of mountaineering texts and a great preparation for a life wandering
among high hills, including the big one itself.”
—Tom Hornbein

“Growing up in Southern California in the 1960s, I couldn’t find anyone who shared my passion to
learn how to climb. So I bought an ice axe, crampons, and Freedom of the Hills and still remember
being on a snow slope with axe in one hand, book in the other, trying to teach myself how to self-
arrest. It worked: I’m still around and still climbing.”
—Rick Ridgeway

“For many generations of climbers, The Freedom of the Hills is more than just a book. It’s a passport
to a rare and wild place.”
—Andrew Bisharat

“I have never felt more alive than when adventuring in remote mountains, dependent on a rope, a
rack, and the partner that’s got my back. . . . Freedom of the Hills, risk’s best friend, is that partner.”
—Timmy O’Neill

“In my early years of heading into the mountains I used Freedom of the Hills to learn how to
calculate fuel needs for the backcountry, to study crevasse rescue, and in general to just muse about
the alpine craft. Everyone should have a copy of this standard tome.”
—Kit DesLauriers

“There is no substitute for learning to climb from a skilled and tested mentor. . . . But sometimes it’s
nice to learn key skills at your own pace from the comfort of your own kitchen table. . . . For those
times, there is no better book than the Mountaineers’ Freedom of the Hills.”
—Bree Loewen

“The lessons I learned in the Mountaineers climbing course in 1945 stood me on the summit of
Mount Everest in 1963. To see that knowledge put into a book was wonderful. That it has evolved
into the best book on climbing, updated by active climbers, is remarkable. I have told many people,
including my sons, ‘If you want to climb mountains, read Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills.
Then read it again so you know, for sure, how to get down.’”
—Jim Whittaker
“As chief guide for Rainier Mountaineering for over 30 years, I have trained hundreds of new guides.
And Freedom of the Hills is the required textbook for their basic training on Mount Rainier.”
—Lou Whittaker

“The 2nd edition of Freedom of the Hills jump-started my climbing education. The manual’s content
has kept pace with the evolution of the sport and should be considered mandatory reading for every
mountain climber. This truly remarkable resource has no equal in any language.”
—Mark Twight

“A notorious reference for climbers and outdoor enthusiasts!”

—Lynn Hill

“Freedom does a remarkable job of staying not just current, but on the cutting edge. Turning on new
climbers to this resource is one of the best things I can do to prepare them for life in the big hills.”
—Dave Hahn

“If the mountains are my church, then Freedom is my bible. . . . As a very young climber I read it
cover to cover, then dug through it again and again for nuggets of wisdom. I still do.”
—Will Gadd

“A ‘must have’ for any aspiring mountaineer’s library.”

—Ed Viesturs
MOUNTAINEERING
The Freedom of the Hills
 9TH EDITION

MOUNTAINEERING
The Freedom of the Hills
EDITED BY ERIC LINXWEILER
AND MIKE MAUDE
MOUNTAINEERS BOOKS is the publishing division of The Mountaineers, an organization
founded in 1906 and dedicated to the exploration, preservation, and enjoyment of outdoor and
wilderness areas.

1001 SW Klickitat Way, Suite 201, Seattle, WA 98134

800.553.4453, www.mountaineersbooks.org

Copyright © 1960, 1967, 1974, 1982, 1992, 1997, 2003, 2010, and 2017 by The Mountaineers

The Ten Essentials list is a trademark (pending) of The Mountaineers, a 501(c)(3) corporation; all
rights reserved.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form, or by any
electronic, mechanical, or other means, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Printed in Canada
Distributed in the United Kingdom by Cordee,
www.cordee.co.uk

First edition, 1960. Second edition, 1967. Third edition, 1974.

Fourth edition, 1982. Fifth edition, 1992. Sixth edition, 1997.
Seventh edition, 2003. Eighth edition, 2010. Ninth edition, 2017.

Project editor: Laura Shauger

Developmental editor: Kris Fulsaas
Copyeditor: Erin Moore
Design and layout: Jennifer Shontz
Illustrator: John McMullen
Cover design: Jen Grable
Chapter opener illustrations: Heidi Smets
Index: Rich Carlson

Cover photographs: front: Conrad Anker climbs across a ridgetop near Ama Dablam, Khumbu
Valley, Nepal. (Photo © Jimmy Chin); spine: A climber works her way up a route in Joshua Tree
National Park. (Photo by Aurora Photos/Kyle Sparks); back: Climbers balance on a narrow moutain
ridge in Switzerland. (Photo by iStock/dominikmichalek)

Interior photographs: p. 4: A group of mountaineers head up Aiguille du Midi, Mont Blanc. (Photo
by iStock/glogowski); p. 8: A climber concentrates on a frozen waterfall. (Photo by iStock/AlexSava);
p. 13: Basecamp with a view (Photo by iStock/Lysogor); p. 149: A few quickdraws and a rope—some
of the equipment rock climbers use (Photo by iStock/abstudio annaburek); p. 223: A lead climber
focuses on her next move in a crack. (Photo by iStock/ericfoltz); p. 329: A climbing party ascends a
snow-covered slope. (Photo by iStock/Georgijevic); p. 479: A leader breaks trail on a snowy ridge.
(Photo by iStock/rcaucino); p. 539: View from the summit of Mont Blanc (Photo by
iStock/MaRabelo)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Mountaineers (Society)
Title: Mountaineering: the freedom of the hills / the Mountaineers.
Description: Ninth edition. | Seattle, Washington: Mountaineers Books, [2017] | “Eighth edition,
2010”==T.p. verso. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017018860 (print) | LCCN 2017022769 (ebook) | ISBN 9781680510058 () |
ISBN 9781680510034 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781680510041 (paperback) | ISBN 9781680510058
(ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Mountaineering. | Rock climbing. | Snow and ice climbing.
Classification: LCC GV200 (ebook) | LCC GV200 .M688 2017 (print) | DDC 796.522—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017018860

Mountaineers Books titles may be purchased for corporate, educational, or other promotional sales,
and our authors are available for a wide range of events. For information on special discounts or
booking an author, contact our customer service at 800-553-4453 or
mbooks@mountaineersbooks.org.

Printed on 100% recycled paper

ISBN (hardcover): 978-1-68051-003-4

ISBN (paperback): 978-1-68051-004-1
ISBN (ebook): 978-1-68051-005-8
CONTENTS
Preface

PART I. OUTDOOR FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 1. First Steps
Chapter 2. Clothing and Equipment
Chapter 3. Camping, Food, and Water
Chapter 4. Physical Conditioning
Chapter 5. Navigation
Chapter 6. Wilderness Travel
Chapter 7. Leave No Trace
Chapter 8. Access and Stewardship

PART II. CLIMBING FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 9. Basic Safety System
Chapter 10. Belaying
Chapter 11. Rappelling

PART III. ROCK CLIMBING

Chapter 12. Alpine Rock Climbing
Chapter 13. Rock Protection
Chapter 14. Leading on Rock
Chapter 15. Aid and Big Wall Climbing

PART IV. SNOW, ICE, AND ALPINE CLIMBING

Chapter 16. Snow Travel and Climbing
Chapter 17. Avalanche Safety
Chapter 18. Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue
Chapter 19. Alpine Ice Climbing
Chapter 20. Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing
Chapter 21. Expedition Climbing
PART V. LEADERSHIP, SAFETY, AND RESCUE
Chapter 22. Leadership
Chapter 23. Safety
Chapter 24. First Aid
Chapter 25. Alpine Rescue

PART VI. THE MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 26. Mountain Geology
Chapter 27. The Cycle of Snow
Chapter 28. Mountain Weather

Appendix: Rating Systems

Glossary
Resources
Index
Brand Names and Trademarks
PREFACE
“The quest of the mountaineer, in simplest terms, is for the freedom of
the hills. . . .”
—The first line of the first edition

Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills is much more than a book—it is a

gateway to experiencing the joy of the outdoors. Whether you want to learn
to camp and cook outdoors, hike in your local forest, climb hills, cross
glaciers, scale rock walls, or summit the world’s highest peaks, Freedom is
for you. Welcome to the community of climbers and mountaineers who
count on Freedom as a critical part of their outdoor education.
For this ninth edition in Freedom’s seven-decade history, each chapter has
been critically reviewed, revised, and—where necessary—expanded. All
illustrations have been updated, and most have been completely redrawn,
allowing for fantastic detail in both printed and electronic media. These
revisions reflect the ongoing rapid changes in mountaineering, including the
development of safer techniques and improved equipment. In this edition,
we continue to emphasize the responsibility we assume as climbers to
practice good stewardship and to minimize our impact on the lands we pass
through in order to leave no trace of our passage. In addition to leveraging
the collective knowledge of The Mountaineers, this edition had
unprecedented access to and input from experienced guides, organizations
that teach climbing and avalanche safety, elite climbers, and outdoor
equipment manufacturers.
Whether this is your first copy of Freedom or you own every edition, this
book offers the skills, confidence, and knowledge you need to be a safe,
competent mountaineer.
SCOPE OF THE BOOK
As did previous editions, the ninth edition of Freedom soundly covers the
current concepts, techniques, and problems involved in the pursuit of
mountaineering, and helps climbers grasp a fundamental understanding of
each topic covered. In addition to informing the novice, this book can help
experienced climbers review and improve their skills. Coverage of some
topics, such as rock climbing, ice climbing, and aid climbing, is detailed
enough to be useful to readers interested in those specific topics.
This book is not intended, however, to be exhaustive. Some climbing
disciplines are not comprehensively addressed in these pages. Gym and sport
climbing (making use of artificial climbing walls or fixed-protection routes
at developed climbing areas), for example, have become increasingly
popular. Although many techniques related to both disciplines are
interchangeable with those of mountain and rock climbing, there are
differences—not all of which are discussed in these pages.
Mountaineering cannot be learned simply by studying a book. However,
books can be an important source of information and can complement solid
instruction. Freedom was originally written as a textbook for students and
instructors participating in organized climbing courses. The learning
environment in a climbing course taught by competent instructors is
essential for beginning climbers.
Climbing requires continual situational and environmental awareness.
Conditions, routes, and individual abilities and skills vary, and the individual
climber and climbing team must apply their knowledge, skills, and
experience to the circumstances before them and then decide how they will
proceed. To reflect this process, Freedom presents a variety of widely used
techniques and practices, and then outlines both their advantages and
limitations. Material is presented not as dogma or the definitive word but as
the basis for making sound decisions. To adventure safely, climbers must
realize that mountaineering is about problem-solving, not merely applying
techniques.
The type of climbing described in this tome is frequently experienced—
and many people would say, best experienced—in the wilderness.
Wilderness mountaineers take responsibility for helping to preserve the
wilderness environment for present and future generations. Preserving
wilderness is crucial to protecting the health of our ecosystem.
ORIGINS OF THE BOOK
A synopsis of Freedom’s evolution presents a capsule history of The
Mountaineers. From its beginnings, Freedom has been the product of the
concerted effort of a team of volunteer leaders. For each edition, the team of
contributors has sprung forth from across the organization’s membership,
representing the best the organization has to offer. It has always been an
honor to work on this project.
When The Mountaineers was founded in 1906, one of its major purposes
was to explore and study the mountains, forests, and waterways of the
Pacific Northwest. Freedom’s direction and emphasis originated from the
nature of climbing in this region. The wild, complex character of these
particular mountains, with their abundance of snow and glaciers throughout
the year, furthered the mountaineering challenge. Access was inherently
difficult. There were few roads, the terrain was rugged, and initial
explorations of them were essentially expeditions, often requiring the
assistance of Native American guides.
As interest in mountaineering grew in the region, so did a tradition of, and
commitment to, education. Increasingly, experienced climbers took novices
under their wings to pass on their knowledge and skills. The Mountaineers
formalized that exchange by developing a series of climbing courses.
Prior to the publication of the first edition of Freedom in 1960, The
Mountaineers climbing courses had used a number of European textbooks,
particularly Geoffrey Winthrop Young’s classic Mountain Craft. These
books, however, did not cover the various subjects unique and important to
American and Pacific Northwest mountaineering. To fill the gaps, course
lecturers prepared outlines, which they distributed to students. First fleshed
out and compiled as the Climber’s Notebook, these outlines were
subsequently published as the Mountaineers Handbook. By 1955, the tools
and techniques had changed so drastically, and the climbing courses had
become so much more complex, that a new, more comprehensive textbook
was needed.
The first edition of Freedom was published in 1960 (work on it had begun
in 1955), with an eight-person editorial committee coordinating the efforts of
more than seventy-five contributors. Chief editor Harvey Manning was the
primary individual responsible for establishing the scope of the book. It was
his idea to add the distinctive subtitle “The Freedom of the Hills.” An
outgrowth of more than a century of teaching mountaineering, the first
edition of Freedom included 430 pages, 134 illustrations, and 16 black-and-
white plates organized into 22 chapters. In comparison, this ninth edition
features 608 pages, more than 400 illustrations, and more than a half dozen
black-and-white photos organized into 27 chapters.

LEGACY OF THE PRECEDING EDITIONS

This book embodies the collective wisdom and experience of thousands of
climbers and mountaineers. The previous editions of Freedom represent a
tradition of compiling, sorting, and integrating the knowledge, techniques,
opinions, and advice of many practicing climbers. Both in training sessions
and on climbs, students have always been a pivotal sounding board and
testing ground for advancements in techniques, equipment, and methods.
Each new edition has been carefully built on the foundation of the preceding
editions.
The first edition editorial committee included Harvey Manning (chair),
John R. Hazle, Carl Henrikson, Nancy Bickford Miller, Thomas Miller,
Franz Mohling, Rowland Tabor, and Lesley Stark Tabor. A substantial
portion of the then relatively small Puget Sound climbing community
participated (including such mountaineering icons as Dee Molenaar, Jim and
Lou Whittaker, and Wolf Bauer)—some seventy-five were writers of the
preliminary, revised, advanced, semifinal, and final chapter drafts, and an
additional one hundred to two hundred were reviewers, planners, illustrators,
typists, proofreaders, financiers, promoters, retailers, warehouse workers,
and shipping clerks. In fact, most Mountaineers climbers were involved
somehow with the book. Those members donating their time and effort were
rewarded by how well the book was received, and those donating their
money were repaid from the success of the book. Freedom became the first
title published by the now very productive Mountaineers Books.
The second edition revision committee included John M. Davis (chair),
Tom Hallstaff, Max Hollenbeck, Jim Mitchell, Roger Neubauer, and Howard
Stansbury. Work on the second edition began in 1964. Even though much of
the first edition was retained, the task force was, again, of impressive
proportions, numbering several dozen writers and uncounted reviewers and
helpers. Members of the first committee, notably John R. Hazle, Thomas
Miller, and Harvey Manning, provided continuity to the effort. As with the
first edition, Harvey Manning once again edited the entire text and
supervised production. The second edition was published in 1967.
 The third edition revision committee, which was formed in 1971, included
Sam Fry (chair), Fred Hart, Sean Rice, Jim Sanford, and Howard Stansbury.
Initially, the planning committee analyzed the previous edition and set
guidelines for its revision. Once again, many climbers contributed to
individual chapters; the reviewing, revising, editing, and collation of
chapters and sections were a true community effort. Peggy Ferber edited the
entire book, which was published in 1974.
The fourth edition revision committee included Ed Peters (chair), Roger
Andersen, Dave Anthony, Dave Enfield, Lee Helser, Robert Swanson, and
John Young. Published in 1982, this edition of Freedom involved a major
revision and included complete rewrites of many chapters, most notably the
entire section on ice and snow. A team of hundreds was guided by the
revision committee: numerous climbers submitted comments to the
committee, and small teams of writers prepared a series of drafts for review
by the technical editors. In addition to the substantial contribution such
writers made, many others provided valuable help through critiques of
subsequent and final drafts, not only for technical accuracy and consistency,
but also for readability and comprehension.
The fifth edition revision committee, which was chaired first by Paul
Gauthier and later by Myrna Plum, included section coordinators Marty
Lentz, Margaret Miller, Judy Ramberg, and Craig Rowley, and editorial
coordinator Ben Arp. Work on the fifth edition began in late 1987, involved
another major revision, and was published in 1992. Content was brought up
to date, and the layout and illustrations were made more contemporary and
readable. Professional editor and writer Don Graydon blended the
volunteers’ efforts into a consistent, approachable style.
The sixth edition revision committee included Kurt Hanson (chair), Jo
Backus, Marcia Hanson, Tom Hodgman, Myrna Plum, and Myron Young.
Don Heck coordinated the illustrations, while Don Graydon again edited the
text. The committee began work in the autumn of 1994 and the sixth edition
was published in 1997. Three new chapters were added: “Mountain
Geology,” “The Cycle of Snow,” and “Mountain Weather.”
The seventh edition revision committee included Steven M. Cox (chair),
Ron Eng, Jeremy Larson, Myrna Plum, Cebe Wallace, John Wick, and John
Wickham. Jeff Bowman and Debra Wick oversaw the preparation of the
illustration materials. Kris Fulsaas edited the text. Planning for the seventh
edition began in autumn of 2000, and the book was published in 2003. It
included a new chapter, “Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing,” and many new
illustrations.
The eighth edition celebrated 50 years of Freedom. Its revision committee
included Ron Eng (chair), Peter Clitherow, Dale Flynn, Mindy Roberts,
Mike Maude, John Wick, and Gretchen Lentz. Jeff Bowman oversaw the
preparation of the illustration materials. The staff of Mountaineers Books,
particularly project editor Mary Metz, freelance editors Julie Van Pelt and
Kris Fulsaas, and illustrators Marge Mueller and Dennis Arneson, also
contributed their time and talents.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE NINTH EDITION

Over the course of its 110-year history, The Mountaineers has taken pride in
its volunteer spirit of getting people outside through both exploration and
education. Through the organization’s efforts, countless people have been
introduced to the outdoors and then, as volunteers, have found ways to give
back to our collective community. The contributors to this ninth edition,
listed below, are a special group of our volunteers, who selflessly gave of
their time, intellect, and expertise to help make this new edition possible.
What you hold in your hands represents more than simply what one or two
(or twenty) people could put down on paper. It is, rather, the collective
knowledge of an organization that, for more than a century, has been
dedicated to celebrating and sharing the freedom of the hills.

Cochairs, 9th Edition: Eric Linxweiler, Mike Maude

Part I: Outdoor Fundamentals: John Ohlson (Chair)
Chapter 1: First Steps: John Ohlson
Chapter 2: Clothing and Equipment: Steve McClure
Chapter 3: Camping, Food, and Water: Steve McClure
Chapter 4: Physical Conditioning: Courtenay Schurman
Chapter 5: Navigation: Bob Burns, Mike Burns, John Bell, Steve McClure
Chapter 6: Wilderness Travel: Helen Arntson
Chapter 7: Leave No Trace: Katherine Hollis and Peter Dunau
Chapter 8: Access and Stewardship: Katherine Hollis and Tania Lown-
Hecht
Part II: Climbing Fundamentals: Cebe Wallace (Chair)
Chapter 9: Basic Safety System: Erica Cline
Chapter 10: Belaying: Deling Ren, Yinan Zhao
 Chapter 11: Rappelling: Alex Byrne
Part III: Rock Climbing: Loni Uchytil (Chair)
Chapter 12: Alpine Rock Climbing: Loni Uchytil
Chapter 13: Rock Protection: Loni Uchytil
Chapter 14: Leading on Rock: Loni Uchytil
Chapter 15: Aid and Big Wall Climbing: Holly Webb and Jeff Bowman
Part IV: Snow, Ice, and Expedition Climbing: Anita Wilkins (Chair)
Chapter 16: Snow Travel and Climbing: Tab Wilkins
Chapter 17: Avalanche Safety: Nick Lyle
Chapter 18: Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue: Anita Wilkins, Gregg
Gagliardi, Steve Swenson, and Mike Maude
Chapter 19: Alpine Ice Climbing: Anita Wilkins, Gregg Gagliardi, Steve
Swenson, and Mike Maude
Chapter 20: Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing: Anita Wilkins, Gregg
Gagliardi, Steve Swenson, and Mike Maude
Chapter 21: Expedition Climbing: Jenn Carter
Part V: Leadership, Safety, and Rescue: Doug Sanders (Chair)
Chapter 22: Leadership: Doug Sanders
Chapter 23: Safety: Doug Sanders
Chapter 24: First Aid: Doug Sanders, Eric Linxweiler
Chapter 25: Alpine Rescue: Doug Sanders
Part VI: The Mountain Environment: Eric Linxweiler (Chair)
Chapter 26: Mountain Geology: Scott Babcock
Chapter 27: The Cycle of Snow: Sue Ferguson
Chapter 28: Mountain Weather: Jeff Renner

Several other professionals played noteworthy roles in the book’s

development and production process, particularly staff and contractors
affiliated with Mountaineers Books. Managing editor Margaret Sullivan laid
the ground-work for the revisions. Jeff Bowman played a crucial role in the
early stages of illustration evaluation and notes. Kris Fulsaas deftly
performed a developmental edit, and Erin Moore skillfully copyedited the
materials.
Production manager Jen Grable designed the covers and managed the
book design and illustration process. Jennifer Shontz refined the book design
and pieced together the puzzle that is text and illustrations. John McMullen
expertly tackled the monumental task of vectorizing all the existing figures
and of drawing many illustrations from scratch, as well as editing much of
the existing artwork; his deep climbing knowledge informed his work.
Editor Laura Shauger kept the project moving forward from rough draft on,
despite the inevitable hurdles.
For help with the significant updates to the clothing and equipment and
camping and food chapters, contributors wish to thank individuals at several
companies for their technical assistance: Owen Mesdag and Zac Gleason at
MSR; Jim Boswell, Jim Giblin, and Brandon Bowers at Therm-a-Rest; the
crew at Outdoor Research; and Brant Broome at REI.
Thank you to the following individuals for their contributions to this
project: Dale Remsberg, Ronnie Parker, Ron Funderburke, Matt Schonwald,
Jim Nelson, Wayne Wallace, and Mike Libecki.
This tome will introduce you to the skills and knowledge you need to
embark on adventures for a lifetime. Absorb these instructions and wise tips,
study the technical illustrations, and then go out into the hills to practice and
see where it all can take you.
PART I

OUTDOOR FUNDAMENTALS
1 FIRST STEPS
2 CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
3 CAMPING, FOOD, AND WATER
4 PHYSICAL CONDITIONING
5 NAVIGATION
6 WILDERNESS TRAVEL
7 LEAVE NO TRACE
8 ACCESS AND STEWARDSHIP
TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS • PHYSICAL PREPARATION • MENTAL
PREPARATION • JUDGMENT AND EXPERIENCE • CARING FOR THE WILDERNESS •
PRESERVING WILDERNESS • A CLIMBING CODE • GAINING THE FREEDOM OF THE
HILLS

CHAPTER 1
FIRST STEPS
Mountaineering is many things: climbing, breathtaking views,
and wilderness experience. It can be the fulfillment of childhood
dreams or an opportunity to grow in the face of difficulty.
Mountains harbor adventure and mystery. The challenge of
mountaineering offers you a chance to learn about yourself by
venturing beyond the confines of the modern world and to forge
lifetime bonds with climbing partners.

In the words of British climber George Leigh Mallory, “What we get from
this adventure is just sheer joy.” To be sure, you will also find risk and
hardship, but despite the difficulties climbers sometimes face—or maybe
because of them—mountaineering can provide a sense of tranquility and
spiritual communion found nowhere else. But before you find joy or
freedom in the hills, you must prepare for the mountains by learning
technical, physical, mental, and emotional skills. Just as you must take a first
step in order to climb a mountain, you must also take first steps to become a
mountaineer. And though becoming skilled in the mountains is a process that
continues as long as you spend time there, you have to begin somewhere.
This book can serve as your guide and reference in acquiring those skills
and, as such, your passport to the freedom of the hills.

TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

To travel safely and enjoyably in the mountains, you need skills. You need to
know what clothing, basic equipment, and food to bring into the backcountry
and how to spend the night outside safely. You need to know how to cover
long distances while relying on only what you carry in your pack, navigating
without trails or signs. You need technical climbing skills, including
belaying (the technique of securing your rope partner in case of a fall) and
rappelling (using the rope to descend), to competently scale and descend the
mountains you reach. And you must have the specific skills for the terrain
you choose—whether it is rock, snow, ice, or glacier. Mountaineers strive to
minimize risks, but mountain travel can never be completely predictable.
Thus, every mountaineer should be trained in safety, wilderness first aid, and
rescue with the goal of becoming truly self-reliant.

PHYSICAL PREPARATION
Mountaineering is a physically demanding activity. Nearly every type of
climbing has become increasingly athletic, especially at the higher levels of
difficulty. Climbers today accomplish feats that were once considered
impossible. In rock, ice, and high-altitude climbing, new standards are set
regularly. Limits are being pushed not only on the way up peaks but also on
the way down. Steep routes once considered difficult or impossible to ascend
are now also descended on skis and snowboards. Among the changes to the
landscape of climbing, notable are the advances in and increasing popularity
of steep ice climbing and “mixed” climbs, those that include a combination
of rock and frozen water. Although most people appreciate such extreme
achievements from the sidelines, higher standards at these maximal
performance levels of climbing often result in increased standards at all
levels.
Whatever your skill level and aspiration, good physical conditioning is
critically important. The stronger you are, the better prepared you will be to
face the challenges of climbing mountains, whether your outing goes as
planned or includes unexpected difficulties. You will have a wider choice of
mountains to climb, and you will be more likely to enjoy trips rather than to
simply endure them. More important, the safety of the whole party may
hinge on the strength—or weakness—of one member.

MENTAL PREPARATION
Just as important as physical conditioning is mental attitude, which often
determines success or failure in mountaineering. The ability to keep a clear,
calm mind helps in everything from deciding whether to stay home because
of a weather forecast to pushing through a difficult technical climbing move
or rescuing a climbing partner after a crevasse fall. Mountaineers need to be
positive, realistic, and honest with themselves. A can-do attitude may turn
into dangerous overconfidence if it is not tempered with a judicious
appraisal of the circumstances and environment.
Many a veteran mountaineer says the greatest challenges are mental.
Perhaps this is one of mountaineering’s biggest appeals: while seeking the
freedom of the hills, we come face-to-face with ourselves.

JUDGMENT AND EXPERIENCE

Essential to mountaineering is the ability to solve problems and make good
decisions. Sound judgment, perhaps a mountaineer’s most valued and prized
skill, develops from integrating knowledge with experience. This book
outlines equipment and techniques ranging from the basic to the advanced,
but the goal of every mountaineer is to determine how best to use that
learning to answer the sometimes unpredictable challenges faced in the
mountains.
Much of what mountaineers need are coping skills and problem-solving
skills—the ability to deal with external factors such as adverse weather, long
hikes, and mountain accidents, as well as internal factors including fear,
exhaustion, and desire. As climbers experience challenging situations, they
become better decision makers, gaining judgment and experience that can
help them in the future.
Mountaineering, however, tends to provide many new situations that
require careful judgment rather than automatic responses. Although you may
use past experience to make decisions in the mountains, you will never face
the same exact situation twice. To be sure, this uncertainty can be scary, but
it also creates the allure and challenge of mountaineering.
Many situations similarly involve risk, challenge, and accomplishment.
As Helen Keller observed in 1957 in The Open Door, “Security is mostly a
superstition. It does not exist in nature, nor do the children of men as a
whole experience it. Avoiding danger is no safer in the long run than outright
exposure. Life is either a daring adventure, or nothing.”

CARING FOR THE WILDERNESS

The mountaineering skills in this book are tools that allow you to visit and
enjoy remote areas of the world. But remember that the beauty of wilderness
often becomes its undoing by attracting visitors—leaving the landscape
touched by human hands and eventually less than wild.
People are consuming wilderness at an alarming rate—using it, managing
it, and changing it irreparably. For this reason, The Mountaineers and many
other outdoor enthusiasts have adopted a set of principles and ethics referred
to as Leave No Trace.
Mountains owe climbers nothing, and they ask nothing of climbers.
Hudson Stuck, a member of the first team to ascend Denali (formerly Mount
McKinley), fervently described this attitude in The Ascent of Denali: the
summit party felt they had been granted “a privileged communion with the
high places of the earth.” All mountaineers who travel in the wilderness can
consider their minimum charge for this privilege to be leaving the hills as
they found them, with no sign of their passing.

PRESERVING WILDERNESS
The privileges climbers enjoy in the mountains bring the responsibility not
only to leave no trace but also to help preserve these environments they love.
The facts of mountaineering life today include permit systems that limit
access to the backcountry, environmental restoration projects, legislative
alerts, clashes among competing interest groups, and closures of roads, trails,
and entire climbing areas. In addition to being vigilant in treading softly in
the mountains, mountaineers must now speak loudly in support of
wilderness preservation, access, and sensitive use of public wildlands.
Climbers can no longer assume that they will have access to explore the
vertical realms of Planet Earth. In addition to being mountaineers, climbers,
and adventurers, everyone must be active wilderness advocates if they want
to continue to enjoy what was once taken for granted.

A CLIMBING CODE
The Mountaineers have devised a set of guidelines to help people conduct
themselves safely in the mountains. Based on careful observation of the
habits of skilled climbers and a thoughtful analysis of accidents, these
guidelines have served well not only for climbers but, with slight adaptation,
for all wilderness travelers. (See the “Climbing Code” sidebar.)
This Climbing Code is not a step-by-step formula for reaching summits or
avoiding danger, but rather it is a set of guidelines for encouraging safe
mountaineering. It is recommended especially for beginners, who have not
yet developed the necessary judgment that comes from years of experience.
Seasoned mountaineers often modify these guidelines in practice, making
judgments based on an understanding of the risk as well as the skill to help
control that risk.

CLIMBING CODE
Leave the trip itinerary with a responsible person.
Carry the necessary clothing, food, and equipment.
A climbing party of three is the minimum, unless adequate
prearranged support is available. On glaciers, a minimum of two rope
teams is recommended.
Rope up on all exposed places and for all glacier travel. Anchor all
belays.
Keep the party together, and obey the leader or majority rule.
Never climb beyond your ability and knowledge.
Never let judgment be overruled by desire when choosing the route or
deciding whether to turn back.
Follow the precepts of sound mountaineering as set forth in books of
recognized merit.
Behave at all times in a manner that reflects favorably upon
mountaineering, including adherence to Leave No Trace principles.
 Climbers sometimes question the need for such standards in a sport
notable for the absence of formal rules. However, many serious accidents
could have been avoided or minimized if these simple principles had been
followed. This Climbing Code is built on the premise that mountaineers
want a high probability of safety and success, even in risk-filled or doubtful
situations, and they want an adequate margin of safety in case they have
misjudged their circumstances.

GAINING THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

“Freedom of the hills” is a concept that combines the simple joy of being in
the mountains with the skill, equipment, and strength to travel without harm
to yourself, others, or the environment. The hills do not offer this freedom
freely—but only in trade for your training, preparation, and desire.
This is an age that requires a conscious choice to avoid civilization with
all of its technologies and conveniences. In the modern digital world, many
people are accessible by phone or email every minute of every day. With the
right equipment, this can be true anywhere on the planet. Although you do
not have to leave these things behind to go to the mountains, for those who
want to step out of—if only briefly—this mechanized, digitized world, the
mountains beckon. They offer a place of richness and communion with the
natural world that is now the exception rather than the rule.
Mountaineering takes place in an environment indifferent to human needs,
and not everyone is willing to pay the price for its intense physical and
spiritual rewards. But those who dream of climbing mountains can use this
book to follow that dream. And if you learn to climb safely and skillfully,
body and spirit in tune with the wilderness, you too can heed the inspiration
of John Muir. “Climb the mountains,” he wrote in Our National Parks, “and
get their good tidings. Nature’s peace will flow into you as sunshine flows
into trees.” Like Muir, you too can “walk away quietly in any direction and
taste the freedom of the mountaineer.”
CLOTHING • FABRICS • LAYERING • CLOTHING CARE • FOOTWEAR • PACKS •
ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT • PREPARING FOR THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

CHAPTER 2
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Packing everything you might need to keep you safe, dry, and
comfortable on a wilderness trip can paradoxically lead to
danger, chill, and misery. The challenge is to limit the load
enough to allow for fast and light travel while still having the
gear essential for success and survival. Each onerous ounce
limits how far, fast, or high you can climb and how speedily you
can retreat to safety.

To strike a balance between too much and too little, monitor what you take
on a trip. After each trip, determine what was used, what was genuinely
needed to achieve a reasonable margin of safety, and what items were
unnecessary. When buying equipment, go for lightweight, low-bulk
alternatives that offer sufficient performance and durability.
If you are new to mountaineering, wait until you have experience before
spending too much money on clothes, boots, or packs. Rent, borrow, or
improvise during early outings, gaining hands-on experience before you
invest. Get advice from seasoned climbers, window-shop at outdoor stores,
and scout mountaineering magazines and online sources. The latest and
greatest products or most expensive items are not always best overall.
Neither is the cheapest gear necessarily the most economical since certain
gear features justify a higher cost.
This chapter provides information on basic and essential wilderness gear,
including guidelines on what constitutes good equipment, and though it does
not recommend brands, it will help you select high-quality items that work
flexibly together. Additional gear for eating and sleeping in the great
outdoors is covered in Chapter 3, Camping, Food, and Water.

CLOTHING
Clothing helps a person stay comfortable by creating a thin insulating layer
of air next to the skin. The enemies of comfort—precipitation, wind, heat,
and cold—work against this protective air layer. The right clothes protect
that layer. “Comfort” is a relative term for mountaineers. Inclement weather
often forces climbers to endure conditions that deteriorate far below most
people’s definition of comfort. Still, in climbing, the key to maintaining
relative comfort is to stay dry—or, after getting wet, to stay warm and dry
out quickly. Safety is the primary concern. When venturing into remote
territory, climbers need layers of clothes and a layering system that helps
them deal with difficult conditions for however long those conditions last.
Prolonged periods of dampness, even in moderately cool temperatures,
can cause your body’s core temperature to fall, possibly triggering
hypothermia, a frequent cause of death in the mountains. Failure to protect
yourself from wind exposes you to windchill and can contribute to
hypothermia or lead to frostnip or frostbite. (See “Cold-Related Conditions”
in Chapter 24, First Aid.) Carefully select the clothes you will layer to
ensure that you can survive sustained exposure to cold and wet conditions.

CHOOSING A STARTER ENSEMBLE

Get started by purchasing a few high-quality, well-fitting pieces to
serve as the core of your layering system for most trips:
Boots and socks
Light- or medium-weight base layer—two tops and one bottom
One or two synthetic or wool (knit) tops of varying weights—one
with a zip collar or full-length zip and one with a lightweight hood
Synthetic pants and shorts
Insulated (“puffy”) coat
 Hardshell jacket and pants
Warm hat and gloves
Sunglasses

Outdoor clothing must also protect climbers from overheating on hot days
and prevent excessive sweating, which can dampen clothes from within and
lead to severe dehydration. Ventilation, breathability, and sun protection are
additional key considerations. Because an overwhelming variety of
garments, high-tech fabrics, features, and brands all proclaim superior
performance, assembling a layering system for the first time can be
daunting. When shopping, ask questions and read tags. Evaluate garments
for their functionality and versatility: Will this work when wet? Does it have
a wide comfort range? Be skeptical; clothing is an area of strong marketing
claims and weak data. In addition to cost, consider durability, fit, and
versatility. Clothes designed for other sports may also be suitable for
climbing.
Keep in mind that one climber may select a clothing system markedly
different from that chosen by another with a different body structure,
metabolism, or preference. A solid core of garments lets you adapt to season
and activity to meet the demands of many conditions. (See “Layering,”
below.) Thoughtful additions can expand your clothing quiver to meet the
challenge of upcoming adventures. Eventually, you will pare down your
packed layers, but if you are new to wilderness travel, start out carrying
more than enough to stay warm and dry. Leave items at home only when you
are certain that it is possible to survive and thrive without them. Try to
minimize the weight of your clothes but not at the expense of safety. Before
heading out, get a weather forecast and think ahead about the temperature
and weather extremes you may encounter, and then pack accordingly.

FABRICS
Clothing suitable for the outdoors is made from a great variety of fabrics,
each with its particular advantages and drawbacks.

SYNTHETIC FABRICS
Synthetic fibers—polyester, nylon, spandex, and acrylic—have largely
replaced natural fibers in mountaineering fabrics. Synthetic fibers are
hydrophobic, meaning they tend not to absorb moisture. Synthetic fabric
garments will absorb some moisture but only in the spaces between the
fibers and between the filaments making up each thread. (Bacteria thrive in
these spaces, setting up a factory of funk, turning your sweat into stink. See
“Clothing Care” below for solutions.) Most of the moisture in a wet
synthetic garment can be wrung out; the rest evaporates quickly. Synthetic
fabrics are slicker than natural fibers, a disadvantage to the climber in a fall
on steep snow or ice. Table 2-1 compares wind resistance, breathability,
waterproofness, and stretchiness of outdoor clothing fabrics.
Polyester. High-quality polyester threads can each contain more than 100
filaments, giving the final fabric a soft, cotton-like feel. Fabrics made of
them are often chemically treated or shaped to help wick away moisture. In
today’s garments, polyester has largely replaced polypropylene, offering a
softer feel against the skin and somewhat less odor retention.
Nylon. Fabrics made of nylon, technically known as “polyamide,” are
very strong, resulting in somewhat better abrasion resistance than polyester.
These characteristics lead to nylon’s use in ropes and in outerwear, including
the outer layer of waterproof-breathable laminated fabric. Nylon fabrics also
have a soft “hand,” leading to their use in many garments. Nylon retains
twice as much water as polyester but still only one-fourth as much as cotton
or wool. Water-repellent finishes reduce this further.
Spandex. This stretchy fiber, also known as Lycra or elastane, is added to
fabrics to give a tight fit yet allow freedom of movement. Base layers stay
close to the skin to help the body’s heat move moisture to the next layer
(although some non-spandex knit fabrics can do this too). In other layers,
spandex can keep the fabric close to the body to minimize the “bellows
effect” that blows away some of your hard-earned warm air layer as you
move. Spandex adds significantly to the weight of a garment and increases
drying time. Look for blends containing 10 percent or less spandex to
optimize the benefits of fit, stretch, and warmth with minimal additional
weight and drying time.

WARM WHEN WET?

Wool used to carry the banner of “warm when wet,” a badge now
heralded by synthetic fabrics and fills. But a wet fabric is a cold fabric,
 and there’s no getting past the physics: it takes a lot of energy (warmth)
to convert the liquid sweat in damp clothes into vapor. If you want to
stay warm, stay dry.

Synthetic fleece. Also known as “polar fleece,” “fleece,” or “pile,” this

warm and lightweight polyester fabric replaced most wool in garments for
climbing starting in the 1980s. Clothes made of it absorb little moisture and
retain loft and reasonable insulating properties when wet. Fleece has a good
warmth-to-weight ratio but very little ability to block the wind, and it can be
bulky.
Dyneema (or Spectra). These lightweight fibers, the strongest in the
world, are commonly used in climbing runners and utility cord. More
recently, Dyneema is being woven into extremely lightweight abrasion-
resistant fabrics for backpacks and sandwiched into ultralightweight,
waterproof-nonbreathable Dyneema Composite fabric (formerly Cuben
Fiber) for tents and raingear.
Softshell fabrics. Made up of a dense flexible cloth woven with two
interconnected layers, softshells typically have a fleecy interior for warmth
and a smooth exterior treated with durable water repellent (DWR) that sheds
and deflects some snow and wind. Newer softshell materials are laminated
with an abrasion-resistant, stretchable nylon face. Some types include a full
or perforated waterproof-breathable membrane for additional wind and
weather resistance. Softshell materials generally fall into three categories:
1. Double-weave softshell. The original “ski pant” material, this softshell
fabric is ideal for high levels of activity and modestly cold conditions.
Its stretch allows freedom of movement, and a relatively hard finish
resists wind, snow, and abrasion.
2. Laminated softshell. A stretchy woven nylon fabric added
(“laminated”) to the exterior of this fabric significantly blocks wind,
 sheds snow, and adds some rain protection.
3. Waterproof-breathable laminated softshell. This material
sandwiches a waterproof-breathable membrane between a layer of
fleece on the inside and woven nylon on the outside. The result is a
soft-to-the-touch, slightly stretchy fabric with most of the weather
resistance of a waterproof-breathable (hardshell) fabric, described
below.

WATERPROOF FABRICS
Hardshells—rain parkas and rain pants—are generally made of nylon or
nylon blends. Since nylon itself is not waterproof, rain garments derive their
waterproofing from either different fabrication methods and/or fabric
treatments.
Waterproof-nonbreathable. The simplest way to create a waterproof
fabric is to coat or impregnate nylon with waterproof but nonbreathable
polyurethane or silicone (silnylon). Such coatings are lightweight and
relatively inexpensive, but they often are not very resistant to abrasion or
mildew. Although such coatings keep rain out, they also seal sweat and
water vapor in. If your sweat does not have a way to escape through your
clothes, you will get wet.
Waterproof-breathable (hardshell) fabrics. Created to repel rain and
snow while allowing some liquid in vapor form—perspiration—to escape,
these fabrics have billions of microscopic pores per square inch. Because
moisture vapor from the skin is emitted as individual water molecules (much
smaller than droplets of rain), the holes in the waterproof-breathable coating
are large enough to let vapor escape but too small for raindrops to get in.
Fig. 2-1. Waterproof-breathable fabric system: a, wind is repelled; b, sweat as water vapor transpires
through fabric; c, snow and water bead up due to thin molecular coating of a durable water repellent
(DWR) finish; d, outer nylon fabric; e, waterproof-breathable film or coating; f, inner liner (optional).

Coatings or lamination provide the waterproofing and breathability of

waterproof-breathable fabrics (fig. 2-1). Coated fabrics are less expensive
and less durable than laminated fabrics. Waterproof-breathable laminated
fabric—Gore-Tex is the best known—is more expensive to make; it consists
of an interior fabric, or membrane-protective coating (to help spread out any
condensed perspiration), an inner membrane, and an outer nylon shell that
protects the membrane. These laminated fabrics tend to last longer since the
waterproof-breathable membrane is protected between two other layers of
fabric.
Waterproof-breathable fabrics are a marked improvement over
nonbreathable coated nylons, but they are not perfect. A person who is
working hard will exceed the garment’s ability to pass water vapor, and
sweat will condense inside the shell. In liquid form, sweat can no longer
escape and the original problem is back again. All waterproof-breathable
fabrics have a factory-applied DWR finish added to make rainwater bead up
on the surface. DWR treatments are not permanent but are critical to these
fabrics’ functioning. If rain does not bead up, it coats the exterior, physically
blocking the micropores and greatly reducing the fabric’s ability to breathe.
In cool weather, the “wetted out” shell fabric becomes cold, increasing
condensation inside the garment. (See the “Care and Feeding of Waterproof-
Breathable Fabrics” sidebar, below.)
 Construction techniques and features such as zippered vents under the
arms or along the torso can significantly improve a garment’s ventilation, but
extra ventilation features often command a higher purchase price. Plus
zippers and extra material add to the garment’s weight. A base layer can
help, too, by absorbing liquid sweat, spreading it out, and allowing it to
vaporize from body heat and then escape directly through the fabric or via a
vent. Minimize perspiration by wearing the smallest amount of clothing
possible on top of the base layer—start out a bit cold and assume you’ll
warm up as you climb.

NATURAL FIBERS
In the early days of mountaineering, natural-fiber clothes were all that was
available. Cotton, with the possible exception of a t-shirt on a hot day or in
base camp, now has no place in the climber’s pack. The rise of synthetic
fleece has allowed climbers to dismiss “ragg wool” as a coarse and itchy
fabric, but base layers, knit shirts, and socks made from merino wool and
blends have had a resurgence in popularity.
Cotton. Comfortable to wear when dry, cotton loses its insulating
qualities when wet, absorbs many times its weight in water, and generally
takes a long time to dry—it is dangerous to rely on cotton for warmth.
Cotton plays a common role in many hypothermia tragedies, leading to the
adage “cotton kills.” Wet cotton also chafes the skin, a particularly annoying
characteristic in underwear and socks or in sweat-soaked shoulder areas
under pack straps. Yet in hot, dry weather, cotton can provide good sun
protection and ventilates well. The sweat evaporating from a wet cotton t-
shirt on a hot day will cool you off.
Modal, rayon, and viscose. These yarns are essentially “synthetic” cotton
fibers chemically extruded from wood pulp. They exhibit all the downsides
of cotton. Avoid them in the outdoors.
Merino wool. Under such brands as SmartWool, Ibex, and Icebreaker,
modern wool fabrics use small-diameter silky fleece, primarily of merino
sheep. Chemical descaling removes most of the fabric’s itchiness and
tendency to shrink. The downsides are that this luxurious fabric is expensive
and delicate, and lightweight versions are especially prone to holes. Wool, in
general, can become heavy with absorbed moisture and is slower to dry than
synthetics.
 Nevertheless, merino wool gets high marks for comfort and warmth next
to the skin. One hundred percent wool has amazing natural anti-stink
qualities currently unrivaled by synthetics and especially appreciated by tent
mates on longer trips.

INSULATING FILLS
Insulation for outdoor clothing and gear, such as sleeping bags, is made of
either down or synthetic materials.
Down. High-quality goose or duck down is the warmest, lightest, most
compressible insulating fill available. Down compresses well yet quickly
regains its loft—and therefore its warmth—when unpacked. High-quality
goose down has 650 to 900-plus fill power, which means that each ounce,
uncompressed, expands to fill 650 to 900-plus cubic inches (or 376 to 520-
plus cubic centimeters per gram). Down’s low weight-to-warmth ratio makes
it popular for cold-weather jackets and especially for sleeping bags. Good
down is expensive yet has a much longer useful life than other insulating
fills. Unfortunately, down loses all its insulating value when wet and is
almost impossible to dry in damp conditions. DWR-treated down (“water-
resistant” down) can give a false sense of security, providing only a brief
delay until a down coat becomes sodden (although such treatment may
shorten the drying time).
Synthetic fill. Unlike down, synthetic fills do not collapse when wet,
providing more reliable insulation in damp climates. Heavier and less
compressible than down, they are also less expensive and easier to clean.
Compared with down, synthetic fills may not withstand as many
compression cycles (stuffing and unstuffing), which means they lose their
loft and insulation properties more quickly.
Typically, the fabrics needed to hold down or synthetic fill in place need
to be robust, so puffies tend not to be very breathable. Some newer
insulation can be stabilized by thinner fabric allowing for better
breathability, packability, and stretch. Garments using Polartec Alpha or
Patagonia’s FullRange insulation fall into this category of “active
insulation.”

LAYERING
 Dressing in layers makes it easier to adapt to fluctuating temperatures and
conditions in the mountains. The goal is to minimize clothing weight and
bulk while efficiently maintaining a comfortable body temperature by
removing or adding layers as needed. Experienced mountaineers develop a
basic strategy of layering consisting of a few select garments of high
functionality, which they use in combination—depending on conditions and
personal preference—for most of their activities. They may swap in a new
base layer, carry more or fewer midlayers or a different outer garment, or try
something new—but the layering system has withstood the test of time and
the elements. An outdoor clothing layering system consists of four types of
layers:
1. Base layer. The base layer, immediately next to your skin, allows
perspiration to evaporate, keeping your skin warm and dry.
2. Midlayer. Midlayers trap warm air close to your body. The thicker the
layer of trapped air, the warmer you will be. Although less efficient
than a single, monolithic block of “dead” air (as in a down parka, for
example), several light, loosely fitting layers can trap a lot of insulating
air, and such an arrangement is very adjustable.
3. Shell layer. Shells protect midlayers from wind and precipitation.
These could be waterproof-breathable hardshells, softshells, or wind
shells, depending on conditions.
4. Belay jacket. Donned quickly when you stop moving in cold
conditions, an insulated jacket sized to fit over everything can preserve
hard-won warmth.
Think of layers as a system intended to maintain comfort in a wide variety
of mountain weather, or worn all at once to survive an unplanned bivouac.
Try the layers on together before you commit to the complete system for a
climb to make sure the shell layer fits comfortably over all the midlayers
without compressing insulation or restricting movement.

PUTTING TOGETHER A LAYERING SYSTEM—FROM

THE SKIN-SIDE OUT
Armed with knowledge of outdoor fabric characteristics and the strategy of
layering, you can assemble an effective mountaineering clothing layering
system. Figure 2-2 shows how various articles in a complete clothing system
are mixed and matched to function throughout a spectrum of weather
conditions and different levels of physical exertion. The exact garments
chosen will vary significantly from climber to climber. The goal is to create
a flexible system that keeps you safe. Following are some specific guidelines
for particular mountaineering conditions.
Cool conditions with rain or wet snow are the most difficult to prepare for.
Waterproof-breathable garments are the best available, but condensation will
still form under them during exertion. Dress minimally underneath to avoid
overheating, vent as much as possible, and assume the clothes you are
wearing underneath are going to get wet. Wear gaiters under rain pants. A
rain kilt or poncho is an option for the approach hike. Colder conditions and
precipitation in the form of snow is a bit simpler to dress for than rain. Cold
snow will sluff off garments before it has a chance to melt. Waterproof-
breathable garments do not breathe as well as other outer layers; more-
breathable softshells (either laminated or waterproof-breathable laminated)
may be sufficient.
Fig. 2-2. Layering for a variety of conditions

Closely monitor your personal temperature levels. To avoid overheating,

vent as much as possible and adjust layers as needed. Try to start off feeling
a bit cool to avoid overheating as you exert more energy and warm up.
Remove waterproof-breathable garments as soon as possible. For resting,
belaying, or in camp, waterproof-breathable garments are at their best, when
both exertion and perspiration are low. Increase midlayers under the shell
layer while at rest.

MANAGING MOISTURE:
THE KEY TO STAYING WARM
To protect your midlayers from precipitation and perspiration and keep
your clothing system functioning at its best:
Start up the trail feeling a bit cool. Readjust layers 10 to 20 minutes
after starting and whenever needed and practical during the day.
Avoid waterproof-breathable fabrics until necessary—and then wear
minimal clothes underneath.
Use zippers and vents to shed excess heat.
Dry damp clothes when possible.
Just say “no” to cotton.

BASE LAYER
Protection from cold begins with an appropriate base layer, formerly known
as long johns or thermal long underwear. Wicking fabrics made of polyester
(and perhaps a bit of spandex) or merino wool are very popular for this
purpose. A good base layer will also sop up liquid sweat, disperse it, and
allow the body’s heat to vaporize it. Dark-colored base layers dry quicker in
sunlight than light-colored layers do, but light colors absorb less heat in the
sun and are better on hot days, when a base layer may be worn alone as
protection from sunburn or insects.
For rock climbing, spandex-blended polyester tights are sometimes worn
as a base layer that allows a full range of motion. Versatile lightweight nylon
or double-weave softshell pants can be worn alone against the skin.
T-shirts and shorts. In hot weather, a cotton t-shirt or tank top may
suffice as a base layer, although long sleeves provide more sun and insect
protection. But even on a moderately cool day, a cotton t-shirt can become
soaked with sweat during a steep ascent, and you can get a deep chill when
stopping for a break. Non-cotton fabrics are nearly always the better choice.
Warm-weather shirts should be light-colored for coolness and moderately
baggy for good ventilation. Clothes offer more sun protection than sunscreen
(see “Sun Protection” in the Ten Essentials, later in this chapter). Ventilation
and durability are key requirements for shorts. A loose-fitting pair of nylon
shorts, perhaps with an integral mesh brief, can work well. A popular
combination for mild conditions is a lightweight base layer under a pair of
synthetic shorts (fig. 2-2a). Lightweight nylon pants with zip-off legs that
convert to shorts are also very popular and versatile.
Underwear and sports bras. Although underwear and sports bras do not
constitute an adjustable “layer” (they are inconvenient to put on and take
off), they add additional warmth and insulation and need to perform as part
of the total system. Cotton chafes when damp and so is a poor choice for
tight-fitting garments like underwear and socks. Sports bras, of course, can
do double duty as a top.

MIDLAYERS
The workhorse of any layering system, the midlayer slows the inevitable
escape of warmth and allows perspiration to evaporate while providing light
protection from the elements. Climbers carry and wear a variety of
midlayers, mixing and matching fleece, down or synthetic jackets or
sweaters (puffies), and double-weave softshell depending on the challenge
(see Table 2-2).
Synthetic shirt and pants. Simple nylon or polyester shirts and pants are
lightweight pieces that provide sun and insect protection while being
adaptable to cold weather. Shirts and fleece tops should be long in the torso
so they can be tucked into or pulled below the hips to prevent gaps that let
valuable heat escape.
Synthetic fleece. Core elements of the midlayer are synthetic fleeces and
non-cotton hoodies. Climbers usually combine thin to medium fleece shirts
with other midlayer options. Having one fleece layer with a hood and one or
two with zip-up collars can provide significant warmth or sun protection
with little added weight. For pants, fleece is a virtual snow magnet and so
has mostly been replaced by more formfitting, smooth-finished, double-
weave softshell pants. The venting allowed by full-length zippers increases
the temperature range and flexibility of such pieces.

TABLE 2-2. MIDLAYER OPTIONS

TYPE OF WARMTH-TO- BREATHABILITY

MIDLAYER WEIGHT RATIO

Synthetic shirts and Good Good

pants

Synthetic fleece Good Excellent

Wool knit shirts Fair Good

Synthetic puffy Good Fair

Down puffy Excellent Fair

“Active insulation” Good Excellent

puffy

Double-weave Good Excellent

softshell

CHOOSING A COLD-WEATHER STRATEGY

In addition to layering, these tactics can also help with your cold-
weather defense:
Manage moisture carefully.
Add additional midlayers that can function with the rest of the
system.
Add a belay jacket and puffy pants.
Eat more, starting with a big breakfast. Fat and calories correlate
directly with warmth, so keep high-calorie snacks at the ready in a
pocket where they won’t freeze and can be eaten gradually.
Drink more water, even when urinating may be inconvenient.
Dehydration results in low blood volume that will make you extra
cold.
Manage cold feet and hands. Rotate wet gloves or mittens and socks
with dry ones as needed. Try chemical hand and foot warmers, but to
prevent burns, avoid direct skin contact especially while asleep.
Monitor for frostbite and have a contingency plan.
 On a day trip bring hot water and a stove.
From base layers to one-piece climbing suits, consider one-piece
options for extreme cold.
Accept being a little cold, but be vigilant of the line between
discomfort and injury.

Merino wool knit shirt. The allure of this luxurious fabric comes from its
warm-to-the-touch feel and organic renewable source—a welcome contrast
to a pack full of petroleum-derived yardage.
Puffy jacket. Modern insulated jackets (typically referred to as a “puffy”)
—compressible, lightweight, trim-cut garments insulated with down or
synthetic fiber—have largely replaced bulky and heavy synthetic fleece
jackets. Down is ideal for cool, dry conditions or where the climber can
protect the garment from precipitation with a hardshell. Synthetic-filled
puffies are better in damp conditions. Puffies have become the indispensable
pillar of most layering systems—light enough to wear during activity, thin
and trim enough to work well with other layers. For most trips in cool to
cold weather, a thinner, highly breathable synthetic fabric that is less affected
by sweat absorption is best while on the move. Keep a second, heavier
insulating layer, such as a puffy, ready to put on as soon as your activity
level drops when resting, belaying, or camping.
Double-weave softshell. A garment made of this fabric is a good outer
midlayer to provide reasonable wind and weather resistance for most
conditions. The spandex content makes for trim-fitting garments, and the
fabric works particularly well as warm, flexible pants for skiing or climbing
in cool or snowy conditions. (Softshell laminates offer even more
waterproofing and are used in outer shells; see “Shell Strategies,” below.)
Puffy pants or skirt. For colder conditions, insulated (“puffy”) pants,
typically filled with synthetic insulation, help your legs retain heat. Look for
full-length side zippers that make it possible to put the pants on while you
are wearing boots, crampons, or snowshoes. While less useful, a puffy skirt
can help you avoid deeply chilled thighs.

SHELL STRATEGIES
The ideal shell would be fully waterproof, windproof, and breathable. No
single garment achieves all these objectives, but various strategies come
close. Many mountaineers carry two shell layers: a lighter, wind-resistant,
breathable jacket and a somewhat heavier, waterproof-breathable set of
jacket and pants. They wear the more breathable wind-resistant gear in cool,
windy, and even lightly drizzling conditions and for periods of heavy
exertion and reserve the more weatherproof hardshell for periods of lighter
exertion or heavier rain.
Wind shells. Compressible to the size of an apple and as light as 2 ounces
(60 grams), a wind shell helps the body retain the warmth captured by the
midlayers. It packs more warmth per gram than any other garment. Wind
shells are highly breathable, yet their DWR coating can shed light
precipitation.
Softshells. Laminated softshells feature an outer layer that is stretchy and
more breathable than a hardshell while still offering some resistance to wind
and dry snow. Waterproof-breathable laminated softshells are another step
up, offering about the same breathability of a hardshell, but with a bit of
stretch and good to very good weatherproofness. Yet when there is a risk of
extended exposure to precipitation, skip this category entirely and pair the
midlayers of your choice with a hardshell.
Hardshells. Stormy weather requires serious protection in the form of a
hardshell. Made of either two- or three-layer waterproof-breathable fabric,
hardshells sacrifice breathability for complete weatherproofness. A quality
hardshell jacket may be the most expensive garment in your arsenal. For
ventilation, hardshells have full front zippers plus a variety of tricks to
improve their mediocre breathability, including adjustable openings at the
front, waist, underarms, sides, and cuffs. Hardshell pants (rain pants) should
have full-length zippers so you can don or remove them over boots,
crampons, or snowshoes. Because rain pants tend to be worn less often than
parkas—and because they can be ruined by bushwhacking or glissading—
choosing a nonbreathable pair can save money. In cold conditions, as a
lower-body shell layer, some climbers use waterproof-breathable bib pants
held up by suspenders.
Insulated bibs are considerably warmer than rain pants because they cover
much of the torso and keep snow from entering around your waistline. They
are a good option for backcountry skiing, waterfall ice, and mixed climbing.
Some climbers use one-piece (“8,000 meter”) suits, the warmest, but least
versatile, option.
BELAY JACKET
In cold weather one final layer, a thickly insulated jacket commonly referred
to as a belay parka or belay puffy, helps keep the stationary belayer warm
and therefore attentive. Good features include an integral hood, thick but
very compressible insulation, and lightweight, water-resistant shell material.
If large enough to fit either member of the rope team (on top of all their
other layers), one belay jacket could suffice. But one jacket for each climber
can be a lifesaver.

HEADWEAR
The adage says, “If your feet are cold, put on a hat.” Your body, when cold,
reduces blood flow to the arms and legs to warm other more vital areas.
Putting on a hat helps to reduce heat loss. Climbers often carry several
different types of hats to quickly adapt to changing temperatures. To prevent
the misfortune of having a hat blow off and sail over a cliff, some choose
headgear with a strap or leash. Consider carrying two insulating hats: an
extra hat provides almost as much warmth as an extra sweater while
weighing much less. Thin hats can be worn beneath a climbing helmet in
cold weather.
Insulating caps come in wool, acrylic, or polyester fleece. Balaclavas are
versatile insulators because they can cover both your face and neck or can be
rolled up to allow ventilation of the collar area. Stretchy knitted cylinders
known as Buffs (also called neck tubes or neck gaiters), worn around the
neck, help seal the jacket neck opening that continually bellows warm air.
Buffs can be used as a hat to cover the head and ears and are thin enough to
wear under a helmet. On a very cold day, they can be pulled up from the
neck to cover the mouth, helping with conditions such as the trek to Everest
Base Camp where yak-dung dust can bring on the “Khumbu cough.”

CHOOSING A SHELL JACKET

Fabric makes a difference:
Uninsulated shells are lighter and more versatile.
Two-layer waterproof-breathable fabric costs less and weighs less
than three-layer, and two-layer shells are good for moderate weather.
Three-layer waterproof-breathable fabric creates a shell that performs
better in severe weather.
 Laminated or waterproof-breathable laminated softshell fabric is a
good alternative for cold, dry conditions where precipitation would
likely be dry snow.
Features are important:
Large enough to fit over all midlayers and a climbing harness
A hood with a brim that fits over a helmet
Neck construction that covers the chin comfortably and allows the
head to move freely
Good ventilation
Waterproof zippers
Pockets that are easily accessible even while wearing gloves and
carrying a pack
A length sufficient to seal the waistline and sleeves that cover the
wrists

A rain hat made of waterproof-breathable fabric is useful because it

provides more ventilation (for exertion) and frequently is more comfortable
than a hood. Sun-protective hats, with wide brims or protective shades that
drape over your neck and ears, are popular for glacier climbs, as is a baseball
cap with a bandanna pinned on or worn under it. A brim shades your eyes
and keeps rain and snow off glasses. Remember to confirm each hat’s helmet
compatibility.

HANDWEAR
Fingers are perhaps the most difficult part of the body to keep warm because
of the body’s tendency to sacrifice blood flow to the extremities when cold.
Unfortunately, this altered blood flow can inhibit tasks that require dexterity
—such as pulling zippers and tying knots—which may slow a climbing
party’s progress at the very time when they need to move fast to find shelter
from the cold.
Mitten and glove selection usually entails a compromise between
dexterity and warmth. In general, bulk means increased warmth and reduced
dexterity. The more technical a climb, the more significant the compromise.
As with other insulating garments, mittens and gloves must be made of
fabrics that retain some warmth when wet and then dry quickly. Suitable
gloves and mittens come in synthetics, wool-synthetic blends, or sometimes
wool. Double-weave softshell fabric is common in alpine gloves. The
layering concept for clothing also applies to hands. The first layer may be a
light pair of gloves; additional layers are usually heavier gloves or mittens.
Mittens are warmer as a layer because they allow fingers to share warmth.
Climbers need hand protection from cracks, ropes, and cold. Some
handwear allows inner gloves or mittens to be removed to add versatility and
speed drying. Some provide a nonslip coating on the palm to improve grip
for snow and ice tools. To combat cold, handwear cuffs should overlap the
parka sleeve about 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 centimeters), and Velcro closures
should cinch around the forearm. Security cords can prevent loss when
mittens must be removed to climb rock or apply sunscreen. Heated gloves
aid ice climbers. Touch screen compatibility helps navigators in cold
weather.
In camp, wearing glove liners or fingerless gloves inside mittens can
permit good dexterity for delicate chores without exposing bare skin. Be
aware that many synthetics can melt in high heat (from a stove, for instance).
Even so, in freezing temperatures it is important to keep fingers from
freezing to metal: glove liners are better for this than fingerless gloves. But
when you are rock climbing in cold weather, fingerless gloves are often best.
Handling wet rope or scrambling over wet rock can saturate gloves or
mittens, even in dry weather. Some climbers carry several pairs of gloves or
liners, rotating them to inside pockets when they become wet and cold to
start each pitch with dry gloves and warm hands.
Often worn for rope handling such as rappelling or belaying, leather
gloves provide a better grip and prevent rope burns. While most leather
gloves do not insulate when wet, and dry slowly, some climbing versions
have waterproof-breathable liners and water-resistant leather. Mechanics’
work gloves with leather palms can be an inexpensive alternative for
scrambling, belaying, and rappelling.

SLEEPWEAR
Many climbers carry a dry set of base layers and socks for camp and
sleeping. Changing into this dry set at the end of the day helps thwart the
chill of long shadows from a setting sun. At times, however, a climber may
have to dry out damp clothes by spreading them out within the sleeping bag
or wearing them to bed.
CLOTHING CARE
The key to laundering most outdoor fabrics is simply to follow the garment’s
washing instructions. For outdoor clothing: close all zippers and fasteners;
wash in cold or warm water with a liquid sports wash or mild, powdered
laundry soap; and then line dry or tumble dry on a low setting. Avoid fabric
softeners (ruins water repellency), scented detergent (attracts bears and
bugs), chlorine bleach (ruins colors, except polyester), hot irons (synthetics
have low melting points), and dry cleaning down garments (strips essential
oils). Launder double-weave softshell fabric like most garments, but pay
attention to their DWR treatment (see more about DWR and hardshells,
below). Launder both laminated and waterproof-breathable laminated
softshells the same as waterproof-breathable hardshells. Clean gently, rinse
thoroughly, dry carefully, and touch up or reapply the DWR coatings to help
your gear live long and prosper.
Funk. Bacteria thrive in the interstitial spaces of synthetic thread and even
survive the gentle laundering recommended above. On each outing this
microbiome generates its factory of funk, turning your sweat into stink.
Fabric labels to the contrary, most polyester fabrics (but not nylon or other
synthetics) can be safely laundered with chlorine bleach. For other stinky
souvenirs, try a presoak using a nonchlorine bleach followed by normal
cleaning.
Waterproof-breathable garments. Whether they have a coating or a
laminated membrane, waterproof-breathable shells depend on relatively
delicate components to function. Dirt and oils, such as sunscreen or insect
repellent, can clog and contaminate fabric pores, reducing breathability.
Keeping waterproof-breathable fabric clean helps keep it in optimal working
condition. It’s best to use a sports wash detergent. Do not use fabric softener.
Understand that detergent is hydrophilic; it is critical to rinse the garment a
second time. Then dry it on a line or in a tumble dryer on medium (140
degrees Fahrenheit or 60 degrees Celsius), and then test the DWR as
explained below.
DWR on hardshells and softshells. The durable water-repellent finish on
waterproof-breathable fabric is a critical component. DWR may be
“durable,” but it will not last the life of a garment. Eventually rainwater
“wets out” the outer shell surface, making the fabric appear dark; water
vapor is blocked and can no longer pass through the fabric. The fabric also
becomes heavy and the surface, cold, compounding the issue by causing
vaporized sweat to condense on the inside.
At home, test the garment with a spray bottle. When water no longer
beads up on the surface, the DWR can be restored somewhat by heat. The
chemistry of DWR works like a microscopic version of the fine hairs found
on plant leaves that repel water. Abrasion tends to bend these molecular
structures, but heat helps straighten them out and somewhat restores water
repellency. To revive the DWR finish, after your shell is clean and
completely dry, tumble it dry for an additional 20 minutes on medium heat.
If you are unable to tumble dry, you can try ironing the dry garment on a
gentle setting (warm, no steam), placing a towel or cloth between the
garment and the iron.

CARE AND FEEDING OF WATERPROOF-BREATHABLE

FABRICS
The DWR feature of waterproof-breathable fabrics fails over time.
Following these steps will help keep these fabrics functioning well for
as long as possible.
Keep it clean. Wash the garment regularly using a liquid sports wash
and do not use fabric softener.
Rinse it well. After washing, put the garment through a second rinse.
Dry it. Drip-dry or use a dryer set on medium (140°F or 60°C).
Revive it. Once the garment is completely dry, tumble dry for an
additional 20 minutes on medium heat to revive the DWR.
Conduct a spray test. Water should bead up.
Reapply DWR. If the garment fails the test, reapply the DWR
coating.

When the fabric no longer responds to this method, try applying a spray-
on or wash-in DWR. Always treat clean garments, following the
manufacturer’s instructions. These procedures may or may not work to
revive an expensive hardshell or softshell—but it’s your only chance.
Home-applied products are either fluorinated or not. Nonfluorinated
DWRs repel water but are currently more susceptible to contamination from
oils—sunscreens, insect repellents, and body oils. Fluorinated DWRs, while
environmentally dubious, are currently the most effective and durable at
repelling both oil and water. Unfortunately, labels can be vague. Products
with labels that say “PFC-free,” “contains no fluorocarbons,” or simply
“fluorine-free” do not contain fluorine. Products with labels that say “PFOA
& PFOS free” are likely fluorinated.
Spray-applying these textile home remedies to clean, wet garments allows
the DWR to penetrate the surface of the fabric slightly better, displacing the
water as it evaporates. For a more uniform application, you can also use a
wash-in DWR product. Wash-ins are particularly helpful to softshells. Hand
washing can ensure that more of the chemistry ends up on the garment. Read
the instructions carefully as there are some incompatibilities when using
wash-in DWR on coated (nonlaminated) waterproof-breathable fabrics.
After applying the DWR, dry the garment according to the reviving
directions noted above. Some newer home-applied fluorinated chemistries
do not require the second drying step, though doing so may help revive the
garment’s original factory DWR. Reapply the DWR coating when you start
to see signs of “wetting out” on the surface of the garment. Or simply touch
up high abrasion areas after every trip or two. It is quite satisfying after
spray-testing to see the water bead up on the surface like it would on a well-
waxed car.
DWR is factory-applied to many other garments such as fleece jackets,
wind shells, pants, hats, and gloves. These treatments are also not permanent
and can be revived and reapplied, although they are less critical to these
garments’ functionality.

FOOTWEAR
A climber’s feet are the means for reaching the objective, so they need
especially good gear including boots, socks, gaiters, and sometimes
specialized footwear.

CHOOSING SPECIALIZED FOOTWEAR

Depending on the trip, a climber may wear one kind of boot for the
approach hike, another type of footwear in camp, and yet another when
climbing. If foot-wear other than boots is desired and you are willing to
carry the extra weight, consider these options:
Lightweight, sticky rubber approach shoes are less likely to cause
blisters and less fatiguing to wear than climbing boots on some easy
 approaches; however, they may not provide the support needed for
carrying a heavy pack, especially on rough ground or descents.
Lightweight athletic shoes, sandals, or neoprene socks or booties
offer comfort in camp, give boots and feet a chance to dry, and can be
used for stream crossings.
Insulated booties or fleece socks provide warmer lounging and
sleeping.
Rock shoes, for climbing technical rock, are Lightweight and
compact.

BOOTS
A good alpine climbing boot is a compromise between performance and
suitability for the likely range of conditions. No single boot type or design
will do everything well. The rigidity of the boot’s sole, the stiffness and
support provided by the upper, and how the sole and upper interact in use are
the key design features, while proper fit is key to happy feet. A full
mountaineering boot (fig. 2-3) must strike a balance between being tough
enough to withstand being scraped on rocks and rigid enough for kicking
steps in hard snow and wearing crampons, yet comfortable enough for the
approach hike. In a single day of climbing, boots may have to contend with
trails, mud, streams, gravel, brush, scree, steep rock, hard snow, and ice.
The “classic” all-leather-upper boot, while respected for its versatility, has
been supplanted by new designs: boots with plastic-composite shells, pieces
of leather, fabric panels, synthetic leather, waterproof linings, integrated
gaiters, and overall lighter construction. Boot designs are evolving, but the
many jobs they need to do are not.

Lightweight Mountaineering or Scrambling Boots

Some boots that incorporate synthetic fabric panels to reduce weight and
increase breathability are suitable for climbing. These lightweight
mountaineering or scrambling boots (fig. 2-4) are basically a rigid hiking
boot and provide several advantages over more robust boots:
Reduced weight
Improved comfort hiking long approaches; shorter break-in time
More flexible sole allows for better friction climbing
Faster drying time
 Lower cost

Fig. 2-3. Full mountaineering boot.

However, lightweight boots may have significant drawbacks from full

mountaineering boots:
Less stability when edging and toe holding
Less waterproofness and durability
Insufficient weight or stiffness for step-kicking in firm snow or for
wearing crampons
If you are considering lightweight mountaineering or scrambling boots for
climbing, check that the uppers are high and rigid enough for good ankle
support, that stiff counters wrap the heel and toe, and that abrasion areas are
reinforced. If the boot is too flexible, your body will waste energy when
moving across difficult ground as your feet flex unnecessarily with each
step. The boot may not edge well or be suitable for some crampons. A more
rigid boot acts as a tiny platform wherever you step so that bigger muscle
groups perform simpler movements and save energy.

Full Mountaineering Boots

Full mountaineering boots include fabrics and features making them more
robust, durable, and expensive than lightweight climbing boots. Typically
lined with neoprene-like padding, they are also warmer and more
waterproof. The best choice for a full mountaineering boot depends on how
it will be used and is generally a compromise between the boot’s walking
comfort and its technical capability. For trails and easy snow or rock routes,
boots with moderately stiff soles and uppers provide enough support while
being acceptably flexible and comfortable.
 For technical alpine rock climbing, a more rigid boot is desirable for its
edging capabilities. Flexible boots (fig. 2-5a, c, e, and g), while sometimes
used on technical rock, are usually a poor substitute for rock shoes. (To learn
more about rock shoes, see Chapter 12, Alpine Rock Climbing.) Stiffer boots
can make walking less comfortable, but they greatly reduce leg fatigue when
a climber is standing on small rock nubbins. Look for boots stiff enough to
permit edging on narrow rock ledges with either side of the boot (fig. 2-5b)
or with the toe (fig. 2-5d).

Fig. 2-4. Lightweight mountaineering or scrambling boot.

Fig. 2-5. Performance of flexible boots versus stiffer boots in various situations: a and b, edging; c
and d, toe holding; e and f, friction climbing or smearing; g and h, hiking.

For traveling on hard snow, a highly flexible boot is a disadvantage. It

takes a stout boot to kick good steps or plunge-step with confidence.
Snowshoes and (especially) crampons may not stay on if boots are too
flexible for the bindings.
Ice climbing demands an even higher level of boot support and very stiff
soles and uppers. Plastic-composite boots or extremely stiff leather boots are
generally best (see Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing).

Plastic Mountaineering Boots

Plastic mountaineering boots consist of hard synthetic outer shells with inner
insulating boots. The synthetic shells of these boots are usually quite stiff,
which makes them good for use with crampons or snowshoes. They permit
straps and bindings to be cinched tightly without impairing circulation in the
feet. They provide solid support for edging and kicking steps. Being truly
waterproof, plastic mountaineering boots are great in wet conditions. The
inner insulating boot remains free of snowmelt and keeps feet warm. In
camp, the inner boot can be removed and warmed, which helps in drying out
perspiration. Unfortunately, the factors that make plastic boots ideal for
snow and ice (rigidity, waterproofness, and warmth) make them a poor
choice for general trail use.

BOOT CARE
With proper care, well-made boots can last many years. Keep them clean
and dry when not in use. With plastic composite boots, remove the inner
boots after use and allow them to dry. Shake or wipe out any debris in the
shells to prevent abrasion and excessive wear. Avoid exposing boots to high
temperatures, because heat can damage leather, linings, and adhesives.
During an outing, water can seep into boots through the uppers and seams.
Waterproofing agents help limit the entry of water. Waterproofing needs to
be repeated regularly.
Before waterproofing, clean boots with a mild or special purpose soap and
a stiff brush. Apply waterproofing appropriate to the boots’ construction
according to product instructions. Most mountaineering boots feature a
Gore-Tex seam-sealed waterproof bootie, which keeps feet drier in wet
conditions. Functioning like DWR on a hardshell, a Gore-Tex-approved
waterproofing should be applied a year after purchase and then once or twice
a year after that. Waterproofing should be applied to boots that have been
cleaned and are still very damp. Gore-Tex is no panacea; boots that include a
Gore-Tex bootie are usually more expensive, they may make feet
uncomfortable during hot weather, and the membrane can degrade from dirt
and sweat.

PROPER FOOTWEAR FIT

The key to happy feet is proper fit, and the key to proper fit is to consider
boots, socks, and insoles as the three pieces of a footwear system. Purchase
insoles and socks at the same time as your boots; try on not only different
boot types and sizes but a variety of insoles and socks.

Boots
No matter what the boot’s design or materials, fit is critical. The shape of a
boot is defined by the unique “last” on which it is built. The complex
dimensions of the boot are not completely captured by length and width, so
try on several makes and styles. Some brands are available in multiple
widths; others offer both men’s and women’s models. Some men do better in
women’s models and vice versa.
After lacing up the boots firmly, stand on a narrow edge or rock side to
side to test their stability. Walk in the boots, with a heavy pack on if
possible, to allow the boots and your feet to get used to each other. Note
whether the boots have any uncomfortable seams or creases or whether they
pinch anywhere. In boots that fit properly, the back two-thirds of your foot
will feel firmly anchored in place while your toes will have plenty of room
to wiggle. Try standing on a downward incline for a critical test of toe space.
Kick something solid—your toes should not jam against the toe box.
Boots that are too tight will constrict circulation, leading to cold feet and
increasing the chance of frostbite. Overly tight or excessively loose boots
can cause blisters. Be especially careful that boots intended for use in
extreme cold and/or at high altitudes do not constrict your feet and impede
circulation. Because fit is critical for comfort and performance, climbers
with impossible-to-fit feet may need custom-made leather boots.

Socks
Socks cushion and insulate the feet and reduce friction between the boot and
the foot. Socks made of nylon or merino wool help reduce friction; those
made of cotton do not. Cotton socks become abrasive when wet, leading to
blisters. Socks need to fit closely; too-large socks lead to wrinkled fabric and
irritated skin. Discard old socks: threadbare, worn sections can cause
blisters. Because boots do not breathe appreciably, sweat generated by the
feet collects and builds up until the boots are removed. In dry conditions,
some climbers will change their socks once or twice per day, donning a dry
pair while drying out the other. Synthetic socks dry faster than wool.
Many climbers wear two pairs of socks. Next to the skin, thin, smooth
liner socks help resist blisters by transporting perspiration away from the
foot while staying somewhat dry in the process. Liner socks also allow a
climber to fine-tune the fit of the footwear system. The outer sock is thicker
to absorb the moisture passing through the inner sock and to cushion against
the boot lining. Others prefer a single medium- or heavy-weight blended
sock. There are exceptions. Rock climbers want flexible rock shoes to fit like
skin, and so they wear no socks or one thin pair. Hikers using trail shoes on a
warm day may wear a single pair of socks; winter climbers on very cold
days may wear three pairs of socks inside oversized boots. Whatever the
strategy, keep your toes free enough to wiggle; an additional pair of socks
will not improve warmth if they constrict circulation.
Before donning socks, consider protecting your feet at places prone to
blisters, especially the back of the heel, with specialized tape or Moleskin.
For more information, see “Blisters” in Chapter 24, First Aid. Foot powder
and lubricants, such as petroleum jelly, are commonly recommended blister
fighters; yet studies show no benefit and perhaps even a detrimental effect.
Waterproof-breathable Gore-Tex socks can improve comfort in wet
conditions. Worn over an inner pair of standard socks, these socks function
much like Gore-Tex liners in boots, while providing a higher, snugger cuff.
In extremely cold weather, a vapor-barrier sock worn between the two main
sock layers can reduce the danger of frostbite. Because vapor-barrier socks
do not breathe, your feet get damp; but they retain more heat and so your
feet stay warmer. However, if feet stay moist for too long, you risk
developing the serious condition of immersion foot (see Chapter 24, First
Aid). Dry your feet thoroughly at least once each day if you use vapor-
barrier socks.

Insoles
Most climbers toss out the cheap, stock insoles that come with boots.
Aftermarket insoles come in an array of arch sizes and thicknesses (“high
volume” means very thick). They provide additional comfort, insulation, and
support—and affect the final fit considerably.

GAITERS
During an outing, water, snow, and debris can get into boots over the cuff.
Gaiters seal the boundary between pant legs and boot tops. Climbers often
carry gaiters in both summer and winter, because rain, dew, mud, and snow
provide year-round opportunities to saturate pant legs, socks, and boots. Wet
socks and boots can, in turn, prove very uncomfortable and even lead to
serious foot problems.
Short trail gaiters (fig. 2-6a), extending a bit above the tops of the boots,
are adequate for keeping corn snow and debris out of boots in summer. The
deep snows of winter, however, usually call for standard alpine gaiters (fig.
2-6b) that extend up to the knee. Expedition gaiters (fig. 2-6c) are made
from beefier material and sized to accommodate large-sized plastic boots;
insulation built into some expedition gaiters covers the boots for added
warmth. Boots with nonremovable (integrated) gaiters are a growing trend in
winter mountaineering boots (fig. 2-6d). Snow pants often have built-in
gaiters, eliminating the need for a separate piece in some conditions.

Fig. 2-6. Gaiters: a, trail; b, alpine; c, expedition; d, integrated.

Gaiters are usually held closed with snaps, zippers, or Velcro; Velcro
offers the easiest fastening in cold weather. If you select gaiters with zippers,
be sure the teeth are heavy-duty. A flap that closes over the zipper with
snaps or Velcro protects it from damage and can keep the gaiter closed and
functional even if the zipper fails. Elastic or a strap at the top of the gaiter
keeps it from sliding down. A snug fit around the calf helps prevent crampon
points from catching on the gaiters, leading to a fall.
 A close fit all around the boot is essential to prevent snow from entering
under the gaiter, especially when you are plunge-stepping during descents. A
cord, lace, strap, or shock cord runs under the foot to help the gaiter hug the
boot. The parts underfoot will wear out during the life of the gaiter, so look
for designs allowing easy replacement. Neoprene straps work well in snow
but wear quickly on rock, whereas cord survives rock better but can ball up
with snow. Women’s gaiters are typically shorter in height and a bit wider at
the top.

PACKS
Climbers usually own at least two packs: a day pack to hold enough for a
single-day climb, and a full-size backpack to carry gear for camping in the
backcountry. All packs should allow climbers to carry the weight close to
their body and centered over their hips and legs (see Figure 2-9).

BUYING AN OVERNIGHT OR EXPEDITION BACKPACK

First, determine the needed pack capacity depending on the demands of the
climb (see Table 2-3). Then, find a pack that fits your body. The backpack’s
adjustment range must be compatible with the length of your back. Some
backpacks adjust to a wide range of body sizes; others do not. Try on various
packs and make your own decision (see “Choosing a Pack” sidebar). Figure
2-7 shows a typical 50-liter climbing pack with a streamlined design.
Don’t be in a hurry when fitting a backpack. Load it up, as you would on
an actual climb; bring personal gear to the store. Without a typical load, you
cannot tell how the pack rides or if the adjustments provide a good fit. To
test for fit, first follow the steps in the next section “Properly Fitting and
Adjusting a Backpack.” Check the fit in a mirror to see if the frame follows
the curve of your back. If it does not, check whether the stays or frame can
be bent to improve the fit; some frames of composite materials cannot. The
shoulder straps should attach to the backpack between your shoulder blades
and leave little or no gap behind your back.

TABLE 2-3. TYPES OF PACKS

TYPE CAPACITY NOTES

 Day pack 30–50 liters; 20–30 lb (9– Best for single-day climbs.
14 kg) Efficient packers facing
good weather can
overnight with a pack this
size.

Overnight 50–80 liters; 30–55 lb (14– Most popular size for

pack 25 kg) overnight trips, winter day
trips, or backcountry
skiing. Compression straps
minimize size for day trips.
Careful packing may
accommodate longer trips.

Expedition 70-plus liters Extended trips of 5 days or

or winter more or winter treks
pack usually call for packs of 70
liters or larger to
accommodate extra food
and clothes, warmer
sleeping bag, and four-
season tent.

Once the backpack is adjusted, check your head clearance while wearing a
helmet. Is it possible to look up without hitting the back of your head? Next,
check for adequate padding wherever the pack touches your body. Pay
particular attention to the comfort of the shoulder straps and hip belt; note
the quality of the padding while realizing that thicker and softer is not
necessarily more comfortable. The hip belt should be substantial; its padding
should cover your hip bones by good margins. For proper load transfer to
your hips, ensure that the hip belt wraps directly onto the top, not the sides,
of your hips and not around your waist.
Women’s backpacks. Most women prefer a women’s-specific design
with shorter back length, narrower shoulder width, shorter, narrower
shoulder straps, and a slightly larger belt flare angle at the hips. Although a
larger hip belt flare angle can be somewhat accommodated by adjusting the
angle of the belt’s webbing, a women’s-specific hip belt is often best.
Women’s hip belts are also generally narrower and more padded than men’s
to avoid the possibility of putting pressure on the lower ribcage. Some
women find that men’s or unisex packs fit better.

PROPERLY FITTING AND ADJUSTING A BACKPACK

First, loosen all the straps. Then shoulder a full pack and follow these steps
(fig. 2-8).
Step 1. Position the middle of the hip belt over the top of the iliac crest
(hip bones). Raise your shoulders and firmly tighten the waist belt. Virtually
all the weight should be on the hips since the shoulder straps are slack at this
point.
Step 2. Tighten the shoulder straps—but not too tight—so they form a
smooth arc over your shoulders. Note that the shoulder stabilizer straps are
slack at this point. The main weight should be on the hip belt, with minimal
load carried by the shoulders.
Step 3. Gently tension the shoulder stabilizer straps (day packs generally
don’t have these) to bring the pack close to the body. Ideally, they should
end up at around a 45-degree angle. Excess tension interferes with the
smooth arc of the shoulder pad over the shoulder. Tension any hip belt
stabilizers and (optionally) any sternum straps.

Fig. 2-7. Typical climbing pack: a, view of back and side; b, view of back pad and straps, with lid
removed
Fig. 2-8. Fitting and adjusting a backpack.

Each time you put on your backpack, adjust the straps in the same
sequence, from bottom to top: position the waist belt and firmly tighten
while raising the shoulders, tighten the shoulder straps, and then tension the
stabilizer straps.

BUYING A DAY PACK

Day packs for climbing usually have volumes of between 30 and 50 liters,
enough to carry 20 to 30 pounds (9 to 14 kilograms). The large selection of
day packs on the market covers a wide spectrum of sturdiness. Some are
designed without rigid frames or padded hip belts and may be too flimsy for
carrying the heavy tools of climbing: rope, rack, crampons, and ice axe. Seek
a pack with a sturdy internal frame and a hip belt that is at least 2 inches (5
centimeters) wide at the buckle and 4 inches (10 centimeters) wide where it
covers the hips. Insist on ice-axe loops, a haul loop, and compression straps.
Most of the features you would consider in choosing a full-size pack apply
to day packs. Try on and compare day packs as thoroughly as you would a
full-size backpack.

TIPS ON PACKING
Strategically loading items in a pack can dramatically influence a climber’s
speed, endurance, and enjoyment of an outing. Generally, climbers will feel
best if they can concentrate the load on their hips. Pack heavy items as close
to your back as possible to bring in and lower your center of gravity; center
them in the pack to allow you to more easily keep your balance (fig. 2-9).
Heavy items such as ropes placed high in the pack create top-heavy
instability.

Fig. 2-9. Loading heavier items closer to the center of the back improves balance, efficiency, and
endurance.

CHOOSING A PACK
First, you must decide on capacity: day, overnight, or expedition.
Consider the weight and volume of what you will need to carry, and
then factor in the length of your trip. Your back length matters more
than your height. Beyond those factors, consider each pack’s features
and details:
Does the pack have a smooth profile, or will it get tangled up in
heavy brush or when hauled up a steep rock face?
 How sturdy and durable are the suspension system, stitching, and
zippers?
How convenient is it to store, arrange, and access gear?
Can it carry special items such as crampons, skis, snowshoes, and a
snow shovel?
Does the pack have a haul loop, ice-axe loops, and compression
straps (to reduce volume and prevent the load from shifting)?
Can the pack’s capacity be increased for extended trips (for example,
expandable snow collar, side-pocket accessories)?

Along with arranging items for optimum weight distribution, organize

them for quick access. Carry the gear that you will need most often close at
hand. Articles such as gloves, hats, sunglasses, maps, and insect repellent are
often most convenient in side and top pockets, jacket pockets, or a fanny
pack worn in combination with the main pack. Keep snacks and water close
at hand for easy and frequent refueling. In cool weather, keep a puffy coat at
the ready. Readjusting the backpack during use will help reduce soreness and
fatigue.
Determine a strategy to keep pack contents dry in rainy weather. Even
packs constructed from waterproof materials are rarely waterproof; water
can leak through seams, zippers, pockets, the top opening, and places where
waterproofing has worn off. Individual plastic bags or waterproof stuff sacks
can help protect pack contents, while a waterproof pack cover can keep the
entire pack dry. Some climbers prefer to line their pack with a large plastic
trash bag.

ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT
Certain equipment deserves space in every pack. A climber will not need
every item on every trip, but essential equipment can be a lifesaver in an
emergency. Exactly how much equipment “insurance” should be carried is a
matter of healthy debate (see the “Ultralight Travel” sidebar). Some
respected minimalists argue that weighing down a pack causes people to
climb slower, making it more likely they will get caught by a storm or
nightfall. “Go fast and light. Carry bivy gear, and you will bivy,” they argue.
The other side of this debate is that, even without the extra weight of bivy
gear, climbers still may be forced to bivouac. Each party must determine
what will keep them safe.
Most climbers take along carefully selected items to survive the
unexpected. Whatever your approach to equipment, a checklist (Table 2-5)
will help you remember what to bring in the rush to get ready for a trip.
Adapt this list to suit your needs, and get in the habit of checking it before
each trip. The best-known list, first developed by The Mountaineers in the
1930s, has become known as the “Ten Essentials.”

THE MOUNTAINEERS’ TEN ESSENTIALS

The point of the Ten Essentials (Table 2-4) has always been to help answer
two basic questions: First, can you prevent emergencies and respond
positively should one occur? Second, can you safely spend a night—or more
—outside? The Ten Essentials is a guide that should be tailored to the nature
of the climb. Weather, remoteness from help, and complexity should be
factored into the selected essentials. The first seven essentials tend to be
compact and vary little from climb to climb, and so they can be grouped
together to facilitate packing. Add the proper extra food, water, and clothes,
and you’re ready to go. This brief list is intended to be easy to remember and
serve as a mental pretrip checklist. Each essential is discussed in more detail
below.

1. Navigation
Modern tools have revolutionized backcountry navigation. Today’s
mountaineer carries five essential tools while navigating the backcountry:
map, altimeter, compass, Global Positioning System (GPS) device, and a
personal locator beacon (“PLB”) or other device to contact emergency first
responders. Wilderness navigators need to carry these tools and know how to
use them—if life is threatened, they need to be able to communicate with
emergency responders. Using multiple tools increases confidence in location
and route, provides backup when tools fail, and increases situational
awareness. Refer to Chapter 5, Navigation, for in-depth information on
navigation tools and techniques.

ULTRALIGHT TRAVEL
The ultralight concept is as much a philosophy of mountain travel as it
is a specific set of gear recommendations. It is the antithesis of the style
used by the huge Himalayan expeditions of the mid-twentieth century,
which typically involved hundreds of porters and tons of equipment.
In contrast, the ultralight concept espouses two principal
considerations: first, consider each item of gear and select the lightest
version, and second, take the minimum amount of gear consistent with
your chosen degree of commitment. Circumstances may limit what can
be accomplished, and ultralighters, with their minimal gear, have less
margin for error.
There have been ultralight devotees for as long as there have been
mountaineers. But the modern movement toward ultralight was first
popularized by Yosemite climber Ray Jardine in the 1990s. The idea is
to use multipurpose, lightweight gear and clothes in place of technically
sophisticated equipment.
For mountain travel, less weight may mean a more enjoyable trip.
For many technical routes, climbing light means climbing faster and,
consequently, more safely (see Chapter 12, Alpine Rock Climbing, for
further discussion).

TABLE 2-4. THE MOUNTAINEERS’ TEN ESSENTIALS

To prevent emergencies and respond positively should one occur:
1. Navigation
2. Headlamp
3. Sun protection
4. First aid
5. Knife
To safely spend a night—or more—outside:
6. Fire
7. Shelter
8. Extra food
9. Extra water
10. Extra clothes
 Map. Maps synthesize a vast amount of information about a region that
cannot be replicated by written descriptions or memory. Each climber should
carry a physical topographic map protected in a case or resealable plastic bag
—it is not fragile, needs no electricity, and provides both backup and the
“big picture” about a region that cannot be replicated by written descriptions
or a tiny screen. If your primary map is a fragile battery-driven electronic
device, carry at least one redundant device and backup power, and always
carry a printed topographic map as a backup.
Altimeter. Mountaineers have long understood the importance of
knowing elevation for navigation. Referring to a topographic map and
knowing your elevation solve half of the navigation equation, day or night,
clear skies or foggy. With just one more scrap of data—a trail, a stream, a
ridge, or a bearing to a known peak—climbers can often determine where
they are. Today’s altimeter is a sliver of silicon that can measure air pressure
or use GPS satellite signals or a combination of the two. The modern
mountaineer tends to use an altimeter more frequently than a compass.
Compass. Robust and easy to use, this essential tool allows wilderness
travelers to orient the map and themselves to the landscape. A compass with
a baseplate is essential for taking, measuring, and following field bearings
and matching them up with the map. Many smartphones, GPS devices, and
wristwatches also contain an electronic compass.
GPS device. GPS has revolutionized navigation and accurately gives
climbers their location on a digital map. Modern phones, combined with a
reliable GPS app, rival the best dedicated GPS units for accuracy and are
easier to use (see Chapter 5, Navigation). Devices often have extensive
libraries of maps, many available free; download the ones you need before
your trip. Together with downloaded digital maps, phones (or tablets) can
guide climbers in the wilderness far from any cell towers. The caveats?
Phones are fragile and they need electricity. Climbers should take steps to
armor these delicate devices, keep them dry in the rain, and extend their
battery life. Bringing a fully charged external battery pack is an important
precaution. Dedicated GPS devices are often more rugged and weatherproof
than phones, making them a good choice for extreme environments.
PLBs and satellite communicators. Historically, the mountaineer has
needed to be completely self-reliant, and climbers should still have that
mindset when entering the wilderness today. But when an emergency
unfolds despite good tools, preparation, and training, most climbers welcome
help. PLBs and satellite communicators determine your position using GPS
and then send a message using government or commercial satellite networks.
These devices have saved many lives; all backcountry travelers should
strongly consider carrying one. Satellite phones are reliable in wilderness,
but regular phones, which rely on proximity to cell towers, are not. Unless
you are certain you will have a signal, assume that your phone will not
function to make calls from the backcountry.

CHOOSING A GPS DEVICE

Modern mountaineers have several options available to them when it
comes to GPS technology:
A phone combined with a good app has become the most popular
way for climbers to navigate by GPS. The extensive libraries of free
digital worldwide maps made available by these apps, if downloaded
before entering wilderness areas, allow freedom to travel hills near
and far.
Dedicated GPS units are more difficult to use and have fewer maps
available, but they are more rugged and weatherproof than phones.
Digital wristwatches can now provide GPS coordinates and altitude,
to be used in conjunction with a physical map. Some now show tiny
maps.

2. Headlamp
For climbers, headlamps are the flashlight of choice, freeing the hands for
anything from cooking to climbing. Even if the climbing party plans to
return before dark, each climber must carry a headlamp and consider
carrying a backup. The efficient, bright LED bulb has completely replaced
the inefficient incandescent bulb of a few years ago. An LED bulb lasts
virtually forever but batteries do not, so carry spares. If you are using a
rechargeable headlamp or batteries, start with a full charge. Any headlamp
carried by an outdoor shop will be weatherproof, and a few models can
survive submersion. All models allow the beam to be tilted down for close-
up work, such as cooking, and pointed up for looking in the distance. Some
headlamps feature a low-power red LED to preserve night vision and help
climbers avoid disturbing tent mates during nocturnal excursions.
 CHOOSING A HEADLAMP
Beam type, output, and distance. Choose a headlamp that has both a
wide beam and a spot beam. Each headlamp has a source output rated
in lumens, a beam distance measured in meters, and a runtime
measured in hours. For general-purpose mountaineering, look for a
lamp rated at least 50 lumens that casts a beam at least 160 feet (50
meters) and has a runtime of at least 24 hours. Keep in mind that the
amount of daylight varies significantly depending on the time of year
and latitude. If you anticipate significant nighttime operations (for
example, search and rescue), choose a brighter beam with a top strap
and larger battery pack positioned at the back of the head. Brighter
illumination consumes more battery power.
Weight. The typical headlamp weighs 3 to 4 ounces (85 to 115
grams), and all are about the same size. High-powered models are
bulkier and heavier (up to 11 ounces, 300 grams). Ultralight models
can weigh less than an ounce (28 grams). Choose according to need.
Brightness modes. Most headlamps offer varying brightness. Use
low for around camp to conserve battery life and not annoy your
belay partners. A high beam is useful for moving through terrain at
night.
Battery type. Choose a headlamp powered by AA or AAA batteries,
a battery type shared by other electronics you may be taking such as a
SPOT Messenger or dedicated GPS device (for more on batteries see
“Batteries” later in this chapter).
Additional features include a blinking mode for use as a beacon, a
red lamp to preserve nighttime vision, and regulated output to keep
the beam brightness constant until the batteries are exhausted.

3. Sun Protection
Carry and wear sunglasses, sun-protective clothes, and broad-spectrum
sunscreen rated at least SPF 30. Not doing so in the short run can lead to
sunburn or snow blindness; long-term unpleasantness includes cataracts and
skin cancer.
Sunglasses. In alpine country, high-quality sunglasses are critical. The
eyes are particularly vulnerable to radiation, and the corneas of unprotected
eyes can easily burn before any discomfort is felt, resulting in the
excruciatingly painful condition known as snow blindness. Ultraviolet rays
penetrate cloud layers, so do not let cloudy conditions fool you into leaving
your eyes unprotected. It is advisable to wear sunglasses whenever you are
outside and it is bright. This becomes critical on snow, ice, and water and at
high altitudes.
Sunglasses should filter at least 99 percent of UV (ultraviolet) light,
including both UVA and UVB. (Most opticians can test an old pair if you are
unsure.) The tint in sunglasses allows only a fraction of the visible light
through the lens to the eyes. Sunglasses, when rated, are usually scored by
VLT (visible light transmission), or occasionally by percentage of light
blocked. For glacier glasses, a lens should have a VLT rating of 5 to 10
percent. For conditions that don’t involve snow or water, “sports sunglasses”
with a VLT rating of 5 to 20 percent are sufficient. Many sunglasses have no
VLT rating and should be treated as cornea-scorching fashion accessories.
Look in a mirror when trying on sunglasses: if your eyes can easily be seen,
the lenses are too light. Lens tints should be gray or brown for the truest
color; yellow provides better contrast in overcast or foggy conditions.
Sunglass lenses should be made of polycarbonate or Trivex (a form of
polyurethane). Glass, while more scratch-resistant, is heavy and can shatter.
High-quality sunglasses can have a variety of helpful coatings including
ones that repel water or minimize scratches or fogging. While polarized
lenses can decrease glare, they annoyingly black out camera and phone LCD
screens in certain orientations. Photochromic lenses automatically adjust to
changing light intensity, but most lack a sufficient VLT rating for snow and
adjust slowly in cold conditions. Sunglass frames should be a wraparound
style or have side shields to reduce the light reaching your eyes, yet allow
adequate ventilation to prevent fogging. Problems with fogging can be
reduced by using an antifog lens cleaning product.
Groups should carry at least one pair of spare sunglasses in case a party
member loses or forgets a pair. Eye protection can be improvised by cutting
a bit of mylar from an emergency blanket or making small slits in a piece of
cardboard or cloth.
Sun-protective clothes. Clothes offer more sun protection than sunscreen.
Long underwear or wind garments are frequently worn on sunny glacier
climbs. The discomfort of long underwear, even under blazing conditions, is
often considered a minor nuisance compared with the hassle of smearing on
sunscreen. Some garments are given a UPF (ultraviolet protection factor)
rating, a system that is calibrated the same as the SPF rating. A UPF 50–
rated garment allows 1/50 th of the UV radiation falling on its surface to
pass through it. Most clothes do an admirable job blocking UV rays, but
don’t expect a thin white t-shirt to protect you on a long glacier climb. For
the most part, UPF ratings are not critical except to those with sensitive skin.
And whenever possible, wear a hat—preferably one with a full brim.
Sunscreen. Sunscreen is vital to climbers’ well-being in the mountains.
Although individuals vary widely in natural pigmentation and the amount of
screening their skin requires, the penalty for underestimating the protection
needed is severe, including the possibility of skin cancer. Certain diseases,
such as lupus, and some medications, such as antibiotics and antihistamines,
can cause extra sensitivity to the sun’s rays.
While climbing, use a broad-spectrum sunscreen that blocks both
ultraviolet A (UVA) and ultraviolet B (UVB) rays. UVA rays are the primary
preventable cause of skin cancer; UVB rays primarily cause sunburn. To
protect skin from UVB rays, use a sunscreen with a sunburn protection
factor (SPF) of at least 30. If you are near snow or water, use SPF 50 on
thin-skinned areas such as the nose and ears.
The EPA highly recommends using sunscreens that carry the regulated
term “broad spectrum.” While there is no standard rating for UVA such as
SPF, the term “broad spectrum” means “that the product provides UVA
protection that is proportional to its UVB protection.” Most sunscreen
ingredients absorb UV light through a chemical reaction—although titanium
dioxide and zinc oxide physically block UV and cause the fewest skin
reactions. Of all the chemicals used in sunscreen, these four are most likely
to cause adverse skin reactions: aminobenzoic acid (PABA), dioxybenzone,
oxybenzone, and sulisobenzone.

CHOOSING A SUN PROTECTION STRATEGY

First, wear appropriate sunglasses.
Then, wear sun-protective clothes: hat, long sleeves, and pants.
“Slop on” minimum SPF 30 broad-spectrum sunscreen to all exposed
skin.
Protect lips with sunscreen or an SPF-rated lip balm.
Reapply sunscreen frequently.
 When using both sunscreen and insect repellent, first apply sunscreen
and allow it to dry. After it has bonded to your skin, apply the
repellent.

All sunscreens are limited by their ability to remain on the skin while you
are sweating. US manufacturers can no longer claim that sunscreens are
“waterproof” or “sweatproof” or identify their products as “sunblock.” It is
feasible for a sunscreen to be water resistant for up to 80 minutes; but
regardless of the claims on the label, reapply it frequently. Frequent
reapplication is often impractical on a climb, so put on a heavy coating in the
morning, wear sun-protective clothes, and reapply when you can.
Generously apply sunscreen to all exposed skin, including the undersides
of your chin and nose and the insides of nostrils and ears. Few climbers
apply enough—follow the Australian adage “Slop it on!” Even if you are
wearing a hat, apply sunscreen to all exposed parts of your face and neck to
protect against reflection from snow or water. Apply sunscreen 20 minutes
before exposure to the sun, because it usually takes time to start working.
Sunscreen that migrates into the eyes from sweat stings relentlessly. Kids’
“no-tear” sunscreen is pH balanced to help prevent this problem and so some
climbers only use these products. Lips burn, too, and require protection to
prevent peeling and blisters. Reapply lip protection frequently, especially
after eating or drinking. When your sunscreen is past the expiration date or
more than three years old, replace it. (See Chapter 24, First Aid, for
information on sunburn and snow blindness.)

4. First Aid
Carry and know how to use a first-aid kit, but do not let the fact that you
have one give you a false sense of security. The best course of action is to
always take the steps necessary to avoid injury or sickness in the first place.
Chapter 24, First Aid, covers much more about first aid for climbers.
Training in wilderness first aid or wilderness first responder skills is
worthwhile. Most first-aid training is aimed at situations in urban or
industrial settings where trained personnel will respond quickly. In the
mountains, trained response may be hours—even days—away.
The first-aid kit should be compact and sturdy, with the contents wrapped
in waterproof packaging. Commercial first-aid kits are widely available,
though most are inadequate. A basic first-aid kit (see Table 24-1 in Chapter
24, First Aid) should include bandages, skin closures, gauze pads and
dressings, roller bandage or wrap, tape, antiseptic, blister prevention and
treatment supplies, nitrile gloves, tweezers, a needle, nonprescription
painkillers and anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal, and antihistamine tablets, a
topical antibiotic, and any important personal prescriptions, including an
EpiPen if you are allergic to bee or hornet venom.
Consider the length and nature of each trip in deciding what to add to the
basics of the first-aid kit. For a climbing expedition, consider bringing
appropriate prescription medicines.

5. Knife
Knives are so useful in first aid, food preparation, repairs, and climbing that
every party member needs to carry one, preferably with a leash to prevent
loss. In addition, a small repair kit can be indispensable. On a short trip,
many climbers carry a small multitool, as well as strong tape and a bit of
cordage. The list lengthens for more remote trips, and climbers carry an
imaginative variety of supplies depending on previously experienced—or
imagined—calamities. Supplies include other tools (pliers, screwdriver, awl,
scissors) that can be part of a knife or pocket tool or can be carried
separately—perhaps even as part of a group kit. Other useful repair items are
safety pins, needle and thread, wire, duct tape, nylon fabric repair tape, cable
ties, plastic buckles, cordage, webbing, and replacement parts for equipment
such as a water filter, tent poles, the stove, crampons, snowshoes, and skis.

6. Fire
Carry the means to start and sustain an emergency fire. Most climbers carry
a disposable butane lighter or two instead of matches. Either must be
absolutely reliable. Firestarters are indispensable for igniting wet wood
quickly to make an emergency campfire. Common useful fire-starters
include chemical heat tabs, cotton balls soaked in petroleum jelly, and
commercially prepared wood soaked in wax or chemicals. Alternatively, on
a high-altitude snow or glacier climb where firewood is nonexistent, it is
advisable to carry a stove as an additional emergency heat and water source.
(For more information on stoves, see Chapter 3, Camping, Food, and Water.)
7. Shelter
Carry some sort of emergency shelter (in addition to a rain shell) from rain
and wind, such as a plastic tube tent or a jumbo plastic trash bag. Single-use
bivy sacks made of heat-reflective polyethylene are an excellent option at
less than 4 ounces. “Emergency space blankets,” while cheap and
lightweight, are inadequate to the task of keeping out wind, rain, or snow
while retaining body heat. A tent can serve as the essential extra shelter only
if it stays with the climbing party at all times. A tent left behind in base
camp is not enough. Carry an insulated sleeping pad to reduce heat loss
while sitting or lying on snow or wet terrain.
Even on day trips, some climbers carry a regular bivy sack as part of their
survival gear. A bivy sack at about 1 pound (0.5 kilogram) protects
insulating clothing layers from the weather, minimizes the effects of wind,
and traps much of the heat escaping from your body inside its cocoon. (See
“Shelter” in Chapter 3, Camping, Food, and Water, for details on tents,
insulated pads, and bivy sacks.)

8. Extra Food
For shorter trips, a one-day supply of extra food is a reasonable emergency
stockpile in case foul weather, faulty navigation, injury, or other reasons
delay a climbing party. An expedition or long trek may require more, and on
a cold trip remember that food equals warmth. The food should require no
cooking, be easily digestible, and store well for long periods. A combination
of jerky, nuts, candy, granola, and dried fruit works well. If a stove is carried,
cocoa, dried soup, instant coffee, and tea can be added. Some climbers only
half-jokingly point out that exotic flavors of energy bars and US Army meals
ready to eat (MREs) serve well as emergency rations because no one is
tempted to eat them except in an emergency. And a few packets of instant
coffee can help a dedicated coffee drinker keep a clear head. (See more on
food in Chapter 3, Camping, Food, and Water.)

9. Extra Water
Carry sufficient water and have the skills and tools required to obtain and
purify additional water. Always carry at least one water bottle or hydration
bag or bladder. Wide-mouth containers are easier to refill. While hydration
bladders are designed to be stored in the pack and feature a plastic hose and
valve that allow drinking without slowing your pace, they are prone to
leaking and freezing, are notoriously hard to keep clean, and often lead
climbers to carry more water than they need to.

TABLE 2-5. SAMPLE EQUIPMENT LIST

All your gear does not go in your pack. Some you wear, some you leave in
the car (out of plain sight, of course), and some you leave at home,
depending on the adventure. Items with an asterisk (*) are optional,
depending on personal preference and the nature of the trip. Items within
brackets [ ] can be shared by a group. See various other chapters for details
on some of the gear on this list. Note: Because Essentials 1–7 are typically
small and change little from trip to trip, keep them grouped together and
ready to go.
ITEMS LEFT IN OR NEAR THE TRAILHEAD VEHICLE
Map, directions to trailhead, and weather forecast
*Refreshing drinks
*Spare key (hidden on the outside of the car or near the car)
*Pack scale (for checking pack weight at the start of the trip)
Extra water
*Fresh clothes for the drive home
ITEMS WORN OR CARRIED (assuming a cool morning to start,
dressed as in Figure 2-2a)
Day pack (day trips), or
Backpack (overnight)
Boots and *gaiters
Socks (synthetic or wool) and *liners
Brimmed hat
Base layer top
Long-sleeved shirt
*Base layer bottoms
*Underwear
*Shorts
Lightweight nylon pants (*zip-off legs)
Wristwatch altimeter
Trekking poles
 Keys to trailhead vehicle
PACKED GEAR FOR ALL TRIPS
THE TEN ESSENTIALS
1. Navigation: map, altimeter, compass, [GPS device: phone with GPS
app or dedicated GPS device], [PLB, satellite communicator, or
satellite phone], [extra batteries], [battery pack]
2. Headlamp: plus extra batteries
3. Sun protection: sunglasses, sun-protective clothes, and sunscreen
4. First aid: including foot care and insect repellent (if required)
5. Knife: plus repair kit
6. Fire: matches, lighter and tinder, or stove as appropriate
7. Shelter: carried at all times (can be lightweight emergency bivy)
8. Extra food: beyond minimum expectation
9. Extra water: beyond minimum expectation, or the means to purify
10. Extra clothes: beyond minimum expectation, as detailed below

CLOTHING
Garments that may be worn during the active portion of a climb as well as
“extra clothes” that could be needed to survive the long, inactive hours of an
unplanned bivouac. Choices depend on probable worst-case weather, thus
none are marked as optional:

Base layer:
Top and bottoms to wear while active
Extra dry set for camp and to wear while sleeping
Midlayers:
Synthetic shirts and pants
Synthetic fleece
Wool knit shirts
Double-weave softshell jacket
Double-weave softshell pants
Puffy jacket (synthetic, down, or “active insulation”)
Shell layers and belay jacket:
Wind shell jacket
Wind shell pants
Laminated softshell jacket
 Waterproof-breathable laminated softshell jacket
Hardshell jacket
Hardshell pants (rain pants)
Belay jacket
Head, hands, and feet:
Warm hat (synthetic or wool)
Warm hat (under-helmet)
Rain hat
Balaclava
Buff or neck tube (extra)
Leather gloves for belaying and rappelling
Gloves or mittens (extra)
Glove or mitten liners
Socks (extra)
Waterproof-breathable socks
Stream-crossing footwear
Gaiters: short, long, or expedition

OTHER (NONCLIMBING) GEAR

Lunch and/or snacks sufficient for the climb
Water (minimum 2 liters)
Toilet kit (toilet paper and blue bags), *trowel
*Insect repellent
*Local communication devices: whistle, walkie-talkie
*Spare eyeglasses
*Cup
*Nylon cord
*Camera
Battery backups for electronic gear
*Binoculars
*Bandanna
*Protective phone cover
BASIC CLIMBING GEAR FOR ALL CLIMBS
Helmet
Climbing harness
Personal anchor with locking carabiner
 Carabiners (including a large HMS locking carabiner or pearabiner)
Runners
Belay-rappel device
*Leather gloves for belaying and rappelling
Prusik slings
[Climbing rope]
*Approach shoes
ADDITIONAL ITEMS FOR AN OVERNIGHT TRIP
Sleeping bag and stuff sack
Sleeping pad
[Tent], [tarp], or *bivy sack
*[Ground cloth]
[Food]
[Water container(s)]
[Group first-aid kit]
[Group repair kit]
[Stove, fuel, and accessories]
[Pot(s) (and cleaning pad)]
Spoon
*Fork
*Bowl
*Toiletries
*Alarm clock or alarm watch
*Clothes to wear in camp and while sleeping
*Camp footwear
*Pack cover
ADDITIONAL GEAR FOR ROCK CLIMBS
[Rack: chocks, cams, etc.]
[Nut tool]
*Rock climbing shoes
*Chalk
*Athletic tape
ADDITIONAL GEAR FOR SNOW, GLACIER, OR WINTER
CLIMBS
CLIMBING
Ice axe
Chest sling or harness
Waist and foot prusik slings
Rescue pulley
[Pickets and ice screws]
Crampons adjusted to boots
*MICROspikes
*Powder baskets for trekking poles
ADDITIONAL WARM CLOTHES
Base layer: Consider heavier-weight top and bottom.
Midlayers: Consider additional and heavier-weight layers for insulation.
Shell layer: Consider sturdier or additional shell layers.
Belay jacket: increasingly important as the temperature drops. Consider
one for each climber (rather than shared).
Head, hands, and feet: consider taking more items that can work as a
system as well as backups.
Boots: Consider more-robust mountaineering boots.
OTHER GEAR
[Dedicated GPS device (extreme environments)]
[Spare sunglasses]
[Snow shovel]
*Snowshoes or *skis
*Avalanche transceiver
*Avalanche probes
*[Wands]
*[Snow saw]
*Hand and foot warmers
*Thermos bottle

Before starting on the trail, fill water containers from a reliable source. In
most environments, you need to have the ability to treat water—by filtering,
using purification chemicals, or boiling—from rivers, streams, lakes, and
other sources. In cold environments, you will need a stove, fuel, pot, and
lighter to melt snow. Daily water consumption varies greatly. For most
people, 1.5 to 3 quarts (approximately the same in liters) of water per day is
enough; in hot weather or at high altitudes, 6 quarts may not be enough. Plan
for enough water to accommodate additional requirements due to heat, cold,
altitude, exertion, or emergency. See “Water” in Chapter 3, Camping, Food,
and Water, for details on water sources and purification.

10. Extra Clothes

What extra clothes are necessary for an emergency beyond the basic
climbing garments used during the active portion of a climb? The term
“extra clothes” refers to additional layers that would be needed to survive the
long, inactive hours of an unplanned bivouac. Ask this question: What extra
clothes are needed to survive the night in my emergency shelter in the worst
conditions that could realistically be encountered on this trip?
An extra layer of long underwear can add warmth without adding much
weight. An extra hat or balaclava will provide more warmth for its weight
than any other article of clothing. For your feet, bring an extra pair of heavy
socks; for your hands, an extra pair of mittens. For winter and expedition
climbing in severe conditions, bring more insulation for your torso as well as
your legs. (See “Choosing a Cold-Weather Strategy” sidebar, earlier in this
chapter.)

OTHER IMPORTANT ITEMS

Many items in addition to the Ten Essentials are, of course, useful for
climbing. Every climber has an opinion and with experience all climbers
develop their own preferences. Think ahead. Take time periodically to
envision scenarios of possible accidents and unexpected circumstances,
including being separated from your party, lost and alone. What would you
do in those situations? What equipment would be necessary to be prepared?
What risks are you willing to accept?

Ice Axe
Indispensable for preventing or arresting falls on steep snow and glaciers, an
ice axe is very useful on snow-covered alpine trails and for traveling in steep
heather, scree, or brush; for crossing streams; and for digging sanitation
holes. (For details on ice axes and their uses, see Chapter 6, Wilderness
Travel, and Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing.)
Crampons and MICROspikes
While an ice axe is indispensable, especially for arresting a fall on steep
snow or ice, crampons help prevent a fall from occurring. On icy alpine
trails, MICROspikes—essentially “tire chains” for your boots—can prevent
an unintended triple axel into a tree. (See “Crampons” in Chapter 16, Snow
Travel and Climbing to learn more.)

Trekking Poles
Trekking poles help propel climbers uphill and brake on the way down. They
offer stability to cross streams and travel on snow or scree. They redistribute
effort across arms and legs, minimizing the peak loads on leg muscles to
increase overall endurance.
Some climbers shorten adjustable trekking poles slightly when traveling
uphill (fig. 2-10a) and lengthen them slightly when traveling downhill (fig.
2-10b). If you need to change their length quickly, for example, when
traversing uneven terrain, slide your uphill hand as far as necessary down the
shaft of the pole below the handle (fig. 2-10c). Using the wrist strap is a bit
counterintuitive. First, put your hand up through the strap and then grab both
the strap and pole grip so that the strap comfortably supports the wrist. To
scramble a short, steep section, let the poles dangle by the wrist straps. For a
longer stretch, collapse the poles and stow them in the pack. Some ultralight
tents use trekking poles in lieu of tent poles to save weight (see Chapter 3,
Camping, Food, and Water).

CHOOSING TREKKING POLES

Take these features into consideration when choosing trekking poles:
Grips. Foam or cork grips are designed for bare hands. Rubber grips
are for use with gloves but tend to cause blisters on bare hands.
Shafts. Aluminum poles tend to bend before they break. Carbon fiber
poles are lighter but more expensive and may fracture unexpectedly.
Shock absorbers. They add weight and cost, but some people prefer
them.
Baskets. Most poles come with small snow baskets, helpful also on
ground or rock where it’s easy to catch a pole tip. Larger baskets are
useful when the snow is soft.
Tips. Carbide steel withstands abrasion.
 Length. Most poles are adjustable using a locking mechanism; they
should be long enough to allow a 90-degree angle at the elbow when
standing on level ground. Poles should telescope or fold for easy
stowing inside the pack. Women’s trekking poles are shorter and have
smaller grips.
Locking mechanisms. Older designs primarily used twist-locks,
which were prone to slipping when weighted. External lever and
push-button locks are more secure and quicker to adjust in the field.
Folding poles use an internal cord to keep sections together and
tightly aligned.

Fig. 2-10. Using trekking poles while traveling: a, shorten poles to go uphill; b, lengthen poles to go
downhill; and c, slide hand down the uphill pole for quick changes as needed when scrambling in
uneven terrain.

Toilet Kit
A toilet kit might consist of paper, sanitary wipes, a small digging trowel,
“blue bags,” and hand sanitizer. Location and regulations will dictate
actions, but each climber needs to act responsibly to not allow human waste
to foul the wild spaces we all love. Typically, alpine areas lack toilet
facilities and so climbers must transfer all feces and toilet paper into blue
bags, and store them at the bottom of their packs. Alpine areas have no soil
to decompose feces or toilet paper, which if left behind foul the area for
decades. Lower-elevation sites may have sufficient soil to aid the
decomposition of feces, but few areas have sufficient capacity to decompose
toilet paper. Wipes are primarily made from polyester and do not
decompose. Climbers should always plan to remove toilet paper and wipes
for disposal at the end of the trip. (See “Managing Human Waste in the
Mountains” in Chapter 7, Leave No Trace, for proper disposal procedures.)

Insect Repellent
Some insects—mosquitoes, ticks, chiggers, biting flies, no-see-um gnats—
feast on the human body. In the United States in the past 20 years we have
seen a substantial increase in reported cases of mosquito-borne and tickborne
diseases. For winter trips or for snow climbs any time of year, insect
repellent may be unnecessary; for a lowelevation summer approach,
however, thwarting these pests may be essential. When traveling in areas in
the United States with disease-carrying mosquitoes (think Zika virus and
West Nile virus) or disease-carrying ticks (think Lyme disease and Rocky
Mountain spotted fever), take extra precautions to avoid being bitten and
infected. Internationally, the situation is more complicated and the risk of
malaria, Zika, and dengue loom large. In tropical areas, antimalaria
medications and bed-netting may be warranted.

CHOOSING A BUG DEFENSE STRATEGY

First, wear pants, long sleeves, et cetera, as a physical barrier.
Wear factory- or home-applied permethrin-treated clothes.
Apply insect repellent to clothes in the field.
Lastly, carefully apply the minimum needed insect repellent to skin.
 The first line of defense against voracious insects is covering up with
clothes heavy enough to provide a physical barrier, including gloves and
head nets in really buggy areas. In hot weather, long shirts and pants made of
netting may prove worthwhile.
The next defensive measure is wearing factory- or home-applied
permethrin-treated clothes as a chemical barrier and applying a spritz of
(non-permethrin) repellent (for example, picaridin) as needed in the field to
the outer layer of clothing—whether permethrin treated or not. A solid
application to hat and scarf helps protect the face. Pay particular attention to
socks as mosquitoes have an uncanny ability to target ankles. Finally,
carefully apply an appropriate insect repellent to exposed skin being
especially careful around the face. And know that sometimes the bugs win
the battle; retreating to a tent with a full bug screen may be the only way to
preserve sanity.
In the United States, insect repellents must be registered with the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and have solid evidence for all
safety and effectiveness claims (Table 2-6). There are currently only five
active ingredients with EPA registrations that claim to repel mosquitoes and
ticks for more than two hours: DEET, picaridin, permethrin, IR3535, and oil
of lemon eucalyptus. Botanical oils (citronella, soybean, lemongrass, cedar,
et cetera) are no better than minimally effective. Insect repellents come in
spray, liquid, cream, stick, and wipe forms and in various concentrations,
with sprays the only easy option for clothes. Treated wristbands, vitamin
supplements, garlic, and ultrasonic repellents are all equally ineffective.
Be extra bug-vigilant between dawn and dusk when bugs bite most.
Mosquitoes have trouble tracking targets in windy conditions so camp and
take breaks accordingly. When using sunscreen and repellent, first apply
sunscreen and allow it to dry. After it has dried, apply the repellent. To
minimize your attractiveness to insects (and bears!), avoid wearing
fragrances. In tick country—especially on days when you have been
thrashing through brush—check your clothes, body, and hair thoroughly at
night.
DEET. Developed in 1944 for the US Army, DEET entered civilian use in
1957 and it is still the gold standard against mosquitoes, although permethrin
and picaridin are solid competitors. One application of a repellent with a
high concentration or a controlled-release formula of DEET will keep
mosquitoes from biting for several hours, though they may still hover about
annoyingly. Be aware that DEET is a powerful chemical that can dissolve
plastics and synthetic fabrics. While products can be purchased in varying
concentrations up to 100 percent, a 30 percent concentration is safer and
likely sufficient. For multihour protection use a 30 percent concentration in a
time-release formula. DEET is not very effective at repelling biting flies.
Permethrin-treated clothes and picaridin repellents are better against
blackflies, deer flies, and gnats.
Permethrin. For long-lasting use on clothes only, never on skin,
permethrin is the synthetic chemical analog to the naturally occurring
chemical found in chrysanthemum flowers. It is the only insect repellent
registered for factory treatment of clothes. The amount of permethrin
allowed in clothes is very low and is poorly absorbed through the skin, so is
not a safety concern. The more members of the party that use permethrin-
treated clothes, the more effective it will be. Permethrin-treated clothes are
odorless and compatible with being sprayed with the other four repellents
listed here.
Picaridin (also known as Icaridin, KBR 3023, Bayrepel, and Saltidin).
Available in Europe since 2001 and first registered with the US EPA in 2005,
this odorless, nongreasy, non-plastic-melting repellent is preferred by many
to DEET. Picaridin is recommended to repel disease-carrying mosquitoes by
both the World Health Organization and the US Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention. The EPA allows claims for up to 14 hours for the 20 percent
concentration.
IR3535. According to the EPA, “IR3535 has been used as an insect
repellent in Europe for 20 years with no substantial adverse effects.”
Oil of lemon eucalyptus (also known as OLE and PMD). Commercially
available oil of lemon eucalyptus is chemically synthesized to mimic a
naturally occurring molecule similar to menthol. This ingredient is effective
against mosquitoes, ticks, biting flies, and gnats.

LOCAL COMMUNICATION DEVICES

The climbing party may need tools for communicating locally. Whistles,
avalanche transceivers, and walkie-talkies may facilitate communication
among a climbing party that finds itself spread out along the route or to
locate a lost or incapacitated member.
Whistle. A whistle’s shrill, penetrating blast greatly exceeds the range of
the human voice and can serve as a crude means of communication in
situations in which shouts for help cannot be heard—such as being trapped
in a crevasse or becoming separated from the party in fog, darkness, or thick
forest. Whistles prove much more useful if a climbing party designates
specific signals before the trip for “Where are you?,” “I’m here and OK,”
and “Help!” Three signals from any signaling device, repeated several times
in sequence, is universal for “SOS.”
Avalanche transceiver. Conditions may call for mountaineers to carry
avalanche transceivers, used to locate victims of a snowslide. See Chapter
16, Snow Travel and Climbing, for detailed instructions on using avalanche
transceivers.
Walkie-talkie or handheld two-way radio. The sounds of wind and
water and physical obstacles between the two ends of a climbing rope can
make communication difficult. Walkie-talkies can greatly ease
communication between climbing partners or between a climbing party and
base camp. Walkie-talkies include both family radio service (FRS) two-way
radios and handheld amateur “ham” radios. FRS radios are commonly used
by climbing parties for short-range communications (up to a few miles or
kilometers). Modern handheld amateur “ham” radios are inexpensive,
lightweight, and in some areas, can communicate worldwide through
“repeaters.” They are more complex than FRS radios. To be useful, all
walkie-talkies in the party must be set to operate at the same frequency.
Bring sufficient batteries. For summoning help in remote mountain areas,
walkie-talkies are generally not reliable. Carry a PLB, satellite
communicator, or satellite phone instead.
More tools. In the field, route markers can aid the return trip where the
party lacks redundant GPS capability, or otherwise mark dangers such as
crevasses. Remove route markers (such as glacier wands) after use to leave
no trace.

BATTERIES
An expanding list of backcountry electronics—including GPS devices,
satellite communicators, headlamps, walkie-talkies, and avalanche beacons
—run on batteries so battery type and size are part of the equipment
checklist. The standard batteries for most devices are 1.5 volt AA and AAA.
AA cells contain roughly twice the capacity of the smaller AAA at a similar
price. Batteries operate through chemical processes adversely affected by
cold temperatures; Table 2-7 compares overall performance of batteries at
low temperatures.

TIPS FOR USING ELECTRONIC DEVICES IN COLD

WEATHER
Use disposable lithium batteries where possible; bring extras.
Use your pockets and sleeping bag to keep electronics as warm as
possible.
Cycle batteries and backups through warm pockets.
 Alkaline batteries. Alkaline batteries are the most commonly available
general-purpose batteries. Their major problem is that voltage (hence,
brightness) drops significantly as they discharge. Cold temperatures
drastically accelerate this voltage drop, resulting in much shorter battery life.
Lithium batteries. Much longer lasting and lighter than alkaline, lithium
batteries also cost more. Voltage remains almost constant over their charge,
and efficiency at 0 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 18 degrees Celsius) is nearly
the same as at room temperature. The more powerful the electronic device,
the bigger the advantage lithium batteries have over alkalines. Cold
temperatures compound this advantage. For cold-weather trips, lithium
batteries are the clear choice for high-powered headlamps and other critical
devices such as the SPOT Messengers.
Rechargeable batteries. One popular strategy is to use rechargeables for
main batteries and disposable batteries as spares. Nickel–metal hydride
(NiMH) rechargeables have replaced the once common nickel-cadmium
(NiCd) in standard AA and AAA sizes, while lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries
are usually found in higher-voltage consumer electronics such as phones.
Caution: NiMH batteries tend to self-discharge rapidly in storage at
approximately 30 percent per month. Always start with a full charge.
Lithium-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries (not to be confused with
disposable lithium batteries) are the power plants inside phones, cameras,
and most battery packs (see below). Li-ion batteries are not yet available in
standard 1.5 volt AA and AAA sizes. Li-ion batteries perform well in cold
temperatures.
Portable battery packs. Based on Li-ion technology, battery packs are a
handy way to store additional power to recharge Li-ion-powered devices
such as phones and cameras. Their capacity is rated in milliamp hours
(mAh), with about 3000 mAh currently needed to recharge a cell phone.
Make sure they are fully charged at the start of each trip.
Solar panels. Affected by weather, length of day, and sun exposure, the
use of portable solar panels requires planning and attention. The higher a
panel’s wattage, the faster it charges. While panels can charge devices
directly, each passing cloud might interrupt the process. A more reliable
alternative is to charge an intermediate portable battery pack.
Regardless of your choice, make sure you start each trip with batteries
compatible with your headlamp and navigation tools, all with more than
sufficient charge to handle any reasonable emergency.
PREPARING FOR THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS
When you go into the wilderness, you should carry essential gear and leave
the rest at home. Achieving that balance takes knowledge and good
judgment. Understanding the basics of clothing and equipment will help you
decide on those essentials needed to be safe, dry, and comfortable in the
mountains. This is only the beginning of your discovery of the freedom of
the hills. The next chapter on camping, food, and water will further expand
your horizons.
THE SLEEPING SYSTEM • SELECTING A CAMPSITE • SNOW AND WINTER CAMPING •
STOVES • WATER • FOOD • “IT’S JUST CAMPING”

CHAPTER 3
CAMPING, FOOD, AND WATER
The art of alpine camping under the “starry firmament” allows us
to pass through primeval mountain locations. Camp offers the
restoration of warm food, shelter, and sleep, and the best campers
go stealthily through wild spaces, leaving no trace of their passing.
In the words of John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club, “. . .
standing alone on the mountain-top it is easy to realize that
whatever special nests we make . . . we all dwell in a house of one
room—the world with the firmament for its roof—and are sailing
the celestial spaces without leaving any track.”

THE SLEEPING SYSTEM

The sleeping system is what gets you through the night in the wilderness in
safety and comfort. The system has four components: sleeping clothes, a
sleeping bag, ground insulation, and shelter.

SLEEPING CLOTHES AND ACCESSORIES

Experienced climbers carefully guard a dry set of clothes to wear at camp and in
their sleeping bags, typically a spare base layer, warm hat, gloves, and dry
socks. Upon arriving at the evening’s camp, they’ll ditch the damp clothes from
the climb and don the dry, warding off the evening chill. Sleeping clothes, a
puffy coat, camp shoes, and a hot drink boost the revitalization process. In
addition, this reduces the moisture introduced into the sleeping bag and keeps
the bag clean. Since climbers cannot afford the weight of multiple sets of
clothes, while wearing their dry evening set they use any final sunshine to
attempt to dry out what will be tomorrow’s climbing clothes. Precipitation, of
course, complicates the evening procedure.
A few accessories can help climbers get a good night’s sleep. A small
inflatable pillow is especially useful for side sleepers. A conveniently placed
(and well-marked!) pee bottle can minimize the chill and hazard of nocturnal
excursions.

SLEEPING BAGS
A good sleeping bag fits your body, retains body heat, and is light and
compressible. For cold conditions, nothing beats the efficient mummy bag (fig.
3-1). A sleeping bag’s fill material traps an insulating layer of air between the
climber’s warm body and the external cooler air. A bag’s thermal efficiency
depends on each climber’s unique physiology; fit of the bag to the body; and the
type, amount, and loft (thickness) of the insulation.
Physiological factors. A sleeping bag only slows body heat’s inevitable
escape. Individuals vary considerably in their ability to generate heat and
tolerate cold, depending on muscle mass, age, and gender. Young, fit men
typically produce more body heat than older men and much more heat than
women. Experienced mountaineers and people who work outside may feel more
comfortable in cold environments than people who work in offices. Heavier
people often run warmer than slim people.
Fit. A sleeping bag that is too long or wide creates excess interior volume
that needs heating and adds unnecessary weight. Being too tight in any
dimension forces your body to compress the insulation, making the bag colder.
Choose a design that fits you well. Size the bag a little larger for winter camping
or expedition use; the extra room together with your convective body heat helps
dry small items such as wet gloves, socks, and boot liners. Use caution,
however, when trying to use your sleeping bag as a dryer: the excess moisture
can collect in the insulation, particularly on longer trips.
Fig. 3-1. Mountaineering mummy bag features and components.

THIEVES IN THE NIGHT

A sleeping bag and mattress or pad are used to prevent excessive heat loss.
As the night gets progressively colder, insulation is needed to balance heat
generation against thermal theft, which happens in all of the following
ways:
Warm air (convection). The body continually warms the air around it.
Clothes and sleeping bags trap this warm air, slowing its escape to the
atmosphere.
Breathing and sweat (respiration and evaporation). People lose about
a liter of water through breath and sweat every night. In colder
environments, the warm, moist air you breathe out can be a significant
form of heat loss.
Cold ground (conduction). Direct contact with cold ground also sucks
heat away from the body. Rock and snow are the most conductive
surfaces encountered in the wilderness; grass, dry dirt, and forest duff are
the least. Camping mattresses or pads help to insulate you from cold
ground; look for higher R-values for colder surfaces.
Radiant heat (infrared radiation). The night vision goggles of the
movies remind us that every living body has a heat signature from the
direct loss of heat through infrared radiation. Radiant heat represents up
to 10 percent of our heat loss, and recent innovations that use reflective
materials in insulating air mattresses and clothes capture and return some
of this heat.

Bag Rating Systems

Historically, a sleeping bag rating gave only rough guidance of the coldest
temperature at which an average person would stay warm through the night,
assuming use of long underwear, a hat, and an insulated pad. Now, many
sleeping bags—though not all, including some high-quality bags—are
independently rated under international standard ISO 23537 or EN13537. These
new standards do not apply to use by children or military personnel or in
extremely cold conditions.
Under the standard, each bag is assigned four temperature ratings:
1. Upper Limit: The highest temperature for a “standard man” to sleep
without sweating.
2. Comfort: The lowest temperature for a “standard woman” to have a
comfortable night’s sleep.
3. Lower Limit: The lowest temperature for a standard man to have a
comfortable night’s sleep.
4. Extreme: The survival rating for a standard woman.
Women and men should use the Comfort and Lower Limit ratings,
respectively, for choosing a sleeping bag. Table 3-1 offers rough seasonal
guidelines. For a three-season camping example, Table 3-1 gives a rough low
temperature of 15 degrees Fahrenheit; the average woman would want a bag
with a Comfort rating of 15 degrees Fahrenheit, and the average man would
want a bag with a Lower Limit rating of 15 degrees Fahrenheit.
Most of us are not “standard”; climbers must consider their personal
metabolism, body composition, and particularly any additional insulation that
they may wear in the sleeping bag. Other factors that affect warmth are the level
of hydration or fatigue, and the quality of shelter and ground insulation (see the
“Tips on Staying Warm in a Sleeping Bag” sidebar).

TABLE 3-1. SEASONAL GUIDELINES FOR SLEEPING BAGS

SEASON TEMPERATURE RANGE

Summer Above 40°F (above 4°C)

Three-season (spring, fall, and high altitudes 15° to 40°F (-9° to 4°C)
in summer)

Winter camping -10° to 15°F (-23° to -9°C)

Polar and extreme alpine Below -10°F (below -23°C)

Insulation, Fabric, and Environmental Factors
The two types of insulation for mountaineering sleeping bags are natural down
(goose or duck) and polyester fibers, each with advantages and disadvantages.
Both types can now be treated with durable water repellent (DWR) chemicals to
increase their hydrophobic properties. (See Chapter 2, Clothing and Equipment,
for a discussion of insulating fills and DWR.)
The nylon or polyester fabrics used in mountaineering sleeping bags are
tightly woven to keep the insulation in place. Waterproof-breathable fabrics are
expensive but advantageous in damp environments such as a snow cave or wet
tent; they are especially desirable with a down bag. Shell materials are treated
with DWR, giving the same advantages and limitations as when used in clothing
(see “Waterproof Fabrics” in Chapter 2 for details).
Any attempts to waterproof a sleeping bag, including using waterproof-
breathable materials, will decrease the bag’s ability to pass body moisture
through to the atmosphere. The trade-off is between the risk of external water—
rain, snow, tent condensation, dew—and the risk of significant perspiration and
damp clothing. In wet environments most climbers will want to use a bag with
synthetic insulation or waterproof-breathable fabrics.
Condensation dampness or dew is particularly insidious. As the evening’s air
cools, it releases moisture, condensing as dew, especially on cold objects. In
humid environments, avoiding dew in the evening as the temperature falls
toward the dew point is critical for sleeping bags and clothes. As the night air
cools, keep tents zipped (and thus slightly warmer), sleeping bags stuffed, and
clothes stowed away until bedtime to minimize dampness.

Features and Components

The features and components of a sleeping bag affect efficiency and ventilation
(see Figure 3-1). A close-fitting hood surrounds your head, retaining precious
heat while leaving your face uncovered for respiration. Collars that seal around
the neck and draft tubes along the length of the zipper further retain heat inside
the main body of the bag. Long zippers make it easy to get in and out of the bag
and help ventilate excess heat if the bag gets too warm. Some designs offer
complementary left- and right-hand zippers so that two bags can be zipped
together. Using a half- or three-quarter-length zipper saves weight and bulk but
sacrifices flexibility in ventilation.

Accessories
Washable sleeping bag liners add a few degrees of warmth and keep body oils
from soiling the bag’s interior and insulation. But bag liners add weight and
bulk, and the same objective can be accomplished with a clean, dry set of
multipurpose sleeping clothes.
Vapor-barrier liners (VBLs) are either a sleeping bag liner or a full multipiece
suit constructed of a waterproof-nonbreathable material. In frigid conditions and
especially on longer trips, VBLs can be used to protect clothing and sleeping
bag insulation from the degradation caused by perspiration condensing inside
the insulation. You sleep inside the VBL (typically wearing a base layer), inside
the sleeping bag. These liners reduce evaporative heat loss and the amount of
moisture (in arctic environments: ice) buildup within the sleeping bag’s
insulation. Clothing insulation, especially that worn on the hands and feet, can
be similarly protected. Test out a VBL before using it on an expedition; many
climbers find them awkward and clammy.

TIPS ON STAYING WARM IN A SLEEPING BAG

Eat well and stay hydrated. If you wake up cold, increase your
metabolism by drinking and eating.
Use proper ground insulation. A fully inflated pad or insulating air
mattress will maximize the insulation potential.
Wear dry clothes, including a base layer, hat or balaclava, gloves, and
dry socks.
Augment loft by wearing insulated clothes inside, or placing an
insulated jacket on top of the sleeping bag.
Place a leakproof bottle of hot liquid in the bag.
Use a pee bottle when nature calls to avoid getting cooled down from
stepping outside.
Change clothes inside the sleeping bag.

Most sleeping bags come with a semi-waterproof stuff sack for storage during
trips and a larger, breathable storage sack for storage between trips. In possibly
wet conditions, use a waterproof stuff sack or plastic bag. Use a compression
stuff sack to save pack space, especially with typically hard-to-compress
synthetic bags. Fleece-lined stuff sacks double as a pillow.

Specialty Bags
Some climbers prefer to go as light as possible, sacrificing a little comfort for
less weight. Used in conjunction with an insulating jacket, half- or three-quarter-
length bags can be adequate to just below freezing. Some ultralight enthusiasts
prefer a simple zipperless, hoodless quilt with down or polyester insulation.

Care and Cleaning

With a little care, a sleeping bag will last for many years.
Storage. Always store the bag fully lofted. Only keep the bag in a
compression stuff sack for short periods of time, for instance, while traveling or
when carrying it in a backpack.
Cleaning down and synthetic bags. Spot-clean soiled areas with soap
specified by the manufacturer, then wash in full, when needed. Never dry-clean
a down sleeping bag. Before washing, secure all zippers and snaps, and remove
detachable pieces. Bags with waterproof-breathable shells should be washed
inside out. Wash the bag with mild non-detergent (preferably down-specific)
soap on the gentle cycle in a large front-loading washing machine. Run the bag
through the rinse cycle several times to remove all soap. Re-treat the DWR
finish as required (see “Clothing Care” in Chapter 2, Clothing and Equipment)
while still wet, and dry the bag in a large clothes dryer using medium heat.
Remove the bag occasionally and break up clumps of down, or throw a few
tennis balls into the dryer. Squeeze the insulation to check for moisture.
Washing and drying a bag takes several hours. Some outdoor repair shops
specialize in laundering sleeping bags.

GROUND INSULATION
The foundation of a comfortable night in the outdoors is good insulation under
the sleeping bag. A sleeping pad reduces the amount of heat you lose to cold
ground or snow. If you are forced to sleep without a pad, use extra clothing,
your pack, climbing rope, or boots for padding and insulation.

Type
There are four common types of pads; for a comparison, see Table 3-2.
Closed-cell foam. Bulkier than pneumatic options, a thin pad of closed-cell
foam provides good lightweight insulation that cannot fail from a puncture.
Textured designs lend a softer sleeping surface, lower weight, and increased
ability to trap air, resulting in greater thermal efficiency. Some molded patterns
make for simple and compact storage.
 Self-inflating pad. The bulky, water-absorbing open-cell foam pad of long
ago evolved into the self-inflating pad, with Therm-a-Rest being the best-known
brand. The open-cell foam is enclosed in an airtight, waterproof chamber that
compresses well.

TABLE 3-2. CHOOSING GROUND INSULATION

GROUND TYPICAL TYPICAL USES

INSULATION R-VALUES

Closed-cell foam: R1.5, 2.7, Inexpensive and puncture-proof.

0.38 in., 0.63 in., 3.5 Multipurpose pads for sitting,
0.75 in. (1 cm, 1.5 dressing, cooking. Frequently
cm, 2 cm) combined with three-quarter-length
self-inflating pad or insulating air
mattress.

Self-inflating pad: R2–5 General-purpose insulating pad.

1.5 in.–2 in. (3.8–
5 cm)

Non-insulating air R1 Not appropriate for mountaineering

mattress except in mild weather.

Insulating air R2–5 General-purpose insulating mattress.

mattress

Non-insulating air mattress. A basic inflatable mattress provides plenty of

cushion to cover bumps, rocks, and roots. Non-insulating air mattresses are
typically compact, but the air in the mattress convects heat away from the body
by internal air circulation. Coupling non-insulating air and closed-cell foam
mattresses is an effective and inexpensive solution for colder weather.
Insulating air mattress. Modern versions of the air mattress employ
complex internal chambers and insulation to minimize air convection currents,
and they use radiant-heat-reflective materials to reflect infrared radiation back to
the sleeper. Once inflated, these lightweight, extremely small sleeping pads have
high warmth ratings, very useful on snow and ice. However, these mattresses
offer no insulation if punctured.
Size and Warmth
Self-inflating pads and insulating air mattresses come in various lengths, but a
shorter (4 feet, or 120 centimeters) size is usually adequate for general
mountaineering; you can use a smaller closed-cell foam sit pad (or items of
gear) to pad and insulate feet and legs. For greater insulation when camping on
snow or in winter or arctic environments, use a short, self-inflating pad on top of
a full-length closed-cell foam pad.
Pads are rated for warmth by R-value, a measure of thermal resistance. For
example, pads with a rating of R2.5 protect well down to about freezing; R4, to
about 15 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 10 degrees Celsius); and R5-plus, for colder
temperatures. Lower R-values are needed for sleeping on grass or dry forest duff
than for sleeping on wet ground, rock, and snow, which have relatively high
conductivity. Table 3-2 shows typical R-values and uses of ground insulation.

SHELTER
The seventh of the Ten Essentials, shelter is key to surviving a night in the
wilderness and usually means a tent, tarp, or bivy. If you are not carrying shelter
on a day trip, or will be away from shelter on the summit attempt, carry
emergency shelter that is sufficient for the entire party.
The most common and versatile mountain shelter, tents are relatively easy to
set up and provide rainproof privacy and refuge from wind or sun. They are
usable in almost any terrain, and are often roomy enough for people and their
gear. Tents usually are the first choice above timberline, on glaciers, in winter,
and in bear or mosquito country.
A lightweight alternative to tents, tarps can be used in conjunction with bivy
sacks to provide effective shelter from rain and sun. Bivy sacks also make great
lightweight emergency shelters.

SHELTER FROM THE STORM

Choose sleeping system components to keep you safe through the worst
likely conditions while allowing fast and light travel:
Sleeping clothes and equipment include a dry base layer, hat, gloves,
socks; pillow, water bottle, and perhaps a pee bottle.
Sleeping bag or ultralight quilt.
Ground insulation.
Shelter: tent, tarp, or bivy. Shelter left behind in base camp is not
enough.
 When selecting a tent or tarp, climbers must weigh protection (sturdiness and
coverage), weight, and space (fig. 3-2). There are trade-offs. Consider how and
where you will use the shelter as well as your personal preferences (see the
“Choosing a Tent” sidebar). Shelters come in many shapes and sizes (fig. 3-3).

Moisture Strategies
Tents serve two competing functions in managing moisture: keeping out as
much moisture as possible from the external environment while venting as
much moisture as possible from the interior. A single person exhales and
perspires a substantial amount of water overnight. If the tent were waterproof,
this water vapor would dampen sleeping bags and clothing. Therefore, the tent
must “breathe.”
Double-wall tents. Double-wall construction consists of an inner wall, which
is breathable, separated from an outer, detachable, waterproof rain fly. Exhaled
moisture and perspiration escape from the vented space between these two
layers. The fly of a mountaineering tent should come fairly close to the ground,
covering the tent and entryway and shedding wind-driven rain. Tent floors are
typically coated nylon with a sill, which extends up the sides. A higher sill
offers more protection from rain blown in under the fly; yet it also reduces the
amount of breathable fabric and can gather condensation. To avoid unnecessary
seams, the floor and sill are typically one continuous piece of fabric, commonly
known as a bathtub floor. All seams in the rain fly and floor should be factory-
taped to keep water out.

Fig. 3-2. When choosing a shelter, climbers consider weight, space, and protection (sturdiness and
coverage).
Fig. 3-3. Shelters come in many shapes and sizes: a, classic four-season dome tent (shown with rain fly
and tunnel-style vestibule); b, classic three-season tent (shown with rain fly rolled back); c, four-season
single-wall waterproof-breathable tent; d, fly and footprint only, without inner tent; e, ultralight single-
wall waterproof-nonbreathable tent using trekking poles for support; f, tarp with trekking poles for
support; g, lightweight bivy sack; h, hoop-style bivy sack.

Single-wall waterproof-breathable tents. Lightweight, rugged, and

expensive, these tents use just one layer of waterproof-breathable fabric (see
Chapter 2, Clothing and Equipment). The inside is a fuzzy, blotter-like facing
that holds and distributes excess moisture to assist its passage through the
fabric.
The great advantage of a single-wall tent is its light weight. The lightest two-
person version currently weighs 3.3 pounds (1.5 kilograms), and typical
versions, about 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms). They are also quieter in high winds
because there is no outer fly to flap against the tent walls. Their major
disadvantages are their price tags and tendency to collect moisture during warm,
wet weather.
Ultralight single-wall waterproof-nonbreathable tents. These tents trade
efficient breathability for lighter weights. Moisture management is
accomplished through vents.
 Tarps. Having no walls, tarps easily vent moisture. They are usually paired
with ground sheets. Tarp campers in marginal weather will often use an all-
weather “splash bivy” for additional protection. (See “Bivy Sacks,” below.)

Three- and Four-Season Tents

Tents for mountaineering are either three-season tents (for nonwinter use) or
four-season tents (for all situations, including snow camping). All-season
climbers often own both types and perhaps a tarp and bivy sack as well.
Three-season tents. The side or top panels of many three-season tents are
made with transparent netting, providing ventilation, bug protection, and lower
weight. However, blowing snow and condensation can come in through the
netting. Adequate for mountaineering in a wide variety of conditions from late
spring to early fall, they can be ideal for longer trips where weight is more of a
concern.

CHOOSING A TENT
Before purchasing a tent, try it out at the store to check space, protection,
and weight:
Space: Tents are rated for the number of sleepers, usually assuming no
gear inside and smaller, rather friendly climbers. Is there sufficient head
and foot room? How vertical are the walls? The steeper the walls, the
greater the interior usable space. Is it easy to go in and out of the door(s)?
Does each side have a door? How easy is the tent to set up?
Protection: Summer in the Sierra, autumn in the Alps, or winter in the
Cascades? Will the shelter need to withstand above-timberline wind or
heavy snowfall? A four-season tent implies more protection.
Weight: What does it really weigh? Break out the scale since
manufacturers are notoriously optimistic. With two-person, four-season
tents weighing from 3.3 to almost 10 pounds (1.5 to 4.5 kilograms), a
tent can be the heaviest piece of gear in the pack. Ultralight two-person
tents can weigh as little as 1.3 pounds (600 grams), and tarps, much less.
Tents often list a “minimum weight” (excluding stakes, stuff sacks,
instructions, et cetera), and a “packaged weight,” which includes
everything. Use “minimum weight” for comparisons.

Four-season tents. Usually heavier, more expensive, and built to withstand

winter conditions of high winds and snow loading, four-season tents have
higher-strength aluminum or carbon fiber poles and more-durable reinforcing.
The doors, windows, and vents have solid panels that zip, and the fly extends
close to the ground. Four-season tents often have more than two poles and a
greater emphasis on guylines. Usually, the tent shape is some variation on the
dome.
Ultralight tents. Often associated with long-distance hikers and moderate
weather, ultralight tents can be used by climbers in moderate conditions. They
are made of Dyneema Composite fabric (formerly known as Cuben Fiber) or
silnylon and may use trekking poles as tent poles to save weight. These designs
are not freestanding and so are less well suited to windy, wet alpine
environments.

Tent Design
Designers shape tents to maximize usable interior space, load-bearing strength,
and ability to withstand high winds, while at the same time minimizing a tent’s
weight. A great tent must be easy to pitch and disassemble but tenacious when
storms attempt to take it down. Mountaineering tents use a variety of clever
crisscrossing pole architectures to form various dome or tunnel shapes. Some
are freestanding and need no stakes to hold their shape. These can be picked up
and moved but must be secured with stakes and perhaps guylines to prevent
being blown away—a real danger in a storm, especially when unoccupied.
The two-person tent is the most popular tent size for mountaineering, offering
the greatest flexibility in weight and choice of campsite. For a group, it is
generally more versatile to bring two two-person tents rather than one larger
tent. Many two-person tents can handle three people in a pinch, yet are light
enough to be used by one person. The tent will be warmer, however, with more
than one occupant.
Some three- and four-person tents are light enough to be carried by two
people who crave luxurious living (or two large people who crave adequate
space). Larger tents, especially those high enough to stand in, are big morale
boosters during an expedition or long storm but are burdens to carry. Before you
set out, distribute the tent parts (tent, fly, poles, and stakes) among the party to
share the weight.

Tent Features
A good mountaineering tent keeps out most of the rain and snow as climbers get
in and out. Manufacturers offer many different features, such as extra doors,
interior pockets, gear loops, tunnels, alcoves, vestibules, and hoods. Of course,
most extra features add both weight and cost.
Vestibules. Four-season tents, and some three-season models, commonly
include a protruding floorless protected area known as a vestibule. Some
expedition rain flies come with their own poles for extending the vestibule area
(see Figure 3-3a). Vestibules help shelter the entrance and provide more room
for storing gear and boots, dressing, and cooking. In foul weather, cooking in
the tent vestibule is an art to be appreciated—carefully (see “Stove Safety” later
in this chapter). Some four-season tents provide two vestibules, allowing for
specialization (for example, cooking in one, boot storage in the other).
Vents. Vents near the ceiling that allow warm, moist air (which rises) to
escape are useful. Mosquito netting allows air to flow freely when the doors are
unzipped and will keep out rodents, reptiles, and bugs (see Figure 3-3b and e).
Color. Tent color is a matter of personal taste. Warm tent colors such as
yellow, orange, and red are cheerier if the party is stuck inside, and they make it
easier to spot camp from afar. On the other hand, subdued hues blend into the
landscape.
Go out a few times with a rented or borrowed tent and establish some
preferences before you buy.

Anchoring the Tent

Bring stakes designed to handle the terrain. In forest duff, short plastic or wire
stakes, such as those that come with most tents, are just fine. In rocky alpine
terrain, metal skewer-type stakes (fig. 3-4a) or sturdier plastic T-shaped stakes
(fig. 3-4b) may be required. In sand or snow, a broader surface area on the stake
will help (fig. 3-4c).
Stakes simply driven into snow in the normal fashion will pull out in heavy
wind and melt out during the day. Ice axes, skis, and trekking poles can make
solid anchors but cannot be used for anything else while they are securing the
tent. For extra security, tie the tent to an available rock or tree.
In snow, the best anchors are deadman anchors (fig. 3-5). These can be
stakes, stuff sacks packed with snow, metal plates called flukes made
specifically for this purpose, or even rocks or sticks, which you do not have to
dig up when breaking camp if the knots for the cords attached to them are above
the snow. First, tie the deadman to the tent guyline, or form a loop in the line
and slip the deadman into it. Dig a T-shaped trench at least 12 inches (30
centimeters) deep, with the long leg of the T facing the tent. Put the deadman
into the trench in the crossbar of the T, then pull the line taut, backfill the trench,
and stamp down the snow.
 Guylines can be kept taut with small plastic or metal tensioners (fig. 3-6a and
b) or with a simple taut-line hitch (fig. 3-6c).

Fig. 3-4. Tent stakes (note profile cross sections at upper right): a, skewer; b, T-shaped; c, snow or sand
stake.

Fig. 3-5. Deadman anchor: Dig a T-shaped trench about 12 inches (30 centimeters) deep, fasten the tent’s
guylines around the anchor, and place it in the trench’s crossbar. Pull the line taut to tension the tent.
Backfill the trench and stomp the snow to compact it over the anchor.
Fig. 3-6. Tensioning guylines: a, guyline with a tensioner device; b, close-up view of a tensioner; c, taut-
line hitch.

Tent Setup, Care, and Cleaning

When setting up or taking down a tent, push poles through the tent sleeves
rather than pulling them. Pulling can separate the pole sections and risk
breakage at the joints. A tent goes up quickly if members of the party are
familiar with the tent design.
To protect the tent floor from water, dirt, and abrasion, discourage people
from wearing boots inside the tent. Before packing up, turn the tent inside out
and shake it to clear out debris and remove condensation or rain. When not on
an ultralightweight trip, bring a tarp or ground cloth to protect the tent floor
from abrasion (tuck any excess underneath the tarp or cloth to avoid channeling
rainwater). Footprints—ground cloths shaped for a specific tent—can be
purchased from manufacturers or made from polyethylene fiber fabrics (such as
Tyvek) or another Lightweight, durable material. Fabric repair tape is a good
idea for the repair kit.
Tents last longer when carefully cleaned and air-dried after each trip. To clean
a tent, hose it off or hand wash it with mild soap and water. Scrub stains with a
sponge. Spot-clean any tree sap. Hang to dry.
 High temperatures and prolonged exposure to sun damage tent material, so do
not leave the tent set up for unnecessary periods of time. The damage from
ultraviolet light can ruin a rain fly in a single season of prolonged exposure. Do
not touch tent fabric just after applying DEET-based insect repellent to yourself;
the chemical can ruin fabric coatings.

TARPS
A tarp—lightweight and low cost—may offer adequate shelter from all but
extreme weather in lowland forests and among subalpine trees. Compared with
a tent, a tarp offers less protection from heat loss and wind and none at all from
insects or rodents. A tarp also requires ingenuity and some cooperation from the
landscape to set up (fig. 3-7). It may be a poor choice as the main shelter above
timberline unless you bring ice axes or trekking poles. A tarp shelter, however,
can be very helpful as a cooking and eating area in camp during inclement
weather. Avoid wrapping yourself in a tarp as if it were a blanket because
perspiration will condense inside the waterproof material.

Fig. 3-7. Improvised tarp shelters: a, A-frame using trekking pole and ice axes secured by a chock; b,
arrowhead using two lashed ice axes; c, dining fly with tree and trekking pole; d, using two trekking poles
and secured by a stake wedged between rocks; e, dining fly for kitchen in snow using skis, a stake, and a
trekking pole; f, tying off corners of a tarp that has no grommets or tie-off loops.

Plastic tarps are inexpensive but unsuitable for mountaineering. Coated nylon
or silnylon tarps are stronger and usually very lightweight. Tarps made of
Dyneema Composite fabric are the lightest available. Many tarps come with
reinforced grommets or tie-off loops for easy rigging. Alternatively, create
corner tie-in points using a bit of the tarp’s fabric wrapped around a small cone
or pebble from the campsite (fig. 3-7f). Bring lightweight cord, a few light
stakes, and use taut-line hitches (see Figure 3-6c) to string the tarp up.
Some manufacturers offer lightweight, floorless nylon tents and usually at
least one pole. Similarly, the rain fly of some double-wall tents can be set up
without the tent, serving as a freestanding lightweight shelter.

BIVY SACKS
A lightweight alternative to a tent, a bivy sack is a large fabric envelope with a
zipper entrance, typically with zippered mosquito netting. Bivy sacks provide
some insulative value and the moisture-management functions of a tent—
keeping out external moisture while venting internal water vapor. The bottom is
usually waterproof-coated nylon; the upper is either a waterproof-breathable or
weather-resistant material. Bivies come in three main types:
1. All-weather bivies are able to fully function as a shelter weighing from
about 1 to 2.5 pounds (about 0.5 to 1.1 kilograms).
2. Splash bivies are weather-resistant on the top, allowing them to be
extremely lightweight (as light as 6 ounces/180 grams) and breathable.
Intended for mild weather, they protect from splashing rain and snow drift
when used with tarps.

WHEN YOU GOTTA GO

Each climber needs to drink plenty of water during the climb to stay
hydrated and avoid fatigue. Finding a safe and private place to pee is more
difficult for women. Some are comfortable just undoing the quick-release
elastic leg loops at the back of their climbing harness and pulling down
their pants. Alternatively, commercially developed pee funnels allow
women to urinate through their pants fly while standing. Climbing parties
should allow climbers the time and opportunity to urinate on a regular basis
to avoid dehydration, embarrassment, and dangerous situations. As a
reminder for all climbers: do not remove your climbing harness and do not
untie from the rope unless you are in a safe situation.

THREE CARDINAL RULES FOR LEAVE NO TRACE

CAMPING
 1. Camp gently. Camp in established campsites or on durable surfaces
whenever possible. Research regulations and special issues for the areas
you intend to climb. Use a camp stove instead of building a fire. Wash
people and dishes well away from campsites and water sources.
2. Do not disturb. Leave flowers, rocks, and wildlife undisturbed by
“taking only pictures and leaving only footprints.” Keeping human food
from wildlife minimizes the chance of future unwanted human-animal
encounters.
3. Dispose of waste. Dispose of human waste properly, at least 200 feet (75
steps) away from water, trails, and campsites. In forest, dig a hole to
fully bury your poop. In the alpine, human waste must be packed out in
“blue bags” or WAG BAG waste bags (see Chapter 7, Leave No Trace).
Go stealthily and pack out all garbage and scraps of food.

3. Emergency bivies weigh so little, about 4 to 9 ounces (113 to 255 grams),

that each member of the climbing party can always carry one as an
emergency shelter.
Styles vary from spartan sacks (see Figure 3-3g) to minitents that may be
staked out and have a hoop to keep the fabric off the sleeper’s face (see Figure
3-3h). Bivies are typically designed for one person, two in an emergency.
A bivy can be used as primary shelter or carried only as an emergency shelter.
Test that the length and circumference can accommodate the sleeper, a fully
lofted sleeping bag, and ground insulation inside the bivy, as this is common
practice. In mild conditions, a bivy sack, with a tarp set up over it, offers good
protection at less weight than most tents. In wet conditions, a bivy sack inside a
tent will keep the sleeping bag dry no matter how damp the tent.

SELECTING A CAMPSITE
The ideal campsite has great views, a nearby water source, protection from the
elements, and flat space for tents and cooking. Some places have it all, but
selecting a campsite usually involves trade-offs. Climbers may deliberately walk
past an idyllic spot in the forest in favor of a cramped mountain ledge that puts
them closer to the summit.
Wind. Wind is a big consideration in choosing a campsite. In most areas,
prevailing winds tend to come from a particular direction. A ridge-top camp is
very exposed, and a notch or low point on a ridge is the windiest of all. Alpine
breezes can be capricious. An afternoon breeze blowing upslope may reverse at
night as heavy, chilled air rolls downslope from snowfields. Cold air flows
downward during settled weather, following valleys and collecting in
depressions. Thus, there is often a chilly breeze down a creek or dry wash and a
pool of cold air in a basin. Night air is often several degrees cooler near a river
or lake than on the knolls above.
Consider wind direction when pitching a tent. Pitching camp on the lee
(downwind) side of a clump of trees or rocks is often best. Facing the door into
the wind in good weather will distend the tent and minimize flapping. In stormy
conditions, pitch the tent door away from wind so rain and snow will not be
blown inside.
Location. Consider how changes in temperature or weather may affect the
campsite. For example, avoid camping in gullies or creek beds, which are
susceptible to flash floods during a thunderstorm. Consider that a river or stream
may rise if conditions change. The braided rivers in the Alaskan interior, for
example, often rise considerably due to increased glacial runoff as the day
warms up. In winter or in the high country, make sure the tent is clear of any
potential avalanche path or rockfall. If you camp under trees, look up to assess
the health of the branches.
Leave No Trace. After safety considerations, environmental impact is critical
in campsite selection. The more human traffic there is and the more fragile the
setting, the more careful climbers need to be (see “Three Cardinal Rules for
Leave No Trace Camping” sidebar). The detailed campsite discussion of
Chapter 7, Leave No Trace, can be summarized as follows:
Best choices: Established, fully impacted site; snow; or rock slab
Good choices: Sandy, gravelly, or dirt flat; or duff in deep forest
Poor choices: Grass-covered meadow, or plant-covered meadow above
timberline
Worst choice: Waterfront along lakes and streams
Bear country. Many wild areas visited by climbers are also home to bears,
and camping in bear country means thinking about how to avoid potential
conflict. Bears have powerful noses and can smell food from up to a mile away.
Consider this as you are setting up camp and choosing a campsite. In treeless
bear country, the target is to set up camp in a triangle configuration (fig. 3-8)
that is at least 100 yards (or meters) on each side. That distance is usually
impractical, but set the configuration points as far apart as feasible: one point of
the triangle that has good visibility in all directions is the cooking and eating
area; at another point, put storage of food, camp kitchen items (stove, pots,
scrubber, et cetera), and any other items with an aroma (such as toothpaste,
deodorant, lotions, and human waste); at the third, upwind point, establish the
tent site. Know that large animals such as bears and cougars are not known to
attack parties of four or more persons, so this may be a useful minimum group
size for extended trips in wilder areas—if everyone stays together. Make sure to
sleep in a tent rather than out in the open. Keep in mind that bear and cougar
attacks are extremely rare and fatalities much less frequent than fatalities from
snakes, lightning, or bees.

Fig. 3-8. Optimal campsite triangle for camping in bear habitat.

PROTECTING FOOD FROM ANIMALS

Do not leave food inside the tent. Bears, rodents, skunks, raccoons, birds, and
other animals can smell food and will tear or gnaw through plastic bags, stuff
sacks, and even packs. Ravens, crows, and jays can peck through mesh tent
windows; weasels can skillfully fiddle with zippers; other animals simply rip or
chew through the fabric, taking food, making a mess, and ruining your shelter.
The traditional solution was to suspend a stuff sack or pack from a line strung
between two trees. But stout, high branches are in short supply in the alpine, and
clever critters, ever fond of a free lunch, can thwart the cleverest of
contraptions. If a tree is your only option, try the Pacific Crest Trail (PCT)
method (fig. 3-9). Today’s land managers may provide steel-wire high lines,
poles, or metal food storage cabinets in popular backcountry camping areas, so
use them when available.
Fig. 3-9. The PCT method for hanging food: a, toss a line over a high, sturdy tree limb; b, attach food bag,
clipping the standing end of the rope back through the attachment carabiner; c, hoist the bag all the way
up, then, as high as you can reach, clove-hitch a stick to the lower line. Then lower the food bag, which
will move the stick upward until it jams against the carabiner.

Bear-resistant canisters and bags. Managers of numerous wilderness areas

in the western United States find that special bear-resistant, unbreakable plastic
food canisters (fig. 3-10a) are more effective than the traditional hanging food
bag. Canisters are bulky, however, and are heavier than nylon or plastic sacks.
In places with significant bear populations, land managers often loan or rent
these containers. Some areas require them and may assess significant fines on
the containerless. Lightweight collapsible bear bags such as the Ursack (fig. 3-
10b) are allowed in many areas as an alternative to rigid bear canisters. These
are made of “bulletproof” Spectra fabric advertised as being impervious to
bears; optional aluminum inserts help keep the food from being mashed.
Fig. 3-10. Bear-resistant containers: a, bear canister; b, Ursack. For the latter, cinch the bag tight, leaving
no gaps, and secure the cord with a surgeon’s knot (shown loose here for clarity).

Hiding a food cache in the wilderness is generally a poor practice that is

prohibited in some areas. Where allowed, use a bear-resistant container. When
animals get into an improperly protected cache they get in the habit of seeking
out people for food. If a bear or cougar becomes habituated to people’s
campsites as a food source, the animal may become a “problem animal” that
must be relocated or killed. Remember, a fed bear is a dead bear.

PREPARING A MEAL IN BEAR COUNTRY

When you prepare a meal, remove only the items for that meal, and bring them
to the cooking and eating site. Maintain a lookout during cooking and eating. If
a bear is ambling toward the group, quickly pack up the food.
At the end of the meal, wash up well with unscented soap to remove food
odors from people, clothes, and equipment. Dispose of cleaning water
downwind from the campsite and well away from water sources (see Chapter 7,
Leave No Trace). Return all the cooking equipment and leftover food to the
food storage site. Do not keep any food in the tent, and avoid bringing clothes
with food stains or cooking odors into the tent. When storing food to protect it
from animals, include such odorous objects as tooth-brushes, toothpaste, lotions,
used feminine-hygiene products, the garbage bag, and even Esbit fuel.

SNOW AND WINTER CAMPING

For successful winter camping, a good shelter, proper insulation, and the skills
to stay dry are essential. Tents are the preferred choice when weather conditions
are changing, with temperatures near the freezing point, as well as in terrain
with little snow, on short trips, or when camp must be set up quickly. If the sun
is out at midday, the inside of a tent can be 40 degrees Fahrenheit (20 degrees
Celsius) warmer than the outside air, allowing climbers to dry clothes or
sleeping bags. More exotic snow shelters such as snow caves and igloos require
more time, effort, and skill but may be stronger, more spacious, and even
warmer in very cold weather.

TOOLS
A mountaineering snow shovel is essential for preparing tent platforms, building
wind-blocking walls, digging emergency shelters, excavating climbers from
avalanche debris, and sometimes even for clearing climbing routes. In winter,
each party member should carry a shovel. For summer snow camping, take one
shovel per tent or rope team, with a minimum of two shovels per party.

Fig. 3-11. Snow tools: a, scoop-style shovel with T-shaped handle; b, scoop-style with L-shaped handle; c,
straight-bladed shovel with D-shaped handle; d, snow saw with blade guard.

Look for a lightweight shovel with a compact sectional or telescoping handle

and a sturdy aluminum blade for chopping into icy snow. The blade may be
scoop-shaped (fig. 3-11a and b), which makes it easier to move large volumes of
snow, or relatively straight-bladed (fig. 3-11c), which makes cutting snow
blocks easier. A D-shaped handle (see Figure 3-11c) or L- or T-shaped handles
(see Figure 3-11a and b) can provide leverage and a firm grip.
A snow saw (fig. 3-11d) is the best tool for cutting blocks to make an igloo, a
snow trench, or a wind-blocking snow wall around your tent (see Figure 3-12).

TENTS IN WINTER
Locate a winter camp away from hazards such as crevasses, avalanche paths,
and cornices. Observe the local wind patterns: A rock-hard or sculpted snow
surface indicates frequent wind, whereas an area with loose, powdery snow
indicates a lee slope where wind-transported snow is deposited. An area deep in
powdery snow may be protected from wind, but the tent may frequently have to
be cleared of snow. (For more, see Chapters 17, Avalanche Safety; 18, Glacier
Travel and Crevasse Rescue; and 27, The Cycle of Snow.)
Select a flat spot. Establish a tent platform by compacting an area large
enough to hold the tent and to allow for movement around it to check guylines
or clear snow. A straight-bladed shovel works well to flatten the tent site.
Tromping around on it with snowshoes will compact the surface. A ski does a
great job of grading it. Flatten and smooth the tent platform thoroughly to keep
occupants from sliding downslope and to avoid uncomfortable bumps that will
be cast in ice during the night. If the site is unlevel, sleep with your head toward
the high side. See “Anchoring the Tent” above for securing a tent in snow.
After pitching the tent, dig a pit about 1 foot (30 centimeters) deep in front of
the tent door (fig. 3-12). Climbers can then sit comfortably in the doorway to
put on boots and gaiters. In bad weather, the vestibule-protected pit is a
convenient, wind-protected location for the stove.
Stormy weather may require a snow wall around most mountaineering tents
to protect them from the wind and to avoid tent collapse (see Figure 3-12).
Don’t dig the floor of the tent down but stake it at snow level; a tent in a pit will
be buried faster by falling snow. Unless necessary, avoid fully surrounding the
tent or tents as this tends to trap drifting and falling snow. Build the wall in an
arc on the windward side with walls 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 meters) high. Blocks cut
by a snow saw or straight-bladed snow shovel make the easiest, quickest walls
and cut the wind more effectively than a rounded pile. Keep snow walls at least
as far from the tent as they are high: for example, a 3-foot-high wall should be
at least 3 feet away from the tent, because wind will quickly deposit snow on the
wall’s leeward side. Piling snow against the windward side of the wall
strengthens the blocks and helps minimize drifting on the leeward sides.
Fig. 3-12. Typical winter camp: snow walls and a tent placed with its door downwind, with a vestibule-
protected pit as a kitchen area.

During a storm, party members will periodically have to clear snow away
from the tops and sides of the tent. In most storms, the problem is drifting snow
not falling snow. Snow deposits develop on the leeward side of tents and snow
walls. Even a partially buried tent poses a risk of asphyxiation, especially if
stoves are used inside. Snow can load the tent enough to break poles and
collapse the tent. Shake the walls regularly and shovel out around the tent,
taking care to remove snow from below the lower edge of the fly so air can
flow. Be careful not to cut the tent with the shovel; nylon slices easily when
tensioned. In a severe or prolonged storm, a tent may begin to disappear
between neighboring snowdrifts, making it necessary to reestablish the tent on
top of the drifted snow.
Useful items for winter camping. These include a small whisk broom to
sweep snow from boots, packs, clothing, and the tent; a sponge for cleaning up
food and water spills, and removing interior condensation; an LED lantern for
cheer during long winter nights. For a larger community tent, a gas lantern can
repay its price in weight and bother by adding tremendous brightness and
warmth.
House rules for tent-bound hours. Having a few house rules in place makes
time spent tent-bound more pleasant. It often helps to have one person enter the
tent first to lay out sleeping pads and organize gear. Packs may have to be stored
outside a small tent; if your tent has vestibules, brush off all snow before
bringing packs inside. House rules may also dictate that boots be taken off
outside, brushed free of snow, and placed in a waterproof boot bag inside the
tent. Boots can tear holes in the tent floor. Mountaineering boots with removable
liners are a real advantage—leave the shells outside or in the vestibule and bring
the liners inside. Use stuff sacks to reduce clutter and protect personal gear. Put
dry clothing inside your sleeping bag or a waterproof sack so it does not get wet
from condensation.
 Sleeping bags also offer an opportunity to dry out gear. Add small items, such
as boot liners, gloves, and socks, to your bag before you go to sleep, and they
will be dry and warm in the morning. Do not attempt to dry large items of
clothing by wearing them to bed; they will just make you and the bag wet and
cold. In extreme cold, put boots inside an oversized stuff sack and place them
inside or next to the sleeping bag to keep them from freezing. To prevent a
water bottle from freezing or a compressed gas fuel canister from getting chilled
(and performing poorly at breakfast), place them inside the sleeping bag
overnight.

SNOW SHELTERS
When the temperature drops or winter storms bring strong winds and heavy
snowfall, seasoned mountaineers may prefer to sleep in a snow shelter rather
than a tent. A snow cave or an igloo takes more time to build, but either is more
secure than a tent and warmer in cold weather.
Construction time, effort, and the near certainty of getting wet during
construction are the major drawbacks of snow shelters. Among the different
types of snow shelters, snow trenches are relatively quick to complete, snow
caves take more time to build, and igloos are typically too complex and time
intensive to construct. Snow shelters require no special equipment other than a
snow shovel and perhaps a snow saw to cut blocks—but they do require skill.
Practice before committing to a trip that may need to rely on them.
Dripping water is a potential problem in any snow shelter. Body heat warms
the air, which rises to the ceiling, resulting in some melting. If the ceiling is
smooth, most of the meltwater will absorb into the snow. But little spikes and
bumps will become dripping points, so take the time to smooth the inner walls.
Finally, do not cook inside the snow shelter; inadequate ventilation may lead to
carbon monoxide poisoning.

IMPROVISE WITH NATURAL FEATURES

The best shelter in a snow environment is a four-season tent, and setting
one up is certainly quicker and easier than building a snow shelter.
However, knowing how to construct a snow shelter could prevent an
unplanned bivouac from becoming fatal. With a little improvisation,
natural features can convert into snow hideaways. Such shelters occur
under logs, along riverbanks, or in the pits or wells formed when the limbs
of large conifer trees deflect snow from the tree trunks. For a tree-well
shelter, enlarge the natural hole around the trunk and make a roof from any
 available covering, such as ice blocks, tree limbs, an emergency space
blanket, or a tarp.
Blocking the wind is often essential for survival. Boughs and bark can
insulate and support, but only cut live trees in an emergency. Make sure
your chosen location is not in the path of a potential avalanche (see
Chapter 17, Avalanche Safety).

Snow Trench
A snow trench can take only a half hour to build, making it suitable for bivouac
use as well as for spartan one- or two-person quarters. It is the simplest structure
to build out of snow blocks. Unlike a snow cave, a trench does not require
particular terrain features; it is appropriate for the flats or on an avalanche-safe
slope. However, the snow must be deep enough that the completed trench floor
still sits in snow.
To build a snow trench, establish an initial cut line 6 to 7 feet (about 2 meters)
long with either a straight-bladed shovel or a snow saw (fig. 3-13a). Dig a
narrow trench along this cut line by using the snow saw or shovel to quarry
snow blocks about 1 to 1.5 feet (40 centimeters) wide by 2 feet (60 centimeters)
long by 3 feet (90 centimeters) tall (fig. 3-13b). The blocks can be created as
part of the process of removing snow for the trench, or they can be quarried
nearby. Set each snow block aside carefully when it is removed from the quarry
—they will form the roof of the trench.
Once the trench area is large enough—2 feet (60 centimeters) wide by 6.5
feet (2 meters) long by 3 feet (90 centimeters) deep for one person—roof the
trench, A-frame style, with the snow blocks (fig. 3-13c). Close off the back with
another snow block. When the A-frame roof is in place, crawl underneath it into
the trench and enlarge the interior down and out to accommodate the intended
number of occupants. Build steps leading down into the trench. Provide a
ventilation hole in the roof. Use loose snow to caulk any gaps between roof
blocks and around the back. Smooth out any bumps or irregularities in the
ceiling so meltwater will run down the blocks to the sides rather than dripping
on the occupants. Cover most of the entrance with a pack wrapped inside a
plastic bag, but leave some space for ventilation. Cook outside of the trench.
Fig. 3-13. Building a snow trench: a, establish an initial cut line with straight-bladed shovel; b, quarry
snow blocks 1.5 feet wide by 2 feet long by 3 feet tall (40 by 60 by 90 centimeters); c, build an A-frame roof
with snow blocks, enlarge interior, provide ventilation hole in roof, and shield the door opening with a
large backpack.
Fig. 3-14. Basic snow trench roofed with a tarp.

A more basic, emergency snow trench shelter can be built by digging a trench
some 4 to 6 feet (1.2 to 2 meters) deep and large enough for the party to sleep
in. Stretch a tarp over the top and weigh the edges down with snow (fig. 3-14).
On a flat site, provide some slope to the tarp by building up the snow on one
side of the trench. This quick shelter works moderately well in wind or rain, but
a heavy snowfall can collapse the roof. As with all snow shelters, the smaller the
trench, the easier it is to keep warm.

Snow Cave
Snow caves are most suitable in locations where climbers can burrow into a
substantially snow-covered hillside. The snow must be deep enough to leave
about 2 feet (60 centimeters) of ceiling thickness. A strong and stable cave also
requires somewhat firm (consolidated) snow. Several people can shelter in one
snow cave. A well-built cave dug in firm snow is a very secure structure.
However, if the outside temperature is warming toward freezing, a tent or tree
well shelter may be a better choice. The collapse of a snow cave roof can cause
serious injury.
Find a short—7 feet (2 meters) tall at minimum—snow-drift or 30- to 40-
degree slope that is clear of any potential avalanche hazard (fig. 3-15a). It is
easier to dig the cave into a steep slope than a gentle slope. The snow must be
deep enough that you will not hit ground before you finish excavating the entire
cave. Dig an entry that is 1.5 feet (0.5 meter) wide and 5 feet (1.5 meters) high
(fig. 3-15b), and dig it into the slope about 3 feet (1 meter) deep. Then create a
temporary construction-debris exit slot by digging a waist-high platform
centered on the entryway, forming a T that is 4 feet (1.2 meters) wide by 1.5 feet
(0.5 meter) high (fig. 3-15c). Develop this platform so that it forms a horizontal
slot extending into the slope, allowing for easy snow removal. Shovel snow out
through the horizontal slot; a second person, working outside, can clear the
snow away.
Create the main room by digging inward and expanding the room to the front,
sides, and upward—all directions except down (fig. 3-15d). Keep digging until
all the snow within easy reach has been excavated. Extend the original entry
hallway another 2 feet (60 centimeters) into the slope, permitting the person
excavating to get farther into the cave to continue excavating outward and
upward (fig. 3-15e). Now it should be nearly possible to stand inside. Continue
to excavate, now out of the wind; when enough snow has been cleared to allow
the excavator to sit up on the floor, another person can enter and help continue
to expand the cave in all directions except downward.
Excavate until the inside dimensions are about 5 feet (1.5 meters) from front
to back by 7 feet (2 meters) wide and 3.5 feet (1 meter) high, a comfortable
minimum for two people. Make the cave larger for more occupants, but
remember that a small cave is warmer than a large one. Keep a minimum of 2
feet (60 centimeters) of firm snow on the slope above the cave ceiling (see
Figure 3-15g) to provide enough strength to keep the roof from collapsing.
Avoid building a flat ceiling. The more dome-shaped the contour, the stronger
the ceiling.
Fill in the temporary horizontal slot with snow blocks (fig. 3-15f); one large
block or two smaller blocks leaning against each other may be sufficient. Caulk
any spaces around the blocks with snow. The top of the completed entrance
tunnel should be at least 6 inches (15 centimeters) lower than the cave floor,
keeping warm air in the cave and cold drafts out (fig. 3-15g). Use snow blocks
to build a wind-screening wall on either side of the entry path.
Poke a pair of ski-pole-basket-sized ventilation holes through the cave ceiling
from the inside out (fig. 3-15h) to prevent asphyxiation. If it gets too warm
inside, enlarge these holes. Do not use a camp stove inside the cave—cook
outside in open air.
Smooth the domed ceiling so that it is free of any bumps or protrusions (fig.
3-15i); this way, melting water will flow down the walls of the cave instead of
dripping from bumps onto the occupants. Scratch a small ditch all around the
base of the wall to channel meltwater away from the floor. Place a ground sheet
on the floor—clear of the meltwater ditch—to help keep things dry and to
prevent equipment loss. Keep stormy weather out by putting a small tarp or a
pack (inside a plastic bag) over the entrance, but leave an opening for
ventilation. Mark the outside area around the cave with bamboo wands (fig. 3-
15j), so that someone does not inadvertently walk onto the roof.
 Customize the inside by digging small alcoves into the walls to store boots,
stoves, and cooking utensils or to hold candles for illuminating the cave at night
(fig. 3-15k). Digging the entrance tunnel deeper under the wind-screening snow
blocks will make entry easier. Entrance area seats, a cooking platform, and other
personal touches make the cave a snow home. Collapse the snow cave when you
leave the area so that it is not hazardous for others.

Igloo
If conditions are right, igloos are undeniably fun to build and use, but their
complex and time-intensive construction makes them impractical on most
mountaineering trips or in an emergency. A possible exception might be a long-
term base camp in a flat, remote area.

STOVES
Fire is the sixth Ten Essential, and for fire, mountaineers rely on stoves. Stoves
are faster, cleaner, and more convenient than campfires for backcountry travel.
They will operate under almost any conditions with minimal environmental
impact. Whatever stove and fuel you choose, practice using your stove at home
first. When choosing the right stove (fig. 3-16) for the next trip, consider four
key questions:
Petrol preference. Choose a fuel and then a stove for each adventure.
Canister fuel dominates today’s outdoor industry, but in some countries liquid or
alternative fuels (see Table 3-3) are sometimes easier to find or more suitable for
cold weather, high altitudes, or ultra lightweight travel.
Boil or simmer. Some stoves are tiny infernos optimized to boil water and
melt snow, while others are appropriate for more complex cooking. Consider
your cooking preferences when choosing your stove.
Windy weather. A wind of merely 5 miles per hour (8 kilometers per hour)
can double to triple the fuel consumption of an unprotected stove-on-top
canister stove. On all but short trips, there is little excess fuel. If you anticipate
windy conditions, consider a windproof canister stove system or a remote-fuel
stove. Remote-fuel stoves allow a full windscreen to protect the burner from the
heat-stealing wind while keeping the fuel reservoir safely away from the
inferno. If you are using a stove-on-top canister stove or personal cooking
canister system stove, shield the windward side with rocks or gear, but do not
encircle the stove with a windscreen or the trapped heat will have you serving a
Molotov cocktail.
Fig. 3-15. Building a snow cave:
a, choose location;
b, dig entry;
c, dig T-shaped slot;
d, dig inward, expanding up, left, and right;
e, expand to desired size;
f, fill in T-shaped slot;
g, consider the snow cave cross section;
h, create ventilation holes;
i, smooth ceiling and dig meltwater ditch;
j, mark cave perimeter and erect wind blocks;
k, create storage alcoves and deepen entryway.

Cooking for a crowd. For one or two climbers sharing a pot up to about 1.5
liters, stove-on-top and canister system stoves are best. Groups of four or more,
or those with substantial snow to melt, need a 2- to 5-liter pot paired with a
remote-fuel stove. These are low profile and therefore sufficiently stable for
larger pots. Canister system stoves currently can accommodate their specially
designed pots of up to 2.5 liters.

STOVE FUELS
Because the type of fuel drives the design and functionality of the stove, it is
helpful to learn about fuels before diving fully into stoves. Fuel for camp stoves
comes in several varieties, each with advantages and disadvantages. See Table
3-3 for a full comparison of fuel type advantages and disadvantages.
Canister fuel. These convenient canisters of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
are blends of isobutane, propane, and butane. As the self-sealing valve opens,
the pressure in the canister forces fuel out, eliminating both priming and
pumping. This makes the stoves they power popular and convenient—easy to
light, good flame control, immediate maximum heat output, and no chance of
fuel spills. But because the fuel is liquefied, cold and high altitude often hinder
stove performance. Butane canisters are the cheapest and work best in warm
weather. Purchase blends of isobutane and propane for reasonable performance
at high altitude and cold temperatures. Virtually all brands of threaded LPG
canisters are interchangeable but contain different gas blends.

CALCULATING CANISTER CONTENTS

To calculate the fuel remaining in a canister, do one of the following:
Shake and guess.
Float the canister in water (first burping the bottom concavity) and
compare the float line against a full canister (some have an index).
At home, weigh the canister on a kitchen scale and subtract the weight of
an empty canister to determine the remaining fuel. Write the percent of
fuel remaining on the side.
 Liquid fuels. White gas and kerosene used to be the most popular
mountaineering stove fuels in North America and Europe, respectively. These
fuels pack about the same heat output per ounce or gram as LPG and so are still
favored for expeditions due to their low cost, availability, ability to refill fuel
bottles, and performance in cold, high-altitude locations. Some stoves run only a
single type of liquid fuel. Multifuel stoves, with their ability to burn white gas,
kerosene, diesel, and others, are a good choice for international trips where fuel
availability is uncertain. Unleaded automobile gas can be used, but fuel
additives are prone to clogging stoves.
Alternative fuels. Suitable for ultralightweight cooking, solid fuels (Esbit or
hexamine fuel tablets) and alcohol are options when their slow heat output is not
hindered by bad weather or a need to melt snow or ice. These fuels’ lower heat
output makes for slow boil times but can be a good trade-off for the weight
savings in fuel and stove. Biofuel (used in small woodstoves) is a new category
that can make sense in places where it is responsible to burn small amounts of
available dry wood.

STOVE TYPES
Once climbers have chosen their preferred petroleum, they can choose from
among canister, liquid fuel, and alternative-fuel stove types.
Canister stoves. Simple LPG canister stoves come in two types. Stove-on-top
canister stoves (fig. 3-16a) simply screw onto the canister, which forms the
base. The Snow Peak GigaPower stove is an example. Very lightweight and
compact, they are susceptible to wind and prone to tipping over. Do not use a
full windscreen since that risks an explosion from superheating the canister.
Remote-fuel canister stoves are low-profile stoves that attach the canister to the
burner via a flexible hose (fig. 3-16b). They accommodate larger pots and are
compatible with full windscreens. Some remote-fuel canister stoves permit the
canister to be inverted to supply liquid fuel to the burner, improving
performance in cold weather.
Canister system stoves. These stoves also use compressed gas canisters, but
they up the ante with specially integrated pots with built-in heat exchangers to
capture as much of the stove’s heat as possible. These stoves are medium-
weight and compact, with the stove and fuel stowable within the pot. System
stoves come in two types. Windproof systems (fig. 3-16c) are extremely efficient
in calm air and remain almost as efficient in windy conditions. They do not need
a windscreen. If you can see the flame, the stove is not windproof. Personal
cooking systems (fig. 3-16d) are designed to allow cooking and eating from a
single pot but are susceptible to wind and incompatible with windscreens.
 TABLE 3-3. COMPARISON OF STOVE FUELS

FUEL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES BEST FOR

CANISTER FUELS

Blends of No priming or Spent canisters must Short, light trips

isobutane, pumping be carried out. Not under any
propane, and required. Near available conditions.
butane zero everywhere. Tricky Good at high
maintenance. to judge fuel level. altitudes if
Immediate Less efficient in cold temperatures are
maximum heat temperatures. above freezing
output. Ability or somewhat
to simmer on colder (with a
some models. pressure-
Readily regulated stove).
available in
North America,
Patagonia, the
Himalaya,
Pakistan,
Europe, and
South Africa.

LIQUID (PETROLEUM) FUELS

White gas or Widely available Stoves require Winter (very

naphtha (for and inexpensive. priming and are a bit cold) or high-
example, Stable stove heavier. Require elevation use.
Coleman designs. Simple separate fuel bottle. International
fuel, MSR to judge fuel Fuel spills possible. expeditions
fuel), level and pack Stoves require where fuel
kerosene, exact amounts. periodic availability is
diesel, jet No spent maintenance, unknown. Large
fuel, aviation canisters. tinkering (for groups.
gas, example, matching
unleaded jets to fuel).
automobile
gas

ALTERNATIVE FUELS

Esbit or Simple, Leaves a sticky Ultralightweight

hexamine ultralight, residue on the cooking on long
fuel tablets inexpensive bottom of pots. trips where
stoves. Fuel Smelly, expensive melting snow or
output not fuel. Lower heat ice is not
affected by output. required.
altitude.
Titanium
versions are
compatiblewith
burning wood.

Alcohol Simple Lowest heat output. Ultralightweight

(grain ultralight, cooking on long
alcohol 95%, inexpensive trips where
pure or stoves. Widely melting snow or
denatured available ice is not
alcohol, inexpensive required.
marine stove fuel.
fuel, liquid
fondue or
chafing dish
fuel, methyl
alcohol [for
example,
HEET
gasline
antifreezein
yellow
bottle])

Biofuel Free fuel that Dry wood is often Woodland

(used in does not have to not available in approaches in
alpine environments. dry weather.
 small be carried. Uses Burning wood is
woodstoves) minimal fuel. prohibited in many
areas.

Liquid fuel stoves. The classic Primus and Svea 123 stoves had refillable
liquid fuel reservoirs under the burner, but they have been replaced by a remote-
fuel design featuring a refillable fuel bottle connected to the burner by a flexible
hose (fig. 3-16e). The liquid fuel bottle must be pumped up to operating
pressure by hand each time the stove is lit, and periodically during use for full
heat output. Consequently, hand pumping a liquid fuel stove to full operating
pressure allows the user to compensate for cold and elevation, the curse of
canister-based stoves. Liquid fuel stoves are currently less efficient than canister
system stoves even though the two fuels pack about the same BTUs (kilojoules).

Fig. 3-16. Types of mountaineering stoves: a, stove-on-top canister stove; b, remote-fuel canister stove; c,
windproof canister system stove; d, personal cooking canister system stove; e, multifuel liquid fuel stove; f,
ultralight Esbit (solid fuel) stove; g, two alcohol stoves; h, biofuel stove.

Since liquid fuel bottles are refillable, there is no spent canister waste to take
back down the mountain. Some models run only on one type of fuel, white gas
(naphtha). Multifuel models, however, burn a wide variety of “petrol” found
around the world including white gas, kerosene, diesel, and even, in a pinch,
unleaded auto gas. Note that automobile gas has additives that can clog jets and
destroy rubber seals, and diesel fuels generally only work well in stoves
specifically engineered to run on diesel and fitted with the proper jets.
Hybrid-fuel stoves run off either liquid fuel or compressed gas canisters,
delivering the ease of canister fuels but switching easily over to liquid fuels for
longer trips, cold weather, and international use.
Alternative-fuel stoves. For ultralightweight cooking, Esbit (solid fuel)
stoves and alcohol stoves (fig. 3-16f and g), often constructed from bits of
aluminum, titanium, and beer cans, barely register on the weight scale. These
featherweights are sufficient for heating water for drinks and freeze-dried meals;
they are the standard for long-distance hikers, for example, on the Pacific Crest
Trail. They are not, however, powerful enough to efficiently melt snow and ice.
In their own category are the biofuel stoves (fig. 3-16h) that efficiently burn
available dry forest litter and small pieces of dead wood. Freedom from buying
or carrying fuel, combined with the ambience of a flickering flame, gives these
stoves a unique appeal. Some create electricity from the heat to recharge
electronics and run a fan on the flames.

Accessories
A few stove accessories can be quite helpful.
Windscreens. A full wraparound aluminum windscreen (fig. 3-17a) is
necessary for many stoves to be efficient. Never wrap a windscreen around any
canister stove unless you can exclude the canister from the windscreen, such as
with a remote-fuel stove. Using a windscreen incorrectly may superheat the
canister and cause it to explode.

Fig. 3-17. Stove accessories: a, windscreen; b, hanging kit; c, coffee press; d, liquid fuel stove maintenance
kit.
 Hanging kits. Stove-on-top canister stoves and canister system stoves are
somewhat prone to tipping. Hanging kits allow the entire stove and pot to hang
as an integral unit from a chain or wire (fig. 3-17b). They are primarily used for
big wall climbing and at high camp on expeditions.
Coffee press. Climbers who enjoy caffeine may consider a coffee press (fig.
3-7c), which is offered as an accesssory for some canister stoves.

STOVE OPERATION
A stove ignites when a spark or flame is applied to vaporized fuel at the burner.
While some stoves have integrated piezo ignitors, they are notoriously
unreliable. With most stoves, you must use matches or a lighter. In stormy
conditions, you may need waterproof or stormproof matches and/or several
disposable lighters. Keep matches and lighters dry; they may be the only path to
ignition.
Stoves can fail, often at inconvenient times. With more than two climbers,
bring a backup stove. Modern stoves are compact and lightweight, making the
added burden a reasonable trade-off and integral to having the eighth and ninth
Ten Essentials, “extra food” and “extra water.” In windy, dusty conditions,
debris can clog the jet and cause a stove to fail. Liquid fuel stoves are finicky.
Clean them regularly and rebuild them periodically, replacing seals and pump
cups and using a maintenance kit as necessary (fig. 3-17d). Read the
manufacturer’s instructions to learn what tools are needed and practice repairing
the stove at home.

TIPS FOR IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF CANISTER

STOVES
Use a windproof stove system.
Alternatively, use a remote-fuel stove that allows a liquid feed (upside-
down cartridge) mode. Wrap the windscreen around the pot, allowing
about a 1/2-inch (1- to 2-centimeter) gap.
Use a pressure-regulated stove.
Use isobutane fuel mixes and keep them warm in a sleeping bag or puffy
coat prior to use.
Insulate canisters from cold ground.
Keep a lid on the cook pot and don’t bother boiling unless necessary.
During use, the evaporating liquid chills the canister exterior, even
causing frost to form. To minimize a loss of pressure and performance,
 swap out cold canisters for warm ones or sit the canister in a bowl of
tepid (even warm) water during use.
Run the stove a bit below maximum for increased efficiency.

With canister stoves running in upright mode, the fuel is already vaporized, so
starting the stove is a simple matter of turning the regulating valve and lighting
the released fuel. In contrast, a liquid fuel stove must be “primed” by preheating
the generator tube. Using the stove’s valve, release a small amount of fuel (or
alcohol carried for the purpose) into the priming cup and light it, with the stove
off, thus preheating the generator tube. When the flame from the priming
process wanes, open the fuel regulator valve. The liquid fuel vaporizes as it
passes through the now hot generator tube toward the jet, and ignites from the
residual priming cup flame. Be aware of these pitfalls: Using too much fuel
prolongs the process and wastes fuel. Opening the regulator valve too soon may
cause a dangerous flare-up. Wait for the flame to subside but not go out.
Opening the regulator valve after the priming fuel has extinguished requires
quick, careful action with a match or lighter.

HOW MUCH FUEL?

To compute how much fuel is needed for a wilderness trip, consider the needs of
the party, type of stove, and type of fuel to compute the baseline. Fuel, like
water, is heavy, so it might be tempting to go light. Yet running short when an
open fire is not an option means cold food, and running short when snow is the
only source for drinking water puts the climb and climbers at risk. Taking
sufficient fuel is key to the success of any wilderness trip. Longer trips require
careful computation tempered by experience, as well as factoring in a cushion
for the unexpected.
For amounts of water needed per person, a good estimate is between 0.75 and
1 liter of hot water per meal and 3 liters of drinking water per day per climber.
Dividing the liters that need to be boiled by your type of stove’s efficiency
factor (Table 3-4) gives the baseline number of ounces of fuel required.
Remember that where snow and ice are the only sources of water, additional
fuel will be needed to melt water for normal drinking needs. This water will not
need to be brought to boiling unless boiling is needed for purification. However,
if it is not boiled, and the snow is anything other than newly fallen, it is prudent
to purify the water as you would using any other source (see “Water Treatment,”
later in this chapter).
 TIPS FOR MELTING SNOW
Increasing the temperature of snow or ice from the frozen state at 32
degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius) requires a surprising amount of
energy (fuel) to cause a “phase change” from solid to liquid. In fact, it
takes almost the same amount of energy to melt ice as it does to increase
the temperature from there all the way to boiling. Always start with some
liquid water in the pot to prevent overheating and improve heat transfer. To
save fuel, use liquid water for your boil whenever possible.

Adverse factors. Preparing for the trip, it’s critical to do the math, adding
into the equation adverse environmental factors. Baseline calculations assume
that you are starting with room temperature water (70 degrees Fahrenheit, 21
degrees Celsius) and heating that water to boiling in still air. Yet real-world
climbing conditions typically require heating cold water, or perhaps even snow,
at high elevations and often in windy weather. These adverse factors can
increase fuel consumption by many times the baseline For details, see Table 3-5,
Calculating Fuel for a Sample Trip.

TABLE 3-5. CALCULATING FUEL FOR A SAMPLE TRIP

WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR FOUR CLIMBERS FOR FIVE

DAYS
 A = Cooking water: boiling 2 liters per day = 40 liters

B = Drinking water: warming 3 liters per day to 70°F (21°C) = 60 liters

C = Total water = 100 liters

D = Stove efficiency factors: For each of the three stoves below, this
figure is 1.8, 2.5, and 1.6, respectively (as in Table 3-4).

FUEL NEEDED TO CANISTER WINDPROOF LIQUID

HEAT WATER STOVE- CANISTER FUEL
ON-TOP SYSTEM (white gas
and a
windscreen)
Baseline: Calculate as A 22 oz. 16 oz. 25 fl. oz.
÷D
Cold water: Calculate as 14 oz. 10 oz. 16 fl. oz.
C ÷ D x 25%
Snow or ice: Calculate as 56 oz. 40 oz. 63 fl. oz.
C ÷ D x 100%
Subtotal 92 oz. 66 oz. 104 fl. oz.

Windy conditions: Add 92 oz. 7 oz. 21 fl. oz.

100%, 10%, 20%
TOTAL 184 oz. (5.2 73 oz. (2.1 kg) 125 fl. oz. (2.6
kg) kg)

FUEL SHORTCUT

To calculate one climber’s fuel needs per day, divide the baseline and
adverse conditions by 20 person-days (four climbers for five days).

Baseline conditions 1.1 oz./day 0.8 oz./day 1.3 fl.

oz./day
Adverse conditions 9.2 oz./day 3.7 oz./day 6.3 fl.
above oz./day
 Notes: Totals exclude the weight of canisters or fuel bottles. Example
assumes conditions are just below freezing. Conditions significantly below
freezing would require additional fuel to heat the ice or snow up to freezing
before it can be melted. To convert ounces to grams, multiply by 28.3. To
convert fluid ounces to milliliters, multiply by 29.6. To convert milliliters to
grams, multiply by 66%–80% depending on the specific gravity of the type
of fuel used (fuels are lighter than water). The specific gravity of white gas
(70%) is used in this example. The fuel shortcut assumes a single climber is
starting with room temperature water for the baseline conditions, and snow
and wind as in the example above for adverse conditions.

The impact of wind on fuel consumption is highly stove dependent. Breezy

conditions can double or triple the fuel consumption of an unprotected stove-on-
top canister stove or a personal cooking system, and additional wind can prevent
boiling altogether. Stoves that allow a windscreen do much better, and
windproof stoves are almost unaffected. Temperatures substantially below
freezing require additional fuel to heat the snow or ice up to freezing.
Example fuel calculation. Table 3-5 details a step-by-step example
calculation for fuel needs for four climbers on a five-day trip. First, they will be
melting snow or ice and then boiling it to create 2 liters of cooking water each
per day (two meals at 0.75 to 1 liter per meal). “Cooking” is assumed to require
simply boiling water without simmering. They will also be melting snow or ice
for an additional 3 liters of drinking water each per day to “room temperature”
70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 degrees Celsius). These water requirements may be
insufficient, depending on conditions (see “Hydration” in Chapter 21,
Expedition Climbing).
The baseline calculation assumes “room temperature” water is heated to
boiling in windless conditions. Next, “adverse factors” will require additional
fuel on our example trip: snow or ice will be the water source and the stoves
will be exposed to an 8 mile-per-hour (13 kilometer-per-hour) wind. Heating
cold water (33 degrees Fahrenheit, 1 degree Celsius) to room temperature
requires an additional 25 percent fuel beyond the baseline. Melting snow or ice
to liquid, but still cold, requires an additional 100 percent fuel beyond the
baseline. The effect of wind on stoves can be dramatic but is highly stove
dependent. Following along with the math in Table 3-5 demonstrates that,
depending on stove type, this sample wilderness trip will require from 2.1 to 5.2
kilograms of fuel to sustain our climbers, before factoring in a cushion for the
unexpected.
LIQUID FUEL STORAGE
Carry extra white gas or kerosene in a metal bottle designed specifically for fuel
storage, with a screw top and rubber gasket. Plainly mark the fuel container to
distinguish it from other containers, such as water bottles, and stow it in a place
where any leaks will not contaminate food.
Leave about 1 inch (2–3 centimeters) of air space in the stove’s fuel reservoir,
rather than filling it to the brim, to prevent excessive pressure buildup. At the
end of the season, empty stoves of any fuel. Date any leftover fuel to be sure to
use it by the end of the next season. Aging fuel becomes gummy and prone to
clogging.

CONTAINER RECYCLING
Canister stove fuel containers are not refillable. But because they are made of
steel, when empty they are recyclable in many places after first punching
obvious holes in and flattening the container walls.

STOVE SAFETY
Tents have been blown up, equipment burned, and people injured by careless
stove use. Before lighting a stove, check fuel lines, valves, and connections for
leaks. Let stove cool completely before changing canisters or adding liquid fuel.
Change pressurized fuel canisters, and fill and start liquid fuel stoves, outside
the tent and away from other open flames.
Do not cook inside the tent unless it is so windy that the stove will not operate
outside or so cold that the cook risks hypothermia. The risks range from the
relatively minor one of spilling pots onto sleeping bags to the deadly dangers of
tent fires or carbon monoxide poisoning.
If it is absolutely necessary to cook inside a tent, follow these safety rules:
1. Light a liquid gas stove outside or near a tent opening so you can toss it
away if it flares; wait until it is running smoothly before putting a pot on
top.
2. Cook near the tent door or in the vestibule, for better ventilation and so
you can throw the stove outside quickly in an emergency.
3. Run stoves at a high setting to make sure as much of the fuel combusts as
possible. Colorless and odorless carbon monoxide is undetectable by
humans and is absorbed into the blood faster at high altitudes—provide
plenty of ventilation.
4. In subfreezing weather liquid petroleum fuel or alcohol can quickly freeze
skin. Avoid spilling fuel on yourself.
 5. Never use a full wraparound windscreen with any canister stove unless
you can exclude the canister from the windscreen, such as with a remote-
fuel stove. An incorrectly used windscreen risks an explosion from
superheating the canister.

WATER
Replenishing your water supply from wild sources requires tools and
knowledge. With the sustained exertion of mountaineering, dehydration can
cause fatigue, disorientation, and headaches. It becomes debilitating more
quickly than you might expect. Dehydration is a factor in several mountain
maladies, including acute mountain sickness (see “Hydration” in Chapter 21,
Expedition Climbing and “Dehydration” in Chapter 24, First Aid). Always
make plans so there is more than sufficient water on mountaineering adventures.
“Extra water” is ninth in the list of Ten Essentials.
To combat dehydration, drink more water than usual, perhaps 1 to 2 extra
liters, during the 24-hour period before a climb. Additionally, it is wise to drink
a cup or two of water immediately before beginning a climb. Skin and lungs
release large amounts of moisture into cold, dry, high-altitude mountain air.
Don’t ignore thirst, the body’s fine-tuned notification system. Monitor the color
of your urine: darker-than-normal color means dehydration. At high elevations,
dehydration can contribute to nausea that, ironically, reduces the desire to take
in fluids.
Keep water handy. Have a bottle within easy reach inside your pack or in a
pouch on the hip belt. Some climbers use a hydration bladder carried in their
pack, with a tube clipped to the shoulder strap for convenient sipping. Purify
drinking water to stay healthy and hydrated. Table 3-6 compares the advantages
and disadvantages of various water treatment methods.

TABLE 3-6. WATER TREATMENT SUMMARY

METHOD PURIFIES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

BOIL

Boiling Yes Simple method. Slow and

inconvenient.
Requires additional
 fuel, which adds
weight to pack.

FILTER

Purifier-Filter Yes Same Same advantages as

advantages as microfilter, except
microfilter, plus with regard to
effective against viruses. Possible
viruses cross-contamination
from hoses.

Microfilter No Quick. Clarifies May be bulky or

water making it heavy. May clog or
more palatable. break. River water
Very effective carrying dirt and
against sediment will clog
parasites, filter. Filter must be
protozoa, and protected from
bacteria. freezing. Ineffective
against viruses but
may be combined
with any chemical or
UV method to
purify. Possible
cross-contamination
from hoses.

CHEMICAL

Chlorine Dioxide Yes Taste of water Waiting time: drops

Drops or Tablets not altered require letting the
significantly. two chemicals mix
Lightweight and for 5 minutes plus 15
compact. to 30 minutes in the
Inexpensive. water; killing
cryptosporidium in
worst-case water
takes 4 hours.
 Tablets may be
difficult to dissolve
in cold water.

Electrochlorinators Yes Taste of water Requires device,

not altered batteries, and salt.
significantly. Waiting time: 15 to
Lightweight and 30 minutes in the
compact. water; killing
cryptosporidium in
worst-case water
takes 4 hours.

Chlorine or Iodine No Effective against Ineffective against

(halogens) all bacteria and cryptosporidium and
viruses. only somewhat
Lightweight and effective against
compact. giardia. Slow (1 hour
Inexpensive. for cold or cloudy
water). Disagreeable
taste unless cleared
afterward with
vitamin C. Persons
with active thyroid
disease should not
use iodine.

ULTRAVIOLET (UV) LIGHT

UV Light and Yes Taste of water Requires clear water

Microfilter not altered. from a microfilter
with pores no larger
than 0.2 microns.
Users cannot reliably
assess if water is
sufficiently clear that
a microfilter is not
needed (see “Water
Treatment,” below).
 Battery-operated,
fragile UV lamp.
The microfilter also
prevents some
bottle-thread and
stirring
contamination risks
that may otherwise
exist.

Notes: None of the above treatment methods are effective against chemicals,
heavy metals, or toxins. “Yes” in the “Purifies” column means effective
against all three classes of pathogens: parasites (including protozoa), bacteria,
and viruses.

SOURCES OF EXTRA WATER

Some climbs have abundant streams and snowfields to replenish water supplies,
but often the high peaks are bone dry or frozen solid, and the only water
available is what climbers carry with them or obtain by melting snow or ice. On
one-day climbs, the usual source is simply the tap at home. For most people, 1.5
to 3 liters of water per day is enough. Take more than you think is necessary.
During a tough three-day climb, each person might drink 6 quarts while hiking
and climbing, plus another 5 quarts in camp. At 2 pounds per US quart (or 1
kilogram per liter) that is too much to carry, so supplies must be replenished
from lakes, streams, and snow. Melt enough snow in the evening to fill all water
bottles and cooking pots.
 When the only water source along the trail is snow, pack it inside a water
bottle and place the bottle on the outside of your pack to melt the snow and
prevent any condensation from getting your pack’s contents wet. Start with a bit
of water in the bottle to hasten the melting time.
Try catching the drips from overhanging eaves of melting snow. Or find a
tongue of snow that is slowly melting into a trickle, dredge a depression below,
let the silt settle, and channel the resulting puddle into a container.
If you have sufficient sun and time, set out pots of snow to melt. Otherwise,
use the stove. Either way, get the snow from a “drinking snow” pit, well away
from the designated toilet and cleaning areas. The snow need not be boiled if it
will be otherwise purified, and with care, can be filtered directly from the pot as
it melts. A pot can burn if it contains only dry snow—add a little water to it. If
you are cooking in the tent vestibule, collect snow in a stuff sack before
bringing it inside.

PATHOGENS IN WATER
In the old days, there were few joys as supreme as naïvely drinking refreshing
alpine water right from the source. We still lack much data on water quality in
remote areas and although most of it may be pure, we purify it anyway. Animal
and human waste can contaminate water and older snow, and microscopic
organisms can survive freezing temperatures. Tainted snow melts, trickling and
percolating its way to cross-contaminate other snow a long distance away.
Purify melted snow just as if it were any other water source. Treat water to
guard against the three types of waterborne pathogens: parasites, bacteria, and
viruses.
Parasites. Larger parasites include amoebas, tapeworms, and flatworms.
Smaller parasites include single-cell protozoa such as Giardia lamblia
(“giardia”) and Cryptosporidium parvum (“crypto”), which are between 1 and
20 microns in size. (The period at the end of this sentence is roughly 500
microns.) Exposure to giardia and crypto are major health concerns for alpine
travelers. Both are found in backcountry waters worldwide, including all of
North America, but there is insufficient data to accurately assess frequency and
risk. The illnesses giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis take 2 to 20 days to manifest
themselves, with symptoms that include intense nausea, diarrhea, stomach
cramps, fever, headaches, flatulence, and belches that reek like rotten eggs.
Some parasites have tough cell walls that are resistant to chemical treatment.
But because of their larger size, they are easily filtered, and boiling kills them.
Another protozoa, cyclospora, which commonly contaminates water in Nepal
during spring and summer, is increasingly found in other areas, including North
America. About the same size as crypto and susceptible to the same chemicals,
it can be treated in the same way.
Bacteria. Mountain waters contain a wide range of bacteria, tiny living
organisms between 0.1 and 10 microns in size. Common harmful waterborne
bacteria include salmonella (incubation period 12–36 hours), Campylobacter
jejuni (incubation 3–5 days), and Escherichia coli, or E. coli, (incubation, 24–72
hours). In some parts of the world, water may contain bacteria that cause severe
illnesses such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid. Like viruses, most bacteria can
be effectively killed with chemicals. Bacteria are larger than viruses, and so they
can be removed more easily with the proper filters. Boiling kills all bacteria.
Viruses. Viruses such as hepatitis A, rotavirus, enterovirus, and norovirus are
exceptionally tiny specks of DNA that cause diseases that can be contracted by
drinking contaminated water. Viruses are narrowly species-specific, and
therefore human viruses are spread by human waste. Although wilderness
waters in North America are usually free of human viruses, the risk comes from
human traffic and waste handling, so it never hurts to treat against them. Every
year people get sick from viruses in heavily used lakes. Viruses are easily killed
with chemical treatment but are too tiny to be removed by most filters. Boiling
kills viruses.
Table 3-7 summarizes the ability of the major water purification methods to
eliminate human pathogens from water sources in the wilderness.

WATER TREATMENT
The principal methods of backcountry water treatment are boiling, filtering, and
chemical treatment. No single method is best for every situation. Before using
any of these treatment methods, strain water containing sediment or debris
through a cloth, paper coffee filter, or paper towel to remove the bulk of the
organics. Filtering, chemical disinfecting, and even UV light work more
efficiently if the water source has been prefiltered in this way. (See “Additional
Water Treatment Considerations,” below.)

Boiling
Boiling, the surefire method of water purification, kills all waterborne
pathogens. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
recommends bringing water to a rolling boil and maintaining the boil for 1
minute, or 3 minutes above 6,500 feet (2,000 meters). Other reliable sources
state that simply bringing water to a boil is sufficient, even at elevations as high
as Everest Base Camp.
Filtering
Water filters (fig. 3-18) are relatively quick and easy to use and create clear,
palatable water. Look for a model that is compact and lightweight and is easy to
use, clean, and maintain in the field. Filters come in many gravity-fed and pump
formats. Water passes through a hollow-fiber membrane or porous ceramic filter
to separate parasites, bacteria, and sometimes viruses. This microscopic strainer
collects the pathogens, still alive, on its surface. There is a risk of cross-
contamination from the two hoses; be careful handling them. Follow the
manufacturer’s instructions to periodically clean the filter by backflushing,
scrubbing, boiling, and/or chemical disinfection.

ESSENTIAL WATER TIPS

Always carry some method to treat water for 3 drinking. Chlorine
dioxide is reliable, lightweight, cheap, and compact.
There is no strong evidence that North American wilderness waters
unsafe for consumption are pervasive. This is especially true in remote
high-elevation areas without signs of human or animal activity.
Maintain good hand hygiene to avoid the common “fecal-oral” route to
illness.

Microfilters. The effectiveness of microfilters to remove parasites and

bacteria depends on the filter’s pore size. Manufacturers describe filter pore size
in various ways, so look for an “absolute” pore size that is 0.2 microns or less.
However, even at the smallest pore size, microfilters do not remove viruses. To
guard against viruses, use a purifier-filter instead, or post-treat the water with
UV light or any of the chemical disinfectants below. Tannins, dissolved sticky
tea-colored solids, clog filters and can be impossible to remove so backflush
often.
Purifier-filters. Purifier-filters are also effective against the exceedingly tiny
virus. Purifier-filters work either by physical filtration or by the process of
“adsorption.” Physical filtration is the method currently used by only a few
filters on the market, which use hollow-fiber membrane technology. This filter
needs to be replaced when it becomes difficult to pump, a sign that the filter is
clogged. Adsorption-based purifier-filters force viruses to cleave to a special
material. However, they are difficult to monitor for ongoing effectiveness.
Depending on how much water and how dirty the water passing through is, the
useful life of this material is often very short, silently ending when the cleaving
sites are full, with no indication to the consumer.
Chemical Disinfecting
After adding chemical disinfectants to water, loosen the bottle lid and slosh a bit
of the treated water onto the threads around the bottle’s top and the cap to
eliminate any bugs lurking there. Note that microfilters with a carbon element
will eliminate most of the chemical taste from chemically treated water, but you
must wait the full time before filtering.
Chlorine dioxide. Water treatment using chlorine dioxide (not to be confused
with chlorine) is the most effective of the chemical treatments. Chlorine dioxide
is available in tablet or two-part liquid formats. The tablets are simply added to
the water. Liquid chlorine dioxide is mixed with phosphoric acid 5 minutes
before use, turning from clear to bright yellow. The treated water is ready after a
wait period.
Electrochlorinators. These battery-driven devices (e.g., MIOX) use a salt
solution to create mixed oxidants, primarily chlorine. These systems can purify
water with a 15-to 30-minute wait; for crypto, wait four hours. Follow the
manufacturer’s instructions carefully.
Chlorine and iodine. These two chemicals are equally effective against all
bacteria and all viruses but unreliable against parasites and protozoa (see Table
3-7). They are somewhat effective against giardia but not effective against
crypto. Both are halogens; another halogen, bromine, is used on navy ships but
impractical for backcountry travel. Chlorine (not to be confused with the
fundamentally different chlorine dioxide above) is available as house-hold
bleach, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, or troclosene sodium tablets. Iodine is
available as tablets, drops, or crystals. Adding vitamin C will help eliminate any
bad taste, but wait until the disinfection process is complete.

UV Light
Municipal water systems widely use UV light, but backcountry versions are
fragile, battery-operated UV lamps. Even clear-looking water can contain
enough particles (“turbidity”) to shield pathogens from UV light. Users cannot
reliably assess turbidity. If water is marginal or dirty, one manufacturer
recommends prefiltering with a third-party 0.2-micron filter—not a coarse
prefilter with a pore size of well more than 0.2 microns. A microfilter combined
with a chemical treatment costs less.

Additional Water Treatment Considerations

For water treatment, consider these conditions.
 Cold water, freezing temperatures, snow, and ice. Cold water slows the
processes of chemical treatment so longer contact time is needed. Other
methods are not affected. Freezing temperatures can destroy water filters in a
manner difficult to detect, especially hollow fiber membranes. Pump filters dry
and place in a sleeping bag at night. Freshly fallen snow can be considered pure
but deciding whether to purify melted snow or ice requires a judgment call,
since giardia, crypto, and many bacteria can survive freezing. Avoid drinking
the pinkish “water-melon snow” found in older snow banks (from an algae). It
can be a laxative.
Turbidity. Organic turbidity (suspended organic solids) creates a “demand,”
which depletes chemical disinfectants faster than in clear water. Use additional
chemical. Organic turbidity can also clog filters. Inorganic turbidity (for
example, glacial silt) creates “hiding places” for pathogens from UV light. It can
also clog filters. If not removed by filtering, glacial silt acts as a laxative.
Reduce turbidity significantly by prefiltering with a coffee filter, using a
chemical flocculant, or waiting for the solids to settle.

Fig. 3-18. Water filter: a, pump water filter attached directly to water bottle, with prefilter at hose intake
end (this particular model offers two-hose continuous self-cleaning); b, gravity-fed water filter hanging
from a tree limb. Speed up filtration by keeping the dirty water bag as high as possible and the clean bag
as low as possible.

Water storage and dirty hands. Water storage bottles, bags, and hydration
devices can easily become contaminated from dirty water or hands. Disinfect
with any of the above chemical water treatment methods, bleach, or very hot
water. Use only purified water for dishwashing and brushing teeth.
Thoroughly wash hands before handling food. If hand washing is impractical,
scrub hand grime with river or lake sand and then clean with hand sanitizer gel
or wipes. Backcountry health issues attributed to drinking wilderness water are
often caused by fecal-oral contamination from poor hand sanitation.
Chemicals and toxins. None of the treatment methods described above are
effective against chemicals or toxins including agricultural runoff (pesticides,
herbicides) and industrial runoff (mine tailings, heavy metals). Filters with an
activated carbon element offer limited protection. If you’re suspicious, move on.

FOOD
Your body needs a variety of foods to tackle a strenuous, demanding activity
like mountaineering. With planning, it is possible to choose foods that keep
well, are lightweight, and meet all nutritional needs. The longer the trip, the
more variable and complex the menu must be. And if the food does not taste
good, no one will eat it. If fueling your body quickly and simply is the first aim
of alpine cuisine, enjoying your meals is a worthy secondary goal.
Most climbing expeditions plan on providing roughly 4,000 to 5,000 calories
a day for each climber. Energy expenditure on a climb can reach as high as
6,000 calories per day, possibly even higher for larger folks. In comparison,
most people require only about 1,500 to 2,500 calories per day when living a
sedentary life. Adequate caloric intake is essential for climbers. Determine what
food intake plan is best, depending on the demands of the trip and your own
size, weight, metabolic rate, and level of conditioning. Never engage in calorie
restriction (dieting) during a mountaineering trip, for this will interfere with
performance and stamina, possibly putting extra demands on others.

COMPOSITION OF FOODS
For the human body to function well, the mountaineer should eat from all three
basic food components—carbohydrates (sugars and starch), protein, and fats.
The proper proportions are widely debated.
Carbohydrates. The easiest food for the body to convert into energy,
carbohydrates should constitute most of the calories. Think of carbohydrates as
the main “fuel food” to keep your body functioning most efficiently. Good
sources of carbohydrate starch include whole grains, rice, potatoes, cereals,
pasta, bread, crackers, and granola bars. Sugars can be supplied not only by
honey or granulated sugar but also by fruit (fresh or dried), jam, hot cocoa,
energy gels, and drink mixes.
Protein. The daily requirement for proteins is nearly constant regardless of
type or level of activity. The body cannot store protein, so once it has met its
protein requirement, the excess is either converted to energy or stored as fat.
High-protein foods include cheese, peanut butter, nuts, dried meat, canned or
vacuum-packed meats and fish, beans, tofu, powdered milk and eggs, and foil-
packaged meals containing meat or cheese.
Fats. Because fats pack more than twice as many calories per gram as protein
or carbohydrates, they are an important energy source. Fats are digested more
slowly than carbohydrates or protein, so they help keep you satisfied longer.
This is useful, for example, for staying warm on cold nights. Fats occur
naturally in small amounts in vegetables, grains, and beans, and when these are
combined with fish, meat, or poultry, the body’s requirements for fat are easily
met. High-fat foods include butter, margarine, nut butters, nuts, salami, beef
jerky, sardines, oils, eggs, seeds, and cheese.
The better a climber’s condition, the more efficiently food and water will
provide energy during heavy exercise. Many people find that foods high in fat
are more difficult to digest during strenuous exercise. One reliable approach is
to eat mainly carbohydrates during the day and replenish calorie stores by
adding fats and protein to the evening meal. A bedtime snack high in slower-
burning food fuel may help keep you warm.
To fuel working muscles, steadily consume carbohydrates and water
beginning one to two hours into the climb. The carbohydrate source can be solid
food or a prepared beverage. A well-balanced diet replaces most electrolytes
that are lost during heavy sweating. Nevertheless, some climbers like to use
“high-performance” sports drinks (often diluted) to replace water,
carbohydrates, and electrolytes simultaneously. Try these preparations at home,
however, before relying on them in the mountains.

FOOD PLANNING AND PACKAGING

As a rough guideline, provide 1.5 to 2.5 pounds (0.7 to 1.1 kilograms) or 2,500
to 4,500 calories of food per person per day. This will vary based on conditions,
exertion, and metabolism. Keep in mind that “extra food” is the eighth Ten
Essential, but don’t get weighed down by excess provisions.
On very short trips, climbers can carry sandwiches, fresh fruit and vegetables,
and just about anything else. Taking only cold, ready-to-eat food saves the
weight of stove, fuel, and cook pots, a good idea for lightweight bivouacs. In
nasty weather, this approach allows you to retreat directly to the tent without the
hassle of cooking. Use firm bread, rolls, or bagels for a sandwich that will stand
up to packing. Leave out mayonnaise and other ingredients that spoil easily.
For trips of two or three days—or longer, if base camp is close to the road—
any food from the grocery store is fair game. For longer trips, food planning
becomes more complicated and food weight more critical. Freeze-dried food is
compact, lightweight, and easy to prepare but is relatively expensive. Outdoor
stores carry a large selection of freeze-dried foods, including main courses,
vegetables, soups, breakfasts, and desserts. Some require little or no cooking;
just add hot water, let it soak for a while, and eat from the package. Others
require cooking in a pot.
With access to a food dehydrator, climbers can enjoy a more varied menu at
substantial savings. Simple and nutritious mountaineering foods can be made
from dried fruit, vegetables, and meat. Dehydrated produce can be eaten as is or
added as an ingredient to a cooked dish. Fruit leather is easy to prepare with a
dehydrator. Sauces are too: dry spaghetti sauce to serve with angel-hair pasta
(which is thin and cooks quickly). Many dehydrated foods simply require
rehydration.
Vacuum sealing provides even more variety. Dehydrate the food first, then
seal it. This process removes all air from the food package, reducing spoilage.
A small kitchen scale is useful for precise planning and packaging of food.
Transfer food from bulky packaging into resealable plastic bags or other
lightweight containers. Enclose identifying labels and cooking instructions, or
write this information on the outside of the bag with a permanent marker.
Ingredient or meal packages can be placed inside larger bags labeled in broad
categories, such as “breakfast,” “dinner,” or “drinks.”

Groups
Because meals are social events, climbing groups often plan food together. A
good menu boosts morale. A carefully planned, shared menu can reduce the
overall food weight carried by each person. Another common arrangement is to
approach only dinner as a group effort.

TABLE 3-8. BOILING POINT

ELEVATION IN FEET TEMPERATURE AT WHICH

(METERS) WATER BOILS °F (°C)

Sea level (0) 212° (100°)

5,000 (1,525) 202° (95°)

10,000 (3,050) 193° (90°)

 15,000 (4,575) 184° (85°)

20,000 (6,100) 176° (80°)

25,000 (7,625) 168° (75°)

29,029 (8,848) 162° (72°)

Group meals can be planned by the group or by a chosen individual. Canvass

the group members for food preferences, needs, and allergies; one person may
be a vegetarian, another may refuse to eat freeze-dried entrées. Writing down a
menu and discussing it with the group can go a long way toward group
harmony.
The ideal number of people in a cooking group is two to three per stove, four
maximum. Beyond that, group efficiency is outweighed by the complexities of
large pots, small stoves, and increased cooking times.

High-Elevation Cooking
Cooking raw foods becomes impractical above about 10,000 feet (3,050
meters). The boiling point of water decreases with altitude as shown in Table 3-
8, which increases the time to cook raw food by two to four times at 10,000 feet
(3,050 meters) and by four to seven times at 15,000 feet (4,575 meters). The
practical answer is to bring foods that require only warming, such as meat or
fish in a foil pouch; precooked food that requires only hot water, such as instant
rice or quick oats; or simply freeze-dried meals. For the dedicated high-altitude
chef, lightweight pressure cookers are available.
The rigors of rapid ascent to higher altitudes also require special attention to
the choice of food. Many climbers fall victim to symptoms of mountain
sickness, ranging from a slight malaise to vomiting and severe headaches.
Under these conditions, food becomes more difficult to digest. Climbers must
continue to eat and drink; keeping well hydrated is particularly essential. To
cope with this aversion to food, eat light and eat often; also, emphasize
carbohydrate foods, which are easiest to digest. Trial and error will determine
what foods your body can tolerate.

MENU SUGGESTIONS
Try out various food combinations before taking them on an extended trip in the
mountains.

Breakfasts
For a fast start, prepackage a standard meal before the trip. A single bag can
contain oatmeal, cold cereal, or granola with dried or dehydrated fruit, plus
powdered milk or sweet spices such as nutmeg or cinnamon. Stir in water—cold
or hot—and breakfast is ready. Other quick breakfast options include bakery
items; dried fruit and meat; nuts; energy bars; dehydrated applesauce; and
freeze-dried breakfasts that combine eggs, meat, and potatoes. Common hot
drink choices are instant cocoa, instant cider, coffee, powdered milk, tea, and
instant breakfast drinks. To many, caffeine is a civilized way to start the day, and
many studies show it brings a measurable increase in endurance and delays
exhaustion.

Lunches and Snacks

During a climb, lunch begins shortly after breakfast and continues throughout
the day. Eat small amounts, and eat often. At least half of a climber’s daily food
allotment should be for lunch and snacks. A good munching staple is GORP
(originally, “good old raisins and peanuts”), a mixture that can contain nuts,
small candies such as chocolate chips, and dried fruit or ginger. One handful
makes a snack; several make a meal. Granola is another option, with its mixture
of grains, honey or sugar, and bits of fruit and nuts. Other popular snack items
are fruit leather, candy bars, energy bars, and dried fruit. A basic lunch can
include any of the following:
Protein. Sources include vacuum-sealed meats and fish, beef jerky, salami,
powdered hummus, hard cheese, nuts, and seeds.
Starch. Carbohydrates include whole-grain breads, bagels, pita bread,
granola, firm crackers, tortillas, rice cakes, chips, pretzels, and energy bars.
Sweets. Some treats are cookies, candy bars, hard candy, muffins, pastries,
and jam. Chocolate always gets eaten.
Fruit. Sources include fresh fruit, fruit leather, and dried fruit such as raisins,
figs, and apples, or freeze-dried strawberries, blueberries, or mango.
Vegetables. Some vegetables that travel well are fresh carrot or celery sticks,
sliced sweet peppers, or dehydrated vegetables.
To encourage rehydration, mix up a flavored beverage such as lemonade or
fruit punch at lunch. In cold weather, fill a light thermos with hot water at
breakfast, and enjoy a cup of instant soup or miso at lunch.
Dinners
The evening meal should be nourishing and delicious, yet easy and quick to
prepare. To supplement liquid intake, include some items that take a lot of
water, such as soup, hot cider, herbal tea, fruit drink, or cocoa. A cup of soup
makes a quick and satisfying first course. A hearty soup can also serve as the
main course. Good choices include miso, minestrone, bean, beef barley, lentil,
chili, or chicken. Add to the menu instant potatoes, dehydrated vegetables, rice,
crackers, tortilla shells, cheese, or bread, and the meal is complete.
One-pot meals with a carbohydrate base of pasta, rice, beans, potatoes, or
grains are easy and nutritious. To ensure that you get adequate protein, fat, and
flavor, add other ingredients such as chicken, beef, or fish that has been dried or
packaged in a foil pouch; sausage; freeze-dried vegetables or fruit; margarine; or
a dehydrated soup or sauce mix. Outdoor retail and online stores carry a variety
of freeze-dried entrées that are nutritionally balanced and easy to prepare,
though expensive. Prepackaged dishes from the grocery store—such as
spaghetti, noodle dishes, and rice mixes—are also good, easy, and less
expensive. Freeze-dried or dehydrated vegetables add variety. Prepare them as
side dishes, or add to soups or stews. Freeze-dried cooked beans or processed
soy products in powdered or textured forms are excellent, low-cost protein
additions. Natural-food stores often have a wide selection of these ingredients.
Climbers can also prepare and dehydrate sauces and many other ingredients at
home.
Margarine, which keeps better than butter, and oils, such as olive oil, improve
the flavor of many foods and add significant calories with minimum weight. For
seasonings, try salt, pepper, herbs, garlic, chili powder, bacon bits, curry
powder, dehydrated onions, grated Parmesan cheese, hot sauce, or soy sauce
(just not all together). Dessert choices include dates, cookies, candy, chocolate,
no-bake cheese-cake, applesauce, cooked dried fruit, instant pudding, and
freeze-dried ice cream. Dessert time, accompanied by a cup of hot herbal tea,
can provide a pleasant backdrop to group talk about the next day’s itinerary and
a decision on who will provide the morning wake-up call.
Boiled water cooking. “Cooking” dinner for many alpine chefs simply
means boiling water. Packing food that requires no cooking is simple, fast, easy
to clean up, and can be delicious. Most freeze-dried entrées are designed to be
reconstituted in their packaging. Dinner can also be prepared directly in a bowl
or cup. Start with some instant soup. The main course could be a starchy food
(instant mashed potatoes, instant rice, or couscous) with added protein,
vegetables, and condiments. Follow with a dessert of instant applesauce or
instant pudding, and end with a rehydrating hot drink of noncaffeinated tea or
cider. The only items to wash up are the spoon, cup, and maybe bowl.

Fig. 3-19. a, alpine pot with small fry pan and lid; b, pot lifter; c, spoon and spork; d, nested bowls; e, cup
with lid and measuring marks; f, insulated mug.

COOKWARE AND UTENSILS FOR COOKING AND EATING

On an ultralightweight trip with just cold food, fingers are the only utensils
needed. (Wash hands before preparing food or eating, or at least use a hand-
sanitizing gel.) Making dinner with the boiled water cooking methods described
in “Menu Suggestions,” above, requires only a cup and spoon per person, plus
one cook pot with a bail or handle for each group of three or four; bowls are
convenient but optional.
The popular canister system stoves have a built-in cooking pot or a small set
of integrated pots from which to choose. These are optimized for boiled water
cooking. For less spartan menus, other stoves accept a variety of cooking pots.
Bring one pot for boiling water, another for cooking, and light, unbreakable
bowls for eating. Alpine cook sets (fig. 3-19a) come in aluminum, stainless
steel, and titanium. Aluminum, which is light and inexpensive, is the most
common. Stainless steel is strong and easy to clean but heavy. Titanium is light
and strong but expensive. A large water pot is useful for melting snow. A wide
pot is more stable than a tall, narrow one and more efficient because it catches
more of the stove’s flame. Be sure all pots have bails or handles, or bring a
small metal pot lifter (fig. 3-19b). Tight-fitting pot lids conserve heat. (See
“Cooking for a crowd” under “Stoves,” above.)
 Cups, spoons and forks, and bowls (fig. 3-19c, d, and e) come in the same
materials as cook sets and also in strong, light polycarbonate plastic. Insulated
mugs (fig. 3-19f) are popular; a sipping lid keeps the contents warm and
prevents spills. Some cooking pans have a nonstick coating for easy cleaning
but require plastic or silicone utensils to avoid scratches. A coffee press is an
accessory for some canister system stoves (see Figure 3-17c). A small silicone
spatula is useful for cooking and for efficiently getting food out of the pan,
whether for eating or cleaning up. Bring a small plastic scrub pad and a
synthetic fabric pack towel for cleaning.
Many specialized pieces of camp kitchenware, such as bake ovens, Dutch
ovens, pressure cookers, and espresso makers, are impractical on
mountaineering trips.

“IT’S JUST CAMPING”

Pioneer American alpinist Paul Petzoldt said, in an interview about climbing in
the Himalaya and Karakoram, “It’s just camping.” His point was that technical
climbing skills are less important than the ability to survive—and even less so
than the resourcefulness necessary to be at home and comfortable in the high
mountains.
Camping skills are the basis upon which all the more technical
mountaineering skills rely. Once climbers develop and hone the skills to stay in
the mountains, they will have the confidence to venture further. They will begin
to understand what it means to have the freedom of the hills.
GOAL SETTING • MOUNTAINEERING FITNESS COMPONENTS • FUNDAMENTAL
TRAINING CONCEPTS • BUILDING AN ANNUAL TRAINING PROGRAM • BEYOND
TRAINING: RECOVERY

CHAPTER 4
PHYSICAL CONDITIONING
An appropriate mountaineering conditioning program includes
a proper blend of aerobic and anaerobic cardiovascular
training, strength training, flexibility training, skill
development, cross training, proper fueling, and adequate rest
and recovery based on the fundamental training concepts
described in this chapter.

Many mountaineers dedicate an hour or two several days a week to sport-

specific conditioning, reserving weekends for longer outings in the
mountains. The best way to train for a certain activity is to do that specific
activity. However, in situations when that isn’t possible, numerous training
options help climbers prepare for their sport. This chapter provides
guidelines for developing a personal systematic conditioning program to
optimize each climber’s training time.

GOAL SETTING
In order to begin the journey toward mountaineering fitness, the first
requirement is to understand what that means for each climber. Fitness is
defined here as the full-body conditioning needed to easily perform
movements that may be encountered in the mountains while maintaining a
reserve of strength and stamina for unforeseen challenges. Before designing
a suitable training program, each climber needs to set a personal end goal
and the steps needed to get there.
SMART goals. First, set goals that are Specific, Measurable, Action-
oriented, Realistic, and Time-stamped: SMART. For example, a goal to
“climb Mount X by Y route in three days by the end of the coming summer,
through a workout program that includes five weekly workouts and a 6- to 8-
mile hike gaining 3,000 feet of elevation every other week, gradually
increasing pack weight by 3 to 5 pounds per outing” has all the elements of a
SMART goal and will be more motivating than a vague goal to “get fit for
mountaineering.”

MOUNTAINEERING FITNESS COMPONENTS

The level of fitness required for a beginning-level one-day rock climb differs
from that needed for an advanced two-day ice climb; both fitness programs
will look different compared with that of someone training for a three-week
trek. With an end goal in mind, each climber can plan individualized
training.

CARDIOVASCULAR TRAINING
Cardiovascular endurance is the body’s ability to perform a repetitive
activity for an extended length of time. During cardiovascular work, the
body uses large muscle groups simultaneously, either aerobically or
anaerobically. A strong cardiovascular base is mandatory for all aspects of
mountaineering.
Aerobic exercise is any cardiovascular activity that requires a significant
amount of oxygen for sustained effort; it can be categorized as being short (2
to 8 minutes), medium (8 to 30 minutes), or long (more than 30 minutes).
When compared with anaerobic activities, aerobic activities are performed
for longer durations and at lower intensities.
To start preparing for mountaineering, a climber should be able to
complete a 5-mile (8-kilometer) round-trip hike with roughly a 13-pound
(5.9-kilogram) pack, ascending and descending 2,000 feet (610 meters) in
less than two and a half hours. In addition to having such baseline hiking
capability, climbers should build to four or more cardiovascular workouts
per week (depending on the objective) as they approach their targeted goal.
While some of these workouts should be in the mountains or at least have
an uphill emphasis, most can be done close to home. Cardiovascular training
options for mountaineering should include activities that load the spine in an
upright position. Suitable examples are using inclined treadmills, elliptical
cross-training machines, stair machines, or revolving stair climbers; hiking,
hill walking, snowshoeing, or cross-country skiing; doing step aerobics; and
trail running. Biking, paddling, and swimming can be included in the off-
season, as rehabilitative alternatives as needed to enable continued training
or as supplemental cross-training alternatives (see “Cross Training” below).
Anaerobic exercise is near-maximal cardiovascular training that takes
climbers to the upper levels of their aerobic training zone and beyond. Such
training involves working at heart rates that are higher than those that can be
sustained during aerobic sessions. Anaerobic exercise helps climbers when
they need a sudden burst of energy to respond to emergencies in the
mountains or to link a series of powerful moves together on a climbing wall.
Anaerobic training helps climbers increase their leg turnover rate, or how
quickly they can move across varied terrain, in order to increase speed. It
boosts climbers’ entire aerobic zone so that activities that once made them
breathless will feel more comfortable. Examples include pack-loaded stair
climbing, walking quickly uphill while wearing a pack, or sprinting uphill
without a pack.
To periodically assess your personal cardiovascular fitness level, choose a
favorite nearby hiking route that is snow-free year-round and use it as a test
piece every few weeks. Each time you hike it, challenge yourself in some
way: add weight to your pack—no more than 10 percent per week, or 3 to 5
pounds (1 to 2 kilograms) per outing—and go as fast as you have on a
previous hike with less weight; or complete the hike in a shorter amount of
time. Meeting either of these challenges indicates increased cardiovascular
fitness.
An easy way to add pack weight is to fill several 2-quart bottles with
water. In early season, to save wear and tear on your joints if necessary,
dump the water before descending. As you near your training goal, however,
be sure that you can also carry down the weight that you carry up. If you
struggle with breathlessness while carrying a light pack, concentrate on
developing endurance during weekly training sessions. If your legs feel
heavy when you start to increase pack weight, focus on building more
strength.

STRENGTH TRAINING
Strength training is crucial to success in mountaineering, because it gives
climbers the power and force to withstand challenges, whether predictable or
unforeseen, in the mountains. Strength training prevents injuries by helping
the body adapt to overloading, provides muscle balance, improves
performance, boosts metabolism, and increases lean muscle mass, which in
turn can help reduce overall body fat. Climbers should strive to be stronger
than they think they will need to be. When the endurance aspect of
mountaineering is factored in, the conflicting demands on a climber's body
will result in a loss of strength, and that extra training will end up being just
enough.
Mountaineers benefit from strong upper-back, core, and leg muscles; solid
balance and agility; and flexibility in the calves, knees, torso, and ankles.
Rock and ice climbers benefit from strong and balanced upper-body muscles
as well. Include full-body strength training year-round to maintain a baseline
level of strength, and then build as needed at appropriate times. During the
preseason, use single-limb (unilateral) free-weight exercises to correct any
weaknesses in legs and hips, particularly in the full range of motion that may
be encountered on alpine outings.
Exercises such as static lunges, one-legged dead lifts (see Figure 4-1),
step-ups, and step-downs (see Figure 4-2) ensure that legs and hips do equal
work. Many of these exercises can be performed at home using body weight,
initially, then a loaded pack as balance improves and strength increases.
Since the calves will take the brunt of the load whenever a climber is on
steep terrain, include straight-leg variations of calf exercises (see Resources
for this chapter).
One-legged dead lift. This excellent, sport-specific, unilateral
mountaineering exercise develops stability in the ankles, hips, and feet as
well as strength in the entire leg, including gluteals and lower back. Stand
balancing on one foot while holding a dumbbell in one or two hands (fig. 4-
1a). Keep the other foot lifted but near the floor in case it is needed to touch
down for balance. Hinge forward at the hips with as much or as little knee
bend as desired and reach the dumbbell(s) to the floor (fig. 4-1b). Exhale and
return to a fully upright position with each repetition. Complete two to three
sets of 6 to 15 repetitions per leg (depending on the phase of training you are
in) and repeat with the other leg.

Fig. 4-1. One-legged dead lift: a, stand balanced on one leg, holding dumbbells; b, hinge forward at
the hips, reaching dumbbells to the floor, then exhale and return to upright position.

Step-down. This is one of the most effective and specific unilateral

mountaineering exercises to strengthen the quadriceps for downhill travel.
Use a 6- to 12-inch (15- to 31-centimeter) step whose height allows you to
do the exercise under control without any lateral (side-to-side) knee
movement. Start on top of the step, with toes pointing forward and a light
dumbbell in each hand (fig. 4-2a). Slowly step off the front of the step as if
walking downstairs, controlling the downward movement as though you are
stepping onto eggshells. The leg on the step is the working leg, so keep your
focus on it. When your foot reaches the floor (fig. 4-2b), reverse the
movement, starting on your toes and using the leg that’s still on the bench to
lift yourself back up. Keep your working knee tracking over your middle toe
rather than collapsing toward the midline of the body. Control both the
lifting and lowering portions of this exercise. Complete two or three sets of 6
to 15 repetitions per leg (depending on the phase of training you are in) and
repeat with the other leg.
Snow shoveler. This functional movement integrates the upper and lower
body with torso rotation and prepares climbers for lifting a heavy pack onto
their back, digging snow pits or latrines, or carving ice blocks for wind
breaks and snow shelters. Replace floor crunches with exercises like this to
optimize training time. Hold a sizable dumbbell in both hands. Stand with
your feet wider than shoulder width apart. Squat toward the floor,
maintaining a neutral spine (fig. 4-3a). The weight will be directly below
your chin.

Fig. 4-2. Step-down: a, slowly step off the step as if walking downstairs; b, slowly reverse the
movement, starting on toes and using the leg still on the step to lift yourself back up. Keep the knee
tracking directly over the middle toe.

As you rise to a standing position, pivot to one side as though completing

a golf swing, keeping the dumbbell’s weight close to your shoulder (fig. 4-
3b). Your eyes should follow the dumbbell as you move it to the top of the
arc, ending near your shoulder, not overhead. Squat again, then lift to the
other side, alternating sides with each repetition. Keep your abdominals tight
to avoid overextending your back. Complete two to three sets of 6 to 15
repetitions per side (depending on the phase of training you are in).
During the middle of the preseason, once you have developed good
muscle balance and core strength, incorporate full-body, full-range-of-
motion exercises, including variations on the squat, dead lift, bench press,
pull-up, and row, among others. Because of the dynamic and unpredictable
nature of performing self-arrests with an ice axe, be sure to have full range
of motion in your shoulders as well as good strength and joint integrity
throughout your chest, shoulders, and torso. Pull-ups, push-ups, and core
exercises will enable climbers to get into position rapidly and hold the ice
axe in place on icy slopes while stopping themselves from sliding. Options
that help increase strength and stamina include lifting free weights, walking
uphill, dragging a sled, carrying a weighted pack, training with body-weight
exercises (in other words, using your own body for resistance, as in push-ups
or pull-ups), and using bands, bouldering, and hang boards developed
specifically for climbers.

Fig. 4-3. Snow shoveler: a, holding dumbbell in both hands, squat with a neutral spine; b, stand up,
pivoting to one side and swinging dumbbell up to shoulder, following it with your eyes and keeping
abdominals tight. Repeat, pivoting to the other side.

Consider which muscles your upcoming activities will involve and match
your training exercises to the movements that will be required for those
activities. For example, if you will be snowshoeing on an approach for a
winter mountaineering outing, develop strength endurance in the hip flexors
for repeated high-steps. Add ankle weights or ski boots to short anaerobic
uphill or strength workouts. Do not, however, add ankle weights to long
endurance workouts, as they can alter a climber’s natural stride, not to
mention cause an overuse injury. If you are weak on overhanging
movements, develop your core and grip by training the abdominals, obliques
(the side abdominal muscles involved in rotating the torso), forearms, and
fingers, in addition to the larger muscle groups in the upper body.
 Use the hiking test piece as a guideline for refining the strength training
program. If your ankles fatigue when you hike on uneven terrain, add
unilateral balance exercises or incorporate short weekly training sessions
walking on gravel or sand or traversing slopes to help them adapt to such
terrain. If your quadriceps muscles are sore following steep hikes, increase
the number of sets of step-downs, front squats, or lunges and focus on
strengthening the front of the thighs. As you add pack weight, if your
shoulders and neck get tired, add exercises such as upright rows or shrugs.
By tracking such challenges on those training hikes, climbers can determine
what body areas need additional strengthening.

FLEXIBILITY TRAINING
Flexibility refers to the active range of motion of muscles around a particular
joint. Stretching muscles can help prevent discomfort after strenuous
workouts, but it can also help with changes in body alignment (such as
during weight gain or loss), with injury recovery, and with correcting faulty
biomechanics. While experiencing minor stiffness when starting a new
training routine is normal and expected, climbers may help prevent delayed-
onset muscle soreness (DOMS) by stretching. DOMS occurs most often
after workouts that stress the body with the eccentric, or lowering phase, of
an exercise, such as extended downward travel with a heavy pack, downhill
trail running, or bouldering that requires dropping from height onto your
feet. When returning to training following time off, ease back into the
routine with lower intensity, weight, duration, and volume (that is, fewer sets
and repetitions) to prevent experiencing mild pain, soreness, stiffness, and
joint aches.
Frog stretch. This is a great lower-body stretch to open the hips for
vertical rock climbing. Stand with the feet slightly wider than shoulder width
apart and sink into a full squat, keeping heels flat on the floor and allowing
your torso to lean forward slightly but not collapse over your knees (fig. 4-
4). Press your elbows against the inside of your knees to increase the stretch
in your hips and inner thighs. Hold for 30 to 60 seconds.
Seated gluteal stretch. This stretch aids the glutes and lower back (fig. 4-
5). Sit on a bench, armless chair, or car bumper so that both shins are
perpendicular to the ground and both thighs are parallel to the ground (in
other words, knees at right angles). To stretch the right hip, cross the right
ankle over the left knee. Press your chest forward with a straight spine
(avoid collapsing the chest toward the knee) until you feel a deep stretch in
the outer right hip. Hold for 30 to 60 seconds, then repeat with the left ankle
over the right knee. Note which hip is tighter (if either), and in future
stretching sessions start by stretching that hip first. Do this stretch while
standing on the trail for an additional balance challenge.

Fig. 4-4. Frog stretch: keeping heels on the floor and leaning torso slightly forward, squat down as
low as comfortable and press elbows against knees to open up hips.

Fig. 4-5. Seated gluteal stretch: sitting with shins perpendicular to the ground and thighs parallel to
each other, cross right ankle over left knee, press chest forward with a straight spine, and hold. Repeat
with left ankle over right knee.

SKILL DEVELOPMENT
Skill refers to technique and mastery of coordination. Skilled mountaineers
are precise with their movements and use less energy in completing an
activity as compared to novices. A beginner climbing four days a week may
risk overtraining, whereas a highly conditioned climber can perform the
movements with less exertion and strain and may be able to climb at higher
frequency without overdoing it. Experienced mountaineers have a sense of
when to back off of the intensity or volume of their training sessions and
work on less taxing but equally important skills.
Skilled mountaineers also are more comfortable and confident in
situations that could cause novice climbers to panic, make mistakes, have
poor judgment, or experience accidents that might lead to injury. Develop
skill by putting into practice all the techniques discussed in this book and
getting appropriate training where needed.

CROSS TRAINING
The final component to consider when preparing for mountaineering is cross
training. Cross training simply means doing supplemental physical activities
not directly related to your sport. At higher skill levels, cross training
recruits muscle groups in different patterns and provides psychological and
physiological breaks from excessive repetition. Cross training provides body
and muscle balance for sports such as rock and ice climbing that involve
high repetition from small muscle groups.
While cross training may not relate directly to sport performance, keeping
the joints healthy and preventing overtraining does relate to long-term
performance. Cross training for the climber may involve horizontal pulling
movements or rowing training to balance out the vertical component that
dominates the sport. A cross-training sport commonly included in many
mountaineering programs is cycling; this seated activity does not load the
spine as mountaineering does, but it provides a nonimpact outdoor training
mode that is gentler on the legs than the high-impact activity of running.

FUNDAMENTAL TRAINING CONCEPTS

Once you understand what training components are involved in
mountaineering conditioning, you can start to manipulate them to create a
customized training program.
Source: Courtenay W. Schurman and Doug G. Schurman, The Outdoor Athlete (see Resources).

FITT PARAMETERS
The four FITT parameters—frequency (how often you exercise), intensity
(how hard you exercise), time (how long you exercise), and type (what
exercise modes you do)—together constitute the training load, or stress. A
person who trains for a one-day beginner rock climb has a low workload:
low frequency, low intensity, low time (duration). An advanced high-altitude
mountaineer getting ready for an expedition has a high workload: high
frequency, low to high intensity, high time (duration). The greater the
workload, the more carefully designed the training program needs to be,
with sufficient rest and recovery days, in order to prevent physical and
psychological burnout.
Frequency. How often climbers train depends on their current fitness
level, their end goal, and their desired level of achievement. According to
the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart
Association, a suitable fitness program for average healthy adults includes
three to five aerobic workouts per week of 20 or more minutes each and
activities that maintain or increase muscular strength and endurance a
minimum of two nonconsecutive days a week. Mountaineering is a
strenuous activity that requires far more training than what an average
healthy adult needs on a daily basis. As climbers progress to more
demanding alpine goals, the frequency of their cardiovascular, sport-specific,
and strength training workouts will increase, and their workouts will vary in
intensity and time (duration).
Intensity. How hard a workout is determines its intensity. The optimal
cardiovascular intensity for fitness improvement is 65 to 95 percent of a
person’s maximum heart rate. Most early preseason workouts should be at a
low intensity. Gradually build cardiovascular endurance before adding high-
intensity anaerobic workouts in late preseason.
Strength training should also start with low-intensity workouts. Work with
lighter weights for a moderate number of repetitions (for example, sets of 8
to 10 repetitions), especially if you are relatively new to strength training.
Next, progress to a phase emphasizing gaining strength by performing more
sets with heavier weight and fewer reps. As you peak for reaching your
training goal, focus on increasing strength endurance by using lighter
weights than in the strength phase but completing more repetitions. Table 4-
1 indicates how strength sets and repetitions will vary according to the phase
of training you are in.
Time. Cardiovascular and strength workouts range in length, also known
as duration, according to the end goals, training cycle, and exercise type.
Aerobic exercise in a climber’s training zone should be done for at least 15
to 20 minutes per session in order to see improvements. A strength workout
as short as 8 to 10 minutes can provide some benefits, although a typical
strength workout ranges from 20 to 60 minutes, depending on the frequency
of the strength training.
Type. Workouts vary according to the specific cardiovascular exercises
and strength exercises they encompass. Exercise selection depends on
individual preference, location (climate and terrain), season, and sport
discipline. Choices will vary from one athlete to the next: a rock or ice
climber may spend more time at indoor climbing gyms and focus on upper-
body and core training in the off-season, while a high-altitude alpine climber
may opt for backpacking trips year-round and focus on core and lower-body
conditioning exercises in the off-season. Supplemental cross training outside
of the chosen sport provides rest and recovery as well as additional training
stimulus for the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems.

TRAINING GUIDELINES
In addition to properly manipulating the four FITT parameters, climbers
should also adhere to the following training guidelines.
Train specifically. Match the cardiovascular modes and intensities of a
training program to the primary movements of the intended sport.
Sometimes it is difficult to practice a sport—ice climbing is challenging in a
warm winter, rock climbing is difficult in the middle of a city, and high-
altitude trekking may be impossible for those who live at sea level. And
sometimes it is beneficial to include cross training for rehabilitation or injury
prevention.
For most of a training program, however, choose comparable activities
that work the muscle groups in the same ways the intended sport works
them. In a well-rounded program for mountaineering, spinal-loading
choices, such as hill climbing, stair climbing, and using inclined
cardiovascular machines (for example, an elliptical trainer, treadmill, stair
climber, or stepmill)—all with or without a pack—as well as trail running
without a pack, should be the dominant cardiovascular choices. Non-spinal-
loading cardiovascular activities such as biking, rowing, and swimming may
be included for cross-training purposes.
Train functionally. Keep the exercise selection functional, choosing
exercises that integrate as many muscle groups as possible rather than train
the body in isolation. Training with free weights provides far greater benefits
compared with using weight machines, because training with free weights
requires you to balance weight and exercise coordination in all three
dimensions, which loads the spine the same way it is loaded when climbers
are on a hiking trail, snowshoes, a pair of skis, a slope, or a rock ledge.
Increase gradually. Increase training volume by no more than 5 to 15
percent at any given time. If a training program starts with 20-minute
workouts, add 2 minutes to subsequent cardiovascular sessions. This
suggested progression is based on the amount of musculature used, impact
on joints, and relative support provided for the body. Activities that rely
heavily on smaller upper-body musculature or rigorous full-body movements
(for example, cross-country skiing or technical climbing) should increase by
no more than 5 percent at a time; high-impact activities that use large
muscles (such as trail running or telemark skiing) should increase by no
more than 10 percent at a time; and low-impact activities (for instance,
hiking or scrambling) or seated, supported activities (such as biking) should
increase by under 15 percent at a time.
Include adequate recovery time. The impact of high-intensity workouts
requires more recovery time. Endurance days may be done at low intensities;
but if pack weight or hilly terrain is added, follow them with a recovery day.
Low-intensity recovery cross-training exercises may include walking,
swimming, dancing, easy flat biking, yoga, or yard work. Such light days
help prevent overtraining by allowing tired muscles to rest before they
perform again. As climbers grow older, they may need additional recovery
time as well as training time to reach their training goals.

NUTRITION HABITS
Comprehensive nutrition guidelines are beyond the scope of this chapter, but
no discussion of conditioning is complete without addressing basic nutrition
needs (see Chapter 3, Camping, Food, and Water, for other considerations
regarding food and water). Six basic habits for good nutrition that do not
require calorie counting, measuring food, or giving up favorites are
recommended here. They focus on healthy choices and are as applicable to
the occasional weekend sport-climbing vegan mountaineer as they are to the
die-hard steak-consuming mountaineer who wants to climb the Seven
Summits. All that these habits require for performance and measurement are
each climber’s own hands.
Habit 1. Eat slowly, and try to stop eating when you reach 80 percent full
(that is, still slightly hungry), to teach yourself what your level of
“comfortably full” feels like. After eating slowly for 20 minutes (the
approximate amount of time it takes for satiety signals to reach the brain), if
you are still hungry, have more.
Habit 2. Include vegetables with each meal. A cup of leafy greens or a
half cup of other vegetables qualifies as one serving; try to include one to
two servings every meal for women, two to four for men. Eat from every
color of the rainbow for maximum phytonutrient benefits.
Habit 3. Include protein with each meal. Think “palm-sized” according to
the size of your own hand—one palm for women per meal, two palms for
men. Good sources of protein include whole eggs; lean beef, pork, or lamb;
poultry or seafood; and lentils or beans.
Habit 4. Make sure to get healthy fats with each meal—fats that are rich
in omega-3 fatty acids and low in omega-6 fatty acids. Nuts, seeds, nut
butters, extra-virgin olive oil, avocados, and fish oils are all excellent
choices. Women should include one thumb-sized portion each meal, men
should include two.
Habit 5. Eliminate or reduce starchy carbohydrates on days you don’t
exercise, replacing them instead with added servings of fruits or vegetables.
If you have exercised that day, include one fist-sized (cooked) portion of
starchy carbohydrate for women, two for men, choosing from such foods as
wild rice, quinoa, sprouted grains, squash, pasta, or other whole grains with
little to no added sugar. If you must have a sweet snack like a doughnut,
make sure to include veggies, protein, and some healthy fat with it, and sit
down and treat it like a full meal. In most cases, by going through the extra
effort, you’ll decide it’s not worth it or wait until you’re legitimately hungry
for a complete meal.

Source: Courtenay W. Schurman and Doug G. Schurman, The Outdoor Athlete (see Resources).

Habit 6. Drink plenty of plain potable water, especially if you consume

any soda, alcohol, caffeinated beverages, or juices. It’s best to eliminate
those beverages entirely, but if that’s not possible, increase your water intake
to 60 or more ounces per day—more on days when you are training longer
than an hour, enough to keep your output clear.

FITNESS PROGRAM TRAINING BLOCKS

In order to develop a suitable program, start by noting the date you want to
attain your end goal. In many cases, registering for a climb or making a
deposit on a trip provides a deadline that is hard to change. There may also
be a short window of opportunity for a given climb, for example for ice
climbs in most parts of the world. Once a firm date is set, break the time
between that end goal and the training program starting point into six distinct
training blocks; each block of time will have a different objective. Table 4-2
illustrates how an entire year may be divided into training blocks.
Preseason. In the early phase of preseason training, the goal is to
establish a solid foundation, or baseline, on which the rest of the training
builds. Frequency, intensity, and time for both cardiovascular training and
strength training will probably be fairly low. In the middle phase, as the
focus of preseason training shifts to increasing cardiovascular endurance,
frequency and time of cardiovascular exercise will gradually increase while
intensity remains low. Focus on building strength specific to the chosen
activity with increased intensity (more weight, fewer repetitions, more sets)
for strength exercises. In the late stages of preseason training, the focus will
shift to enhancing mental toughness and increasing stamina, adding intensity
to one or two weekly anaerobic sessions, adding pack weight and distance to
long weekend conditioners, and training for more strength endurance (lighter
weight, higher repetitions) as the in-season approaches. The late phase of the
preseason will be devoted to peaking and tapering for a climb or for the start
of the season for the intended sport. Preseason can last as long as one to six
months.
In-season. A sport’s in-season might mean getting out to the mountains as
frequently as several times a month or more. In-season encompasses a series
of climbs or trips, generally in summer (ice climbing would be winter). The
training goal in-season is to maintain performance level during the intended
activity.
Postseason. After the completion of in-season activities, the training
focus is on addressing any imbalances that arose from the in-season
activities. Common to climbing is the need to balance a season of horizontal
and vertical pulling by adding horizontal and vertical pressing movements,
thus improving shoulder stability. The postseason lasts two to four weeks,
immediately following the completion of the in-season events.
Off-season. During the off-season, training prioritizes any weak points
that have emerged such as quadriceps that fatigued on steep downhills, hips
that got tight on longer trips, or a low back that fatigued with heavier pack
weight. The length of the off-season is the time that remains between
postseason and the next preseason—generally several months, unless a
climber participates in multiple sports.
A sample year. If a novice climber is training for a first, very easy
mountaineering outing, the early phase of the training program may last only
one to two weeks, with two or three weeks for each of the other five training
blocks. A more experienced mountaineer, or a climber who is working
toward complex goals that require more than half a year of training, might
spend a month in each training block and cycle several times through the
middle phase of preseason training, alternating between a strength-building
phase and an endurance building phase, separating each ramp-up with a
week of active recovery. Each block in a training program has a different
focus, so the daily workouts should reflect that focus.
BUILDING AN ANNUAL TRAINING
PROGRAM
This section provides details on how to set up an annual training program,
with a sample calendar based on a northern-hemisphere mountaineer who
typically climbs most during the late spring and summer. This calendar
would vary depending on where climbers do most of their mountaineering.
Postseason. After an intense season of mountaineering, the body needs a
break. The postseason includes shorter aerobic workouts, reduced pack
weights, and cross-training workouts unrelated to the in-season activity. The
goal in this training block is to rest, both physically and mentally. For the
example northern-hemisphere climber, postseason would generally
encompass the month of October; many of these climbers shift to training for
winter activities after several weeks of reduced intensity, to get ready for
snow sports such as snowshoeing, cross-country skiing, downhill skiing, or
winter ice climbing.
Off-season. This is the ideal time to evaluate what worked well in the
training program from the previous season. Include strength training sessions
that address any muscle imbalances that may have developed or been
identified during the in-season activities. Add flexibility training if there is
any residual stiffness that might have stemmed from a season of repetitive
movement or overuse. Intensity and time remain low, but frequency of
training may increase once a climber is fully recovered from in-season
activities. For the example northern-hemisphere climber, off-season would
be November and December. But if that climber is participating in winter ice
climbing during the off-season, adding a focus on calf, core, and forearm
training would be appropriate to swinging ice axes overhead for longer
periods of time.
Preseason. This is the time to include unilateral strength exercises for
balance and agility to address any problems detected in the off-season.
Introduce pack carrying and other sport-specific training for the intended
activity at somewhat reduced intensities from those of the previous
postseason, and gradually build back up to weight-carrying and distance-
traveling goals. Increase training volume by 15 percent or less per week. For
the example northern-hemisphere climber, preseason would be January to
April.
 In-season. Participate in as many trips, climbs, or events as desired, and
schedule suitable recovery time following outings. Shift the training focus to
maintenance. Do full-body strength training twice a week and weekly
anaerobic training when appropriate. For the example northern-hemisphere
climber, in-season would incorporate the months of May to September.
Training for two in-seasons. A mountaineer who climbs in two seasons
—for example, both summer rock and winter ice—can take one to two
weeks of “off-season” for evaluation and flexibility training between the end
of one in-season activity (summer rock climbing or winter climbing) and the
beginning of the next. In such cases, climbers will have two seasons to
prepare for and smaller lead-in times for each sport. The advantage is that
participating in two sports helps a climber maintain a baseline of climbing
strength and flexibility so that preseason training does not have to be as
extensive.
Training for year-round climbing readiness. The climber who is
outdoors year-round—for example, climbing alpine ice in the summer,
climbing rock in spring and fall, and traveling over glaciers in austral
summer—may need a program with four seasonal cycles leading up to
specific high-priority climbing objectives. “Off-season” might refer to any
one of the seasons that is lower priority, and training frequency, intensity,
time, and type will vary according to what is the highest-priority goal.

SAMPLE TRAINING PROGRAM

When climbers assemble their goals and exercise preferences, evaluate their
skill level, and combine all the fitness components and training parameters
together, they have a personalized training program that will work uniquely
for them. Each climber’s program will look different from anyone else’s,
based on individual body type and size, goals, age, and social environment.
A single program cannot possibly work for every mountaineer.
The template shown in Table 4-3 illustrates just one example of how all
the program variables might fit together into a complete six-week preseason
training program suitable for a goal such as a 7-mile (11.3-kilometer) outing
with a 20-pound (9.1-kilogram) pack covering an elevation gain and loss of
3,200 feet (975 meters). The progression begins with baseline hiking of 5
miles (8 kilometers) round-trip with 2,300 feet (700 meters) of elevation
gain while carrying a 13-pound (5.9-kilogram) pack and gradually
transitions to steeper terrain by increasing elevation gain by 300 to 500 feet
(91 to 152 meters) per outing and gradually increasing pack weight to 20
pounds (9.1 kilograms). At each step along the way climbers then choose
types of cardiovascular exercise and specific strength movements to fit
personal preferences, lifestyle factors, and individual body needs.

Note: MHR stands for maximum heart rate.

Source: Courtenay W. Schurman and Doug G. Schurman, The Outdoor Athlete (see Resources).

BEYOND TRAINING: RECOVERY

All the hard training in the world will mean nothing unless you give your
body the recovery time it needs to repair damage, replenish muscle glycogen
stores, and prepare to work hard again. High-intensity cardiovascular and
strength workouts require more recovery time than do endurance or recovery
workouts. While endurance days (for example, aerobic workouts lasting over
an hour) are done at lower intensities, as soon as pack weight or hilly terrain
is added, also insert a rest day, unless the program calls for back-to-back
training in preparation for a multiday trip. Recovery days at lower intensity
(less than 65 percent of maximum heart rate) may include cross-training
exercises such as walking, swimming, dancing, easy flat biking, yoga, or
yard work. Such easy days help avoid strain by allowing tired muscles to rest
before they perform again. Mountaineers over the age of 50 may need to
plan on even more recovery time and training time to reach their fitness
goals.
Pay close attention to your body. When warming up for workouts, if you
still feel tired or sore from a previous workout or climb, reduce the intensity
or complete a shorter workout than scheduled. If your finger or elbow
tendons are tender to the touch following a hard climb or workout, insert
cross training to allow for adequate recovery. Place strength training sessions
or highly demanding rock or ice climbs at least 48 hours apart so that the
targeted muscles, tendons, and ligaments can recover before they are
stressed again. If multiple days of climbing are anticipated, try to alternate
days of higher-intensity workloads (or carries, in the case of expeditions)
with those of lower-intensity workloads (or “climb high, sleep low,” in the
case of high-altitude expeditions). Tendons and ligaments take longer than
muscles to adjust to increased workloads. They also take a frustrating
amount of time to heal once they are injured.
Although it is difficult for most mountaineers to take time off from a
favorite activity, it is better to let the body heal completely before resuming;
otherwise, an acute irritation may turn into a chronic injury that requires a
much longer time away from the sport. Knowing that you have done the
physical training necessary to succeed will empower you to face challenges
or worst-case scenarios not only in the chosen activity but also in daily life.
The first step toward achieving mountaineering goals is acquiring the
knowledge needed to get there; the rest is up to you.
TRIP PREPARATION • MAP • ALTIMETER • COMPASS • CLINOMETER • GPS •
ORIENTATION BY INSTRUMENT • ORIENTING A MAP • ORIENTATION USING GPS •
NAVIGATION BY INSTRUMENT • COMMUNICATION DEVICES • LOST • FINDING THE
FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

CHAPTER 5
NAVIGATION
“Where am I now, and how can I find my way to the summit—
and back? What if I need help in an emergency?” These are the
most frequently asked questions in mountaineering. This
chapter shows how to find the answers with the first of the Ten
Essentials: navigation.

Modern mountaineers have a broad set of tools to accomplish the two key
objectives of navigation: First, they need to know where they are and how to
get to their objective and back safely. Second, they need to be able to
communicate with emergency responders should the need arise. The modern
tools of navigation allow the mountaineer to accomplish both objectives with
far more confidence than in the past. Today there are five essential tools for
navigating the backcountry: map, altimeter, compass, GPS device, and a
personal locator beacon (PLB) or other device to contact emergency first
responders. Using multiple tools increases mountaineers’ confidence in their
location and route, provides backup when tools fail, and increases situational
awareness (see “Mountaineering with a GPS Device” later in this chapter).
TRIP PREPARATION
First, a few definitions concerning navigation are in order. Orientation is
determining your exact position on the earth. Navigation is guiding yourself
to a destination. Routefinding is selecting and following the best path to that
destination. Routefinding is covered in more detail in Chapter 6, Wilderness
Travel, but understanding it requires a solid foundation in the tools and skills
described in this chapter.
Routefinding begins at home. Consult guidebooks and internet sources for
critical information. Seek out other climbers who have done the climb who
can perhaps provide a GPS track or critical waypoints (see “GPS” later in
this chapter). Useful details are also packed into various types of maps and
satellite images. Maps must be downloaded or installed onto GPS devices at
home prior to the climb. See “Gather Route Information” in Chapter 6,
Wilderness Travel, for suggestions on researching a route.
Before starting any trip into the wilderness, be sure to have a mental
image of the route to the planned climb. Using the information gained from
guidebooks or other climbers, plot the route on the topographic map. Based
upon your experience, and from all the sources of information about the
climb, make the terrain work in your favor.
To avoid brush, keep the route out of watercourses and drainages; select
ridges rather than hillsides and gullies. Clear-cuts are also often full of
logging slash or second-growth trees. A rock slide area can be a feasible
route—providing the party avoids generating new rockfall. One problem in
planning the route is that a rock slide area may look the same on a map as an
avalanche gully, which can be an avalanche hazard in winter and spring and
choked with brush in summer and fall. If sources are not helpful, only a
firsthand look can clear up this question.
The most straightforward return route is usually the same as the route
going in. If the plan is to come back a different way, careful advance
preparation for that route is also necessary. And before leaving on the trip,
give the trip itinerary—members of the party, trailhead, vehicle description
and license plate number, and expected return date—to a responsible person
(see “Organizing and Leading a Climb” in Chapter 22, Leadership, for more
details).

MAP
Every mountaineer should travel with a map. There are several types.
Relief maps. Terrain is shown in three dimensions with various hues of
green, gray, and brown, plus terrain shading, on relief maps. These maps
help in visualizing the ups and downs of the landscape and have some value
in trip planning.
Land management and recreation maps. Because recreation maps are
updated frequently, they are useful for current details on roads, trails, ranger
stations, and other human constructions. They usually show only a two-
dimensional (flat) relationship of natural features, without contour lines that
indicate the shape of the land (see “Topographic maps” below). These
recreation maps, published by the US Forest Service and other government
agencies, are suitable for trip planning.
Climbers’ sketch maps. Often called climbers’ topos, climbers’ sketch
maps are not topographic maps but are generally crudely drawn, two-
dimensional sketches that usually make up in specialized route detail what
they lack in draftsmanship. Such drawings can be effective supplements to
other map and guidebook information.
Guidebook maps. Some guidebook maps are merely sketches, whereas
others are accurate interpretations of topographic maps. They vary greatly in
quality but generally contain useful details on roads, trails, and climbing
routes.
Topographic maps. Essential to off-trail travel, topographic maps (or
topos) are the best of all for climbers. They depict topography—the shape of
the earth’s surface—by showing contour lines that represent constant
elevations above sea level. These maps are produced in many countries.
Some are produced by government agencies; others are printed by private
companies, with special emphasis on trails and other recreational features.
The most familiar topographic maps in the United States are those
produced by the US Geological Survey (USGS). Up to about the year 2006,
the USGS produced a series of topographic maps using aerial photographs,
with trails and structures added manually based on field observations; these
maps are now referred to as “Historical.” Since then, the USGS has
produced a new series referred to as “US Topo,” dated 2011 and beyond.
These maps contain more “layers” of data (such as aerial and satellite photos
and terrain features), which users can select online. All of the older
“Historical” topographic maps have been digitized and are still available
from the USGS digital map database.
 In some areas of the United States, private companies produce maps based
on USGS topographic maps, but that are updated with more recent trail and
road details, and sometimes these commercially produced maps combine
sections of USGS maps. These maps are often useful supplements to
standard topographic maps.
Digital maps. A variety of sources exist from which digital maps can be
created, installed, and used with home computers, phones, some watches,
and dedicated GPS receivers. GPS manufacturers (such as Garmin) sell or
provide free a variety of map packages to install onto their devices, and
some devices come with topographic maps already installed. Some GPS
devices also allow users to install maps obtained from third parties (see
Resources for examples). A variety of phone apps (such as Gaia GPS and
BackCountry Navigator) allow users to seamlessly download a wide variety
of map types, typically free, for viewing on phones and tablets. These
sources include all of the USGS maps (“Historical” and “US Topo”); US
National Park Service and Forest Service maps; Canadian topographic maps
from Natural Resources Canada (NRCan); road, nautical, and cycling maps;
overlays for shaded relief, slope, and contours; satellite photographs; and
OpenStreetMap (OSM) maps. OpenStreetMap, a collaborative project
inspired by Wikipedia to create a free map of the world, often has the most
up-to-date information on trails and roads worldwide. (For map sources, see
Resources.)
Digital maps, when displayed on GPS devices, hold one overwhelmingly
compelling advantage over their paper progenitors: they show a “you are
here” arrow that renders orientation trivial. Other advantages include the
ability to record a GPS track of the exact route traveled, to mark waypoints
of critical locations, and to follow a planned route or track of previous
climbers. With so many freely available map sources, climbers can afford to
download multiple map types for a single trip, as well as a much larger
seamless map area than will likely be needed to allow for unexpected
changes in plans.
Though these digital maps are valuable when loaded onto GPS devices,
they disappear when the device’s batteries die. For this reason, physical
(paper or plastic) maps should also be printed and carried along with the
digital maps, to ensure that climbers always have a map of the climbing area.
When printing maps, it is preferable to use a laser jet printer if possible,
since maps printed on cheaper inkjet printers can smear if they get wet.
 Satellite photographs. Though not maps, satellite photographs can be of
significant help in researching wilderness routes. With some GPS devices,
satellite photographs can be downloaded like any other map type.

HANDLING AND CARRYING MAPS

Sometimes a trip travels through an area covered by portions of two or more
maps. Either fold adjoining maps at the edges and bring them together, or
create a customized map by cutting out the pertinent areas and splicing them
with tape. Include plenty of territory so that there is an overview of the trip
area, including the surrounding terrain. Computer programs can create
customized maps, though these maps are limited by printer quality and paper
size.
Maps—precious objects that they are—deserve tender care in the wild.
Some custom maps can be obtained or printed on waterproof paper that
makes it easier to care for them under wet conditions that can destroy
ordinary paper maps. A physical map can also be kept in a protective map
case or resealable plastic bag. Some maps are printed on plastic rather than
paper, which makes them easier to protect. On the climb, carry the map in a
pocket or other easily accessible place where you can keep it relatively flat
and you do not have to take off your pack to reach it.

READING A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

Topographic maps are essential to wilderness travel, and mountaineers must
be able to glean as much information from them as possible. Understanding
topographic features such as coordinate systems, datums, scale, and contour
lines is a crucial navigation skill.
All topographic maps are prepared according to a legend of symbols and
colors used for the map’s features. For example, in a “Historical” USGS map
(see “Topographic maps” above), contour lines are brown except on
permanent snowfields or glaciers, where they are blue. Blue is also used for
water features such as lakes and rivers. Multiple methods and colors are used
to show roads, trails, vegetation, and other features. Be sure that digital maps
have legends, too, in order to know what the mapmaker intends you to learn
from the map.

Coordinate Systems
Maps use three principal coordinate systems to describe a location on the
earth: latitude and longitude, UTM, and MGRS (see below for more on these
last two).
Latitude and longitude coordinates divide the earth into the 360 degrees of
a circle. A measurement east or west around the globe is called longitude; a
measurement north or south is called latitude. Longitude is measured 180
degrees east and 180 degrees west, starting at the north-south line (meridian)
that goes through the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, near London, England.
Latitude is measured 0 to 90 degrees north and 0 to 90 degrees south,
starting from the equator. This system allows each place on the planet to
have a unique set of coordinates. For example, New York City is situated
near 74 degrees west longitude and 41 degrees north latitude.
Each degree of latitude or longitude is divided into 60 minutes, and each
minute is further subdivided into 60 seconds—just as for units of time. On a
map, a latitude of 47 degrees, 41 minutes, 7 seconds north is written like
this: 47°41’7”N. Search and rescue organizations, as well as cell phones,
tend to use decimal degrees; the latitude in the previous example would be
written in decimal degrees as 47.6853°, with the positive number indicating
north (a negative number would indicate south). Longitudes east of
Greenwich to 180 degrees east are written as positive numbers, while those
west of Greenwich to 180 degrees west and throughout the western
hemisphere are written as negative numbers.
The most common type of USGS topographic map used by mountaineers
in the United States covers an area of 7.5 minutes (that is, 1/8 degree) of
latitude by 7.5 minutes of longitude. These maps are known as the “7.5-
minute series.” An older type of USGS map covers an area of 15 minutes
(that is, ¼ degree) of latitude by 15 minutes of longitude. These maps are
part of what is called the “15-minute series.”
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system is another
method for identifying a point on a map. Because the UTM system is metric-
based, it allows easy computation of distances between points and is often
used with GPS (see “Orientation Using GPS” near the end of this chapter).
The UTM system evolved into the Military Grid Reference System
(MGRS), used today by the United States Department of Defense and the
militaries of other nations in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO).
Fig. 5-1. Photograph of a mountainous area; keyed features are also represented on the
accompanying topographic map.

Datums
The coordinate systems described in the preceding section must be anchored
to actual points on the earth, similar to surveyors’ benchmarks. These
anchoring points are referred to as a datum, and maps are made using many
datums. Datums are important because a single set of coordinates (for
instance, a latitude and longitude or UTM coordinates) will yield different
points on the earth depending on the datum used.
The two datums currently used on USGS topos are North American
Datum 1927 (NAD27) and World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84). The
difference in position between these two datums can be as much as about
500 feet (160 meters), which is important to know when using topographical
maps in conjunction with GPS devices (see “GPS” later in this chapter).
NAD27 is used on “Historical” USGS topos, whereas WGS84 is used on the
new “US Topo” series, and is the default system for most GPS devices.

Scale
The scale of a map is a ratio between measurements on the map and
measurements in the real world. A common way to state the scale is to
compare a map measurement with a ground measurement—for example, 1
inch equals 1 mile—or to give a specific mathematical ratio of map inches to
real-world inches: for example, 1:63,360, which means that 1 map inch is
equal to 63,360 real-world inches—exactly 1 mile. The scale is usually
shown graphically at the bottom of a map (fig. 5-1).
Metric maps are used in Canada and most other countries of the world
outside of the United States. The scales of such maps are often 1:25,000 (1
centimeter on the map equals 250 meters or 0.25 kilometer in the field) or
1:50,000.
In the USGS 7.5-minute series, the scale is 1:24,000, which means that 1
map inch is equal to 24,000 real-world inches—about 0.38 mile—or,
inversely, roughly 2.5 inches to 1 mile (4.2 centimeters to 1 kilometer). The
map’s north-south extent is about 9 miles (14 kilometers), while its east-west
extent varies from about 6 miles (10 kilometers) in the north to about 8 miles
(13 kilometers) in the south. (The east-west span of maps decreases as one
moves north, due to the fact that the lines of longitude converge as they get
closer to the North and South poles.) In the older 15-minute series, the scale
is usually 1:62,500, or about 1 inch to 1 mile (1.6 centimeters to 1
kilometer), and each map covers four times the area of the 7.5-minute maps.
Mountaineers prefer the 7.5-minute maps because of their greater detail. The
scale of 1:24,000 is used for all US states except Alaska, where the scale is
1:63,360.
 The 7.5-minute map is now the standard for the United States, except for
Alaska. The 15-minute maps have been phased out by the USGS for the
other 49 states, though some private companies still produce them (such as
Green Trails Maps for selected regions of Washington, Oregon, California,
Nevada, Arizona, and British Columbia).
Each topographic map is referred to as a quadrangle (or quad) and covers
an area bounded on the north and south by latitude lines that differ by an
amount equal to the map series (such as 7.5 minutes or 15 minutes) and on
the east and west by longitude lines that differ by the same amount. Each
quadrangle is given the name of a prominent topographic or human feature
of the area: for example, USGS Mount Rainier West.

Contour Lines
The distinctive feature of a topographic map that provides the heart of its
useful information is its overlay of contour lines, each line indicating a
constant elevation as it follows the shape of the actual landscape. A map’s
contour interval is the difference in elevation between two adjacent contour
lines. In mountainous areas, this interval is often 40 or 50 feet (12 or 15
meters) on 7.5-minute maps, and 80 or 100 feet (24 or 30 meters) on 15-
minute maps. To make contour lines easier to use, every fifth contour line is
printed darker than the other lines and is labeled periodically with the
elevation. On metric maps, a contour interval of 5, 10, or 20 meters (16, 33,
or 66 feet) is usually used.
A topographic map shows whether a route travels uphill or downhill. If
the route crosses contour lines of increasingly higher elevation, it is going
uphill; if it crosses contour lines of increasingly lower elevation, it is going
downhill. Flat or sidehill travel is indicated by a route that crosses no
contour lines. The direction perpendicular to contour lines is the fall line,
that is, the direction of the slope. Contours also indicate cliffs, summits,
passes, and other terrain features (see Figure 5-2). Climbers can improve
their interpretation of these lines by comparing actual terrain with the map
(see Figure 5-1). The goal is to be able to glance at a topographic map and
have a clear mental image of the actual lay of the land. Following are the
main features depicted by contour lines:
Flat areas have no contour lines at all, or contour lines very far apart (fig.
5-2a).
 Gentle slopes have widely spaced contour lines (fig. 5-2b; see also Figure
5-1a).
Steep slopes have closely spaced contour lines (fig. 5-2c; see also Figure
5-1k).

Fig. 5-2. Contour lines showing basic topographic features.

Cliffs have contour lines extremely close together or touching (fig. 5-2d;
see also Figure 5-1h).
Valleys, ravines, gullies, and couloirs have contour lines in a U or V
pattern pointing uphill. An uphill-pointing U pattern shows a gentle, rounded
valley or gully; an uphill-pointing V pattern shows a sharp valley or gully
(fig. 5-2e; see also Figure 5-1f). The U and V patterns point in the direction
of higher elevation.
Ridges or spurs have contour lines in a U or V pattern pointing downhill.
A downhill-pointing U pattern shows a gentle, rounded ridge; a downhill-
pointing V shows a sharp ridge (fig. 5-2f; see also Figure 5-1j). The U and V
patterns point in the direction of lower elevation.
Peaks or summits have concentric patterns of contour lines, with the
summit the innermost and highest ring (fig. 5-2g; see also Figure 5-1d and i).
A peak may also be indicated by an “x,” an elevation number, a benchmark
(BM), or a triangle symbol.
Cirques or bowls have patterns of contour lines forming a semicircle,
rising from a low spot in the center of the partial circle, showing a natural
amphitheater at the head of a valley (fig. 5-2h).
Saddles, passes, or cols have an hourglass shape, with higher contour
lines on each side, indicating a low point on a ridge (fig. 5-2i; see also
Figure 5-1g). The closer the contour lines, the steeper the terrain.

Other Information on Topographic Maps

The margin of a USGS topographic map holds important information, such
as date of publication and revision, names of maps of adjacent areas, the
contour interval, and the map scale. The margin also gives the area’s
magnetic declination (discussed later in this chapter), which is the difference
between true north and magnetic north.
Topographic maps have certain limitations. They do not show all the
terrain features that can actually be seen on a route because there is a limit to
what can be jammed onto a map without reducing it to an unreadable clutter.
If a feature is not at least as high as the contour interval, it may not be
shown, so if climbers are navigating with a map that has a 40-foot contour
interval, a 30-foot cliff may come as a surprise to them.
All USGS topos have their dates printed upon them. Be sure to check the
date of the map, because topographic maps are not revised very often—so
information on forests, magnetic declination, roads, streams and rivers, and
other changeable features could be out of date. A forest may have been
logged or a road either extended or closed since the last map revision.
Although topographic maps are essential to wilderness travel, climbers may
need to supplement them with information from visitors to the area, Forest
Service or Park Service rangers, guidebooks, and other maps. Note changes
on the map as they are encountered.

Choosing a Topographic Map

The new “US Topo” series maps are, at present, a work in progress. They are
totally digital, with clear, sharp, and accurate representations of topography,
and can be viewed and downloaded free on the USGS.gov website.
However, they currently do not contain certain features commonly found on
the “Historical” topographic maps: trails, printed elevations (other than for
index contours), structures such as buildings and shelters, and edges of
glaciers and permanent snowfields. The USGS plans to add some of these
features over time. Accordingly, these maps are, at least for now, less useful
to the mountaineer than the “Historical” map series.
When using the “Historical” topo maps, it is important to recognize their
temporal nature, especially for older maps. For example, glaciers are
shrinking around the world, so an older “Historical” map may show a glacier
covering an area where it does not exist today. Some other features of the
“US Topo” series maps also differ from those of the “Historical” maps, such
as the representation of contour lines on glaciers as solid blue lines on
“Historical” maps but as brown contour lines on the “US Topo” maps.
Table 5-1 provides a summary of different types of topographic maps for
mountaineering use. Printed topo maps are available from a variety of
sources, including brick-and-mortar stores such as Recreational Equipment,
Inc. and Canadian Map Distribution Centres, as well as by mail order from
the USGS and from online retailers (see Resources).

ROUTEFINDING WITH A MAP

Most routefinding with a map is done by simply looking at the surroundings
and comparing them with the map before, during, and after a trip.

Before the Trip

Before the trip, make some navigational preparations with the map, such as
identifying handrails and baselines (see below), as well as possible
routefinding problems. Prepare a route plan: a well-thought-out description
of how the party plans on navigating to its objective and getting back.
 Identify handrails and baselines. Any linear feature on a map that
parallels the direction of travel is called a handrail: a feature that helps a
party to stay on route. The handrail should be within frequent sight of the
route, so it can serve as an aid to navigation. Roads, trails, powerlines,
railroad tracks, fences, borders of meadows, valleys, streams, cliff bands,
ridges, and lakeshores could all serve as useful handrails.
A long, unmistakable line that always lies in the same direction from the
party, no matter where the party is during a trip, is called a baseline; it
provides another map technique that can help the party find its way home if
they have gone offtrack. A baseline (or catch line) can be a road, the shore
of a large lake, a river, a trail, a powerline, or any other feature that is at least
as long as the area the party will be traveling in. During trip planning, pick
out a baseline. If the party knows the shore of a large lake always lies west
of the trip area, heading west at any time will get the party to this identifiable
landmark and may save the group from being truly lost.
Anticipate routefinding problems. Before the trip, anticipate specific
routefinding problems. For example, if the route traverses a glacier or any
large, featureless area such as a snowfield, consider carrying route-marking
wands (see Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing). Identify any escape
routes that can be used in case of sudden bad weather, loss of visibility, or
other setbacks.
 Obtain maps and route descriptions. Obtain a topographical map or
maps of the area covering the entire route. Allow up to two weeks for postal
delivery of physical topographic maps from the USGS (see Resources at the
back of the book). If the party is doing a spur-of-the-moment trip, go to the
USGS website or a number of others to view, download, and print portions
of the USGS map. Using a color printer provides the most descriptive maps.
Once you have the physical topographic map, read a route description of the
trip in a guidebook or online, if available, then trace the route description
onto the map.
 Prepare GPS. See Table 5-5, “Navigation Workflow with GPS Devices,”
later in this chapter.
Set the compass. Always confirm that your compass is set for the amount
and direction of magnetic declination at the site of the trip (see “Compass,”
below). If the trip is to a location far from home, remember to reset
declination.

During the Trip

Get off on the right foot by making sure that everyone in the party
understands the route and the route plan. At the trailhead, gather the party
around the map, taking time to discuss the route and make contingency plans
in case the party gets separated. On the map, point out where the party is and
correlate the surroundings with what is shown on the physical map in front
of everyone.
Monitor the rate of travel. Part of navigation is having a sense of the
party’s speed; estimating the rate of travel along with elapsed time helps to
maintain orientation. Given all the variables, will it take the party one hour
to travel 2 miles (3.2 kilometers), or will it take two hours to travel 1 mile
(1.6 kilometers)? The answer is rather important if it is 3:00 p.m. and base
camp is still 5 miles (8 kilometers) away. After enough trips into the wilds,
climbers are good at estimating their speed (see the “Typical Speeds for
Average Party” sidebar). There will be much variation; for example, in
heavy brush the rate of travel can drop to a third or even a quarter of what it
would be on a good trail. At high altitudes, the rate of travel will also greatly
decrease, perhaps down to as little as 100 feet (30 meters) of elevation gain
per hour.
With a watch and a notebook (or a good memory), monitor the rate of
progress on any outing. Always make sure to note the time of starting from
the trailhead. Also note the times at which important identifiable streams,
ridges, trail junctions, and other points along the route are reached; this helps
you for the return trip.
Experienced climbers regularly assess their party’s progress and compare
it with trip plans. Make estimates—and reestimates—of what time the party
will reach the summit or other destination, as well as what time the party
will get back to base camp or the trailhead. If it begins to look as though the
party could become trapped in tricky terrain after dark, the group may decide
to change its plans and bivouac in a safe place or call it a day and return
home.

TYPICAL SPEEDS FOR AVERAGE PARTY

Hiking on a gentle trail, with a light day pack: 2 to 3 miles per
hour (3 to 5 kilometers per hour)
Hiking up a steep trail, with a heavy full-size pack: 1 to 2 miles
per hour (2 to 3 kilometers per hour)
Traveling cross-country up a moderate slope, with a light day
pack: 1,000 feet (300 meters) of elevation gain per hour
Traveling cross-country up a moderate slope, with a heavy full-
size pack: 500 feet (150 meters) of elevation gain per hour

Relate surroundings to the map. Along the way, everyone should keep
relating the terrain to the map. Ignorance is definitely not bliss for any
daydreaming climber who does not pay attention to the territory and then
gets separated from the party. Whenever a new landmark appears, connect it
with the map. At every chance—at a pass, a clearing, or a break in the clouds
—update your fix on the group’s exact position. Keeping track of your
position this way makes it easy to plan each succeeding leg of the trip, and it
will help to prevent climbers from getting lost. It also may turn them into
expert map interpreters, because they will know what a specific valley or
ridge looks like compared with its representation on the map.
Look ahead to the return trip. The route always looks amazingly
different on the way back. Avoid surprises and confusion by glancing back
over your shoulder from time to time on the way in to see what the route
should look like on the return. If you cannot keep track of it all, jot down
times, elevations, landmarks, and so on in a notebook. A few cryptic words
—“7,600, intersect ridge”—can save a lot of grief on the descent. It will
remind you that when the party has dropped to 7,600 feet, it is time to leave
the ridge and start down the slope. If using a GPS device, you should mark
waypoints at crucial points along the way; also see Table 5-5, “Navigation
Workflow with GPS Devices,” later in this chapter.
Think about the route. Your brain is your most valuable navigational
tool; be sure to use it. As the party heads upward, ask questions: “How will
we recognize this important spot on our return?” “What will we do if the
climb leader is injured?” “Would we be able to find our way out in a
whiteout or if snow covered our tracks?” “Should we be using wands or
other route-marking methods right now?” “Should I mark and save a
waypoint here?” Ask the questions as you go, and act on the answers. Each
person in the party should know the route, the route plan, and how to get
back.
Mark the route if necessary. At times, it may be best to mark the route
going in so that it can be found again on the way out. This situation can arise
when the route is over snowfields or glaciers during changeable weather,
when the route is in heavy forest, or when fog or nightfall threatens to hide
landmarks. On snow, climbers sometimes use wands to mark the path. In the
forest, plastic surveyors’ tape is sometimes tied to branches to show the
route, but its use is discouraged due to its blight and permanence. From an
ecological standpoint, a short length of unbleached toilet paper is the best
marker, because it will usually disintegrate during the next rainfall. Use
toilet paper if you are certain of dry weather. If not, use white crepe paper in
thin rolls. It will survive an approaching storm but will disintegrate over the
winter.
One commandment is needed here: Remove route markers. Markers are
litter, and mountaineers never, ever litter. If there is any chance the party will
not come back the same way and will not be able to remove the markers, be
especially sure to use degradable paper markers.
Piles of rocks used as markers—cairns—appear here and there,
sometimes dotting an entire route and at other times signaling the point
where a route changes direction. These heaps of rock are another imposition
on the landscape, and they can create confusion for any traveler but the one
who put them together—so do not build them. If there comes a time when a
cairn must be built, then do so, but tear it down on the way out. The rule is
different for existing cairns: let them be, on the assumption that someone,
perhaps even land managers, may depend on them.
Keep oriented. As the trip goes on, it may be helpful to mark the party’s
progress on the map. Keep oriented so that at any time you can point out
your actual position to within roughly a half mile (about a kilometer) on the
map.

On Technical Portions of a Climb

When the going gets tough, it is easy to forget about navigation and start
worrying about the next foothold—but climbers should keep the map and
other route information handy for use during occasional rests. On rock
climbs, do not let the mechanics of technical climbing overwhelm the need
to stay on route.

On a Summit
The summit provides a golden opportunity to rest, relax, and enjoy—and to
learn more about the area and about map reading by comparing the actual
view with the way it looks on the map. The summit is also the place to make
final plans for the descent, which often leads to many more routefinding
errors than on the ascent. Remind one another that once the party has
reached the summit, the climb is only half complete, so avoid letting your
guard down with regard to safety and care in navigation. Repeat the trailhead
get-together by discussing the route plan and emergency strategies with
everyone. Stress the importance of keeping the party together on the descent,
when some climbers will want to race ahead while others lag behind. Give
yourselves enough time to return to camp or car in daylight on the way
down.

During a Descent
The descent of a climb is a time for extra caution while mountaineers fight to
keep fatigue and inattention at bay. As on the ascent, everyone should
maintain a good sense of the route and how it relates to the map. Stay
together, do not rush, and be even more careful if the party is taking a
descent route that is different from the ascent route.
Fig. 5-3. Navigating to a specific point on a line: a, inevitable minor errors can sometimes have
disastrous consequences; b, to avoid such problems, follow a course with an intentional offset.

Imagine that the climbing team is almost back to the car after a tough 12-
hour climb. The party follows a compass bearing directly back to the logging
road but cannot see the car, because the group has gotten off route by a few
degrees. The car is on the road to either the left or the right, perhaps around a
bend, so the party may have to guess which way to go. It will be a bad
ending to a good day if the car is to the right of the route and the party goes
left. It will be even worse if the car is parked at the end of the road and a
routefinding error takes the party beyond that point and on and on through
the forest (fig. 5-3a).
Intentional offset. This situation gave rise to the concept of intentional
offset, also called aiming off (fig. 5-3b). If the party fears it might get into
this kind of trouble, just travel in a direction that is intentionally offset some
amount (say, 20 to 30 degrees) to the right or the left of where it really wants
to be. When the group intersects the road (or river, ridge, or whatever), there
will be less doubt about which way to turn. The correct location can
sometimes be confirmed using an altimeter (see below).

After the Trip

Back home, write a description of the route and of any problems, mistakes,
or unusual features; do it while the details are fresh in mind. Imagine what
you would like to know if you were about to take this trip for the first time,
so you will be ready with the right answers when another hiker or climber
asks about it. If a guidebook or a map was confusing or wrong, take time to
write to the publisher.

ALTIMETER
Mountaineers have long understood the importance of knowing elevation for
navigation. An altimeter provides a simple elevation point. With a
topographic map and just one more scrap of data—a trail, a stream, a ridge,
or a bearing to a known peak—location can often be determined. By
monitoring elevation and checking it against the topographic map,
mountaineers can keep track of their progress, pinpoint their location, and
find the way to critical junctions in the route. Every climber in the party
should carry some type of altimeter.
Barometric altimeters. Sometimes called pressure altimeters, these are
basically modified barometers. Both instruments measure air pressure (the
weight of air), but whereas the barometer is calibrated in inches of mercury,
hectopascals, or millibars, the altimeter is calibrated in feet or meters above
sea level based on the predictable decrease in air pressure with increasing
altitude. Barometric altimeters are available in digital wristwatches and on
some GPS devices. They are affected by weather changes and so must be set
at a known elevation.
Digital altimeters. Today’s digital altimeter is based on a sliver of silicon
that can measure air pressure (barometrically) or use GPS satellite signals—
or a combination of the two. The most popular digital altimeter is the unit
worn on the wrist. Most climbers wear a watch anyway, so this type of
altimeter is helpful because it combines two functions in one piece of
equipment. The altimeter worn on the wrist is also more convenient to use
than one kept in a pocket or pack. Some digital altimeters display additional
information, such as the temperature and the rate of change in altitude gain
or loss.
Though a digital altimeter requires a battery, these batteries are usually
good for years, and climbing parties typically carry more than one altimeter,
so if one altimeter’s battery dies, another climber’s altimeter can be used.
Another drawback to digital altimeters is that their liquid-crystal display
(LCD) screens usually go blank at temperatures near about 0 degrees
Fahrenheit (minus 18 degrees Celsius), though this is usually not a problem
if they are worn on the wrist and under a parka. (To keep an altimeter watch
from getting banged up on the rock or ice when a climber is starting a
technical pitch, it is a good idea to remove it from the wrist and attach it to a
pack strap or put it in a pocket or pack.) Inexpensive wristwatch altimeters
costing less than $40 are perfectly adequate for mountaineering use.
Wristwatch altimeters are instantly available for a quick check of altitude,
whereas GPS devices (see below) are frequently turned off to conserve
battery power, and after they are turned back on, require a minute or more to
acquire satellite signals and display a position and altitude.
Altimeter as a function of GPS devices. GPS devices determine position
in three dimensions—horizontal position (from east to west and from north
to south) as well as elevation above sea level—and can therefore display a
climber’s altitude as determined by GPS satellites, rather than by barometric
pressure. Some phones, as well as dedicated GPS units, also have an internal
altimeter using a barometric pressure sensor and can display altitude derived
from multiple sources based on the two types of sensors, or one altitude that
uses both sensors. Some GPS apps for phones (see “GPS” later in this
chapter) include altitude readouts as well as horizontal position; other apps
are available that display altitude only.

TABLE 5-2. COMPARISON OF ALTIMETERS

ALTIMETER COST ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

TYPE

Digital $40 to Convenient to Needs recalibration

wristwatch $600 carry; altitude for changes in
always displayed weather; LCD screen
 at a glance; can go blank at
inexpensive unit subfreezing
is adequate; long temperatures; battery
battery life occasionally needs
replacement (one
year or more battery
life)

Dedicated Internal GPS (satellite- Needs time to access

GPS unit barometer derived) altitude satellites before
adds $50 reading displaying altitude;
or more unaffected by shorter battery life
to cost of weather; altitude than wrist or pocket
GPS plus position units; LCD screen
device displayed can go blank at
together; may subfreezing
display altitude temperatures
from GPS or
internal
barometric
altimeter

Smartphone Free app Same as above Same disadvantages

with app as above; also may
need a case to make
it rugged enough for
mountaineering use

Analog altimeters. Early altimeters were expensive analog devices with

Swiss-made gears. They have been almost totally replaced by today’s
ubiquitous digital wristwatch altimeters.
Altimeter accuracy. The accuracy of a barometric altimeter depends on
the weather because a change in weather is generally accompanied by a
change in air pressure, which changes the altimeter reading. During periods
of unstable weather, the indicated elevation may change by as much as 500
feet (150 meters) in one day even though the actual elevation has remained
the same. Even during apparently stable conditions, an erroneously indicated
change in elevation of 100 feet (30 meters) per day is not uncommon.
Because of the strong influence of weather on a barometric altimeter’s
accuracy, do not trust the instrument until it is first set at a location of known
elevation, such as a trailhead or using a GPS device. Then, while traveling,
check the reading whenever another point of known elevation is reached (or
occasionally using GPS) and reset the altimeter if necessary, or at least be
aware of the error. A combined GPS-barometric altimeter can usually do
better. Table 5-2 provides a summary of the features of altimeters used for
mountaineering.

HOW ALTIMETERS AID MOUNTAINEERS

Altimeters can help mountaineers in several key ways: calculating the
party’s rate of ascent, determining its position (orientation) and navigating,
and predicting the weather.

Calculating Rate of Ascent

The altimeter helps mountaineers decide whether to continue a climb or to
turn back, by letting them calculate their rate of ascent. For example, during
a climb, a party that checks time and elevation hourly, by taking altimeter
readings, sees that they have gained only 500 feet (150 meters) in the past
hour. The summit is at an elevation of 8,400 feet (2,560 meters), and an
altimeter reading shows the party is now at 6,400 feet (1,950 meters), so they
still have 2,000 feet (610 meters) to gain. The climbers can predict that if
they maintain their present ascent rate, it will take roughly four more hours
to reach the summit. That information, courtesy of the altimeter, combined
with a look at the weather, the time of day, and the condition of the party
members, gives the group the data on which to base a sound decision about
whether to proceed with the climb or turn back.

Determining Position and Navigating

An altimeter also can help determine exactly where a party is (orientation).
If they are climbing a ridge or hiking up a trail shown on the map but they
do not know their exact position along the ridge or trail, they can check the
altimeter for elevation. The likely location is where the ridge or trail reaches
the contour line closest to that elevation on the map.
 Another way to use an altimeter to determine where a climbing party is
located is to start with a compass bearing to a summit or some other known
feature (see “Compass” below). Find that peak on the map, and plot the
bearing line from the mountain back toward the climbing party. The group
now knows it must be somewhere along that line—but where? Take an
altimeter reading and find out the elevation. The party’s likely location is
where the compass bearing line crosses a contour line at that elevation on the
map.
The altimeter, map, and compass can be used together to help confirm or
reject your assumed location by using the fall line: the direction a falling
object travels downhill. Since the direction perpendicular to the contour lines
indicates the direction uphill or downhill, a climber can take a bearing in the
direction of the fall line and note the elevation using the altimeter. Then a
glance at the map for your assumed location should show that the direction
perpendicular to the contour lines at that elevation is the same as that
measured with your compass. If they match, your assumed position may be
correct, though not with absolute certainty. If they do not match, then your
assumed position is definitely wrong.
Navigation gets easier with the aid of an altimeter. If climbers find a
convenient couloir that gains the summit ridge, they can note the elevation
of the top of the couloir. On the way back, they can descend the ridge to that
same elevation to easily find the couloir again, to ensure that they descend
the correct couloir. Some guidebook descriptions direct climbers to change
course at particular elevations; doing so is much easier if an altimeter is
used.
Last but not least, an altimeter may reveal whether the party is on the true
summit, not a false one, for example, when the visibility is too poor to allow
climbers to tell by looking around.

Predicting Weather
The barometric altimeter can help in predicting weather. The readings on a
barometric altimeter and on a barometer operate inversely to each other:
when one goes up, the other goes down. A barometric altimeter reading
showing an increase in elevation when no actual elevation change has taken
place (such as at camp overnight) means a falling barometric pressure, which
often predicts deteriorating weather. A decreasing barometric altimeter
reading, on the other hand, means increasing barometric pressure and
improving weather. This is an oversimplification, of course, because weather
forecasting is complicated by the wind, local weather peculiarities, and the
rate of barometric pressure change. (See “Field Forecasting in the
Mountains” in Chapter 28, Mountain Weather, for more information on
interpreting barometric changes.)
Some digital wristwatch altimeters can be adjusted to read barometric
pressure instead of altitude, but keep in mind that changes in barometric
pressure are caused not only by changes in the weather but also by changes
in elevation while climbing. This will lead to erroneous conclusions
regarding barometric pressure.
GPS devices whose altitude display is derived from GPS satellites only
(devices that do not use internal barometric sensors) are not useful by
themselves for weather forecasting. To differentiate between changes in air
pressure readings caused by changes in elevation while climbing or
descending and those caused by changing weather conditions, first calibrate
the barometric altimeter to the GPS elevation and then watch to see if they
diverge significantly over the next few hours. If the barometric altimeter
diverges from the GPS altitude, the cause is likely due to changing weather
conditions. See Table 28-2 to determine what action to take.

CAUTIONS REGARDING ALTIMETER USE

Because barometric altimeters are strongly affected by the weather, do not be
misled into trusting them to an accuracy greater than is possible. Though a
typical high-quality barometric altimeter may have a resolution of 3 feet (1
meter), this does not mean that the altimeter will be that accurate. Changes
in weather could easily throw the reading off by hundreds of feet or meters.
An altimeter sensor expands and contracts due to variations in
temperature, causing changes in the indicated elevation. All altimeters
compensate for temperature changes, but the compensation is not perfect.
Try to keep the temperature of an altimeter as constant as possible. Body
heat is usually enough to warm a wristwatch altimeter, particularly if it is
worn under a parka when the outside temperature is low.
Get to know your own altimeter, use it often, check it at every
opportunity, and note differences of information between it and the map.
Recalibrate barometric altimeters at known elevations (for instance, saddles
or summits). You will soon know just what accuracy to expect, and your
altimeter will then be a dependable aid.
COMPASS
A compass is essentially a freely rotating magnetized needle that responds to
the earth’s magnetic field and is marked on one end to indicate north.
Available compasses include the traditional baseplate compass, compass
apps for smartphones, and features in some dedicated GPS units and some
watches. The baseplate compass is an essential tool for navigation, not only
to determine direction but also to measure and plot bearings on a map. The
baseplate compass doesn’t require batteries or calibration, and it operates in
subzero temperatures. The essential features of a baseplate compass (fig. 5-
4a) are as follows:

Fig. 5-4. Features of mountaineering compasses: a, essential features; b, useful optional features.
 Rotating housing (bezel). This is sometimes filled with a fluid to
dampen (reduce) vibrations of the needle.
Dial around the circumference of the housing. This dial is
graduated clockwise in degrees from 0 to 360.
Orienting arrow and a set of parallel meridian lines. These are
used for aligning with a map.
Transparent baseplate. This includes a direction-of-travel line.
Rulers. These are used for measuring distances on a map.
Index line. Bearings are read and set at the index line, which may be
one end of the direction-of-travel line.
Optional features on some compasses (fig. 5-4b) include the following:
Adjustable declination arrow. The adjustable declination arrow is
an easy way to correct for magnetic declination. “Gear-driven”
adjustability, made with a tiny screwdriver, is easier and more
dependable than “tool-free” adjustability.
Sighting mirror. This mirror, with a sighting notch at the top of the
housing, improves accuracy (and also permits emergency signaling).
The direction-of-travel line may be a line extending from the notch
across the center of the mirror.
Clinometer. This is used to measure the angle of a slope and the
upward or downward angle to another object (see “Clinometer” later
in this chapter).
Romer scale. A Romer (interpolation) scale is used to measure UTM
position.
Lanyard. This cord attaches the compass to a belt, jacket, or pack.
Putting it around your neck is unsafe, particularly when doing any
technical climbing.
Magnifying glass. Use the magnifier to help read closely spaced
contour lines.
Some compasses that have an adjustable declination arrow but no mirror
offer a good cost compromise. Table 5-3 provides a summary of compass
characteristics for mountaineering use.

BEARINGS
A bearing (also known as an azimuth) is the direction from one place to
another, measured in degrees of angle from true north. The round dial of a
compass is divided into 360 degrees (fig. 5-5). The cardinal directions are:
north at 0 degrees (the same as 360 degrees), east at 90 degrees, south at 180
degrees, and west at 270 degrees. The intercardinal directions are halfway
between the cardinal directions: northeast is at 45 degrees; southeast, 135
degrees; southwest, 225 degrees; and northwest, 315 degrees.
The compass is used for two tasks regarding bearings:
1. Taking bearings, also known as measuring bearings. Taking a bearing
means measuring the direction from one point to another, either on a
map or on the ground.

TABLE 5-3. COMPARISON OF COMPASS TYPES

COMPASS COST ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

TYPE

Full-featured $50 to No need to Most expensive

with gear- $90 correct for
driven magnetic
adjustable declination
declination mentally or by
arrow and modifying
sighting mirror compass

Full-featured $20 to Same as above Some have difficult-

with tool-free $50 to-use declination
adjustable adjustment.
declination
arrow and
sighting mirror

Full-featured $20 to Same as above Slightly less accurate

with gear- $50 without mirror
driven
adjustable
declination
arrow; no
sighting mirror
Full-featured $20 to Same as above Same as above;
with tool-free $30 some have difficult-
adjustable to-use declination
declination adjustment.
arrow; no
sighting mirror

Basic baseplate $10 to Lowest cost Must correct

compass $40 declination mentally
without or by modifying
adjustable compass (see
declination “Adjusting Bearings
arrow; no for Magnetic
sighting mirror Declination” later in
this chapter)

Electronic Often Convenience of Cannot use to

compass on included one instrument measure or plot
dedicated GPS in these for several bearings on map;
unit, digital functions may require
smartphone, or items recalibrations;
watch battery-dependent;
may not display at
subfreezing
temperatures
Fig. 5-5. Cardinal and intercardinal directions and corresponding bearings in degrees on the
compass.

2. Plotting bearings, also known as following bearings. Plotting a

bearing means setting a specified bearing on the compass and then
plotting out, or following, the direction where that bearing points,
either on a map or on the ground.

Bearings on a Map
The compass is used as a protractor to both measure and plot bearings on a
map. Magnetic north and magnetic declination have nothing to do with these
operations. Therefore, never make any use of the magnetic needle when
taking or plotting bearings on a map. The only time the magnetic needle is
used on the map is whenever you orient the map to true north (see
“Orientation by Instrument” later in this chapter), but there is no need to
orient the map to measure or plot bearings.
Taking (measuring) a bearing on the map. Place the compass on the
map, with one long edge of the baseplate running directly between two
points of interest (fig. 5-6). While measuring the bearing from point A to
point B, make sure that the compass’s direction-of-travel line always points
in the direction from point A to point B, as shown—don’t reverse the
compass 180 degrees so the direction-of-travel line points from B to A.
Fig. 5-6. Taking a bearing on a map with the compass as a protractor (magnetic needle omitted for
clarity).

Then turn the rotating housing, or bezel, until its meridian lines are
parallel to the north-south lines on the map. If the map does not have north-
south lines, draw some in, parallel to the edge of the map and at intervals of
1 to 2 inches (3 to 5 centimeters). Be sure the orienting arrow (not the
magnetic needle) that turns with the meridian lines is pointing to the top of
the map, to the north. If the orienting arrow is pointed toward the bottom of
the map, to the south, the reading will be 180 degrees off. (In Figure 5-6, the
magnetic needle has been omitted to provide a better view of the meridian
lines and orienting arrow.)
Now read the number on the dial that intersects with the index line. This is
the bearing from point A to point B. In the example shown in Figure 5-6, the
bearing from point A, Panic Peak, to point B, Deception Dome, is 34
degrees.
Plotting (following) a bearing on the map. To follow a bearing, you
must start with a known bearing. Where does that bearing come from? It
comes from an actual landscape compass reading. In a hypothetical example,
a friend returns from a climb, remorseful for having left his camera
somewhere along the trail. During a rest stop, he had taken some pictures of
Mount Magnificent, and at the same time, he had taken a compass bearing
on Mount Magnificent and found it to be 130 degrees. That is all you need to
know. You happen to be heading into that same area next week, so get out
the Mount Magnificent quadrangle, and prepare to figure out where your
friend left his camera.
First, turn the rotating housing to set the bearing of 130 degrees at the
compass index line (fig. 5-7). Next, place the compass on the map, with one
long edge of the baseplate touching the summit of Mount Magnificent. Now
rotate the entire compass (without further turning the rotating housing) until
the compass meridian lines are parallel with the map’s north-south lines
(again, draw some lines on the map if necessary; see the preceding section),
and make sure the edge of the baseplate is still touching the mountain’s
summit. Ensure that the orienting arrow points to the top of the map, toward
north.

Fig. 5-7. Plotting a bearing on a map with the compass as a protractor (magnetic needle omitted for
clarity).

Now follow the edge of the baseplate, heading in the opposite direction
from the direction-of-travel line, because the original bearing was measured
toward the mountain. Where an imaginary line extending from the edge of
the baseplate crosses the trail is where your friend’s camera is (or was last
week).

Bearings in the Field

All bearings in the field are based on where the magnetic needle points, so
now that needle must do its job. The first two examples below, for the sake
of simplicity, ignore the effects of magnetic declination (covered in the next
section): imagine taking bearings in central Arkansas, where declination is
negligible in 2017.
Taking (measuring) a bearing in the field. Holding the compass in front
of you, first, point the direction-of-travel line at the object whose bearing
you want to find (fig. 5-8). Second, rotate the compass housing until the
pointed end of the orienting arrow is aligned with the north-seeking end of
the magnetic needle. Last, read the bearing on the dial where it intersects the
index line; for example, in Figure 5-8 the bearing is 270 degrees.
If the compass has no sighting mirror, hold the compass at or near arm’s
length and at or near waist level (fig. 5-9). If the compass has a sighting
mirror, fold the mirror back at about a 45-degree angle and hold the compass
at eye level, with the sighting notch at the top of the mirror pointing at the
object (fig. 5-10). Observe the magnetic needle and the orienting arrow in
the mirror while rotating the housing to align the needle and the arrow.

Fig. 5-8. Taking a compass bearing in the field in an area with zero declination.
Fig. 5-9. Holding compass with no sighting mirror at arm’s length and waist height.

Fig. 5-10. Using a sighting mirror.

In either case, hold the compass level. Keep it away from ferrous metal
objects, which can easily deflect the magnetic needle (see “Cautions in
Using a Compass” below).
Plotting (following) a bearing in the field. Simply reverse the process
used to take a bearing in the field. Start by rotating the compass housing
until the desired bearing, say 270 degrees (due west), is set at the index line
(see Figure 5-8). Hold the compass level in front of you, and then turn your
entire body (including your feet) until the north-seeking end of the magnetic
needle is aligned with the pointed end of the orienting arrow. The direction-
of-travel line is now pointing due west.
Fig. 5-11. Projected magnetic declination in the United States (excepting Alaska) in 2020.

MAGNETIC DECLINATION
A compass needle is attracted to magnetic north, whereas most maps are
oriented to a different point on the earth: the geographic North Pole, called
true north. This difference between the direction to true north and the
direction to magnetic north is called magnetic declination. It is usually
expressed in degrees east or west of true north. A simple compass
adjustment or modification is necessary to correct for magnetic declination.
The line connecting all points where true north aligns with magnetic north
is called the line of zero declination. In the United States, this line now runs
from Minnesota to Louisiana (fig. 5-11). In areas west of the line of zero
declination, the magnetic needle points somewhere to the east of true north,
so these areas are said to have east declination. It works just the opposite
east of the line of zero declination, where the magnetic needle points
somewhere to the west of true north: these areas have west declination.

Changes in Magnetic Declination

Declination changes with time (hence, figures show projected declination),
because the molten magnetic material in the earth’s core is continually
moving. Declination is shown on all USGS topographic maps, but since
these are not updated very frequently, the declination shown on maps may be
somewhat out of date. The map in Figure 5-11 shows the declination for the
year 2020 for the contiguous 48 states and Hawaii, and it will be accurate to
within about half a degree for most such locations from 2017 to about 2023.
The map in Figure 5-12 shows the declination for the year 2018 for the
state of Alaska, and it should be accurate to within about 1 degree for the
period from 2016 to 2020. Some websites can be used to find the current
magnetic declination for any location on the earth (fig. 5-13): the Geological
Survey of Canada calculator at the National Resources Canada (NRCan)
site, for example, as well as the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration’s (NOAA) National Geophysical Data Center site (see
Resources).

Fig. 5-12. Projected magnetic declination in Alaska in 2018.

Fig. 5-13. World declination map for the year 2015: lines of constant declination are at 2-degree
intervals. Positive numbers indicate east declinations, and negative numbers indicate west
declinations.

As an example of declination change, a USGS map of the Snoqualmie

Pass area of Washington State dated 1989 stated a declination of 19°30’E
(19.5 degrees). Another map of the same area dated 2003 gave a declination
of 18°10’E (18.2 degrees).
Declination change varies widely throughout the world. In Washington,
DC, declination is barely changing as of 2017. In northeast Alaska, it is
changing by as much as 1 degree every three years. In Washington State, the
change is about 1 degree every six years. In Colorado, it is about 1 degree
every eight years. (These values can be found for any location in the world
using either the NOAA or NRCan website; see Resources.) From these
examples, it should be clear that the declination on maps more than a few
years old should not be trusted; it is important to find the latest declination
information to prevent errors in navigation by compass.

Adjusting Bearings for Magnetic Declination

Consider a traveler in eastern Idaho, where the declination is 12 degrees east
(fig. 5-14a). The true bearing is a measurement of the angle between the line
to true north and the line to the objective. The compass’s magnetic needle,
however, is pulled toward magnetic north, not true north. So instead it
measures the angle between the line to magnetic north and the line to the
objective. This magnetic bearing is 12 degrees less than the true bearing in
eastern Idaho. To get the true bearing, it is possible to add 12 degrees to the
magnetic bearing, though easier ways are described in the “Adjustable
declination arrow” paragraph below.
Travelers in all areas west of the zero declination line, as in the Idaho
example above, could add the declination to the magnetic bearing. In the
Rocky Mountains of Colorado, for example, about 8 degrees would be
added. In central Washington State, it is about 15 degrees.
East of the zero declination line, the declination can be subtracted from
the magnetic bearing to get the true bearing. In northern New Hampshire, for
example, the magnetic bearing is 15 degrees greater than the true bearing
(fig. 5-14b). Subtracting the declination of 15 degrees gives a climber in
New Hampshire the true bearing.
Adjustable declination arrow. Adjusting for magnetic declination is very
simple in theory but can be confusing in practice, and in the wilderness,
errors in mental arithmetic can have potentially serious consequences. A
more practical way to handle the minor complication of declination is to pay
somewhat more for a compass with an adjustable declination arrow (as
shown in Figure 5-4b) instead of buying one with a fixed orienting arrow (as
shown in Figure 5-4a). The declination arrow can quickly be set for any
declination by following the instructions supplied with the compass. Then
the bearing at the index line will automatically be the true bearing, and there
will be no need for concern about a declination error. If climbers travel to a
location with a different declination, they can make a simple adjustment to
set the new declination value.
Fig. 5-14. Magnetic and true bearings: a, in Idaho, east declination; b, in New Hampshire, west
declination.

Customized declination arrow. On compasses with fixed, nonadjustable

orienting arrows, a similar effect can be achieved by sticking a thin strip of
adhesive or masking tape to the bottom of the rotating housing to serve as a
customized declination arrow, as shown in Figure 5-15. Trim the tape to a
point, with the point aimed directly at the specific declination for the
intended climbing area, and use this homemade arrow, not the prepainted
original.
In the eastern Idaho example, the taped declination arrow must point at 12
degrees east (clockwise) from the 360-degree point (marked “N” for north)
on the rotating compass dial (fig. 5-15a). In the northern New Hampshire
example, it must point at 15 degrees west (counterclockwise) from the 360-
degree point on the dial, that is, at 345 degrees (fig. 5-15b). In central
Washington State, it must point at 15 degrees east (clockwise) from 360
degrees. If you travel to a place with a different declination, peel the tape off
and apply a new customized tape arrow for the new declination.
Fig. 5-15. Compass declination corrections (magnetic needle omitted for clarity): a, for an area west
of the zero-declination line (Idaho); b, for an area east of the zero-declination line (New Hampshire).

Taking or following bearings in the field. To take or to follow a bearing

(that has been adjusted for magnetic declination) in the field, follow exactly
the same procedure used in the earlier examples from Arkansas (see
“Bearings in the Field” above), where the declination is near zero. The only
difference is that you will now align the magnetic needle with the adjustable
declination arrow or the taped declination arrow instead of with the orienting
arrow.
Note: From here on, this chapter assumes you are using a compass with a
declination arrow—either an adjustable arrow or an added tape arrow. For all
bearings in the field, align the needle with this declination arrow. Unless
otherwise stated, all bearings referred to in this chapter are true bearings, not
magnetic.

COMPASS DIP
The magnetic needle of the compass is affected not only by the horizontal
direction of the earth’s magnetic field but also by its vertical pull. The closer
a compass user gets to the magnetic North Pole, the more the north-seeking
end of the needle tends to point downward, toward the ground. Near the
equator, the needle is level; at the magnetic South Pole, the north-seeking
end of the needle tries to point upward. This phenomenon is referred to as
compass dip.
To compensate for this effect, most compass manufacturers purposely
introduce a slight imbalance to the magnetic needles of their compasses, so
that their dip is negligible for the geographic area where they will be used.
However, if a climber buys a compass in the northern hemisphere—say, in
North America or Europe—and then tries to use it in the southern
hemisphere—say, in New Zealand or Chile—the difference in dip may be
enough to introduce errors in compass readings or even make it impossible
to use. For this reason, if climbers bring compasses to a faraway place, as
soon as they get to the country they are visiting, they must first try out their
compasses in an urban area to make sure they work properly before heading
out into the wilderness, and then purchase one balanced for dip in that area if
they do not work.
Some compass manufacturers produce compasses that are not affected by
dip. Some such compasses have the term “global” in their names or a
notation on the package that the compass is corrected for dip anywhere in
the world, though these are generally more expensive. Climbers who intend
to go on worldwide climbing expeditions might consider such a compass.

COMPASS PRACTICE
Before counting on your compass skills in the wilderness, test them near
where you live (see the “Map and Compass Checklist” sidebar). The best
place to practice is someplace where you already know all the answers, such
as a street intersection where the roads run exactly north-south and east-
west. Avoid any location near metallic objects such as fire hydrants.
Take a bearing in a direction you know to be east. When the direction-of-
travel line or arrow is pointed at something that you know is due east of you
—such as the edge of the sidewalk or a road or a curb that is east of you—
and the declination arrow is lined up with the magnetic needle, the number
on the dial that intersects with the index line should be within a few degrees
of 90. Repeat for the other cardinal directions: south, west, and north.
 Then do the reverse: Pretend you do not know which way is west. Set 270
degrees (west) at the index line and hold the compass in front of you as you
turn your entire body until the magnetic needle is again aligned with the
declination arrow. The direction-of-travel line should now point west. Does
it? Repeat for the other cardinal directions. This set of exercises will help
develop skill and self-confidence at compass reading and also is a way to
check the accuracy of the compass.

MAP AND COMPASS CHECKLIST

Do you understand how to use a map and compass? Run through the
whole procedure once more. Check off each step as you do it. And
remember the following:
Never use the magnetic needle or the declination arrow when
measuring or plotting bearings on the map.
When taking or following a bearing in the field, always align the
pointed end of the declination arrow with the north-seeking (usually
red) end of the magnetic needle.

Taking (Measuring) a Bearing on a Map

1. Place the compass on the map, with the edge of the baseplate
joining the two points of interest.
2. Rotate the housing to align the compass meridian lines with the
north-south lines on the map.
3. Read the bearing at the compass’s index line.

Plotting (Following) a Bearing on a Map

1. Set the desired bearing at the index line by rotating the compass
housing.
2. Place the compass on the map, with the edge of the baseplate on the
feature from which you wish to plot a bearing.
3. Turn the entire compass to align the meridian lines with the map’s
north-south lines. The edge of the baseplate is the bearing line.

Taking (Measuring) a Bearing in the Field

1. Hold the compass level in front of you and point the direction-of-
travel line at the desired object.
 2. Rotate the housing to align the declination arrow with the magnetic
needle.
3. Read the bearing at the index line.

Plotting (Following) a Bearing in the Field

1. Set the desired bearing at the index line by rotating the compass
housing.
2. Hold the compass level in front of you and turn your entire body
until the magnetic needle is aligned with the declination arrow.
3. Travel in the direction shown by the direction-of-travel line.

Look for chances to practice in the mountains. A good place is any known
location—such as a summit or a lake-shore—from which identifiable
landmarks can be seen. Take bearings as time permits, plot them on the map,
and see how close the result is to the actual location.

CAUTIONS IN USING A COMPASS

It pays to understand some common errors made while using a compass and
other factors that may affect its functioning.
Map and compass versus fieldwork. When measuring and plotting
bearings on a map, completely ignore the compass needle. The compass is
simply being used as a protractor, so just align the meridian lines on the
compass housing with the north-south lines on the map. For taking and
following bearings in the wilderness, however, the magnetic needle must
obviously be used.
Metal interference. The presence of nearby metal can interfere with a
compass reading. Ferrous objects—iron, steel, and other materials with
magnetic properties—will deflect the magnetic needle and produce false
readings. Keep the compass away from watches, belt buckles, ice axes, and
other metal objects such as a vehicle. Iron content in nearby rocks can make
the bearing information nearly useless. If a compass reading does not seem
to make sense, move 10 to 100 feet (3 to 30 meters) and check to see if the
bearing changes. If so, it is likely being affected by nearby metal.
Errors of 180 degrees. Keep your wits about you when pointing the
declination arrow and the direction-of-travel line. If either is pointed
backward—an easy thing to do—the reading will be 180 degrees off. (If
outside, note where the sun is in the sky. That can often help jog your
directional presence of mind.) If the bearing is north, the compass will say it
is south. Remember that the north-seeking end of the magnetic needle must
be aligned with the pointed end of the declination arrow and that the
direction-of-travel line must point from you to the objective, not the reverse.
There is yet another way to introduce a 180-degree error in a compass
reading: by aligning the compass meridian lines with the north-south lines
on a map but pointing the rotating housing backward. The way to avoid this
is to check that “N” on the compass dial is pointing to north (usually the top)
on the map.
Trust the compass. If you are in doubt, trust the compass. The compass,
correctly used, is almost always right, whereas a climber’s contrary
judgment may be clouded by fatigue, confusion, or hurry. If you get a
nonsensical reading, check to see that you are not making one of those 180-
degree errors. If not, and if there is no metal in sight, verify the reading with
other members of the party and other navigation devices: altimeter and GPS.
If other navigation devices provide the same answer, trust the tools over
hunches and intuition.

CLINOMETER
Clinometers are useful tools for measuring the angle of a slope for
orientation and for assessing avalanche risk (see Chapter 17, Avalanche
Safety). Clinometers are a feature of some compasses; they are also available
as small devices that attach to ski poles and on phones as smartphone apps.
The compass clinometer (see Figure 5-4b) consists of a small
nonmagnetic needle that points, due to gravity, downward toward a scale
calibrated in degrees. To use the clinometer, first set either 90 or 270 degrees
at the index line. Then hold the compass on edge and with the direction-of-
travel line level, so that the clinometer needle swings freely and points
downward toward the numbered scale. The needle should then point to 0
degrees. Tilting the compass up or down then causes the needle to point to
the number of degrees of inclination.
You can also align the baseplate edge with a distant slope in profile to
measure its inclination (fig. 5-16), or set the baseplate edge on a ski pole or
ice axe (aligned on the fall line) to measure the local slope. Phone clinometer
apps measure slope angle by using the edge of the phone or, for distant
points, the camera. The ski-pole clinometer is a small electronic device that
attaches to ski and trekking poles with Velcro and measures slope angle
when a button is pushed.

GPS
The US Department of Defense and similar agencies in other countries have
placed satellites in orbit around the earth for space-based navigation
systems. The systems that are most commonly used are the United States’,
referred to as the Global Positioning System (GPS), and the Russians’,
referred to as the Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS). Other
countries have systems in development as well. These systems have
revolutionized navigation. This chapter refers to all these systems
collectively as GPS.

Fig. 5-16. Using a baseplate compass’s clinometer to measure slope angle.

GPS DEVICES
This chapter uses “GPS device” to refer to both phones or tablets with GPS
apps and dedicated GPS units. These devices can receive and simultaneously
use the signals from both the US GPS and GLONASS satellites and give the
user’s position and altitude to within about 50 feet (15 meters). A GPS
device has various features that allow users to display their specific positions
(waypoints), determine the compass bearing and the distance between
waypoints, plot out routes comprising a series of waypoints from one
position to another, and record tracks (the actual route traveled along a path)
as they travel. A party should seriously consider bringing a GPS device for
every climb unless they are certain the route is straightforward, even in
darkness or storm. GPS devices can cost from as little as $20 (to purchase a
smartphone app) to hundreds of dollars for a more durable dedicated GPS
unit. (For a device comparison, see Table 5-4 below.)
 Some special preparations prior to a trip are necessary (see “Tips for
Using GPS in the Mountains” later in this chapter). Phones and dedicated
GPS units break or are lost, and batteries die, so having two or three GPS
devices in the party reduces the risk of depending on any single unit. When
trees or mountains block your view of the sky and satellites, adequate
satellite signals can sometimes not reach you, resulting in poor GPS
accuracy or sometimes even the inability to obtain a position at all. For this
reason, always carry a detailed hardcopy topographic map of the travel area,
an altimeter, and a baseplate compass.
Phones or Tablets with GPS App
Phones can receive GPS signals from US GPS and Russian GLONASS
satellites, even far from cell tower coverage. To navigate by phone or tablet,
you must first install a GPS software app and download the required digital
maps while the device is still connected to the internet. The mapping app
shows climbers where they are on a map within tens of feet or meters. Some
programs offer free extensive libraries of maps; be sure to download needed
subsets before each trip.
The phone’s effectiveness as a GPS navigation device—inside or outside
of cell phone range—allows its use for backcountry navigation on all climbs
where navigation may take the climber off well-known paths. In more
extreme conditions, the ruggedness of dedicated GPS units may be more
appropriate.
There are cautions regarding using GPS-enabled phones and tablets. Most
are powered by proprietary batteries that are usually not replaceable by
users. Thrifty use of the phone battery power (see “Limitations of GPS
Devices in the Backcountry” later in this chapter) is therefore necessary on
full day trips or longer. However, external battery packs allow continuous
use for days, or intermittent use for weeks, although they add to overall pack
weight.

Dedicated GPS Units

Most handheld dedicated GPS units also receive GPS signals from both US
GPS and GLONASS satellites. Manufactured by Garmin and Magellan,
among others (fig. 5-17a and b), they are usually powered by a pair of
readily available AA batteries. Dedicated GPS units are usually more rugged
and more weatherproof and operable in lower and higher temperatures than
phones and tablets, which makes dedicated GPS units a better choice in
extreme environments. Detailed topographic maps can be added to most
such devices, some by purchasing secure digital (SD) or microSD cards
containing maps of specific areas (such as a large state or a number of
smaller states), or by downloading maps from the internet or from supplied
CDs. Some of the more expensive dedicated GPS units come with
topographic maps already installed.
A wristwatch GPS device (fig. 5-17c) generally has similar functionality
as other dedicated GPS receivers, though with an altimeter, barometer,
compass, GPS, and timekeeping. Wristwatch GPS devices are usually
powered by nonreplaceable proprietary batteries that can be charged from a
USB port on a home computer or from an AC power adapter. Though
wearable and functional, GPS watches have not gained as much popularity
as dedicated GPS units and GPS-capable phones due to their small screens
and high cost.

Fig. 5-17. Dedicated GPS units: a, Garmin eTrex series; b, Magellan eXplorist series; c, Suunto Ambit
GPS watch.

The GPS Signal, the Cellular Network, and Wi-Fi

From orbits of about 12,000 miles (20,000 kilometers) above the earth, GPS
satellite signals are available anywhere on the planet; cellular phone signals
have a range of a few miles; and local Wi-Fi networks have a range of
several hundred feet. Neither cellular phone signals nor Wi-Fi is dependably
available in the wilderness.
For GPS navigation (though not for calls), phones and tablets work
effectively even when they are out of range of cell phone towers—a
condition frequently encountered in the wilderness. Tablets have some value
in trip planning and documentation at home before and after a climb,
particularly due to their large screen size, which allows a better view of
topographic maps than the small screens of cell phones and other GPS
devices. However, outside of expeditions, tablets are impractical to carry on
most climbs due to their size, weight, and battery power limitations.
It is easy and inexpensive to find and install one or more GPS apps onto a
phone. Access to the internet is needed for downloading apps, maps, routes,
tracks, and trails, but cell service is not needed for these downloads. Many
forms of maps are free through phone GPS apps, allowing the mountaineer
to easily download multiple map types as well as satellite images for a trip.
Free map sources can also be downloaded to dedicated GPS units.
To get the most benefit from a GPS device, be sure to read the instruction
manual carefully to master all of its features. In addition, several good books
and useful websites are available that explain GPS in greater detail (see
Resources). Table 5-4 provides a snapshot comparison of the different types
of GPS devices based on information at time of publication; note, this
technology changes rapidly.

Basics of Using GPS

First, select which units to use: miles or kilometers, feet or meters, magnetic
or true bearings, et cetera, and enter these preferences in the “settings”
screen. Next—very important—select the datum that agrees with the datum
for the topographic map you will be using. Many GPS devices use WGS84
as the default datum, which is the same default datum used on the new
USGS “US Topo” maps published as PDF files. The USGS “Historical”
topographical maps (more useful for climbers), which were published on
paper prior to 2007, use the NAD27 datum. (See “Datums” earlier in this
chapter.) The difference in position between these two datums can be as
much as 500 feet (160 meters), so it is essential to check the datum and
change it, if necessary, prior to using a GPS device with a map.
Try the GPS device out around home, in city parks, and on trail hikes
before taking it on a climb. Talk with friends familiar with GPS use. Take a
class, if possible, to obtain helpful hints in using GPS.

MOUNTAINEERING WITH A GPS DEVICE

GPS devices are marvelous tools for the mountaineer. Using them can
significantly aid in navigation. Keep in mind, however, that they are not
foolproof and that topography, forest cover, battery life, electronic failure,
extremely high or low temperatures, and inadequate user knowledge can
prevent their effective use. The first rule of using a GPS device is to avoid
becoming dangerously dependent on this battery-powered electronic
apparatus that can fail or whose batteries may become depleted (see “The
Importance of Maintaining Situational Awareness” sidebar).
 Some GPS devices have built-in electronic compasses, which also depend
on battery power. These can lose accuracy over time or when the batteries
are replaced, requiring occasional recalibration. GPS devices are not
complete substitutes for an ordinary baseplate compass or physical maps.
Climbers should always carry a physical topographic map and a
nonelectronic baseplate compass (see “Compass,” earlier in this chapter),
even if the GPS device has a compass and/or topographic map capability.
In addition, for complex routefinding, carry route-marking materials such
as flagging and wands, regardless of whether a GPS device is being carried
or not. GPS devices display their altitude, in feet or meters above sea level,
along with their horizontal position. Since this GPS function is also
dependent on limited battery power, and GPS devices can fail, it is
recommended that all party members bring separate altimeters (see
“Altimeter” earlier in this chapter) so that the party will always know its
altitude.
When using a dedicated GPS unit, start each trip with a fresh set of
batteries and carry spare batteries. Rechargeable nickel–metal hydride
(NiMH) batteries are a good choice for use in a dedicated GPS unit. These
batteries, as well as a spare backup pair, should be fully charged prior to a
trip. For even better battery performance, use disposable lithium cells. They
cost more but last longer, perform better at cold temperatures, and weigh
considerably less than alkaline or NiMH cells. A pair of lithium AA cells
weighs about 1.1 ounces (31 grams), compared with about 1.9 ounces (53
grams) for a pair of alkaline or NiMH cells. When using a phone with GPS
app, be sure to fully charge the phone at home prior to the climb. Make sure
to conserve valuable power while driving to the climb, and carry a
rechargeable battery pack and/or a solar charger for multiday climbs.

THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTAINING SITUATIONAL

AWARENESS
Experienced navigators both respect and are wary of using a GPS
device or app to navigate. Too often they see climbers “heads down”
following their tiny screen unaware of their surroundings. When the
navigator simply follows the GPS device and ignores cues from the
passing terrain, “situational awareness”—and, therefore, safety—is
diminished. The climber using GPS must fight this tendency by using
the following techniques.
 Observe. Start by observing the surroundings and updating your
mental map of the landscape. Where have you come from? Where are
you now? Where are you going? What are the dangers?
Orient. Correlate the surroundings with the physical map to see if
they are in agreement. Study myriad details, including slope, sun
position, ridges, and terrain features. Then confirm your understanding
using multiple tools from the navigation toolset. Confirm the elevation
with an altimeter, the cardinal directions with the compass, and your
position with GPS.
Decide. Where do you go from here? Decide on your next steps.
Act. Climb on! And maintain your heightened sense of situational
awareness by repeating the observeorient-decide-act cycle with close
observation and by continually updating your mental map while
moving through the landscape.
Maintaining situational awareness is not just a topic of navigation but
of safety in general: What is happening with the weather? What is the
condition of the party? How many hours of daylight remain?
Maintaining a high level of situational awareness can help keep
climbers on course and safe, thus enabling everyone to fully enjoy the
experience.

Never rely solely on a GPS device for wilderness navigation. Carry a

conventional map, compass, and altimeter. And keep your terrain navigation
skills sharp so you maintain a high level of situational awareness and can
rely on your terrain navigation skills.

Download Maps Before You Go

Most modern phones, when combined with a good app, have the same GPS
capability as a dedicated GPS unit. They can display your position on a map,
as shown in Figure 5-18. However, as with most dedicated units, the digital
maps themselves are not downloadable to phones or tablets through a GPS
signal. Maps for the area in which the party will be traveling must first be
downloaded from the internet while in range of Wi-Fi or the slower cellular
network of land-based towers. Downloading maps to a phone app is usually
seamless, simple, and free; be sure to do this in an area with a strong internet
signal, since attempting to download data-rich, detailed maps while driving
to remote trailheads can be slow and frustrating, if possible at all. Test this
action before depending on it. Map sources allow downloading of several
types of maps and satellite-sourced images.
If the party has not previously downloaded a map of the area, the device
will show its location as a dot on a blank grid (fig. 5-19). The GPS apps
nevertheless allow them to find their location by displaying the latitude and
longitude or (preferably) UTM coordinates, even if a map is not displayed.
Then the party can find its position on the physical map they are carrying.
Alternatively, they can take and save a series of waypoints along the route
from the camp to the summit, then follow this “bread crumb trail” back to
the starting point.

Tips for Using GPS in the Mountains

GPS devices have a wide variety of features that can be applied in many
different ways in the mountains. How a GPS device is used on a climb
depends on user knowledge, user navigational preference, terrain, weather,
intended destination, type of climb, length of climb, and other factors. This
section provides some examples of how using a GPS device can help in
mountaineering situations. These examples cover the most commonly used
features but are not an all-inclusive list.
Identify a location. The primary feature of a GPS device is to provide its
user with a location, usually in latitude-longitude or UTM coordinates or as
a symbol on a map on the screen of the GPS device. An example is provided
in “Orientation by Instrument” later in this chapter.
Fig. 5-18. Position and latitude/longitude coordinates shown on a phone within cell range or using a
previously downloaded topo map.
Fig. 5-19. Position and coordinates shown on a phone that is out of cell range and has no downloaded
map.

Create and follow waypoints. Another basic feature of a GPS device is

the ability to create and use waypoints for point-to-point navigation.
Waypoints can be locations such as trailheads, trail intersections, summits,
campsites, gear stashes, and other locations the user would like to pinpoint
or remember. The coordinates for waypoints can be obtained from maps,
guidebooks, websites, mapping software, and other sources; waypoints can
also be entered into the GPS device during a trip. It is essential to take (or
mark) a waypoint at any place to which the party will want to return, such as
a car, camp, or any crucial point along the route. At any later time, it is then
possible to tell the GPS device to “Go” to that waypoint, and the device will
display the distance and direction to that waypoint. Climbers can then travel
to that destination either by observing the GPS screen or by setting the
bearing on a baseplate compass and following its direction of travel while
turning the GPS device off to save battery power. An example of this is
provided in “Navigation by Instrument” later in this chapter.
 Provide trip data. Most GPS devices have a “trip computer” feature that
displays data such as the number of satellites in use by the device, its current
location, speed of travel, time of day, trip odometer, remaining battery
power, and other items. Although this information can be useful, if the
device loses satellite reception for part of the trip (which can happen in thick
forests, narrow canyons, or when it is turned off to conserve battery power),
some items, such as the trip odometer, may not be accurate.
Create a track. Another useful feature of GPS devices is the ability to
create a track. If the GPS device is left on continually during an entire climb
or during a critical portion of it, another party can later follow the tracks that
were created by the device. Or the original party can follow the track back to
the trailhead. For example, in Figure 5-20, a track was made from the
trailhead to the summit of West Tiger Mountain, and the track was saved.
Later, another user can follow the same track from the trailhead to the
summit of West Tiger Mountain; see “Use GPS data in mapping software”
below for how other users can access the information in these tracks.
If you are making tracks with your GPS device and are leaving the device
on, attach the device or its case to a pack strap to avoid having to hold it in
your hand. You might need to use that hand for climbing or for holding an
ice axe or a trekking pole. A GPS watch can also be used to record a track.
Fig. 5-20. GPS tracks: saved sample track, which can be reused and shared with other users later.

Use GPS data in mapping software. The waypoints and tracks can later
be downloaded to mapping services such as CalTopo or GaiaGPS or with
software that comes with particular GPS device models, such as Garmin’s
BaseCamp. This allows climbers to see the entire route on the screen of a
home computer and to save it for future reference. Using mapping software,
tracks can usually be saved in the universal GPX or KML file format. This
provides the ability to transfer tracks into another GPS unit so that other
users can follow these tracks on their climbs. Additionally, with mapping
software, they can view and print a map of the area that will show the route
that was taken by the original user. This is useful both while planning a trip
and while on the actual climb.
Conserve batteries. Most dedicated GPS receivers operate on a pair of
AA batteries that are readily available almost anywhere, so it is easy to buy a
few extra batteries and carry them as spares. Phones, on the other hand, often
operate on nonreplaceable proprietary batteries, so using a phone’s GPS
function requires special attention to saving power and prolonging battery
life (see the next section).
Carry battery-recharging gear. Fortunately, lightweight battery packs
and solar panels are available to recharge cell phones, if you are willing to
carry some additional weight and spend time waiting for them to recharge.
The most common way of recharging a device on a trip is with external
battery packs. Solar panels are awkward when a party is mobile but are
common at expedition base camps.

Limitations of GPS Devices in the Backcountry

A GPS device is essential for navigation, but it should be used along with
the other four essential tools: map, altimeter, compass, and a PLB (or other
device to contact emergency first responders). Some important limitations of
GPS devices are described below.
They can be damaged. A GPS device may fail during a climb. Protect
the device from impact by using a sturdy case and perhaps a lanyard. Most
dedicated units and some phones are waterproof; protect them against water
and sweat as necessary. Have the party carry two or more devices in case a
single unit fails.
They are not a subsitute for a physical map. GPS devices can plot a
route straight from one point to another, but they cannot automatically find a
route around rivers, lakes, or cliffs. Such tasks, including large-scale
planning, require careful map reading, often best accomplished on a physical
map, which allows for a better understanding of surrounding terrain.
They won’t work in extreme temperatures. Some GPS devices (mainly
phones and tablets) will not work at temperatures much below freezing (see
Table 5-4). Lithium batteries are helpful in extending cold-weather battery
life for dedicated GPS units. Phones and tablets are more heat sensitive than
dedicated GPS units and may not function at temperatures near or above
about 95 degrees Fahrenheit (35 degrees Celsius).
They are unreliable if they can’t pick up enough signals from
satellites. A GPS device must be able to pick up signals from at least four
satellites in order to provide an accurate position. Because GPS devices use
both US and Russian satellites, this is usually not a problem, but under some
conditions, such as in caves or deep canyons or under dense forest cover, a
GPS device may not be able to receive signals from enough satellites to
accurately determine its position. When this occurs, the device sacrifices
altitude information in favor of horizontal position.
They are battery dependent. Battery life is limited to a day or two,
depending on the model and how it is used. The best way to conserve power
for any GPS device, whether a dedicated device or one enabled by a GPS
app, is of course to turn it off completely when it is not needed. When
navigation is straightforward, such as on easy trails or roads or at rest stops
or camps, turn off the device. Then turn it on only at key locations, obtain an
accurate position that makes sense, save the waypoint, and turn it off again.
GPS devices connect these waypoints to create tracks spanning time periods
while they are switched off. You can also use the GPS device to take a
needed travel bearing, shut off the device, and follow the bearing using a
baseplate compass. Using the GPS device as little as necessary conserves the
battery.
Reducing the track point resolution also saves energy. Disabling the
device’s compass or barometer also helps extend battery life. Other useful
tricks are to turn down the brightness of the display and to decrease the
amount of time the auto-lock feature allows before automatically putting the
device into sleep mode. The display consumes much energy, and even a
slight dimming correlates to increased battery life. (That said, on a bright
day above tree line, while wearing sunglasses, climbers will find the dimmed
display harder to read.) Experiment with different settings for screen
brightness to see just how bright the screen really needs to be in order to be
usefully visible outdoors. Viewing the screen in the shade, such as in a
shadow, may help.
The GPS function in a phone is a significant battery drain, especially
when used continually, as when recording tracks. To extend a phone’s
battery life while the GPS function is powered up, first disable the cellular
communication function by putting the phone into “airplane mode.” This
action retains GPS and camera functionality. With the cellular
communication function disabled, batteries should last longer than during
city use. It is also wise to completely turn off any unnecessary apps while
using a cell phone’s GPS function on a climb, since open apps running in the
background consume additional power.

NAVIGATION WORKFLOW USING GPS

When a climbing party is using GPS, they should still perform route
planning (see “Trip Preparation”) and trip execution (see “Routefinding with
a Map”) as described earlier in this chapter. With GPS there is now
additional work that must be done at home, at the trailhead, and en route, as
well as after the trip. For a summary of this additional work, see Table 5-5,
“Navigation Workflow with GPS Devices,” which provides cross-references
to locations in this and other chapters where these tasks are described in
detail.

ORIENTATION BY INSTRUMENT
The goal of orientation is to determine the precise point on the earth where
you are standing. That position can then be represented by a mere dot on a
map, which is known as the point position. There are two less-specific levels
of orientation. One is called line position: the party knows it is along a
certain line on a map—such as a river, a trail, or a bearing or elevation line
—but does not know where it is along the line. The least specific is area
position: the party knows the general area it is in, but that is about it.

POINT POSITION
The primary objective of orientation is to determine an exact point position.
First steps are simple: just look around and compare what you see with what
is on the map. Sometimes this is not accurate enough, or there is nothing
much nearby to identify on the map. The usual solution then is to get out the
compass and take bearings on landscape features. This is an example of
orientation by instrument. Orientation by GPS, which is different, is
described later in this chapter. When point position is known, climbers can
proceed to identify on the map any major feature visible on the landscape.
They can also identify on the landscape any visible feature shown on the
map.
For example, climbers on the summit of Forbidden Peak know that their
point position is at the top of Forbidden Peak (see Figure 5-1i on the
topographic map). The climbers see an unknown mountain and want to
know what it is. They take a bearing on it and get 275 degrees. They plot
275 degrees from Forbidden Peak on their topographic map, and it passes
through Mount Torment (see Figure 5-1d). They conclude that the unknown
mountain is Mount Torment.
 In reverse, if the climbers atop Forbidden Peak want to identify which
mountain in the distance is Mount Torment, they must do the map work first.
They can measure the bearing on the map from Forbidden Peak to Mount
Torment and come up with 275 degrees. Keeping 275 at the index line on the
compass, they turn the compass until the magnetic needle is aligned with the
declination arrow. The direction-of-travel line then points to Mount Torment,
and they can identify it.

Finding Point Position

from a Known Line Position
With line position known, the goal is to determine point position. When
climbers know they are on a trail, ridge, or some other identifiable line, they
need only one more trustworthy piece of information. For example, a
climbing party knows it is on Unsavory Ridge—but exactly where? Off in
the distance to the southwest is Mount Majestic. A bearing on Majestic reads
220 degrees. Plot 220 degrees from Mount Majestic on the map. Run this
line back toward Unsavory Ridge, and where it intersects the ridge is the
point position where the climbers are (fig. 5-21).
TABLE 5-5. NAVIGATION WORKFLOW WITH GPS
DEVICES
Modern navigation tools offer climbers more certainty, but coordinating
map, altimeter, compass, and GPS requires careful work. It is helpful to
think of this effort as a workflow that begins at home, continues at the
trailhead and en route, and then wraps up after the trip.
AT HOME AND/OR WHILE STILL CONNECTED TO THE
INTERNET
1. Research routes from guidebooks and other sources.
2. Purchase relevant topographical maps, if available and time allows.
Otherwise, download topographical maps from the internet. Customize
them with collected routes, tracks, waypoints, and notes, and then print.
Be sure the map includes the data, such as the UTM grid, that you will
need.
3. Download helpful maps and satellite images to a GPS device at the
appropriate level of detail. Include an area that surrounds the intended
 travel area in case plans change; the larger map can be at a lower level of
detail if storage space is an issue.
4. Research weather trends, road and trail conditions, and avalanche
conditions (see Chapters 6, Wilderness Travel, and 17, Avalanche Safety).
5. Confirm that electronics are ready: data downloaded, batteries charged,
PLBs registered and the preset (“canned” or user-definable) messages on
satellite communicators updated (see “Communication Devices” later in
this chapter).
6. Leave the trip itinerary, including trailhead, vehicle description, and
license plate, with a responsible person (see “Organizing and Leading a
Climb” in Chapter 22, Leadership).
AT THE TRAILHEAD
1. Confirm the party is at the right place to begin the climb: Orient the map
to the surroundings—do they correlate? Confirm using GPS.
2. Set a GPS waypoint at the trailhead.
3. Set the GPS device’s datum to match that of the physical map.
4. Have the party calibrate all barometric-based altimeters to the trailhead
elevation using a map or GPS device.
5. Note magnetic declination, and adjust compasses as needed. (See
“Magnetic Declination,” earlier.)
6. Turn off electronics or configure them to extend battery life to last the
length of the trip.
EN ROUTE
1. Actively engage the entire party in navigation, including assessing
whether the current position and planned path through the landscape
continue to appear safe and can be correlated to the map using multiple
navigation tools. (See “The Importance of Maintaining Situational
Awareness” sidebar, earlier.)
2. Familiarize the party with the appearance of the return trip.
3. Occasionally recalibrate barometric-based altimeters at known locations
shown on map or a GPS device.
4. Gather GPS waypoints and tracks en route if they may be helpful later,
especially if the party may need to renegotiate complex terrain.
AFTER THE TRIP
 Gather together and organize all the digital and physical navigation
information that will help the party—or the next climbing party—safely
navigate the same area on another trip.

Finding Point Position from a Known Area Position

Suppose a climbing party knows only its area position: the general area of
Fantastic Crags (fig. 5-22). To move from knowing area position to knowing
point position, two trustworthy pieces of information are needed. The
climbers want to determine line position and then, from that, point position.

Fig. 5-21. Orientation from a known line position to determine point position (magnetic needle
omitted for clarity).

Climbers may be able to use bearings on two visible features. Suppose

they take a bearing on Fantastic Peak and get a reading of 39 degrees. They
plot a line on the map, through Fantastic Peak, at 39 degrees. They know
they must be somewhere on that bearing line, so they now have their line
position.
They can also see Unsavory Spire. A bearing on the spire shows 129
degrees. They plot a second line on the map, through Unsavory Spire, at 129
degrees. The two bearing lines intersect, and that shows their point position.
(The closer an angle of intersection is to 90 degrees, the more accurate the
point position will be.)
Climbers should use every scrap of information at their disposal, but they
must be sure their conclusions agree with common sense. If they take
bearings on Fantastic Peak and Unsavory Spire and find that the two lines on
the map intersect in a river, but they are on a high point of land, something is
wrong. They should try to take a bearing on another landmark and plot it. If
the lines intersect at a map location with no similarity to the terrain where
you are, something is wrong. There may have been an error in taking or
plotting bearings, there might be some magnetic anomaly in the rocks, or the
map may be inaccurate. And who knows? Maybe those peaks are not really
Fantastic and Unsavory in the first place.
Fig. 5-22. Orientation from a known area position to determine point position (magnetic needle
omitted for clarity).

FINDING LINE POSITION FROM A KNOWN AREA

POSITION
When the area position is known and there is just one visible feature to take
a bearing on, the compass cannot provide anything more than line position.
That can be a big help, though. If the climbers in the preceding example are
in the general vicinity of Fantastic River, they can plot a bearing line from
the one visible feature to the river and then know they are near where the
bearing line intersects the river. Perhaps from a study of the map, the
climbers can then figure out their point position. They can also read the
altimeter and find the spot on the map where the bearing line intersects the
contour line for that elevation, which may provide an unambiguous position.
ORIENTING A MAP
During a climb, it frequently helps to hold the map so that north on the map
is pointed in the actual direction of true north. This is known as orienting the
map, a good way to gain a better feel of the relationship between the map
and the countryside.
It is a simple process. Set 0 or 360 degrees at the index line of the
compass, and place the compass on the map near its lower-left corner (fig. 5-
23). Put the edge of the compass’s baseplate along the left edge of the map,
with the direction-of-travel line pointing toward north on the map. Then turn
the map and compass together until the north-seeking end of the magnetic
needle is aligned with the pointed end of the compass’s declination arrow.
The map is now oriented to the scene before you. (Map orientation can give
a general feel for the area but cannot replace the more precise methods of
orientation described above.)

ORIENTATION USING GPS

Suppose a climbing party wants to identify its point position on a
topographical map. Take out the GPS device, turn it on, and let it acquire an
accurate position. The device is probably reading latitude-longitude, the
usual default coordinate system. For mountaineering use, the UTM system is
easier and more accurate for manual plotting because the UTM reference
lines are much closer together (1,000 meters = 0.62 mile) than the reference
lines for latitude-longitude (about every 2.5 minutes—approximately 2 to 3
miles or 3 to 4 kilometers).
Using the GPS device’s setup screen, the climbers should be able to
change the coordinate system from latitude-longitude to UTM. They can
then correlate the UTM numbers on the device’s screen with the UTM grid
on the map. Without using a scale or a ruler, climbers can usually “eyeball”
their position to within about 100 meters (about 300 feet), which is often
close enough to get to within sight of an objective. If greater accuracy is
desired, use the “meters” scale at the bottom of the map, the Romer
(interpolation) scale on some compasses, or a separate plastic Romer scale.
For example, suppose a party is climbing Glacier Peak and clouds obscure
all visibility. They reach a summit but are not sure if it is Glacier Peak. They
turn on a GPS device and let it acquire a position. The UTM numbers on the
screen of the device are as follows: 10 U640612E, 5329491N. (fig. 5-24)
 The “10” is the UTM zone number, which can be found in the lower-left
corner of the USGS topographic map. The “U” is a latitude band, used by
most, but not all, GPS devices; each letter indicates a certain range of
latitudes. The first long number, 640612E, is called the easting and indicates
that the climbers’ position is 640,612 meters east of the reference line for
their area. Along the top edge of the map, they can find the number
640000mE. This is the full easting (except for zone number and latitude band).

To the right of this on the map is the number 641, a partial easting, with the
“000” meters omitted. The climbers can see that the number 10 U640612E
on the screen of the GPS device is approximately six-tenths of the way
between 640000 and 641000. Their east-west position is therefore about six-
tenths of the way between the 640000 and the 641 lines.
Fig. 5-23. Using a compass to orient a map in an area with 20 degrees east declination.

Along the left edge of the map is the number 5331000mN. This is the full
northing, which indicates that this line is 5,331,000 meters north of the
equator or South Pole. (Northings being measured from the South Pole are
sometimes designated with a minus sign.) Below this is a line labeled 5330
and another labeled 5329. These are partial northings, with the “000” meters
omitted. The second (lower) number displayed on the GPS device screen in
this example is 5329491N. This is a horizontal line about halfway between
5329 and 5330. The point where the easting and northing lines intersect is the
climbers’ point position. Finding this point in Figure 5-24 shows that they
are on Disappointment Peak, not Glacier Peak.
 The internal topographic map capability of some GPS devices can be
useful in quickly identifying a location without having to interpolate the
UTM position, though the maps can be difficult to interpret because the
screens are very small. Zooming in to observe the contour lines causes
climbers to lose sight of the surrounding area. Zooming out to observe the
surrounding area causes the contour lines to disappear. Electronic maps are
therefore useful supplements to conventional physical maps but cannot fully
replace physical maps.

NAVIGATION BY INSTRUMENT
Getting from point A to point B is usually just a matter of keeping an eye on
the landscape and watching where you are going, helped by an occasional
glance at the map. However, if the current objective is out of sight, take
compass in hand, set a bearing, and follow the direction-of-travel line as it
guides you to the goal. This is navigation by instrument.
Navigation by instrument is sometimes the only practical method for
finding the way. It also serves as a supplement to other methods and as a
way of verifying that the party is on the right track. Again, use common
sense and question a compass bearing that defies reason. (For example, is the
declination arrow pointing the wrong way, sending the party 180 degrees off
course?)

USING MAP AND COMPASS

The most common situation requiring instrument navigation comes when the
route is unclear because the topography is featureless or because landmarks
are obscured by forest or fog. In this case, if the climbers know exactly
where they are and where they want to go, they can identify on the map both
their current position and their destination. They must simply measure the
bearing to the objective on the map and then follow that bearing.
Suppose you measure a bearing of 285 degrees on the map (fig. 5-25a).
Read this bearing at the index line and leave it set there. Then hold the
compass out in front of you as you rotate your body until the north-seeking
end of the magnetic needle is aligned with the pointed end of the declination
arrow. The direction-of-travel line on the compass now points to the
objective in the terrain (fig. 5-25b). Start walking in that direction.
Fig. 5-24. Example of orientation using a GPS receiver and a topo map.

USING COMPASS ALONE

Navigators of air and ocean often travel by instrument alone; so can
climbers. For example, if a party is approaching a pass and clouds begin to
obscure it, they can take a quick compass bearing on the pass. Then they
follow the bearing, compass in hand if desired. It is not even necessary to
note the numerical bearing; just align the magnetic needle with the
declination arrow and keep it aligned, and follow the direction-of-travel line.
Likewise, if climbers are heading into a valley where fog or forest will
hide the mountain that is the goal, they can take a bearing on the peak while
it is still visible, before dropping into the valley (fig. 5-26). Then they
navigate by compass through the valley. This method becomes more
accurate if two or more people travel together with compass in hand,
checking one another’s work.
Fig. 5-25. Navigation using the map and compass: a, measure the bearing on the map from your
position to your destination and, maintaining the bearing at the index line, pick up the compass
(magnetic needle omitted for clarity); b, follow the bearing and direction-of-travel line, lining up the
magnetic needle to the declination arrow.

Fig. 5-26. Following a compass bearing when the view of the objective is obscured by forest or fog.
USING INTERMEDIATE OBJECTIVES
The technique of using intermediate objectives is handy for those frustrating
times when climbers try to stay exactly on a compass bearing but keep
getting diverted by obstructions such as cliffs, dense brush, or crevasses.
They can sight past the obstruction to a tree, a rock, or another object that is
exactly on the bearing line between their position and the principal objective
(fig. 5-27a). This is the intermediate objective. Then they scramble over to
the tree or rock by whatever route is easiest. When they get to the
intermediate objective, they can be confident that they are still on the correct
route. Then they repeat the process toward the next intermediate objective.
The technique is useful even when there is no obstruction. Moving from one
intermediate objective to another means it is possible to put the compass
away for those stretches, rather than having to check it every few steps.
Sometimes on snow, on glaciers, or in fog, there are no natural
intermediate objectives, just an undifferentiated white landscape. A similar
situation can occur in a forest, where all the trees may look the same. Then
another member of the party can serve as the intermediate objective (fig. 5-
27b). That person travels out to near the limit of visibility or past the
obstruction. The rest of the group waves that party member left or right until
the person is directly on the bearing line. That person can then improve the
accuracy of the route by taking a back bearing on the rest of the party. (For a
back bearing, keep the same bearing set at the index line, but align the south-
seeking end of the magnetic needle with the pointed end of the declination
arrow.) The combination of a bearing and a back bearing tends to counteract
any compass error.

USING GPS
Suppose a climbing party can identify its desired destination on the map but
cannot actually see it in the field. They can read the UTM position of the
destination off the map and then enter it into the GPS device’s memory as a
waypoint.
Going back to the Glacier Peak example shown in Figure 5-24, suppose
the climbers wish to find a route to the summit of Glacier Peak. They can see
that this point is about halfway between the eastings of 640000 and 641000,
so they could estimate the easting as 10 U640500E (the zone number is 10 in
this example). They can also see that the summit is about three-tenths of the
way between the northings of 5330000 and 5331000, so they can estimate
the full northing to be 5330300N. They can now enter these coordinates into
the GPS device by simply turning it on, activating its “create waypoint”
function, and entering the UTM coordinates of 10 U640500E and
5330300N. They can then name the waypoint (for example, “GLPEAK”)
and save it. When using a phone or dedicated GPS device that displays
topographic maps, a climber can simply tap or click on the desired location
on the screen to mark and save a waypoint, without having to interpolate the
UTM position from the map.

Fig. 5-27. Using intermediate objectives: a, in a forest; b, on a glacier.

Once they have entered their destination into the GPS device’s memory,
they let it acquire a position. Then they ask it to “Go” to the name of the new
waypoint (“GLPEAK” in this example), and the device will tell them the
distance and compass bearing from wherever they are to the summit of
Glacier Peak. Then they can set this bearing on their baseplate compasses,
turn off the GPS device and put it away, and follow the compass bearing
until they arrive at Glacier Peak. Alternatively, some devices have a built-in
compass that can be used, but it may need to be calibrated prior to use and
may not be as accurate as a baseplate compass.
What if a party gets off route due to a crevasse or other obstruction? After
passing the obstruction, turn on the GPS device, acquire a position, and
again ask it to “Go” to the waypoint that is the destination. The device will
then display the new distance and compass bearing to the destination. Set the
new bearing on the compass and follow it to the destination.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
Historically, the mountaineer has needed to be completely self-reliant, and
that ethic should dominate the thinking of those entering the wilderness (see
the “Ethic of Self-Reliance” sidebar). But when, despite good tools,
preparation, and training, life becomes threatened, most climbers welcome
help from emergency responders. The climbing party in need of outside
assistance has several means of requesting help.
Cell phones. As both a navigation and a communication device, phones
are the obvious first choice for requesting outside help—when the climbing
party is within cell phone range, which is the only time they will work for
this purpose. In such cases, phones can dramatically shorten the time it takes
to summon rescuers. They are also useful for telling people back home that
the party will be late but is not in trouble, and thus can forestall unnecessary
rescue efforts. However, unless the climbing party is certain to the contrary,
they should assume that phones will not function for making calls from the
backcountry.
Satellite communications. Since the pulse of the original Sputnik
satellites suggested early versions of GPS to its inventors, satellites have
simplified communications and navigation. In 1982 an international satellite-
based search and rescue system came online for aviation and maritime uses,
the latter using devices known as EPIRBs (emergency position-indicating
radio beacons). Satellite phones have come down in price and weight, and so
they have become a reasonable option, although they are expensive per
minute of call time.

ETHIC OF SELF-RELIANCE
Understanding the limits of PLBs and other communication tools is as
important as understanding their usefulness: Batteries deplete;
 electronics fail; cell phone service is limited in most mountain
locations; a rescue may not be possible due to weather conditions or
availability of rescuers. A PLB or satellite communicator is not a
substitute for self-reliance. No party should set out ill prepared or
inadequately equipped, nor should they attempt a route beyond their
ability and assume that emergency help can be summoned.
The climbers who wrote the early editions of this book had no easy
options for rescue in the mountains. They knew that the freedom of the
hills could come at great cost and that a safe return would depend on
the party’s experience, preparation, skill, and judgment.

PLBs and satellite communicators. In 2003, PLBs were introduced

using the same government-based system but intended for those away from
normal emergency services on land. These PLBs determine a party’s
coordinates using GPS and transmit them through international satellites to
the appropriate emergency responders. Registration is required, but there are
no subscription fees for PLBs using the government-based system. Avoid
older PLBs that rely on radio homing beacon technology without GPS.
Since 2008, two commercial companies have introduced devices that
function similar to PLBs, known as satellite communicators. The ones
currently available are: the SPOT Satellite GPS Messenger, which allows
one-way messaging, and the Garmin (formerly DeLorme) inReach Satellite
Communicators, which allows two-way messaging.
These devices determine the party’s position using GPS and then send a
message out using commercial satellite networks. Some units allow for
short, preset, nonemergency text messages to be sent (for example,
“Camping here tonight”); some allow free-form text messages to be sent;
and some allow for two-way texting. Satellite communicators require
subscriptions for using their systems, and each manufacturer offers plans
whose cost varies based on factors such as the number of messages
transmitted, tracking, or other services used.
Some users find the distinction between PLBs and satellite
communicators important, but both are commonly referred to as PLBs. PLBs
are currently more powerful, but satellite communicators have additional
functionality; see Table 5-6 for a comparison. PLBs and satellite
communicators have saved many lives, and all climbers should strongly
consider carrying one in order to increase the climbing party’s margin of
safety.
Other alternatives. Modern handheld amateur radios, also called “ham”
radios, are inexpensive, lightweight, and compact in size but cannot be
consistently relied upon for emergency communications from the
backcountry. These battery-powered amateur radios can communicate either
directly from radio to radio or, in many locations worldwide, via “repeaters.”
Repeaters are electronic devices stationed at high locations that receive the
ham radio signal and retransmit it at a higher power level so that
communication can occur over longer distances. In some locations, ham
radio repeater coverage is equal to or better than cell phone coverage, but,
like cell phone coverage, cannot be consistently relied on in the backcountry.
Family radio service (FRS) two-way radios are useful as local
communication devices. See “Local Communication Devices” in Chapter 2,
Clothing and Equipment.

LOST
Why do people get lost? Some travel without a map because the route seems
obvious. Some people trust their own instincts over the compass. Others do
not bother with the map homework that can start them off with a good
mental picture of the area. Some do not pay enough attention to the route on
the way in to be able to find it on the way out. Some rely on the skill of their
climbing partner, who may be getting them lost. Some are lost when they
become separated from their party. Some do not take the time to think about
where they are going, so they miss trail junctions or wander off on game
paths, charging ahead despite deteriorating weather and visibility or fatigue.
Some are lost due to an overreliance on technology—for example, assuming
that their GPS device will somehow keep them from getting lost, without
having saved the necessary waypoints and downloaded the appropriate map
while connected to the internet.
Groups of two or more rarely become dangerously lost, even if they have
no wilderness experience. The real danger is when a single individual is
separated from the rest of the party. For this reason, always try to keep
everyone together, and assign a sweep (or rear guard) to keep track of
stragglers. Good navigators are never truly lost—but, having learned
humility through years of experience, they always carry enough food,
clothing, and bivouac gear to get them through a few days of temporary
confusion.

WHAT IF YOUR PARTY IS LOST?

If your party becomes lost, the first rule is to stop. Avoid the temptation to
plunge hopefully on. Try to determine where the party is. If that does not
work, figure out the last time the party knew its exact location. If that spot is
fairly close, within an hour or so, retrace your steps and get back to that
point. But if that spot is hours back, the party might instead decide to head
toward the baseline they established when they started out. If darkness falls
or your party tires before it has found its way out, safely bivouac for the
night.

WHAT IF YOU ARE LOST ALONE?

The first rule if you are lost while alone is, again, to stop. Look for other
members of the party, shout or sound a whistle, and listen for a response. If
the only answer is silence, sit down, regain your calm, and combat panic
with reason.
 Once you have calmed down, start doing the right things. Look at the map
in an attempt to determine your location, and plan a route home in case you
do not connect with the other climbers. Mark your location with a cairn or
other objects, and then scout in all directions, each time returning to the
marked position. Well before dark, prepare for the night by finding water
and shelter. Go to an open area so that you can be seen from the air. Spread
out some brightly colored clothing or other material to give searchers
something to see. Staying busy will raise your spirits; try singing—it will
give you something to do and searchers something to hear.
The odds are that you will be reunited with your group by morning. If not,
fight terror. After a night alone, you may decide to hike out to a baseline
feature picked out before the trip—a ridge, stream, or highway. If the terrain
is too difficult for you to travel alone, or if you are injured or sick, it might
be better to concentrate on letting yourself be found. It is easier for rescuers
to find a lost climber who stays in one place in the open and shouts
periodically than one who thrashes on in hysterical hope, one step ahead of
the rescue party.

FINDING THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

The mountains await those who have learned the skills of orientation,
navigation, and routefinding. In large part, navigation is the subject of this
entire book because it is so essential to all off-trail adventure.
In medieval times, the greatest honors a visitor could receive were the
rights of a citizen and the freedom of the city, sometimes even today
symbolized by presenting a guest with the “keys to the city.” For the modern
alpine traveler, navigation is the key to wandering at will through valleys
and meadows, up cliffs and over glaciers, thereby earning the rights of a
citizen in a magical land—a mountaineer with the freedom of the hills.
WILDERNESS ROUTEFINDING • WALKING • TRAIL FINDING • SHARING THE
WILDERNESS WITH ANIMALS • NEGOTIATING DIFFICULT TERRAIN • READY FOR THE
WILDERNESS

CHAPTER 6
WILDERNESS TRAVEL
Climbing the mountain is one thing; getting from the trailhead
to the mountain is another. Wilderness travel is the art of
getting there—along trails, around brush, across rock, over
snow, and across streams. If you learn the skills of wilderness
travel, you open the gateway to the summits.

WILDERNESS ROUTEFINDING
Wilderness routefinding is the art of working out an efficient route from
trailhead to summit that is within the abilities of the climbing party. Intuition
and luck play a role, but it takes skill and experience to surmount the hazards
and hurdles between the parking lot and the top. Aside from the orientation
and navigation skills described in Chapter 5, Navigation, climbers rely on
their ability to interpret trail, rock, snow, and weather conditions before and
during the climb to skillfully travel over different types of terrain and to
comprehend the clues that the wilderness offers.

GATHER ROUTE INFORMATION

The more information you gather ahead of time, the better your ability to
make sound decisions later on. Take time to research the geology and
climate of the party’s selected area, in addition to your specific objective.
Each mountain range has its own peculiarities that affect routefinding and
travel. For example, mountaineers familiar with the Canadian Rockies,
accustomed to broad valleys and open forests, will need to learn new rules to
contend with the heavily vegetated, narrow canyons of British Columbia’s
Coast Range. The Pacific Northwest mountaineer familiar with deep snow at
4,000 feet (1,200 meters) in June will discover drastically different June
conditions in the California Sierra.
Guidebooks offer detailed climb descriptions, including information on
the climbing route, the estimated time necessary to complete it, elevation
gain, distance, and so forth. But be aware that guidebooks become outdated;
one bad winter can completely alter an approach. Make sure to consult the
latest edition, and take a look at two or three different guidebooks, if
available. Publications that cover other aspects of the area—its skiing,
hiking, geology, and history—may also have something to offer as the party
plans its trip.
Check online resources for weather forecasts, snow conditions, and Forest
Service and Park Service information. Check also for information from other
climbers, on message boards or in other venues. Climbers who have made
the trip can describe landmarks, hazards, and routefinding difficulties, and
quite often these descriptions contain helpful photographs. As always,
exercise judgment when using online sources.
Useful details are packed into maps of all sorts: Forest Service maps, road
maps, aerial maps, climbers’ sketch maps, and topographic maps. More and
more maps and topographic materials, as with information in general, are
becoming available online and are downloadable or printable to take with
you.
For a trip into an area that is especially unfamiliar, you will need to
prepare in more depth. This might include scouting into the area, making
observations from vantage points, or studying oblique (taken at an angle)
aerial photos. Forest Service or Park Service rangers can usually provide
information on road and trail conditions. The most popular climbing areas
may even have designated climbing rangers who are in the mountains
regularly and can give informed and current reports. Google Earth
(www.google.com/earth) provides invaluable three-dimensional views of
maps from any chosen vantage point.
 Some of the best route details come out of conversations with locals. The
person pouring coffee in the local cafe may be a veteran climber of the area.
Ask about trails that do not appear on the maps, current snow conditions,
and best places to ford streams.
Always consider the season and the amount of snowfall in a given year
when preparing for a climb. Early in the season, avalanche danger may be
high on steep slopes, especially if there is a heavy accumulation of snow
from the winter before. Late in the season, or following a warm winter with
low snowfall, a slope that is usually covered in snow may be exposed talus.
Finally, do not let outdated information ruin a trip. Check beforehand with
the appropriate agencies about roads and trails, especially closures, and
about climbing routes and regulations, permits, limitations on party size, and
camping requirements.

LEARN FROM EXPERIENCE

There is no substitute for firsthand experience. As you learn, climb with
seasoned mountaineers, watch their techniques, and ask questions. The more
familiar you are with the wilderness, the greater your freedom to find your
own way.

BE OBSERVANT ON THE APPROACH

Climb with your eyes. Continually study the mountain for climbing routes.
A distant view can reveal patterns of ridges, cliffs, snowfields, and glaciers,
as well as the degree of incline. At closer range, details of fault lines, bands
of cliffs, and crevasse fields appear. Look for clues of routes: ridges with
lower incline than the faces they divide; cracks, ledges, and chimneys
leading up or across the faces; snowfields or glaciers offering easy or
predictable pitches. Look for climbable sections and link them together
visually. With experience comes a good eye for what you know you can
climb.
If the approach skirts the base of the mountain, try to view the peak from
various perspectives. Even moderate slopes can appear steep when you look
at them head on. A system of ledges indistinguishable against background
cliffs may show clearly from another angle or as shadows cross the
mountain.
The presence of snow sometimes promises a modest angle and easy
climbing, because snow does not last long on slopes of greater than 50
degrees. Snow and shrubs that appear on distant rock faces often turn out to
be “sidewalks” with smaller ledges between. However, snow can be
deceptive. What appear to be snowfields high on the mountain may be ice.
Deep, high-angle couloirs often retain snow or ice year-round, or stay icy
late in the day, especially when shaded.

WATCH FOR HAZARDS

Stay alert to climbing hazards. Study snowfields and icefalls for avalanche
danger and cliffs for signs of possible rockfall. Snowfields reveal recent
rockfall by the appearance of dirty snow or rock-filled craters. If the route
goes through avalanche and rockfall territory, travel in the cold hours of
night or very early morning, before the sun melts the ice that bonds
precariously perched boulders and ice towers. Move through such places
quickly.
Take rest breaks before or after danger zones, and when you enter them,
try not to get caught behind slower parties. If possible, avoid these areas in
heavy rain. Also watch for changing weather conditions (see Chapter 28,
Mountain Weather). Keep evaluating hazards and looking for the most
appropriate route, given the conditions. If the route you initially planned on
climbing begins to look questionable, search for alternatives and make
decisions as early as possible.

THINK ABOUT THE RETURN

Always consider the descent while you are making the approach. What is
easy going up is not necessarily easy going down; nor is it easy to find. Look
back frequently, take notes, take GPS and altimeter readings, and, if
necessary, mark the route. (For additional information, see Chapters 5,
Navigation; 7, Leave No Trace; and 16, Snow Travel and Climbing.)
The approach is also a time to look ahead to the end of the day. Consider
where the party has to be by dark and whether the area will be safe to travel
through by headlamp, if necessary. Keep an eye out for emergency
campsites, water supplies, and anything else that may make the return trip
easier and safer. Notice how long it took you to travel in to estimate how
long it might take to return. If you have not already done so as you planned
the trip, establish a “turnaround time”—that is, the time you will need to
begin your return whether or not you have achieved your objective. Share
that information with others on the trip so that they can also plan and
understand the expectations for the outing.

WALKING
Reaching the summit often involves more walking than climbing. Walking is
as important a skill as any other that climbers learn. Before hitting the trail,
stretch your legs, hips, back, and shoulders. Drink some water. Consider
taping or putting Moleskin on areas prone to blisters. Take time to adjust
your pack and boots to avoid aches and pains—and frequent stops—later on.
Prepare for stops before you start out on the approach. Use your pack’s
outside pockets for items that you will need repeatedly throughout the day,
such as snacks, water, jacket, hat, gloves, gaiters, sunglasses, and headlamp.
Not only will it be easy for you to reach these items but other members of
the party can also reach them for you if necessary, without your needing to
remove your pack or even reduce the pace. Strap your ice axe and trekking
poles to the outside of your pack so they are readily available for rough
terrain. The ice axe will often be very useful even before snow line.

PACE
Setting the right pace from the start ensures a happier, stronger day of
climbing. The most common mistake is walking too fast to begin with. This
may perhaps be done out of concern for the long miles ahead or from a
desire to perform well with companions. But why get worn out on the first
mile of a 10-mile (16-kilometer) approach if the whole day is available? You
are going too fast if you cannot sustain your pace hour after hour or if you
cannot converse without losing your breath. Take your time and enjoy
yourself (see the “Hiking with a Group” sidebar).
The other mistake is walking too slowly, which prolongs the hike and
leaves less time to negotiate the more technical portions of the trip. If you
are walking slowly due to fatigue, remember that the body has considerable
reserves. Muscles may ache but still have many miles left in them. A degree
of discomfort is inevitable; walking too fast or too slow only creates
additional fatigue.
At the start, walk slowly to allow your body to warm up. Before you start
to sweat, take a break and remove some clothing. Then increase the pace and
accept the pain as your body works harder to experience its second wind.
Physiologically, your heartbeat and circulation increase and muscles loosen.
As endorphins kick in and the feelings of physical stress subside, you feel
strong and happy.

HIKING WITH A GROUP

Walking with others involves certain considerations that help make
travel more efficient and enjoyable:
Set a pace that makes good time but does not burn out slower
climbers. Adjust the party’s pace so that slower climbers do not fall
far behind. Do not allow anyone to travel alone, either last or first.
Give the last person time to catch up with the party at rest stops—and
time to rest once that person gets there.
Try putting the slowest person in front to set the pace. This helps
keep the group together and may motivate a slow hiker to set a faster
pace.
Redistribute group gear to energetic people.
Stay three to five paces behind the person ahead. Give the climber
—as well as that person’s ice axe or trekking poles—some space.
Stay close to the group. Do not lose contact with other hikers or
make them continually wait for you or wonder how far ahead you are.
Step off the trail when you stop. Don’t block the trail for others.
Ask permission to pass, and pick a good spot to do so.
Mind the person behind you when you grab branches. Before
releasing branches, look back and call out “Branch.”
Be courteous when meeting an oncoming party. Traditionally, the
party heading downhill steps aside to let the ascending climbers
continue upward without breaking pace. However, if the terrain is
steep or if the descending party is larger, the climbers moving uphill
may step aside and take a few breaths. Generally, stand on the uphill
side of the trail to let others past. However, when a party meets pack
animals, it is often expected that those on foot will move aside and
stand on the downhill side of the trail; speak quietly and make no
sudden movements. People on mountain bikes should always yield to
those on foot.
Select gathering points for the party during long approaches and
descents where routefinding is not a concern. This allows party
members to find their natural pace within smaller groups. Regroup at
 trail junctions and difficult stream crossings. Ask the most
experienced members to take front and rear positions.
Be cheerful and helpful. Be someone you would want to hike with.

Fig. 6-1. The rest step: a, stand with entire body weight on right leg and exhale, completely relaxing
left leg; b, inhale and step forward with right leg, shifting weight to left leg; c, place entire body
weight on left leg and exhale, completely relaxing right leg.

Vary the pace depending on the trail. Plod slowly and methodically up
steep hills. As the grade lessens, pick up the tempo. Eventually you will find
a natural pace that adapts to pack weight, terrain, weather, and other
conditions. The pace will inevitably slow late in the day as fatigue sets in.
Adrenaline may fuel short bursts of exertion, but there is no “third wind.”

THE REST STEP

Slow and steady is a pace that gains the summit. On steep slopes, in snow,
and at high altitudes, the rest step controls your pace and reduces fatigue.
Use this technique instead of frequent rest stops whenever legs or lungs need
to recuperate. The rest step is simple but subtle; practice it.
The essence of the technique is to end every step with a momentary but
complete stop, giving your leg muscles a rest. Swing one foot forward for
the next step. Stand upright and exhale while letting your rear leg support
your entire body weight (fig. 6-1a). Straighten your rear leg so that you are
supported by bone, not muscle. Feel the weight sink into your bones and
foot. Now completely relax and soften the muscles of your forward leg,
especially the thigh. This momentary rest, no matter how brief, refreshes the
muscles. The momentary rest also tends to make your foot placement more
secure. Then take a breath and swing your rear foot forward for the next step
(fig. 6-1b), and repeat the rest step for your other leg (fig. 6-1c).
Synchronize breathing with leg movements. Typically, take a new breath
with each step. Inhale and take a step up; exhale while pausing and letting
your front leg rest as your rear leg supports your weight. Keep repeating the
sequence. Many experienced climbers find a tune they replay in their head to
help them keep a comfortable rhythm. The number of breaths per step
depends on the difficulty of the work and your level of fatigue. At high
altitudes, climbers sometimes take three or four deep breaths before each
step up.
The rest step requires patience. For some, the monotony of the pace can
undermine morale, especially when you are following another climber up a
snowfield and there is no routefinding or step kicking to occupy your
thoughts. But focus on the rhythm or hum a tune in your head (settle on an
upbeat tune if that helps). Trust the technique to chew up the miles, even
though the summit may seem so far away.

RESTS
Rests allow your body to recover from strenuous activity and to maintain an
efficient pace. Take rests only when necessary; otherwise, keep moving.
Numerous unnecessary stops can turn a 10-hour day into a 15-hour day,
affecting group morale or even the team’s chance of reaching a summit.
During the first half hour, stop to allow the group to readjust bootlaces
and pack straps, add or take off layers of clothing, stretch warmed-up
muscles, et cetera. Take short breathers—once every one to one and a half
hours—during the early part of the day, while bodies are fresh. Rest in a
standing or semireclining position, leaning against a tree or hillside to
remove pack weight from your shoulders. Take deep breaths, and have a bite
to eat and something to drink. Stay hydrated—always drink at every stop.
Remember to declare regular party separations (toilet stops), especially
out of courtesy to the person who may be too shy to express the need.
However, in order to minimize your impact on the mountains, your first
toilet stop should be at the last available restroom facility found at or before
the trailhead.
Later in the day, feelings of fatigue may demand more thorough
relaxation, and the party can take a full rest every two hours or so. Look for
a place with advantages, such as water or convenient slopes for removing
packs and enjoying a view. Stretch muscles and put on additional clothing to
avoid stiffness and chilling. Remove extra clothing before starting out again
in order to prevent another stop a few minutes down the trail.
Also, take care that you do not waste unnecessary time during each stop.
To help prevent a stop from taking up too much time, clearly establish how
long that stop will last when you begin the break. Then adhere to your plan,
unless there’s a reason to change.

DOWNHILL
Walking downhill is a mixed blessing. The pace quickens without increasing
fatigue; however, climbers may feel pain long after the day is over. When
you walk downhill, your body and pack weight drop abruptly on your legs,
knees, and feet. Toes jam forward. Jolts travel up your spine and jar your
entire body. Avoid a host of injuries—including blisters, knee cartilage
damage, sore toes, blackened toenails, headaches, and back pain—just by
using a few of the following tricks:
Trim toenails close before starting out.
Tighten laces—especially on the upper part of the boots—to reduce
foot movement inside the boots and avoid jamming toes.
Bend the knees with each step to cushion the shock. As dancers like
to say, “Remember your plié.”
Place each foot lightly, as if it were already sore.
Use ski or trekking poles to reduce the load on the knees and to
provide additional stability.
Maintain a measured pace that is slower than the one urged by
gravity.
Use an ice axe for balance or for braking when necessary. The ice axe
is not just for snow. It is also helpful in steep meadow, forest, and
heather. (To learn ice-axe techniques, see Chapter 16, Snow Travel
and Climbing.)
Find a place to sit briefly every 45 to 60 minutes, to reduce fatigue on
the knees if necessary.
SIDEHILL
The ups and downs of climbing are far preferable to the torments of cross-
country sidehilling (traversing). Walking across the side of a slope twists
your ankles, contorts your hips, and undermines balance. If possible, hike
straight up, abandon a sidehill, drop down into a brush-free valley, or go up
onto a rounded ridge. If traversing is unavoidable, look for rocks, animal
trails, and the ground just above clumps of grass or heather to provide flat
spots of relief. Switchback regularly to avoid ankle strain in one leg.

UPHILL
As you climb uphill, in addition to watching for specific hazards, continue to
monitor the steepness and general nature of what you are climbing into.
Consider whether continuing will lead you into territory so steep and
technical that you will have difficulty downclimbing or otherwise retreating.
If you begin to notice that you might have difficulty retreating, especially if
there is any chance you are not on the trail you intended to follow, take time
to confirm that you are on route and that you do not have other options.
Otherwise, retreating while you still feel comfortable with the terrain is
likely the best option.

TRAIL FINDING
For a wilderness traveler, a “trail” is any visible route—no matter how
ragged—that efficiently gets the party where they want to go. The goal is to
find the easiest route using the tools at hand: awareness of the terrain,
navigational skills, weather conditions, and tips from guidebooks and
experts.
Even in popular areas with heavy foot traffic and signage, keep alert to
find and stay on the trail. Missing a turnoff is easy if a sign is gone or if
logging, erosion, an avalanche, treefall, or rockfall obliterates the trail. On an
established forest trail in deep snow or through a lot of woody debris, saw-
cut log ends peeking through may be the only indication of a trail’s location.
Old blazes cut in tree trunks, or surveyors’ ribbon tied to branches, often
mark the trail through a forest. Rock cairns (piles of rocks placed along the
route as markers where the path is not obvious) may show the way above
timberline. These pointers may be unreliable. A tiny cairn or a wisp of
ribbon may indicate nothing more than a lost climber, a route to an alternate
destination, or an old route since obstructed by rockfall. Navigation tools
like the compass may stand you in good stead too (see Chapter 5,
Navigation).
The trick, however, is to stay on the trail until the inevitable moment it
disappears or until it becomes necessary to head off trail in order to go in the
right direction. Choose a course that a trail would follow if there were a trail.
Trail builders look for the easiest way to go. Do as they do.

SHARING THE WILDERNESS WITH

ANIMALS
Alpine wildlife is fascinating and often charming, but enjoy the birds and
animals from a distance and do not disturb them. When you encounter
animals on the route, move slowly and allow them plenty of time to drift
away. Try to pass on their downhill side; typically they head uphill to escape.
Give them plenty of room. An animal rushing from a close encounter with a
human is in danger of stress or injury; if it has too many of these encounters,
it may feel forced to abandon its home grounds for poorer terrain.

BEARS AND COUGARS

In bear country, stay out of the “personal space” of bears. Try not to surprise
them. Whenever possible go around brushy ravines with poor visibility
rather than through them, even if it makes the route considerably longer.
Make plenty of noise in unavoidable lower-visibility areas to warn animals
of your approach.
If the climbing party surprises a bear or cougar, do not turn and run.
Running may elicit a chase response in large predators, and bears and
cougars are very fast runners. Instead, stand your ground, face the animal,
talk, and slowly edge away while still facing the animal. (See Resources for
more about handling animal encounters.)

NEGOTIATING DIFFICULT TERRAIN

The biggest barriers on the way to a mountaintop often appear below the
snow line.
BRUSH
Brush thrives in younger forests or in low-altitude, wet, subalpine areas that
have few trees. A river that frequently changes course prevents large-tree
growth and permits brush to thrive. In gullies swept by winter avalanches,
the shrubs simply bend undamaged under the snow and flourish in spring
and summer.
Brush can be a backcountry horror, and “bushwhacking” makes for
difficult, dangerous travel. Downward-slanting vine maple and slide alder
are slippery. Brush obscures the peril of cliffs, boulders, and ravines. Brush
snares ropes and ice-axe picks. The best policy is to avoid brush, but if that
is not possible, try the following techniques (see also the “Tips to Minimize
Brush Hassles” sidebar):
Use trails as much as possible. Five miles (8 kilometers) of trail
may be less work and take less time than 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) of
brush.
Travel when snow covers brush. Some valleys make for easy going
in the spring when it is possible to walk on snow, but they are almost
impossible in summer when it is necessary to burrow through the
brush.
Avoid avalanche tracks. When you are climbing a valley wall, stay
in the trees between avalanche tracks to avoid the brush.
Aim for the big trees, where brush is thinner. Mature forests block
sunlight and stifle brush growth.
Travel on talus, scree, or snow remnants rather than in adjacent
thickets.
Look for game trails. Animals generally follow the path of least
resistance. Use these trails but take care not to startle large animals in
heavy brush.
Travel on ridges and ridge spurs, which may be dry and brushless,
whereas creek bottoms and valley floors are often choked with
vegetation.
Scout both sides of a stream for the route with the least amount of
bushwhacking.
Consider going into the stream channel if the route parallels a
stream. Wading may be necessary, but the streambed can be an easier
tunnel through the brush. Dry streambeds are often ideal. Take care
in deep canyons, where waterfalls and fallen trees interrupt a stream.
 Take a high route. Climb directly to timberline or a ridgetop.
Go up to the base of side bluffs, where there is often an open,
flattened corridor next to the rock.

TALUS, SCREE, AND BOULDERS

Mountain peaks constantly crumble, dropping rock fragments that pile up
below as talus, scree, and boulders. Most of the rubble pours from gullies
and spreads out in alluvial fans that often merge into one another, forming a
broad band of broken rock between valley greenery and the peaks. These
fans can alternate in vertical strips with forest. Talus consists of larger
fragments, usually big enough to step on individually. Scree is smaller—
from the size of coarse sand up to a couple inches across—and may flow a
bit around your feet when you step on it. When even larger rocks fall off cliff
faces, they form boulder fields. Slopes of talus, scree, and boulders can
either help or hinder a climber. Most offer handy, brush-free pathways to the
mountains, but some are loose and dangerous, with sharp-edged rock that
can cause injury.
Talus. Talus slopes build gradually over the ages, and on the oldest slopes,
soil fills the spaces between the rocks, locking them together to create
smooth pathways. But talus can be loose on volcanoes and younger
mountains, where vegetation has not filled in the spaces. Even large rocks
can roll or teeter. Try for a route where the rock is lichen covered, which
indicates that the rock has remained in place for a long time. Move nimbly
on talus, ready to leap away if a rock shifts underfoot. Use your eyes and
plan four or five steps ahead. Try to set your foot smoothly and flex your
foot to accommodate the angle of the surface you are stepping on. That may
help the piece remain stable. Take care on wet talus.

TIPS TO MINIMIZE BRUSH HASSLES

Some skirmishes with brush are inevitable; here are some tips for
dealing with it:
Choose the shortest route across the brushy area.
Look for animal trails through the brush.
Use fallen trees with long, straight trunks as elevated walkways.
Push and pull the bushes apart, sometimes by stepping on lower limbs
and lifting and clinging to higher ones, to make a passageway.
 Use hardy shrubs as hand- and footholds on steep terrain.

Scree. Loose scree can make going uphill a slow-motion torment, with
part of each step lost as your foot settles in. Stepping on or just above a
larger rock in scree can pry or wedge it out. However, descents can be fun. It
may be possible to move down the scree in a sliding stride—something like
cross-country skiing or plunge-stepping down snow. Ice axes are helpful; the
technique on scree is similar to that on snow (see Chapter 16, Snow Travel
and Climbing). Nonetheless, be aware that scree can sometimes consist of
only a thin, ball bearing–sized cover over large rocks. If there is vegetation
on the slope, avoid setting off scree slides that can damage the plants.
Although riding a scree slope can be fun, bits of rock can work their way
into your boots and cause discomfort when you reach talus or a downward
trail. You could wear short, lightweight gaiters in the summer if you expect
to encounter scree.
Boulders. Boulder fields can be pleasant alternatives to torturous scree
slopes, but they have their own dangers. Normally, fallen boulders form a
steep slope beneath the cliff they detached from—the steepest slope that
such boulders can pile up on is called the angle of repose. The boulders
landing on even steeper slopes tend to fall off unless stabilized by
vegetation. The most commonly traveled routes up boulder fields are usually
quite stable, since foot traffic has gradually shifted the riskiest boulders to
more stable places. Beware the unfrequented boulder field—where there are
no boot marks on the boulder moss, for instance.

Rockfall
Sometimes the route ascends a steep gully filled with a mix of boulders
embedded in talus and scree—this is a classic scenario for party-induced
rockfall. Disturbing one key stone on a glacial moraine or a talus slope can
set off a rock avalanche. Safety dictates traveling outside the fall line of
climbers above and below you if possible. If you are in a narrow gully where
this is not possible, tread gently and be ready to loudly shout “Rock! Rock!
Rock!” if a stone dislodges. Keep the party close together so a rock set off by
one climber cannot gain dangerous momentum before reaching others (fig.
6-2a). Consider permitting just one climber (or small groups keeping closely
together) to move at a time while the rest of the party remains in protected
spots (fig. 6-2b).
Party-induced rockfall is by no means the only hazard of loose gullies.
Even rainfall can set off rockfall. Other times, rockfall may be set off by
another climbing party out of your party’s sight. Overall, rockfall is one of
the most common causes of mountain accidents, so beware! Consider
wearing a helmet any time you are traveling over terrain where a climber
may be exposed to rockfall from above or could have a serious fall.

Fig. 6-2. Traveling safely on loose rock: a, climbers stay close together so that a dislodged rock does
not gain dangerous momentum before reaching the climbers below; b, climbers ascend in pairs or
small groups out of one another’s fall line, so a dislodged rock passes the climbers below.

Descending
Facing exposure while descending talus, scree, or boulders can be
intimidating. Climbers may hesitate or move slowly. This can be dangerous.
Move in short, smooth, quick steps, and know where the next step is, so you
are ready to quickly get off a moving rock and avoid injury. Trekking poles
or an ice axe are helpful; keep your pole or axe in front of you to avoid it
becoming caught between rocks or disturbing rocks above you.

SNOW
Snow can be very helpful for wilderness travel. Many peaks are best climbed
early in the season when consolidated snow covers talus, brush, and logging
slash and when snow bridges provide easy access over streams. However, in
a different season or with less-than-ideal snow conditions, snow can be a
curse. Trails are lost under snow or are washed out by avalanche or heavy
thaw. Thin snow is unstable and may obscure dangerous conditions. Watch
for terrain traps if spring avalanches are a possibility (see Chapter 16, Snow
Travel and Climbing). A party may encounter different snow conditions on
the approach, the climb, and the descent, given the time of day, the pace, or
changing weather conditions. Be sure to study weather and snow conditions
before the climb.
If traveling on snow, watch for visible terrain features, because they may
indicate thin or melting snow. The snow next to logs and boulders often
covers holes and soft spots called moats, which occur when the snow
partially melts away from the wood and the rock. A moat is common around
trees where lower limbs keep the snow from filling in next to the trunk (in
this situation called a tree well). Probe with an ice axe to avoid likely trouble
spots, step wide off logs and rocks, and stay away from treetops poking
above the snow. If the snow is thin on a talus slope, there can be large voids
under the snow that are easy to punch through. Especially if the day is warm,
go slow on talus on the return trip if the snow is thin.
Streams will melt the underside of a snow bridge until it can no longer
support your weight. To guard against a dunking (or worse), watch for
depressions in the snow and variations in color or texture, and listen for
sounds of running water. Water emerging at the foot of a snowfield indicates
the existence, and perhaps the size, of a cavity beneath the snow. Probe for
thin spots with your ice axe.
With experience, you will recognize both the advantages and dangers of
snow and learn to use the medium to make wilderness travel easier and more
enjoyable. See Chapters 16, Snow Travel and Climbing, and 27, The Cycle
of Snow, for more information.

RIVERS AND STREAMS

When your objective lies on the far side of a sizable river or stream, crossing
it is a major factor in route selection. Crossings can consume huge amounts
of time and energy, and they can be the most dangerous part of the trip.

Finding the Crossing

Try to get a distant, overall view of the river and scope out crossing
possibilities. This can be more useful than a hundred close looks from the
riverbank. When a distant view is impossible or unhelpful, the party may
have to choose between either thrashing through the river-bottom brush to
find a way across or traversing the slopes high above the river in hopes of a
sure crossing.
The surrounding landscape indicates the options. In a deep forest, there is
a good chance of finding easy passage on a large log or logjam, even over
wide rivers. Higher in the mountains, foot logs are harder to come by,
especially if the river frequently changes course and prevents the growth of
large trees near its channel.
If it is necessary to wade across, find the widest part of the river. The
narrows may be the shortest way, but they are also the deepest, swiftest, and
most dangerous. If snowmelt feeds a river, its flow is at a minimum in the
early morning and might be a dangerous raging torrent in the afternoon.
Sometimes a party may camp overnight to take advantage of this morning
low water.

Making the Crossing

Unfasten the hip belt and sternum straps of your pack before you try any
stream crossing that may require swimming in case of a fall. Make sure you
will be able to remove your pack in a hurry.
Logs. A foot log is a great way across. If the log is thin, slippery, or
steeply inclined, use a trekking pole (or poles), an ice axe, a sturdy stick,
crampons, or a tightly stretched hand line (see below) to help with balance,
traction, and support. Sit down and scoot across if that helps.
 Boulder hopping. Boulders offer another way across. Before you cross,
mentally rehearse the entire sequence of leaps. Safety lies in smooth and
steady progress over stones that may be too slippery and unsteady for you to
stop on for more than an instant. Use an ice axe or trekking pole(s) for
additional balance. Avoid mossy or algae-covered stones if you can.
Wading. If you are wading, try to keep your gear, including your boots,
dry. If the water is placid and the stones rounded, put your boots and socks
in your pack while you wade across barefoot, or in sandals or lightweight
tennis shoes brought for that purpose. In tougher conditions, wear your boots
but put your socks and insoles in the pack; on the far side, drain your boots
and replace the dry insoles and socks. In deeper crossings, consider
removing your pants or other clothing: loose clothing increases the drag
from the water, but it also reduces chilling and may permit a longer crossing.
If you are trying to cross where the water is deep but not swift, cross with
the least force against your body by angling downstream at about the same
speed as the current. However, the best way to cross is to face upstream, lean
into the current, and firmly plant an ice axe, trekking pole, or stout stick
upstream for a third point of support. Use your leading foot to probe for
solid placement on the shifting river bottom, advance your following foot,
and thrust the axe or pole into a new position.
Swift water is easy to underestimate. With one false step, you can be
pushed under and dashed against rocks and logs or sent bouncing along in
white water. Water is dangerous whenever it boils above your knee. A swift
stream flowing only shin deep can boil up against your knees. Knee-deep
water may boil above your waist and give a disconcerting sensation of
buoyancy. Frothy water, containing a great deal of air, is wet enough to
drown you but may not be dense enough to float a human body. Streams fed
by glaciers present an added difficulty because their bottoms are hidden by
milky water from glacier-milled rock flour.
Team crossing. Two or more travelers can cross together, each in turn
moving to a solid new stance while remaining secured to the other(s) by
linked arms or hands. Team crossing with a pole is another method: Team
members enter the water, each grasping the pole, which is held horizontal
and parallel to the flow of the stream. The upstream member breaks the force
of the current. Anyone who slips hangs onto the pole while the others keep
the pole steady.
 Hand lines. A hand line for small streams can be helpful. Angle the line
downstream so that if any climbers lose their footing, they will be swept to
shore. If a nylon climbing rope is the only option available, consider the rope
stretch. Always use appropriate anchors (see Chapter 10, Belaying).
Using ropes for stream crossings in deep, swift water can be hazardous. If
someone is belayed across the river, there is a possibility that the crossing
person can be held by the belay but trapped underwater. Consider belaying
the pack, however. That way, if a climber falls and sheds the pack, it will not
get swept away.

Falling In
If you are swept downstream by a swift current, the safest position is on your
back with your feet pointed downstream; use a backstroke to steer. This
position vastly improves your chances for survival with minimal injuries. Be
alert. If you approach a “strainer” (a small dam or collection of debris),
switch quickly to normal headfirst swimming. Swim furiously to stay high in
the water and get on top of the debris. The strainer may be your route ashore.
If falling off a log into the water seems imminent, try to fall off on the
downstream side to avoid getting swept under the log. If a member of the
party falls in, those on shore can try to reach out with a pole, ice axe, or
branch. It may be possible to throw out a floating object, such as an inflated
water bag. Make a realistic evaluation of the danger to yourself before you
decide to go into the stream to attempt a hands-on rescue.

READY FOR THE WILDERNESS

Traveling in the wilderness is like wandering in a foreign country: The
unfamiliarity of a place is the attraction, yet it also limits the journey.
Preparation is essential, and nothing rivals the knowledge gained from
personal experience.
Immerse yourself in the wilderness again and again; study it as if it were a
new language. Use all five senses to master the “vocabulary” of the terrain.
Some of your best moments will come when you discover your ability to
respond well to what it asks of you. With fluency comes the freedom to
roam, and with that freedom comes responsibility. The next chapter
discusses ways to keep the wild places wild for those who travel after us, so
they too can experience the exhilaration of discovery.
1. PLAN AHEAD AND PREPARE • 2. TRAVEL AND CAMP ON DURABLE SURFACES • 3.
DISPOSE OF WASTE PROPERLY • 4. LEAVE WHAT YOU FIND • 5. MINIMIZE CAMPFIRE
IMPACTS • 6. RESPECT WILDLIFE • 7. BE CONSIDERATE OF OTHER VISITORS • MINIMIZE
CLIMBING IMPACTS • RESPECT THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

CHAPTER 7
LEAVE NO TRACE
Mountaineers seek the uncharted way, the trail less traveled,
and a summit to stand on. Climbers recognize that the
wilderness they seek is a resource that they must protect.

A skilled mountaineer is courageous, fit, perceptive, and tough—and a great

teammate. These traits are discussed in climbing magazines, applauded in
first ascents, and even featured in blockbuster movies. Less heralded, but of
no less importance, is conscientiousness. Conscientious climbers are
respectful of their surroundings and implement low-impact recreation skills
as an integral part of their technical pursuits. They leave no trace of their
time outdoors because their enthusiasm for exploring the natural
environment is matched by their desire to protect it.
Most mountaineers have seen the consequences of overuse, carelessness,
and thoughtlessness in the backcountry. In Alaska’s Denali National Park,
approximately 152,000 pounds of human waste have been thrown into the
Kahiltna Glacier. Within the next decade, the waste is expected to “melt out”
downstream from base camp, exacerbating an area that already tested
positive for fecal coliform in 2010 and 2012. Today, Clean Mountain Cans
(portable toilets) are mandatory above the 14,200-foot base camp.
 SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF LEAVE NO TRACE
1. Plan ahead and prepare.
2. Travel and camp on durable surfaces.
3. Dispose of waste properly.
4. Leave what you find.
5. Minimize campfire impacts.
6. Respect wildlife.
7. Be considerate of other visitors.

Stewardship advancements in Denali are part of an ethical evolution in

climbing, beginning in the 1970s when the first chocks replaced rock-
deforming pitons. In 1994, the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics
was established as a nonprofit educational organization to promote a
consistent set of minimum-impact guidelines, now referred to as Leave No
Trace.
Leave No Trace is taught with seven easy-to-remember principles (see the
“Seven Principles of Leave No Trace” sidebar). This chapter illuminates the
skills necessary to execute these principles, with special emphasis placed on
the unique techniques required in mountaineering.
To learn more from the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics, which
partners with US land managers and other organizations to instill responsible
recreation, see Resources.

1. PLAN AHEAD AND PREPARE

Planning ahead achieves more than a summit; it is essential to practicing
Leave No Trace skills.

PROTECT THE CLIMBING PARTY, PROTECT THE

PLACE
A climbing group that stretches itself to the limit, and perhaps gets into
trouble, will no longer be able to care about the principles of Leave No
Trace. For example, they may grow fatigued and have to set up camp in a
sensitive area. They may get cold and have to start a campfire in a fire-ban
zone. If rescuers must be called, safety comes first, regardless of
environmental damage. However, realistic planning can often prevent these
kinds of desperate situations in the first place.

MEAL PLANNING
As with many Leave No Trace skills, meal planning not only protects the
environment, it makes for more-efficient mountaineers. Mastering two
techniques—repackaging food and preparing one-pot meals—will speed up
cooking, lighten loads, and decrease garbage.
The more packaging climbers carry, the greater the chance that something
will be left in the backcountry. Plus, excess packaging is a nuisance to fiddle
with while attempting a climb. To repackage food, remove wraps, twist ties,
and covers; then place food in reusable containers or resealable bags. After
food has been used, empty bags can be placed inside one another for packing
out.
One-pot meals prepared on a backpacking stove require minimal cooking
utensils and cleaning and produce less food waste. Stoves are fast, clean, and
convenient to use, and they work in just about any weather. Plan meals so
the group takes only the amount of food necessary, except for emergency
rations; if there are leftovers after a meal, they should be eaten later or
packed out (not buried, burned, or dumped in a stream).

CONSIDER CONDITIONS AND LAND MANAGEMENT

NORMS
A little research goes a long way. Know the required permits and other
possible regulations ahead of time—every place is different. For example,
permits aren’t required to climb mountains in Europe, but places like the
Matterhorn do restrict the number people who can stay in huts. In the United
States, there are numerous land management norms, which vary among land
management agencies and among specific locations.
These management norms, which help mitigate the impact of visitors’
time in the outdoors, can include seasonal closures for wildlife, restoration
and revegetation, or other conservation efforts. Likewise, frequency of use,
required waste-disposal systems, fire bans, and ecological sensitivities
should all be understood beforehand. Consult land management agency
resources and officials wherever you plan to recreate. Inquire about fragile
or sensitive areas, including flora, fauna, geology, and soil conditions and
moisture level (factors of concern for fire). Be willing to modify your plans
or your route if fragile conditions or sensitive circumstances are discovered.

2. TRAVEL AND CAMP ON DURABLE

SURFACES
The size of a climber’s footprint or tent tarp may seem infinitesimal amid the
vast peaks of Europe’s Alps, the western United States’ Cascades, or Asia’s
Himalaya. However, as climbing and mountaineering continue to grow in
popularity, these areas host millions of visitors a year. Whenever possible,
hike on established trails and camp in established sites. As climbers move
off trail into pristine environments, practicing responsible recreating by
implementing Leave No Trace skills becomes even more critical.

Fig. 7-1. Actual trailside sign at Mount Rainier National Park.

HIKING
Staying on established trails and following best hiking practices make it
possible for wild places to stay wild. For example, Washington’s Mount
Rainier National Park hosts one to two million visitors a year, which makes
managing trails and access to sensitive environments, such as alpine zones,
very important.
Think of trails as wilderness highways. Like the roads people drive on,
trails that are properly designed can withstand high foot traffic, channel
users through fragile areas, manage water flow, and prevent soil erosion.
Please stay on trails and obey trailside signs (fig. 7-1).

On-Trail Travel
While mountaineers venture beyond the beaten path, nearly every outing
involves some established trails. Observe these practices to help preserve the
trails and the areas they pass through and respect other trail users.
Always use and stay on trails where they exist.
Stay within the established trail, even if it is muddy or rutted, to
protect trailside vegetation, and hike single file. These practices keep
hikers from unintentionally widening trails. Wearing waterproof
footwear and gaiters makes it possible to stay on the trail even where
it is wet and muddy. Take care along stream banks to avoid erosion.
Never cut switchbacks. Doing so increases your chances of
becoming injured on unstable ground, kills plants, and compacts and
erodes the soil.
Travel on snow when possible. It is a natural protective layer
between boot steps and the ground. Take extra care when traveling
through the fragile transition zone between dirt and snow where the
soil is saturated with water, especially during spring and late fall.
Select resilient areas, such as rocks, sand, or unvegetated areas,
for rest breaks. Move off and away from the trail to remain
unobtrusive to fellow hikers. If this is not possible due to fragile or
dense vegetation, find a wide spot in the trail.
Yield to other hikers by first finding a durable spot to step aside
to rather than trampling vegetation. This sets an even better example
than standard trail etiquette, which calls for stepping aside
immediately.
Pick up scraps of litter left by others and put them in a plastic bag in
your pocket. Carry a large garbage bag to haul out larger materials,
 especially on the trip back out.

Off-Trail Travel
Often a mountaineering objective lies well off any established trail.
Mountaineers traveling off trail can incorporate the following skills into how
they climb.
Keep a slow enough pace to be aware of the surroundings and to
plan a low-impact route.
Spread the party out for off-trail travel, unlike trail travel, with
each member taking a separate path, especially in fragile meadows.
Avoid traveling single file, which creates a new trail and leaves a
significant “trace.” The exception is where there is an established
climbers trail to use.
Look for durable surfaces to walk on, such as bare ground (patches
between vegetation, wildlife trails), rock (bedrock, talus, scree,
stream gravel), and sedge grasses. Avoid tromping on woody or
herbaceous vegetation, even if it appears to be hardy. Walking on
durable surfaces is especially important as the party transitions into
higher elevations, where vegetation experiences shorter growing
seasons and more-extreme growing conditions; it is harder for such
plants to recover from harm.
Take extra care in transition areas between dirt and snow where
the soil is water-saturated during spring and late fall; it is easy to
damage soils here.
Leave areas free of cairns and flagging, unless those markers are
already there. Never carve trees. If your party needs to mark the
route, remove the markers on the way back down. Let the next party
have its own routefinding adventure.

CAMPING
Many of the world’s most popular summit routes and backcountry trails have
a proliferation of established campsites. For example, at the Mount Whitney
Trail Camp in California, a number of previous visitors have built rock walls
for wind protection. In instances like this, don’t further disrupt the natural
landscape by setting up new campsites. Look for previously used,
established campsites. Resist the temptation to use a less-disturbed site
because it has a better view or is closer to a water source. (See Table 7-1 for
guidelines in choosing campsites.)
If a pristine location is all that is available, stay only a night or two and
then find another location, which allows the area to recover. If a climbing
party has a choice between a pristine spot and a new, slightly impacted
campsite, the better choice could be the pristine site if the Leave No Trace
guidelines are carefully applied. Although this choice may be contrary to
first instinct, it allows a slightly impacted area to recover from use rather
than receive more use.

TABLE 7-1. WILDERNESS CAMPSITE OPTIONS

CAMPSITE OPTIONS REASONS TO SELECT OR NOT

FROM OPTIMAL TO SELECT THIS CAMPSITE
LESS OPTIMAL

1. Established, fully A hardened site cannot be impacted

impacted campsite much further, as long as it is not enlarged
or manipulated in any way. Use existing
rocks and logs instead of moving more
in.

2. Snow Snow will melt and show no sign of use,

but avoid the area if vegetation or soil is
showing. Before leaving, break down
snow structures and make the site as
natural looking as possible.

3. Rock slab Solid rock resists most damaging effects

except fire scars.

4. Sand, dirt, or gravelly Most signs of human presence can be

flat swept away, and no vegetation will be
impacted.

5. Duff in deep forest Duff and other decaying matter are only
 lightly harmed by campers’ presence.

6. Grass-covered meadow A meadow covered by tents for a week

can have its entire growing season wiped
out. Move a long-term camp every few
days to reduce the harm to any one spot.
The higher the meadow, the more
sensitive it is to trampling.

7. Plant-covered meadow Alpine plants grow very slowly, and

above timberline woody plants are more sensitive to
impact than grasses. Heather, for
example, has only a couple of months to
bloom, seed, and add a fraction of an
inch of growth for the year. Alpine plants
could take many years to recover from
the damage of a brief encampment.

8. Waterfront along lakes Waterside plant life is delicate, and water

and streams pollution is a growing problem as more
people head into the backcountry.

In pristine sites, observe these recommendations:

Avoid grouping tents together.
Disperse toilet sites and vary walkways so that no single path gets
so trampled that the vegetation cannot recover. Carry a pair of
sandals or lightweight soft-soled shoes to wear around camp; heavy
lugsoled boots are hard on soil and vegetation.
Never “landscape” a site by leveling it, removing vegetation, or
digging trenches, for example. Never cut tree boughs or vegetation
for bedding; use a sleeping pad. If a campsite has an excessive
number of log seats, improvised tables, or fire rings, thoughtfully
disperse logs and rocks.
Find a spot with a slight natural slope so that water will not pool
beneath a tent and tempt campers to dig a trench.
When selecting a campsite, apply the 200-foot rule (about 75 paces):
camp at least 200 feet (60 meters) away from water, trails, and people. Land
managers may allow use of already hardened sites even though they are
close to water; if so, go ahead and use them, but do not create a new site in
the same vicinity. In a pristine area, enhance the sense of solitude for
yourself and others by choosing an out-of-the-way site or one with good
natural screening.
Try to use established mountaineering bivy sites or high camps. Moving
alpine rocks may kill fragile plants that take many years to grow (plants in
the alpine are often tiny and you have to look hard to see them; they are
often nestled up against rocks and stones). Moving rocks also disturbs
habitat for insects and other wildlife. Build new sites or improve existing
ones only when absolutely necessary. Then select rocks that disturb the least
possible amount of vegetation.
Keep track of gear and maintain a tidy camp so that equipment and food
are not lost or forgotten. Leave the site in better condition than you found it.
Pristine sites require a little extra effort; cover used areas with native
materials, brushing out footprints and fluffing up matted grass.

3. DISPOSE OF WASTE PROPERLY

For decades, climbers practiced a laissez-faire approach to food and human
waste as well as wastewater. Mountaineers would defecate in shallow snow
holes; big wall climbers would toss their poop off rock faces in paper bags.
Personal stories like that of professional climber Cedar Wright, who placed
both hands in a pile of feces at the top of a small overhang on El Capitan in
California’s Yosemite National Park, exemplify the need for change.
Globally, from Denali to Everest, watersheds have been contaminated from
mountaineers’ waste, garbage, and wastewater. With backcountry ventures
on the rise, human health and environmental health depend on all climbers
using best practices.

MANAGING HUMAN WASTE IN THE MOUNTAINS

The Wild West of waste disposal has come to an end. Always follow these
guidelines:
Whenever possible, use an outhouse.
If an outhouse is unavailable, the two acceptable and time-tested
methods for ethical and safe human feces disposal are cat-hole burial
and packing it out. Research ahead of time to know which option is
 best for the area where your group will be traveling. Be prepared to
use the cat-hole burial technique for defecating or to pack it out.
(Both are explained in more detail below.)
If you use toilet paper, use neutral-colored and non-scented and pack
it out. Leaving piles of used paper is gross, plus the paper takes a
long time to decompose in dry alpine environments. Burying it
attracts animals, and burning it is a fire hazard.
Instead of toilet paper, consider using natural materials such as
smooth stones, conifer cones, broad leaves (being careful to
recognize and use safe vegetation), or snow.
Tampons, used diapers, pet waste, and personal hygiene products
must be packed out.
Urinate on bare ground or rocks—not vegetation—because the salt in
urine attracts animals that might dig soils and damage plants while
trying to eat the salts.
On snow or ice, concentrate urine at designated locations in camp or
at rest stops rather than creating a proliferation of pee holes. Cover
yellow snow.
Use the 200-foot (60-meter) rule for dog waste, too: bury it in a cat
hole or pack it out.
On steep rock or ice faces, wait until you reach a place where urine
can be streamed away from the climbing route. In tents or on long
routes, some climbers use a pee bottle to collect urine for later
disposal.

Digging and Covering a Cat Hole

Using a cat hole to bury feces is most suited to lower elevations where there
is a deep layer of organic soil. Find a suitable, thoughtful location away from
trails, campsites, gathering areas, or water sources—apply the 200-foot (60-
meter) rule. Remember, if it is easy for you to reach, it will be easy for
others, too.
When you find a good location, use a small, lightweight trowel, sharp
stick, or ice axe to remove a top layer, or divot, about 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15
centimeters) in diameter, and set it aside. Dig the hole no more than 8 inches
(20 centimeters) deep—deeper than forest litter and duff, but not deeper than
the humus: the dark organic soil containing nutrients and microbes that
break down fecal matter (fig. 7-2).
 After making your deposit, fill the hole with loose soil. Using a stick or
something organic that can be left in the hole, mix the waste with some soil,
then replace the divot. Tamp the soil and distribute area vegetation to create
a natural appearance. Clean your hands using an alcohol-based hand
sanitizer.
In thin mineral soil, high alpine areas, or in desert canyon country—all
places where the waste will not readily break down—burying solid waste is
not recommended. Although it is possible to hide waste by burying it or
covering it with rock, it will take a long time to decompose. The cat hole is
not suitable in snow, either, unless organic soil can be found underneath it,
possibly in a tree well.

Fig. 7-2. Digging a cat hole.

Packing Out Poop

Mountaineers are already accustomed to packing out used toilet paper and
personal hygiene products (used bandages, sanitary napkins, tampons, et
cetera). However, climbers must be prepared to pack out feces as well.
Packing out waste is the preferred practice on popular glacier routes, in
alpine areas with thin mineral soils, in desert country, on steep rock and ice
routes including big wall climbs, on arctic tundra, and during winter travel.
Below are some methods for packing it out and disposing of it once the party
is back at the trailhead.
Double-bag it. Two resealable plastic bags, stored in a stuff sack or a
garbage bag, work effectively and safely. Like a dog owner picking up after
a pet, invert the inner bag over your hand like a glove and scoop up the solid
waste. Then turn the bag inside out to envelop the waste, seal the bag, place
it inside the second bag, and seal or tie it as well. You can reduce odor in the
first bag by including a 2-inch-square (5-centimeter-square) sponge saturated
with ammonia or by adding some chlorinated lime, cat-box filler, or
chemical gelling treatments.
Commercially available waste alleviation and gelling kits such as the
WAG BAG use a degradable-plastic double-bag system approved for deposit
in landfills, with the inner bag containing powder that gels waste and
neutralizes odors. In some wilderness areas, land managers hand out ready-
made basic double-bag sets, gelling kits, or other supplies, such as a
cardboard sheet for initial deposit of waste and a paper bag with cat-box
filler inside in which to bag the cardboard sheet. Be aware of the available
options and those promoted by the area the group is visiting, especially since
land managers may provide collection containers for climbers to deposit
their waste in if using the agency’s preferred method.
Contain the bags. Most backcountry travelers will want some kind of
sturdy container in which to store the double bags used to initially collect
waste. This container could be as simple as an old stuff sack, a watertight
dry bag (such as those used on river trips), or sturdy commercially available
products, all of which can be reused. Commercial containers include
products designed for big wall climbers, such as the Metolius Waste Case,
which is made out of haul-bag material and has sturdy haul straps to allow
for secure hauling of the container below the haul bag. Another sturdy,
commercially made product is the Clean Mountain Can, designed for use on
Denali, which contains waste in a hard-sided cylinder, has a large capacity,
and can be used as a toilet. Climbers can fashion their own container using
the many types of light, durable, watertight plastic containers that are
available.
Dispose of packed-out poop properly. Waste-disposal options must be
thoughtfully implemented. There are no easy answers to the question of
proper waste disposal. Increasingly, at popular climbing and mountaineering
routes, land managers provide specially marked collection bins for human
waste once climbers are out of the backcountry. Usually, however, it will be
up to each group to dispose of waste properly after they have finished a trip.
Do not simply put human waste in a garbage can. Waste in paper bags
may go into RV dump stations or front-country restrooms of the type that get
pumped out. Paper or plastic bags should not go into pit toilets, flush toilets,
or composting toilets. Waste in plastic bags should be emptied into a flush
toilet, then the bag should be washed out before it is thrown into the garbage.
Be sure to wash your hands with soap and water, scrubbing for at least 20
seconds, or use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer after handling fecal waste.

Crevasse Burial in Extremely Remote Areas

For remote expedition glacier travel, waste disposal in crevasses used to be
standard practice. However, it is increasingly less so, as it is learned that
these places are melting out faster and human waste is ending up
downstream. The waste might not be ground up by the moving ice, as once
was thought, and may lead to polluted snow that can cause gastrointestinal
illnesses in other travelers. Thus, all climbers should research the best option
for managing waste on remote objectives. Check with the responsible land
management agency. Where crevasse disposal is acceptable, collect solid
waste in a biodegradable plastic bag and then throw into a deep crevasse,
away from the climbing route, after the party breaks camp. However, this
practice could be on the cusp of change as distant routes gain popularity.

HANDLING FOOD AND GARBAGE

Leave No Trace applies to everything people bring into nature. Developing
efficient systems for handling food waste and garbage will lighten the load
for climbers and for the environment. As discussed in “1. Plan Ahead and
Prepare” earlier in this chapter, repackaging food means less garbage to pack
out and a little less weight to carry in. Carry out any leftover food. Never
bury or burn food waste or garbage or dump it in outhouses.
When eating, be careful not to drop food scraps. Food not native to the
environment’s habitat can have unintended consequences, such as feeding
wildlife who become habituated. Even food that will easily decompose—
such as apple cores and banana peels—are not native to the mountain
environment and should be packed out.
Keep all aspects of your backcountry kitchen away from water sources—
apply the 200-foot (60-meter) rule. After cooking in the backcountry, strain
cookwater through a screen to collect food particles, and pack them out with
other trash. Clean cook pots by scraping them out with a plastic scrubber
rather than sand or grass, and pack out the remaining food particles.

WASHING
Never wash anything directly in a water source. If you have applied
sunscreen or insect repellent, wash off before jumping into a lake or stream;
these chemicals and oils can cause harm to aquatic plants and wildlife and
will leave an oily surface film. Wash your hands or yourself at least 200 feet
(75 steps) away from camp and water sources using a biodegradable soap in
very small quantities (keep it off plants), or use quick-drying liquid
disinfectant. Take a pot of water 200 feet away from water sources, trails,
and campsites, then wash, rinse, and dispose of the wash-water—known as
graywater—200 feet away as well. Dig a small cat hole downwind from the
campsite for disposing of graywater. Pour the graywater into the hole, so it
can be better distributed through the soil. Or disperse wastewater by flinging
it out in an arc with a fast sweeping motion, which disperses the water in
fine droplets.

4. LEAVE WHAT YOU FIND

Climbers who leave rocks, plants, archaeological artifacts, and other
resources as they find them allow others the same sense of discovery and
nature that drew them to mountaineering and climbing.
To that end, avoid disturbing vegetation or rocks on a climbing route.
Look at, draw, or photograph wilderness flora rather than picking or
collecting. Do not touch or remove fossils you may discover. Leave
untouched any area with evidence of archaeological or historic artifacts,
such as those left by prehistoric or native populations. Report findings to
land managers so they can document them. As the adage says, “Take only
photos, leave only footprints.”

5. MINIMIZE CAMPFIRE IMPACTS

The classic image of camping is of folks gathered around a campfire at
night. However, campfires make it difficult to have a low impact, so in most
instances campfires should not be a part of the alpine experience. Thoughtful
selection of equipment and clothing is an important part of Leave No Trace.
Use lightweight stoves rather than campfires; stoves do not consume wild
materials, do not fill the mountain air with smoke, and are much less likely
to be the source of forest fires—pack in stove fuel rather than despoiling
areas in search of firewood. Stoves and adequate, warm clothing eliminate
the need for fires.
Since campfires are permitted in some places, identify the conditions for
creating a safe permitted campfire. Use existing fire rings at established,
front-country sites. Carry a fire pan or learn how to make and break down a
Leave No Trace mound fire when in the backcountry (see the Leave No
Trace website in Resources). Use only dry sticks found on the ground that
can be broken by hand. When collecting wood for a campfire, avoid
trampling vegetation, stripping trees and shrubs, even dead trees, which
create visual variety and wildlife habitat, and creating unwanted social trails,
all of which negatively impact local wildlife as well as other users. Burn
wood to ash, and scatter cooled ashes so there is no visual evidence.
Campfire rings and blackened rocks and trees are visual impacts that last for
decades.

6. RESPECT WILDLIFE
In 2016, visitors in Wyoming’s Yellowstone National Park put a newborn
bison in the back of their SUV because “it looked cold.” Unable to reconnect
the calf with its herd, park rangers were forced to euthanize it. While this is
an extreme example, this lesson holds true for all situations: animals are part
of complex ecosystems, and our responsibility in the backcountry is to let
these processes continue unfettered.
Never approach or touch wildlife. Keep safe distances, both for
your safety and that of the animals.
Never feed wildlife. It threatens their health and creates dangerous
dependence. This is true for all animals, even birds and chipmunks.
A fed animal is a dead animal.
Clean up even the smallest specks of food at trail stops and
campsites. Microcrumbs are not natural to the environment.
Watch for nesting birds, especially raptors, on rock routes so as not
to disturb them. Check with land managers for nesting seasons and
closures. If climbers do encounter nesting birds, they should back off
or take another route.
Ensure your pet doesn’t disturb wildlife. The mere presence of a
dog can cause wild animals to flee, using up energy and exposing
themselves to predators. Consider leaving pets at home. If you do
 bring a pet into the wilderness, do so only where permitted. Educate
yourself on best practices for bringing your furry companion with
you. In many areas, pets must be leashed at all times.

7. BE CONSIDERATE OF OTHER VISITORS

Most people go into the wilderness to experience untrammeled areas and a
level of solitude. Mountaineers can contribute to the wilderness experience
of others by camping away from them and using earth tones instead of more
visible, “hot” colors for tents, packs, and clothing to reduce the sense of
overcrowding. Respect the privacy of others, traveling through their space
only if necessary, and keep voices and other sounds to a minimum.
Enjoy the sounds of the wilderness. Soon enough, climbers will return to
their daily routine and urban sounds. Climbers may want to listen to music
on long expeditions, but for most backcountry trips, audio devices can be
distracting to you, and worse to others. Check with trip companions before
taking any of these along. If you do, wear earphones. If you must make a
summit call, find a space away from others.

THINK SMALL
Limit the size of the group. Outdoor trips are often social events, but keeping
groups smaller enhances the sense of solitude for the party and other visitors.
If local land managers have a party size limit, consider making your group
even smaller. Climbers should ask themselves, “What is the minimum group
size needed for safety?”

MINIMIZE CLIMBING IMPACTS

Climbers have a special obligation beyond the seven Leave No Trace
principles. Simply put, implement anchoring fundamentals (see “Anchors”
in Chapter 10, Belaying). Additional fixed-anchor best practices include
these:
Use natural-colored webbing at rappel points.
Don’t leave webbing if it is not needed. Remove excess, unsafe
webbing left by other climbers when possible.
Avoid setting up new, permanent fixed anchors and rappel points
or reinforcing existing ones, unless it is necessary for safety.
 Leave the climbing environment as the party found it, as much as
possible:
Never chip holds or alter the rock structure for climbing purposes.
Rather than pushing loose rocks off on an alpine climb, try adjusting
them to make them stable (except at popular sport-climbing crags,
however, where it may be better to remove loose rocks because of the
danger they pose in crowded areas).
Leave plants on route whenever possible. Clean new routes of
vegetation only for safety, not aesthetics.
Use as little chalk as possible.
Modern climbing ethics dictate limited use of pitons. Use them
only when modern clean climbing gear cannot be used, such as in
certain winter conditions and on challenging aid-climbing objectives.
Break down snow shelters before you leave, to reduce visual impact
and inadvertent safety hazards.
Learn about and respect the customs and culture of the area in which you
are adventuring. Do not climb, and never bolt, near indigenous rock artwork.
Here are some additional considerations regarding bolting:
Bolts should be considered only when no other protection is
possible and when they are needed to provide a margin of safety.
Consult local climbing norms and the local climbing community
before deciding to place bolts.
Follow the local practices and rules for bolting at climbing crags.
In one area, local climbers may use only camouflaged bolt hangers
(painted so that they are not shiny); in another area, the bolting of
new routes may be illegal.

RESPECT THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

Mountaineers do their part to protect and preserve the wild country they
explore by applying Leave No Trace principles, using good judgment, and
educating others. There is no more positive way to help ensure continued
access, unfettered by restrictions and excessive rules and regulations. When
climbers enter the backcountry, they are active stewards and contribute to the
lasting protection of wild resources for themselves and future generations.
LESS IMPACT, MORE ACCESS • HAVING A SAY IN ACCESS • THE FUTURE OF
MOUNTAINEERING

CHAPTER 8
ACCESS AND STEWARDSHIP
Perhaps because of their unique relationship with the
mountains, climbers have long been at the forefront of
protecting wild places around the globe. John Muir, a leading
conservationist of the nineteenth century, was a climber, as was
David Brower, a leading conservationist of the twentieth
century. Nearly every powerful advocate and conservationist of
the last century first connected with the outdoors through
recreation.

The tradition of climbers working to protect wild places continues today. On

every continent, climbers act as stewards of the mountains, taking on actions
as small as packing out their own refuse and as large as fighting large-scale
development that threatens the places mountaineers love.
Access and stewardship are intertwined. Access to outdoor experiences
and places to climb, hike, and explore is the foundation of a stewardship
ethic. Having meaningful outdoor experiences nurtures an inclination to
protect these places as stewards, advocates, and conservationists. As more
and more people turn to the mountains, stewardship becomes even more
important for protecting these places, both today and into the future.
 Stewardship, especially work to minimize the impact of recreation,
ensures that climbers can continue to have access to the outdoors.
Maintaining access to wild places depends on minimizing the actual and
potential conflicts between mountaineers, other users, and the interests of
those who manage the land. On public and private lands, recreation is often
just one of many activities that take place. Land managers, who are often
responsible for balancing the multiple uses and activities on public lands,
sometimes must place restriction on outdoor exploration on the land where
mountaineers climb. Although practicing good stewardship should rightfully
be considered the moral obligation of every climber, it is also the key to
minimizing access conflicts.

LESS IMPACT, MORE ACCESS

Being aware of potential conditions that can affect access to climbing areas
allows climbers to protect and enjoy recreational resources. Climbers are
responsible for educating themselves about local customs, land rules and
regulations, and any access restrictions where they wish to climb.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Stewardship starts with the natural environments that attract mountaineers in
the first place. Alpine ecosystems are typically fragile and highly affected by
humans. Vegetation is delicate and shallow-rooted. Human waste is
particularly slow to decompose in the ice and rock zone, and it can become a
problem on popular routes and at bivouac or camping areas. If a single
climber fails to utilize Leave No Trace principles (see Chapter 7, Leave No
Trace), the damage may be visible for months or years.
Cliff environments often have their own unique features. Cliffs may host
nesting raptors, serve as home to bat colonies, and support highly specialized
(and sometimes very rare) plant communities. Because cliffs may create
their own microclimates and provide conditions that are either drier or wetter
than the surrounding area, the tops and bases of cliffs may feature plant and
wildlife concentrations unique to an area. Climber impacts can occur both on
the cliff faces themselves (through wildlife disturbance and passive or active
devegetation) and at cliff tops and bottoms (often in the form of erosion and
ground-cover loss associated with concentrated foot travel and group
gatherings).
 In addition to affecting the environment, these impacts can also lead to
access restrictions. Recreation impacts can create conflicts with regulations
that are intended to protect places, including laws to protect habitat for
endangered species and rules about other user groups. Most land managers
have acceptable levels of impacts, which can vary greatly depending on who
manages the land. The same impacts that are acceptable in a park that is
being managed for recreation may be unacceptable in an area managed
specifically for habitat preservation.
To avoid such access problems, every climber should adhere to the
principles discussed in Chapter 7, Leave No Trace. In practical terms, this
means adjusting climbing practices in relation to whatever constitutes a
“trace” where you are climbing. What constitutes a “trace” may be different
at a popular roadside crag than at a remote alpine area. Climbers should
strive to minimize their impacts everywhere, and go to even greater lengths
in wilderness and environmentally sensitive areas. Become familiar with
who or what agency manages chosen climbing destinations, and learn the
rules that govern use of those areas.

CULTURAL IMPACTS
Local populations, including indigenous peoples and religious groups, often
work to protect places based on the religious or historical significance
attached to natural features. Oftentimes, tribes or local groups work together
with recreation groups to protect an important place for its cultural and
recreational value. At other times, the need to protect cultural values has
conflicted with access for climbing.
The issues are complex when climbing intersects with religious beliefs
that attach significance to a climbing objective. At a minimum, become
knowledgeable of the local customs that may be harmed or affected when
you are climbing at a new area, and make decisions based on cultural
sensitivities and local land management practices and norms. For instance,
good stewardship requires leaving artifacts and rock art (petroglyphs and
pictographs) undisturbed.

I felt then that [this] was another special place. A place where climbers
lived who cared for it, and knew it well enough to say that the yellow
rock was more brittle than the red, or that there are hidden holds inside
that crack, or that the number of condors is on the up, that the boulder
 in the next valley gives good shelter, or at what time exactly does the
sun shine on that face of the mountain. Simple shared knowledge. That
which we have of our home rocks.
—Paul Pritchard, Deep Play

AESTHETIC IMPACTS
The use of fixed gear such as bolts, in situ pitons, and rappel slings has been
at the center of a number of access issues because of its aesthetic impact on
natural places. When climbing has a visual impact on the outdoors, such as a
high density of bolts on a cliff or rappel anchors that stand out at a distance,
it can diminish the outdoor experience of climbers and nonclimbers alike.
Another aesthetic impact to consider is the use of chalk by rock climbers
where chalk residue on holds visually contrasts sharply with the surrounding
rock or is not removed by weathering. Climbers can turn to the Access Fund,
a nonprofit organization focused on climbing access and stewardship (see
Resources for this chapter), for more information, background, and
climbing-specific low-impact recreation skills.

We are entering a new era of climbing, an era that may well be

characterized by incredible advances in equipment, by the overcoming
of great difficulties, with even greater technological wizardry, and by
the rendering of the mountains to a low, though democratic, mean.
Or it could be the start of more spiritual climbing, where we assault
the mountains with less equipment and with more awareness, more
experience and more courage.
—Yvon Chouinard, “Coonyard Mouths Off,” Ascent

ACCESS FEES
Fees that apply to all recreational users can also affect climbing access.
Access fees, climbing fees, and permit fees can create an economic barrier
for some mountaineers. These fees, particularly in Asia, are sometimes used
for stewardship by land management agencies, and sometimes they are
chiefly governmental revenue devices.

HAVING A SAY IN ACCESS

As people who enjoy the outdoors, climbers and mountaineers have a
responsibility to protect outdoor places and a stake in preserving access to
them. There are a few important ways you can act to protect your outdoor
experiences.

SPEAK UP AS A STAKEHOLDER
If climbers want to have a say about how to protect the places where they
love to climb, one place to start is with federal land management agencies.
Land management agencies—for example, the US National Park Service,
Forest Service, and Bureau of Land Management—manage millions of acres
of public lands on behalf of all citizens. On these lands, all citizens are
stakeholders. These agencies employ public processes to gather input about
management decisions. These public processes solicit feedback from
stakeholders, including advocacy groups such as The Mountaineers,
environmental organizations, local businesses, developers, and the wider
public.
For instance, if climbers love visiting a local national forest, they can get
involved in protecting their access to climbing there by participating in
ongoing public processes or by contacting their local land managers. Since
these agencies can be huge (sometimes with hundreds or thousands of
employees that take care of millions of acres of land), it can sometimes be
overwhelming to get involved. Many times, a local advocacy organization
that works with these agencies can help climbers figure out the most
effective way to share their voices.

SPEAK UP THROUGH A MEMBERSHIP GROUP

Membership organizations such as The Mountaineers, the Access Fund, the
Alpine Club of Canada, the American Alpine Club, and the Outdoor
Alliance are active in access issues, stewardship projects, and advocating for
wild places. These membership organizations work hard to protect climbing
access and can also introduce climbers to opportunities for sharing their
voices with local and federal land managers. Membership in these
organizations is important not just as a symbolic contribution to climbing
access, but also because a membership organization is only as strong
politically as the size of its membership. An organization with one hundred
thousand members has more political weight than one with only several
hundred members. When climbers join one of these groups, they are not just
contributing financially to the organization’s work; they are also loaning
their voices so that this advocacy group has more power to protect the places
and the climbing that matters to them.
These membership organizations influence policy in a number of ways
and often share with members multiple opportunities to contribute to those
efforts. They work with agencies that develop management plans for
climbing and assist in tailoring site-specific closures to protect critical
resources, such as seasonal restrictions for nesting raptors. They provide
grants for land acquisition, trail building, trailhead maintenance, and other
conservation projects, as well as scientific studies related to climbing
impacts. Some local and regional climbing organizations have been formed
at a number of climbing areas to address access issues close to home.

EXERT INFLUENCE AS A STEWARD

Small acts of stewardship matter greatly for protecting places and a
climber’s access to them. All climbers have the responsibility to minimize
their impact on the natural environment and to practice Leave No Trace
principles (see Chapter 7, Leave No Trace). If climbers love a place, they
treat it with care and encourage others to do the same. Stewardship can be as
simple as picking up someone else’s litter, decaying slings, and abandoned
fixed lines. For climbers with more time to dedicate, stewardship can also
involve weekends spent on trail-building and revegetation projects.
Membership organizations often offer opportunities for trail and site
stewardship, as well as advocacy.

THE FUTURE OF MOUNTAINEERING

Mountaineers pursue unconfined exploration. And yet the future of
mountaineering relies on all climbers taking care to mitigate their impacts
and think of themselves as stewards of wild places. As more people continue
to join the ranks of climbers, it is incumbent on all climbers to minimize
their impacts and maximize their stewardship of shared lands and waters. By
doing so, they and the generations of mountaineers who follow can continue
to enjoy the experience of a new trail, a challenging climb, or a mountain
summit—the freedom of the hills.
PART II

CLIMBING FUNDAMENTALS
9 BASIC SAFETY SYSTEM
10 BELAYING
11 RAPPELLING
ROPES • KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES • HELMETS • HARNESSES
• RUNNERS • CARABINERS • KNIFE • KEEPING THE SAFETY NET
STRONG

images

CHAPTER 9

BASIC SAFETY SYSTEM

The climbing safety system protects you when the difficulty of a pitch
or an unexpected occurrence—a slip or a collapsing snow bridge—
causes you to fall.

The safety system is more than just a rope. It also includes the harness that
attaches you to the rope, the knots and carabiners that join the various parts
of the climbing system, and the loops of webbing (known as runners) used
to connect the rope to rock, snow, or ice. This chapter provides an
understanding of the mechanical components of the safety system and how
to use them effectively and safely. Avoid using any critical climbing
equipment if you are unfamiliar with its history. Secondhand equipment,
whether found or passed along without an account of its use, increases the
possibility of a weak link in the chain protecting the lives of you and your
climbing partners.

ROPES

Nylon climbing ropes are lightweight and very strong, capable of bearing a
load of more than two tons. They also have the remarkable quality of
elasticity, which is the critical component in the rope’s ability to protect a
climber in a fall. Rather than bringing a falling climber to an abrupt, jolting
stop, nylon ropes stretch and dynamically dissipate much of the energy
generated by the fall, thereby reducing the forces associated with the fall.

Early nylon ropes were of “laid” or “twisted” construction. They were

composed of many tiny nylon filaments bunched into three or four major
strands that were then twisted together to form the rope. Gradually, twisted
nylon ropes were replaced by kernmantle ropes designed specifically for
climbing. Today’s kernmantle ropes (fig. 9-1) are composed of a core of
braided or parallel nylon filaments encased in a smooth, woven sheath of
nylon. Kernmantle rope maintains the advantages of nylon but minimizes
the problems associated with ropes constructed by twisting: stiffness,
friction, and excessive elasticity. Kernmantle ropes are now the only
climbing ropes approved by the International Climbing and Mountaineering
Federation (Union Internationale des Associations d’Alpinisme, UIAA),
the internationally recognized authority in setting standards for climbing
equipment, and the European Committee on Standardization (Comité
Européen de Normalisation, CEN, listed as “CE” on equipment labels), the
European group responsible for creating and maintaining standards for all
equipment, including climbing gear (fig. 9-2).

VARIETIES OF CLIMBING ROPE

Climbing ropes are available in a great variety of diameters, lengths, and

characteristics. Any rope used for climbing should have the manufacturer’s
label, a UIAA or CEN rating, and specifications such as length, diameter,
elongation or impact force, and fall rating. Rope measurements universally
use the metric system; in this book, imperial units of measurement (inches,
feet, and so on) are occasionally given in parentheses as well.

Dynamic. Kernmantle ropes designed for climbing are termed “dynamic”

ropes. Dynamic ropes achieve low impact forces by stretching under the
force of a fall. One of the most important considerations when looking at
rope specifications is the impact force—generally, lower is better. Using a
rope with a lower impact force means that a climber’s fall will be stopped
less abruptly (a “softer catch”) and less force will be imparted onto the
fallen climber, the belayer, and the anchor system.

TABLE 9-1. SOME TYPICAL ROPES AND THEIR COMMON

USES

DIAMETER TYPE COMMON USE

10.1–11 mm Dynamic Most durable single rope for rock and ice
climbing (the workhorse)

Moderate-weight single rope for rock and ice

9.5–10 mm Dynamic
climbing (versatile)

Lightweight single rope for rock and ice

8.9–9.4 mm Dynamic
climbing and glacier travel

Part of a double-rope system for rock and ice

8–9 mm Dynamic climbing or a lightweight single rope for simple
glacier travel

Part of a twin-rope system for rock and ice

7–8 mm Dynamic
climbing

Fixed lines on expedition-style climbs, caving,

9–13 mm Static or rescue and haul lines on big walls (not for
lead climbing)

images

Fig. 9-1. Construction of a kernmantle rope.

images

Fig. 9-2. The logos of the two organizations that approve kernmantle ropes.

Dynamic ropes come in a variety of diameters that are acceptable for

technical climbing. Table 9-1 illustrates some typical ropes and their
common uses. Smaller-diameter dynamic ropes (down to about 7
millimeters) are typically used in pairs as part of either a twin-or double-
rope system (see Chapter 14, Leading on Rock). These small-diameter rope
systems rely on the elastic properties of both ropes to protect the climber
and must be used as a pair. The current trend in rope manufacturing—and,
therefore, in rope use—is toward thinner and lighter ropes, but it is
important to keep in mind that every rope is rated for certain intended uses,
as indicated on the rope’s label.

Dynamic ropes also come in a variety of lengths. Useful lengths range from
30 meters to 70 meters. Although 60 meters (200 feet) is the most common
length for all-around recreational climbing, a climber might want to choose
a rope that is either shorter or longer, for a variety of reasons. Rope weight,
the nature and length of the route, and the ability to rappel safely are some
things to consider when selecting a rope’s length.

Static. In contrast to dynamic ropes, static ropes, nylon slings, and cord
stretch very little, and a fall of even a few feet on nondynamic materials
such as these can generate impact forces severe enough to cause failure of
the anchor system or severe injury to the climber.

Climbers use no-stretch or very low-stretch ropes for purposes other than
protecting the lead climber, including cave exploring or rescue work, as
fixed line on expedition-style climbs, or sometimes as the haul line, jug
line, and rappel line during aid climbing. Although static ropes often are
sold at climbing stores, these ropes should never be used for lead climbing,
which requires the impact-absorbing qualities of a dynamic rope.

Colors of Ropes

Ropes are manufactured with different patterns and colors woven into the
sheath. Some ropes have a few inches of contrasting color at the midpoint;
bicolor ropes have a change in color or pattern at the midpoint to make it
easy to find the middle of the rope and differentiate the ends. Others have
distinctively colored ends so that it is easier for climbers to visually
determine that the end of the rope is being reached while they are belaying
or rappelling. If a climb calls for two ropes, it is useful to use different
colors to assist climbers in distinguishing between the ropes. The UIAA
warns against marking a rope with any substance that has not been
specifically approved by the rope manufacturer.

Water-Repellent Ropes
Wet ropes, in addition to being unpleasant to handle and heavy to carry, can
freeze and become very difficult to manage. Equally important, studies
show that wet ropes hold fewer falls and have about 30 percent less
strength than the same ropes when they are dry.

Rope manufacturers treat some of their ropes with either a silicone-based

coating or a synthetic fluorine-containing resin coating (such as Teflon) to
make them more water-repellent and therefore stronger in wet conditions.
The “dry rope” treatment improves the abrasion resistance of the rope and
also reduces friction of the rope as it runs through carabiners. Dry ropes
usually cost about 15 percent more than untreated ropes.

PERFORMANCE TESTS

The UIAA and CEN test equipment to determine which gear meets their
standards. Because climbing is a sport in which equipment failure can be
fatal, it is wise to purchase equipment that has earned UIAA and/or CEN
approval.

In its rope tests, the UIAA checks the strength of the single ropes used in
most climbing—which generally measure between 8.9 and 11 millimeters
in diameter—and also the thinner ropes used in double-rope climbing. To
receive UIAA approval, a rope must survive a required minimum number
of falls. The tests measure the impact force of the rope, which determines
the stress of the fall on the climber’s body and on the pieces of protection.

The UIAA also applies static tension tests to determine how much the ropes
elongate under load. Approved ropes do not stretch by more than a
specified percentage.

ROPE CARE

A rope protects your life and must be treated with care.

Preventing Damage to the Rope

Stepping on a rope can grind sharp particles into and through the sheath.
Over time, the particles act like tiny knives that slice the rope’s nylon
filaments. Climbers wearing crampons must be doubly careful about
keeping off the rope, because a misstep could damage the rope. Crampons
may damage the core of a rope without leaving any visible gash on the
sheath.

Protect the rope from contact with corrosive chemicals (especially acids)
that might damage the rope. For example, parking lot surfaces or a car
trunk or basement may harbor substances that could damage a rope.

Washing and Drying

Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for care. Most ropes should be

washed frequently with tepid water and mild soap, although some
manufacturers recommend against using petroleum-based or other
detergents on water-repellent ropes. The rope’s water-repellent finish can
also be renewed with aftermarket products made for that purpose. A rope
can be washed by hand in a bathtub or in a front-loading washing machine
(ropes can get caught under the agitator in a top-loading machine). Rinse
the rope several times in clean water and then hang it to dry, out of direct
sunlight.

THE LIFE OF A ROPE

Following are some general guidelines to help climbers decide when to

retire their ropes:

imagesA rope used daily should be retired within a year.

imagesA rope used on most weekends should give about two years of
service.

imagesAn occasionally used rope should be retired after about four years
(nylon deteriorates over time).

Storing

Before storing any rope, be sure it is completely dry. Remove all knots, coil
the rope loosely (see “Coiling the Rope,” below), and store it in a cool, dry
area away from sunlight, heat, petroleum products, and corrosive chemicals
such as acids.

Retiring a Rope

Examine a rope’s sheath to get the best picture of the rope’s overall
condition. Inspect ropes frequently, particularly after a fall, to ensure that
the sheath is clean, that there are no abraded or soft spots in the rope, and
that the ends are properly fused and not fraying or unraveling. If a crampon
wound, excessive abrasion, rockfall, or a sharp edge leaves the sheath
looking tattered, the rope’s integrity should be seriously questioned. If the
core of the rope is visible, it is time to retire the rope.

It is harder to decide when to retire the rope if it does not contain any
obvious soft spots or scars in the sheath. The rope’s actual condition
depends on many factors, including frequency of use, the care it has
received, the number of falls it has endured, and how old it is.

After a severe fall, it may be wise to replace a rope, particularly if any

segment of the rope feels mushy or flat. In deciding whether to retire the
rope, consider the rope’s history and other factors affecting its condition.
The guidelines for rope replacement (see “The Life of a Rope” sidebar)
assume that the rope is kept properly cleaned and stored.

images

Fig. 9-3. Butterfly coil for a rope carry: a, holding one end of the rope with
your left hand and leaving an ample tail, with your right hand pull the rope
up and overhead to drape against the back of your neck; b, with your right
hand remaining in place to hold the end of the coil, bring your left hand to
your right to draw a bight from the free end of the rope, and drape this up
and overhead to the left; c, repeat this step, alternating hands, until most of
the rope is coiled, leaving an equally long final tail; d, for the carry, lift the
coils off your shoulders; e, wrap the tails around the middle of the coils
several times; f, starting from the last wrap, make a bight using both
strands of loose rope and feed this bight through the upper loop of the coil;
g, bring both ends of the tail all the way through this bight; h, cinch; i, put
a rope end over each shoulder, cross these around behind your back, over
the coiled rope, then back again forward around your waist to secure the
load with a square knot.

COILING THE ROPE

For carrying or storing, the rope is normally coiled, most commonly in the
butterfly coil. Once it is coiled, the rope can be tied snugly to your body if
you are not wearing a pack. Below are steps to create a single butterfly coil
using your arms as a measure and your neck and shoulders to rest the coils.
The rope can also be coiled starting from the middle, coiling two strands at
a time to form a double coil. While somewhat faster, this double coil is
much more likely to tangle than the single butterfly coil, and is therefore
not recommended.

Butterfly coil. Fast to create and easy to undo, a single butterfly coil does
not kink the rope. To coil the rope, hold one end of the rope with your left
hand, leaving an ample tail (two “wingspans” is a good guideline), and
slide your right hand out along the rope, then lift the rope length created up
and over your head and drape it against the back of your neck (fig. 9-3a).
Next, bring your left hand to your right hand (fig. 9-3b) and use your free
left thumb to pull a bight of the free end of the rope up and over your head
while your right hand remains in place and holds the end of the coil (fig. 9-
3c). Hold this coil in place while using your right hand this time to pull a
new bight of rope to drape up and over your head. Continue alternating
these moves from left to right, making and placing new coils until you
reach the end of the rope, leaving a tail equal in length to the other tail.
Shorten the last coil if necessary to adjust the tail. This will result in
multiple coils in the shape of a horseshoe (fig. 9-3d).

To secure the horseshoe of coils, gather the two loose tail ends together and
wrap them tightly and neatly around the middle of the coil several times
(fig. 9-3e), avoiding twists. Bring a bight of the two loose ends through the
loop at the top of the coil that is created by wrapping the coil’s middle (fig.
9-3f), pulling enough of the tails through to form a good-sized loop. Then
bring the rest of the loose tail ends through this good-sized loop (fig. 9-3g),
drawing the loose ends all the way through (fig. 9-3h). To tie the butterfly
coil to your body, place the coil against your back and draw one of the
loose ends over each shoulder and around your back, crossing them over
the coil and bringing them around your waist; tie them together in front
(fig. 9-3i).

Flaking out the rope. It is important to uncoil the rope carefully before
you use it, to minimize the chance of coils balling up into a tangle. Do not
just drop the coils and start pulling on one end, which will create a tangled
mess. Untie the cinch knot and then uncoil the rope, one loop at a time, into
a pile, a procedure known as “flaking out the rope.” Always flake out the
rope before each belay to avoid twisting, knots, and tangles.

Rope bags or tarps. Alternatives to coiling the rope include using rope
bags or tarps. Either can be used to protect a rope during transport. The
unfolded rope bag or tarp also protects a rope from sand and grit on the
ground. The bags and tarps add weight and cost, but for certain situations,
such as cragging, they are worth it.

KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES

Knots allow you to use the rope for many special purposes. Knots let you
tie in to the rope, anchor to the mountain, tie two ropes together for long
rappels, use slings to climb the rope itself, and much more. In common
usage, the word “knot” is often used generically to refer to either a knot, a
bend, or a hitch. But, properly speaking, they are different from each other.
A knot refers to material tied on itself; a bend refers to a joining of material
ends; a hitch refers to material tied around a solid object. In this book, the
word “knot” is often used in its all-inclusive sense.

Climbers rely most heavily on a dozen or so basic knots, bends, and

hitches. Practice these knots until tying them is second nature. Online
sources such as the Animated Knots website and app (see Resources for
this chapter) can be valuable resources for learning to tie these knots. Know
that all knots weaken the rope, some more than others. In drop tests and
pull tests, when a rope does break, it typically breaks at the knot. Table 9-2
shows the typical strength reduction of some knots. Some knots may be
preferred over others because of their strength. Others may be chosen
because they are easier to tie or are less likely to come apart in use.
Some terms and techniques are common to all knot tying, regardless of
which knot is used. The end of the rope that is not being actively used is
called the standing end; the other end is called the loose end. A 180-degree
bend in the rope is called a bight; a loop is formed when the rope is curled
around in 360 degrees so that both ends of the loop join or overlap. A
double knot is a knot tied in a pair of ropes or in a doubled portion of one
rope.

Regardless of what type of knot you tie, tie it neatly, keeping the separate
strands of the knot parallel and free of twists. Tightly cinch every knot by
pulling on each loose strand, and tie off loose ends with an overhand knot
(see below). Always tie knots in perfect form so it becomes easy to
recognize a properly tied knot. In the words of Colorado mountain guide
and climber Michael Covington, “A good knot is a pretty knot.” Develop
the habit of routinely inspecting your own knots and those of your climbing
partners, particularly before beginning a pitch or a rappel. As a general
rule, keep knots away from points of greatest stress, sharp edges and
corners, friction, and abrasion.

TABLE 9-2. REDUCTION IN BREAKING STRENGTH OF A

SINGLE KERNMANTLE ROPE AT THE KNOT (relative to an
unknotted kernmantle rope)

REDUCTION REDUCTION
IN IN
KNOT KNOT
BREAKING BREAKING
STRENGTH STRENGTH

Figure eight on a
Bowline 26–45 % 23–34 %
bight

Butterfly knot 28–39 % Girth hitch 25–40 %

Clove hitch 25–40 % Overhand loop 32–42 %

Double fisherman’s
20–35 % Square knot 53–57 %
bend

Water knot (ring

Figure-eight bend 25–30 % 30–40 %
bend)

Source: Clyde Soles, The Outdoor Knots Book (see Resources).

BASIC KNOTS

Basic knots are used for tying in to harnesses, for tying ropes together for
rappel, for tying slings, and for anchoring and rescue procedures.

Overhand Knot

To tie an overhand knot, pass the loose end of the rope through a bight of
rope (fig. 9-4a). The overhand knot is frequently used to secure loose rope
ends after another knot has been tied. For instance, the overhand knot can
be used to secure rope ends after tying a square knot (fig. 9-4b) or a
rewoven figure eight (fig. 9-4c).

images

Fig. 9-4. Overhand knot: a, tying an overhand knot; b, overhand knots

backing up both sides of a square knot; c, overhand knot backing up a
rewoven figure eight.

Flat Overhand Bend (a.k.a. Offset Overhand Bend)

The flat overhand bend is tied using the loose ends of two ropes to set up a
double-rope rappel (fig. 9-5a). Be sure to leave at least 12 to 18 inches of
tail (fig. 9-5b) to prevent the knot from working itself loose. Compared
with the double fisherman’s bend (see below), this knot has a lower profile,
and thus is less likely to be caught on edges, stuck in cracks, and tangled on
trees when the rappel rope is retrieved.
 images

Fig. 9-5. Flat overhand bend: a, tie an overhand knot in two strands of
rope; b, pull all four strands tight.

Overhand Loop

The basic overhand loop is tied using a bight in the rope rather than a loose
end (fig. 9-6). The overhand loop is often used for creating leg loops in
accessory cord as part of the Texas prusik system (described in Chapter 18,
Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue) or to make a loop in a doubled rope or
a length of webbing.

images

Fig. 9-6. Overhand loop: a, tie an overhand knot in a bight of rope or cord;
b, dress and pull all strands tight.

Water Knot (Ring Bend)

The water knot, also known as the ring bend, is frequently used to tie the
two ends of a length of tubular webbing (fig. 9-7a, b, and c) into a runner
(see “Runners” later in this chapter). A water knot can work loose over
time, so it is important to cinch the knot by pulling each of the four strands
tight and to make the tails of the knot at least 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7.5
centimeters) long (fig. 9-7d). Check water knots often and retie any that
have worked loose or that have short tails.

images

Fig. 9-7. Water knot (ring bend): a, draw a loose end through a bight of
webbing; b, bring other loose end through the bight, around the first end,
and under itself; c, draw ends well through knot so 2-to 3-inch tails extend;
d, pull all four strands tight.

Square Knot

The square knot (fig. 9-8) can be used to join two ends of a rope together—
for example, to secure the ends of the butterfly coil when it is carried on a
climber’s back (see Figure 9-3i).

images

Fig. 9-8. Square knot: a, cross two loose ends over each other and bring
one end up and around the other; b, bring end through the loop; c, dress all
four strands; d, pull all four strands tight.

Fisherman’s Bend

The fisherman’s bend is used to join two ropes together. To tie it, overlap a
loose end of each rope and tie each end in an overhand knot around the
other rope’s standing end (fig. 9-9). While no longer used for climbing, the
single fisherman’s bend is shown here to provide a clearer understanding of
the double fisherman’s bend. Note that the barrel knot is the fisherman’s
tied on a single strand; see Figure 11-13 in Chapter 11, Rappelling.

Fig. 9-9. Fisherman’s bend: a, overlap a loose end of each rope, and tie
each end in an overhand knot around other rope’s standing end; b, pull all
four strands tight.

Double Fisherman’s Bend

The double fisherman’s bend, also known as the grapevine knot, is used to
join two ropes or both ends of a rope together. To tie it, overlap a loose end
of each rope and pass each loose end twice around the other rope’s standing
end before pulling each end through both its two loops (fig. 9-10a) and then
pulling both knots tight (fig. 9-10b). This is a very secure knot for tying the
ends of two ropes together for a rappel or for tying secure loops in round
cords. It is important to ensure that the two parts of this knot are
symmetrical. This can be tested by checking that one side of the knot has
four neat parallel strands of rope (fig. 9-10c) and that the other side has two
Xs (the knot itself, see Figure 9-10b) neatly nested together.

Fig. 9-10. Double fisherman’s bend: a, pass each loose end twice around
the other rope’s standing end and then tie an overhand knot; b, pull all four
strands tight; c, back side of correctly tied double fisherman’s.

Triple Fisherman’s Bend

This knot is similar to the double fisherman’s bend (see Figure 9-10), but
the loose end goes around the other rope’s standing end three times instead
of twice. The triple fisherman’s bend is preferred when low-friction
materials such as Spectra cord are joined together.

Figure Eight on a Bight

The figure eight on a bight (fig. 9-11) is a strong knot that can be tied
rapidly. It is commonly used to back up a clove hitch attachment to an
anchor in multipitch rock climbing or to tie in to the middle of a rope in
glacier climbing.
Fig. 9-11. Figure eight on a bight: a, bring a bight back parallel to the
standing ends; b, bring bight under and then over the ends, forming an
eight, then bring the bight down through the bottom loop of the eight; c,
dress the strands; d, pull all four strands tight.

Rewoven Figure Eight

The rewoven figure eight is an excellent knot for tying the end of the rope
in to a seat harness. The loose end of a figure eight (fig. 9-12a) is passed
around the padded waist belt and leg loops and above the keeper strap, then
rewoven (fig. 9-12b and c). The harness’s keeper strap “keeps” the rope
from slipping around or down a leg loop strap. Finish off the knot by tying
an overhand knot in the loose end of the rope. Note that the overhand knot
is just a way to keep the tail in place. It does not add security or safety to
the knot. The tail of the knot needs to be about the same length as the knot
itself to ensure the security of the knot.
Fig. 9-12. Rewoven figure eight: a, tie a figure eight; b, double the loose
end back and retrace the eight so the loose end is parallel to the standing
end; c, pull both the ends of the loop and the end loop tight.

Figure-Eight Bend

The figure-eight bend may be used to join two ropes together for rappelling
or to create a cordelette or equalette for building anchors (see Chapter 10,
Belaying). Tie a figure eight in the loose end of one rope (fig. 9-13a). Use
the loose end of the other rope to retrace the figure eight, going toward the
standing end of the first rope (fig. 9-13b, c, and d). Caution: Do not
accidentally tie an offset figure-eight bend by matching the two loose ends
side by side and tying a figure eight with the two strands; this is very
dangerous to use for a rappel. After being weighted, the figure-eight bend
is easier to untie than the double fisherman’s bend.
Fig. 9-13. Figure eight bend: a, tie a figure eight in the loose end of one
rope; b and c, retrace the eight using the other rope’s loose end; d, tighten
all four strands.

Single Bowline

The single bowline makes a loop at the end of the climbing rope that will
not slip, and it can secure the rope around a tree or other anchor. The loose
end of the rope should come out on the inside of the bowline’s loop (the
rabbit goes up around the tree and back down the hole, fig. 9-14a and b).
Tie off the loose end with an overhand knot (fig. 9-14c and d). This knot is
easy to untie after it has been loaded, making it a good choice for a top-
rope tie-in. Be aware that the bowline knot is not a secure knot. It tends to
loosen when not under constant load; so make sure to leave a long tail
when you tie the knot and frequently inspect it.

Fig. 9-14. Single bowline: a, make a loop and pass the loose end of the
rope under and through it, then around the back of the standing end; b,
bring the loose end back down through the loop; c, pull ends tight and tie
an overhand knot; d, dressed and backed-up knot.

Single Bowline with a Yosemite Finish

The single bowline with a Yosemite finish, as popularized by Yosemite

climbers, is started (fig. 9-15a) the same as a single bowline, but the loose
end retraces the rope until it is parallel with the standing end (fig. 9-15b),
avoiding the need to tie off the single bowline with an overhand knot (fig.
9-15c).
Fig. 9-15. Single bowline with a Yosemite finish: a, tie a single bowline,
keeping the knot loose; b, bring the loose end under and over the rope and
under the entire knot, then up through the bowline’s topmost loop; c, pull
all four strands tight.

images

Fig. 9-16. Butterfly knot: a, form a double loop; b, pull the lower loop over
and then back down through upper loop; c, pull loop and both strands
tight.

Butterfly Knot

The butterfly knot is formed in the middle of a rope by making two loops
(fig. 9-16a) and then pulling the end-most loop over and through the other
loop (fig. 9-16b). The useful characteristic of the butterfly knot is that it can
sustain a pull on either end of the rope or the loop (fig. 9-16c) and not come
undone. A connection to this knot is made with a locking carabiner through
the loop. It is commonly used to tie in to the middle of a rope for glacier
climbing. The American Mountain Guides Association (AMGA)
recommends using two locking carabiners, opposite and opposed, when
using this knot to tie in to the middle of a rope.

Clove Hitch

The clove hitch, formed by making two loops side by side (fig. 9-17a) and
then stacking one loop behind the other (fig. 9-17b), is a quick knot for
clipping in to a locking carabiner (fig. 9-17c) attached to an anchor (fig. 9-
17d). The main advantage of the clove hitch is that the knot makes it easy
to adjust the length of the rope between the belayer and the anchor without
unclipping the rope from the carabiner. Make sure to dress this knot by
tightening both strands firmly. If the knot is correctly tied, it will stop the
pull when loaded.

images

Fig. 9-17. Clove hitch: a, form two identical loops, side by side; b, bring
left-hand loop behind the other; c, clip a locking carabiner through both
loops; d, pull both ends tight.

Girth Hitch

The girth hitch (fig. 9-18a) is a simple knot that can serve a variety of
purposes, such as attaching webbing or cord to a natural anchor or to a
pack’s haul loop (fig. 9-18b). It can also be used to tie off a short-driven
piton (see Figure 13-9 in Chapter 13, Rock Protection).

images

Fig. 9-18. Girth-hitch: a, reach a bight behind or around an object and pull
both ends of webbing or cord through the bight; b, dressed webbing or cord
girth-hitched around a pack’s haul loop.

Overhand Slipknot

The overhand slipknot is another simple knot, formed by making a loop

(fig. 9-19a), then bringing a bight up through the loop and drawing it closed
to tie off the bight (fig. 9-19b). This knot may be used to attach a tie-off
loop (see “Runners” below) or one end of a personal anchor (see “Personal
Anchors” below) to a carabiner. The overhand slipknot has the added
benefit of immobilizing a runner’s knot or sewn bar tacks on the carabiner
(fig. 9-19c). Like the girth hitch, it can also be used to cinch a runner to a
rock feature or to tie off a short-driven piton.

images

Fig. 9-19. Overhand slipknot: a, make a loop, then bring a bight up

through the loop; b, draw loop closed to tie off bight; c, clip bight into a
carabiner and pull both ends tight.

Mule Knot

The mule knot is used to temporarily free the belayer’s hand and also is a
useful temporary tie-off when stopping during a rappel. In an emergency, it
can be used to tie off a belay to a fallen climber so that both hands may be
safely used to set up an anchor and/or free the belayer from the climbing
rope (see “Escaping the Belay” in Chapter 10, Belaying).

When used with a belay device, this knot is called a device-mule. While
holding your braking hand back in the brake position, start by pulling a
bight of rope through the locking carabiner on your harness using your free
hand (fig. 9-20a); continue to hold the brake with your other hand. Pull the
bight behind the loaded strand of rope going to the fallen climber and twist
it to form a loop, then fold another bight of rope over the loaded strand and
push it through the loop (fig. 9-20b). Remove any slack and pull the knot
tight by pulling on the upper strand (fig. 9-20c); back up the device-mule
with an overhand knot tied around the loaded strand (fig. 9-20d).

When using a munter hitch belay (this hitch is described below), the mule
knot is called a munter-mule. Hold the fallen climber with your braking
hand and make a loop in the rope on the same side as your braking hand.
With your free hand, pull some slack rope behind the loaded strand of rope
going to the climber and make a bight (fig. 9-21a). Fold the bight over the
rope and push it through the loop, then tighten the knot by pulling on the
upper strand (fig. 9-21b). Pull additional slack through the mule knot as
needed by pulling on the lower strand; back up the munter-mule with an
overhand knot around the climbing rope (fig. 9-21c).

images

Fig. 9-20. Mule knot with belay device (device-mule): a, pull a bight of
rope through the locking carabiner; b, pull the bight behind the loaded
strand and form a loop, then fold another bight over the front of the loaded
strand and push it through the loop; c, remove slack and tighten knot by
pulling on the upper strand; d, back up with an overhand knot tied around
the loaded strand, pulling on the lower strand if more rope is needed.
 images

Fig. 9-21. Mule knot with munter hitch (munter-mule): a, make a loop
under the loaded strand, then take a bight and fold it around the loaded
strand and through the loop; b, tighten the knot by pulling on the upper
strand; c, back up with an overhand knot around the loaded strand, pulling
on the lower strand if more rope is needed.

FRICTION HITCHES

Friction hitches are a quick and simple way to set up a system for
ascending or descending a climbing rope without the use of mechanical
ascenders or for backing up a rappel. Hitches grip the climbing rope when
weight is placed on them but are free to move when the weight is released.
The best-known friction hitch is the prusik, but others, such as the
bachmann, the klemheist, and the autoblock, are also useful.

Prusik Hitch

For the prusik hitch, an accessory cord loop is attached to the climbing rope
via a girth hitch (fig. 9-22a), followed by a few additional wraps around the
climbing rope (fig. 9-22b and c). For use on a climbing rope, a tie-off loop
of 5-to 7-millimeter accessory cord, for example, is wrapped twice (fig. 9-
22d) or three times (fig. 9-22e) around the rope. Icy ropes, thinner-diameter
ropes, or heavy loads require more wraps of the hitch to ensure sufficient
friction to hold the load.

To create the necessary friction, the cord must be smaller in diameter than
the climbing rope; the greater the difference in diameter, the better the hitch
grips. However, very small-diameter cords make the prusik hitch more
difficult to manipulate than do cords of larger diameter. Experiment to see
which diameter of cord works best. Webbing is not usually used for prusik
hitches because it provides less friction than cord.

images

Fig. 9-22. Prusik hitch: a, girth-hitch cord around rope; b, bring loose ends
of cord around rope and under cord; c, wrap loose ends around rope again;
d, two-wrap prusik hitch; e, three-wrap prusik hitch.

By attaching two cords to a climbing rope with prusik hitches, you can
ascend or descend the climbing rope. Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and
Crevasse Rescue, explains the Texas prusik method of ascending the rope
using prusiks. The prusik hitch is also used as part of the rescue systems
needed to raise and lower people and equipment during rescues, and to pass
safety knots in the rope. These systems are also described in Chapters 18
and 25, Alpine Rescue.

Bachmann Hitch

The bachmann hitch is used for the same purposes as a prusik hitch. The
bachmann hitch is tied around a carabiner and the climbing rope (fig. 9-23),
which makes the bachmann much easier to loosen and slide than a prusik.
The bachmann hitch has the virtue of sometimes being “self-tending” (it
will feed rope in the non-load-bearing direction without requiring you to
actively manipulate it).

images

Fig. 9-23. Bachmann hitch: a, with a carabiner under the rope, clip a loop
of cord in to carabiner; b, wrap cord around rope and clip through
carabiner; c, repeat three to five times.

Klemheist Hitch

The klemheist hitch is another alternative to the prusik, with the advantage
that it can be made from either accessory cord or webbing, which may
become important if you are caught with an ample supply of webbing but
little cord. A tied loop of cord or webbing is wound around the main rope
in a spiral and then threaded through the loop created by the top wrap of the
cord or webbing (fig. 9-24a). Pull down to create the basic klemheist (fig.
9-24b), which can be clipped to a carabiner (fig. 9-24c). The tied-off
klemheist (fig. 9-24d) is less likely to jam and easier to loosen and slide
than the basic klemheist. The klemheist can also be tied around a carabiner
(fig. 9-24e), which provides a good handhold for sliding the knot along the
rope.
Autoblock Hitch

The autoblock hitch is similar to the klemheist. In general, the autoblock is

easier than the prusik to release once it has been loaded, but it doesn’t
provide as much friction. It is meant to simulate the grip of a hand rather
than support full body weight. The autoblock hitch is tied using a short loop
of cord or webbing. When using it for self-belay when rappelling with
extension, wrap the cord three or more times around the rope to provide
friction (fig. 9-25a–c), and then clip both ends into a carabiner attached to
the belay loop of the harness (fig. 9-25d and e). For rappelling without
extension, the carabiner should be attached to a leg loop instead. If using
the rappel extension, then both ends of the autoblock would be clipped
directly in to the harness carabiner (see Figure 11-21 in Chapter 11,
Rappelling).

images

Fig. 9-24. Klemheist hitch: a, wrap a loop of cord around the rope five
times and draw loose ends through the end loop; b, pull ends down; c,
klemheist hitch tied using webbing and clipped to a carabiner; d, klemheist
hitch tied off—bring ends up, then under and over the loop, forming a new
loop, and then down through this loop, pulling the ends tight; e, klemheist
tied around a carabiner.

images

Fig. 9-25. Autoblock hitch: a, lay a loop of cord, tied with a double
fisherman’s bend near one end, perpendicular to the climbing rope; b, wrap
the cord around the rope; c, wrap three times; d, clip both ends of the cord
to a carabiner; e, dress the knot, making sure there are no twists or
overlapping strands and that the double fisherman’s bend is neither in the
wrap nor squarely on the carabiner.

Munter Hitch

The munter hitch (originally dubbed the halbmastwurf sicherung, meaning

“half clove-hitch belay,” abbreviated as HMS) is very easy to set up and
use, but it feeds rope effectively only if used on a “pear-shaped” HMS
locking carabiner (pearabiner)—that is, a carabiner large enough at its
wider end to accommodate multiple turns of the rope. The munter is a
simple hitch in the rope that is clipped in to an HMS carabiner (fig. 9-26a
and b) to create friction (fig. 9-26c).

images

Fig. 9-26. Munter hitch: a, draw rope up through carabiner and form a
loop; b, clip carabiner through loop; c, pull ends in opposite directions.

The munter hitch is an excellent method of belaying a leader or lowering a

climber, because the hitch is reversible (the rope can be fed out of the
carabiner, or the rope can be pulled back in through the carabiner) and the
knot provides sufficient friction for the belayer to stop a falling or lowering
climber by holding the braking end of the rope. The munter hitch can also
be used for rappelling, though it puts more twist in the rope than other
rappel methods. Even if you prefer to use a specialized belay device, this
hitch is worth knowing as a backup if you lose or forget your belay device.

HELMETS

Climbing helmets help protect your head from rockfall and from gear
dropped by climbers above you. Helmets also protect you from the many
ways in which you can suddenly hit hard surfaces such as rock or ice: a fall
to the ground, a leader fall that swings you into a wall, or a quick move
upward against a sharp outcropping. However, keep in mind that no helmet
can protect you from all possible impacts.

Modern climbing helmets are lightweight, ventilated, and available in many

designs. Buy a climbing helmet with UIAA and/or CEN certification,
which ensures minimum standards of impact resistance.

Hardshell helmets. Also called suspension or hybrid helmets, hardshell

helmets (fig. 9-27a) have a thick, hard outer shell, usually ABS plastic,
covering a small bit of polystyrene foam combined with a suspension
system. The ABS shell is very durable and resistant to dings. Hardshell
helmets are suitable for all styles of climbing, including ice, alpine rock,
and aid climbing.
Lightweight foam helmets. Constructed primarily of polystyrene covered
in a thin polycarbonate shell (or in rare cases, foam covered with no shell at
all), lightweight foam helmets (fig. 9-27b) dissipate impact forces via
deformation. These helmets are typically lighter and more ventilated than
hardshell helmets. Because they lack an outer shell, lightweight foam
helmets are not as long lasting, need to be handled more carefully, and may
need to be replaced more often. For these reasons, they are probably better
suited for experienced climbers.

images

Fig. 9-27. Climbing helmets: a, hardshell helmet; b, lightweight foam

helmet.

How to choose a helmet. Before picking out a helmet, consider the type of
climbing you plan to do. For example, helmets with large air vents add
comfort on hot days but do not protect as well against smaller rocks or
other projectiles. Most helmets have clips for headlamps (fig. 9-27b), but
check for this feature. Because normal skull shapes and sizes vary, fit is
individual. Try on many different styles and brands. Choose a helmet that
fits well and that can be adjusted to fit whether you are bareheaded or
wearing a hat or balaclava. To protect your forehead and frontal lobe, make
sure to wear the helmet so it is riding forward (fig. 9-28a), not tipping back
(fig. 9-28b).

When to replace a helmet. Climbing helmets have a limited life span.

Even with minimal use, they should be retired no later than 10 years after
the date of manufacture (stamped on some brands), and frequent climbers
may want to cut this time in half. Even with ultraviolet radiation inhibitors,
the plastics in helmets are vulnerable to sunlight and weaken with
exposure; helmets can be damaged and not show obvious wear and tear.
Retire a helmet when it is obviously dented, cracked, or damaged or the
straps are worn or torn. It is recommended that a helmet be replaced as
soon as possible after a significant impact: any time you take a hard hit and
think to yourself, “I would have been seriously hurt if not for my helmet,”
the helmet has done its job and it is time to get a new one.

images
Fig. 9-28. Wearing a helmet: a, properly adjusted; b, adjusted incorrectly,
leaving forehead exposed to rockfall and icefall.

To maximize the life of your helmet, protect it from banging against hard
surfaces when not on your head, which makes it vulnerable to chipping and
cracking. Follow manufacturers’ recommendations for storage, which for
helmets includes avoiding leaving them under a window or in the trunk of a
car. Follow these steps each time before storing your helmet:

imagesTest to see that the chin buckle and adjustment hardware are in
good working order.

imagesCheck whether the suspension or other webbing is in good shape

and free of frays and tears.

imagesMake sure any foam casing is secure, and that all components are
free of cracks and dents. Minor dings are okay; major dents are not.

HARNESSES

In the early days of climbing, the climbing rope was looped around a
climber’s waist several times and then the waist loop was tied in to the rope
with a bowline on a coil. That practice is no longer considered safe because
long falls onto waist loops can severely injure a climber’s back and ribs.
Additionally, falls that leave the climber hanging, such as a fall into a
crevasse or over the lip of an overhang, could cause the rope to ride up and
constrict the climber’s diaphragm, leading to suffocation. Improvising leg
loops and attaching them to the whole coil can help prevent injury, but the
bowline on a coil is best avoided except for emergencies.

Today, climbers connect to the rope using a harness designed to distribute

the force of a fall over a larger percentage of the climber’s body. A climber
at either end of a climbing rope ties in to the harness with a knot such as the
rewoven figure eight (see Figure 9-12) or a single bowline with a Yosemite
finish (see Figure 9-15). A climber in the middle of a rope usually ties in to
the harness with a butterfly knot (see Figure 9-16) or a figure eight on a
bight (see Figure 9-11).
Harnesses deteriorate over time; they should be inspected often and
replaced with the same frequency as a climbing rope. The bowline on a coil
remains an option for emergency use if no harness or harness material is
available, but an improvised diaper sling (see below) would be a better
choice.

SEAT HARNESSES

With properly fitted leg loops, a seat harness rides snugly above your hip
bones yet transfers the force of a fall over your entire pelvis. It also
provides a comfortable seat during rappelling. Throughout this book, when
not otherwise specified, “harness” refers to a seat harness.

Manufactured Seat Harness

Several features are particularly desirable in a mountaineering seat harness

(fig. 9-29). Adjustable leg loops maintain a snug fit no matter how few or
how many layers of clothing you are wearing. Padding on the waist belt
and leg loops can provide additional comfort, particularly if you will be
hanging for any length of time, although padding adds to the bulk and
weight of the harness. Leg loops that can be unbuckled or unclipped from
the backside of the harness permit toilet calls without your having to
remove the harness or untie from the rope. A belay loop can make it easier
to attach a belay device for belaying or rappelling, while having the waist
buckle located toward one side helps avoid conflict with the rope tie-in or
with the locking carabiner that you attach to the harness for use in belaying
and rappelling in the absence of a belay loop. Gear loops are desirable for
carrying carabiners and other pieces of climbing gear.

Before buying a harness, try it on to be sure the harness fits properly over
your climbing clothes. With the profusion of harness styles on the market,
you must consult each manufacturer’s instructions to learn how to safely
wear and tie in to that particular harness. Printed instructions accompany
any new harness, and they also are usually sewn inside the waist belt. For
some harnesses, you must pass the waist strap back over and through the
main buckle a second time for safety (on these models, you must usually do
the same for the leg loop straps and buckles). Be sure at least 2 to 3 inches
(about 5 centimeters) of strap extends beyond the buckle after you reweave
the strap.

Fig. 9-29. Seat harness with common features.

Diaper Sling

In an emergency, a diaper sling may be improvised as a seat harness. The

diaper sling takes about 10 feet (3 meters) of webbing tied in a large loop.
With the loop behind your back, pull each end around your sides to your
stomach (fig. 9-30a). Bring one piece of the webbing loop down from
behind your back and between your legs, then up to your stomach to meet
the other two loop ends (fig. 9-30b). Clip them together in front with two
opposite and opposed carabiners (see Figure 9-37a) or a locking carabiner
(fig. 9-30c). The diaper sling may also be clipped to a safety loop made of
webbing tied around your waist.
Fig. 9-30. Diaper sling: a, bring large loop around waist from the back; b,
bring one piece of loop behind back down through the legs and up; c, clip
all three parts together with a locking carabiner (shown here) or two
opposite and opposed carabiners.

A description of how to build a homemade seat harness can be found in a

book for professional rescuers: Technical Rescue Riggers Guide, by Rick
Lipke (see Resources). The homemade seat harness is not a substitute for
the effective reliability of a modern commercial seat harness, but the
knowledge of how to build one could be useful in an emergency if the
requisite amount of tubular webbing is available.

Personal Anchors

On multipitch alpine rock climbs, most climbers use the climbing rope
itself to tie in to the anchor (see “Tying In to the Anchor” in Chapter 10,
Belaying). Nevertheless, it is sometimes necessary to use a personal anchor
or leash to attach yourself to belay and rappel anchors while you set up and
tear down the belay, the rappel, and/or the anchor. Use a runner, usually
double-length (see “Runners” below), and girth-hitch one end to the seat
harness, following the same path with the runner as you would to tie the
climbing rope to your harness. Add a locking carabiner to the other end of
the runner for connecting to the anchor.

When not in use, the personal anchor can be wrapped around your waist
and clipped to the seat harness or otherwise neatly stowed on the seat
harness. Commercial personal anchors are available that are made of a
series of full-strength loops, so the system can be shortened and
lengthened.

Daisy chains are sometimes used as personal anchors, but they are
dangerous if used incorrectly. They are made for aid climbing (see Chapter
15, Aid and Big Wall Climbing), and the stitches of the sewn links are rated
for body weight only. If a climber cross-clips only a sewn link (that is, clips
in to the anchor through two loops of the daisy chain), a fall can break the
relatively weak bar tacks separating the loops and completely detach the
climber from the anchor. The result can be catastrophic failure.

CHEST HARNESS

A chest harness helps keep a climber upright after a fall or while ascending
a rope using prusiks or mechanical ascenders. Following a fall, simply clip
the climbing rope through the carabiner of the chest harness, which
provides stability and assists you in staying upright. The chest harness will
deliver some of the force of a fall to your chest, which is more easily
injured than your pelvis (where the force is directed by a seat harness).
Thus, a rope is not usually clipped in to the chest harness during rock
climbing or general mountaineering. Some snow or glacier climbers travel
with the rope passing up through a carabiner on the chest harness, but this
is not recommended, because if the climber must arrest and hold a fall, the
force will come high on the body and could spin the climber out of arrest
position. It is therefore preferable to leave the rope unclipped until a
crevasse fall actually occurs (see Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse
Rescue). The chest harness is also useful when rappelling with a heavy
backpack to help the climber stay upright.

A chest harness may be purchased or is readily improvised with a long loop

of webbing (a long runner). One popular design depends on a carabiner to
bring the ends of the harness together at your chest. To make a carabiner
chest harness, start with 9.5 feet (2.9 meters) of 9/16-inch or 1-inch tubular
webbing. Use a distinctive color of webbing to distinguish the chest harness
from other double-length runners (see “Runners” below). Tie the webbing
into a loop with a water knot; adjust the size of the webbing loop to fit
comfortably. Give the loop a half twist to create two temporary loops, and
push one arm all the way through each loop. Lift the runner over your head
and let it drop against your back, with the crossed portion at your back (fig.
9-31a); then pull the two sides together in front and clip with a carabiner at
your chest (fig. 9-31b). Keep the knot in front of you and out of the way of
the carabiner.
Fig. 9-31. Carabiner chest harness: Using a loop of webbing made with a
water knot, twist the loop and put your arms in the two new loops; a, lift the
runner over your head and let the crossed portion drop against your back;
b, clip a carabiner through the two front sides.

FULL-BODY HARNESS

Full-body harnesses, which incorporate both a seat harness and a chest

harness, have a higher tie-in point (fig. 9-32). This reduces the chance of
your flipping over backward during a fall. Because a body harness
distributes the force of a fall throughout the trunk of your body, there may
be less danger of lower-back injury.

Although in some circumstances body harnesses may be safer, they have

not found popular favor in mountaineering. They are not recommended for
glacier travel for the reason mentioned above: if a climber must arrest to
hold a fall, the force will come high on the body and could spin the climber
out of arrest position. Body harnesses are more expensive, more restrictive
of movement, and make it hard to add or remove clothing. Instead, most
climbers use a seat harness and then improvise a chest harness when one is
warranted, such as when climbing with a heavy pack, crossing glaciers, or
aid climbing under large overhangs. However, full-body harnesses are
necessary for children whose hips are not yet fully developed, because they
could slide out of the seat harness if they become inverted. Full-body
harnesses are also recommended for pregnant women, a decision which a
climber should make in consultation with her physician.
Fig. 9-32. Full-body harness.

RUNNERS

Loops of tubular webbing or round accessory cord, called runners or slings,

are among the simplest pieces of climbing equipment and among the most
useful. (Note that flat webbing differs from tubular webbing: flat webbing
is used for things like pack straps, while tubular webbing—so-called even
though it lies flat—is used in climbing-specific applications.) Runners are a
critical link in climbing systems. Standard single runners require 5 feet (1.5
meters) of webbing or cord. Double-length runners require 9 feet (2.7
meters) of webbing or cord. Triple-length runners require 13 feet (3.9
meters) of webbing or cord. After being sewn or tied into loops, the
standard lengths become 2 feet (0.6 meter), 4 feet (1.2 meters), and 6 feet
(1.8 meters) for single-, double-, and triple-length runners, respectively. A
beginning climber should own many single runners and a few doubles.
To help you quickly identify the different lengths, it is useful to use single
runners of one color of webbing, double runners of another color, and triple
runners of a third color. For a tied webbing runner, it is useful to write your
initials and the date the runner was made on one of the tails of the water
knot. Identifying the runner and its age helps in deciding when to retire it.
Runners should be retired regularly, using the same considerations as for
retiring a rope or harness (see those sections above).

It is very important to remember that webbing and accessory cord do not

have dynamic characteristics. If they are used without a dynamic rope, a
fall of even a few feet can impart catastrophic force onto the anchor system
and climber (see “Limiting Impact Force with Dynamic Rope” in Chapter
10, Belaying).

Sewn. High-strength, presewn runners (fig. 9-33a) can be purchased at

climbing stores. Sewn runners come in various lengths: 4-inch (10-
centimeter), 6-inch (15-centimeter), 12-inch (30-centimeter, called half-
length), 2-foot (0.6-meter, called single-length), 4-foot (1.2-meter, called
double-length), and 6-foot (1.8-meter, called triple-length), as well as in
sizes between the standard half-, single-, double-, and triple-length runners.
Some runners are specially sewn into preformed quickdraws, which are
typically 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 centimeters) long, and have carabiners
attached at each end (fig. 9-33b). Sewn runners also come in a variety of
widths, with 5/16-, 3/8-, 9/16-, 11/16-, and 1-inch (8-, 10-, 14-, 17-, and 25-
millimeter) widths the most common.

Fig. 9-33. Runners made of webbing: a, sewn runner; b, sewn quickdraw;

c, tied runner.
Runners are often made from Dyneema and Spectra, high-performance
polyethylene fibers that are stronger, more durable, and less susceptible to
ultraviolet deterioration than nylon. However, these materials have a lower
melting temperature and provide less friction than nylon, which can affect
their use in friction hitches. Sewn runners are generally stronger, usually
lighter, and less bulky than tied runners. Using a sewn runner also
eliminates the possibility of the knot coming untied, a concern with tied
runners.

Tied. Runners can be made by tying a loop in 9/16-to 1-inch tubular

webbing or in 7-to 9-millimeter Perlon accessory cord. A webbing runner is
usually tied with a water knot (see Figure 9-7) to make the loop (fig. 9-
33c). Avoid putting twists into the runner while tying it. A cord runner is
typically tied with either a double fisherman’s bend (see Figure 9-10) or a
triple fisherman’s bend, required for Spectra or aramid fiber (Kevlar) cord.
Tails on tied runners should be 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7.5 centimeters) long. If
the webbing or cord is cut to make the runner, the ends must be melted with
a small flame to keep the ends from unraveling.

While bulkier and heavier, tied runners do have several advantages over
commercially sewn runners. Tied runners are inexpensive to make, can be
untied and threaded around trees and natural chockstones (rocks firmly
lodged in cracks), and can be untied and retied with another runner to
create longer runners.
Fig. 9-34. Tie-off loops: a, double fisherman’s bend in cord; b, water knot
in webbing.

Tie-off loops. Also called hero loops, tie-off loops are short runners usually
made of 5-to 8-millimeter cord tied into a loop (fig. 9-34a), although a loop
of webbing can be used in a pinch (fig. 9-34b). The length of the loop
depends on its intended use. They are commonly used for escaping belays
(see Chapter 10, Belaying), for self-belay during a rappel (see Chapter 11,
Rappelling), for aid climbing (see Chapter 15, Aid and Big Wall Climbing),
and for attaching the anchor to the rope in crevasse rescue (see “Crevasse
Rescue Response” in Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue).

Load-limiting runners. A climber can effectively limit the maximum

impact on individual protection placements by using a load-limiting device
(such as the Yates Gear Screamer). A load-limiting runner consists of a
sewn runner with a series of weaker bar tacks (fig. 9-35a), usually encased
in a sheath (fig. 9-35b); the bar tacks fail at a specific impact force, which
reduces high loads, while the runner retains full strength if fully extended
(fig. 9-35c shows the runner partially extended).

CARABINERS
Carabiners are another versatile and indispensable climbing tool used for
belaying, rappelling, prusiking, clipping in to anchors, securing the rope to
points of protection, and numerous other tasks. All modern carabiners are
marked with the “working load limit,” that is, the force at which the
carabiner will fail. At a minimum, a CEN-certified carabiner should have a
working load limit of 20 kilonewtons closed gate strength and 7
kilonewtons open gate and minor axis strength. This means that the
carabiner should be able to withstand the force of up to a 20-kilonewton
pull when its gate is closed—a substantial safety margin over the forces
generated by a fallen climber (see “Understanding Fall Factors” in Chapter
10, Belaying).

Fig. 9-35. Load-limiting runner: a, constructed with a sewn loop on both

ends for clipping to protection; b, usually enclosed in a sheath that reduces
abrasion and makes the unit more compact; c, when partially deployed,
and even if all the load-limiting bar tacks fail, the runner still retains its full
strength and integrity as a closed loop.

SHAPES AND STYLES

Carabiners come in many sizes and shapes. Ovals (fig. 9-36a) were once
very popular for general mountaineering because their symmetry makes
them good for many purposes. D carabiners (fig. 9-36b) also offer a good
general-purpose shape, plus they are stronger than ovals with the same
amount of metal because more of the load is transferred to the long axis and
away from the gate, the typical point of failure for a carabiner. Offset Ds
(fig. 9-36c) have the strength advantage of standard Ds, but the offset D’s
gate opens wider, making it easier to clip in awkward situations. Bent-gate
carabiners (fig. 9-36d) facilitate clipping and allow climbers to quickly clip
and unclip the carabiners by the feel of the gates alone; bent-gate carabiners
are often used in quickdraws to attach to the rope and bolt hangers for sport
climbing.

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Fig. 9-36. Carabiners: a, oval carabiner; b, standard D carabiner; c, offset

D carabiner; d, bent-gate carabiner; e, detail of a keylock latch; f, wire-
gate carabiner with detail of nonkeylock latch; g, standard locking
carabiner; h, pear-shaped HMS locking carabiner (pearabiner).

Traditionally, the gate of a carabiner connects to the rest of the frame

through a latch that creates a hook toward the inside of the carabiner.
Because this latch’s hook can interfere with unclipping ropes or slings,
several models of carabiner now use a keylock connection that doesn’t use
a hook (fig. 9-36e).

With a trend toward lighter and stronger gear, wire-gate carabiners have
become very common (fig. 9-36f). They provide a strong gate at a reduced
weight, and they are less prone to freezing shut or having their clipping
action become sticky. Some studies also indicate that wire-gate carabiners
are less prone to gate fluttering, which can occur when a rope passes
quickly through a carabiner during a leader fall.

Some carabiners are made from metal bars with cross sections that are oval,
T-shaped or cross-shaped, or wedge-shaped—as opposed to round—in
order to save weight. Note that “regular” carabiner refers to carabiners of
whatever shape that do not lock.

Locking carabiners. With a sleeve that covers one end of the gate to
minimize accidental opening, locking carabiners (fig. 9-36g) provide a
wider margin of safety for rappelling, belaying, or clipping in to anchors.
Most locking carabiners have a sleeve that screws over one end of the gate.
Others have a spring that automatically rotates the sleeve into place
whenever the gate is closed, rather than the climber having to screw it
down. Regardless of the carabiner’s particular locking mechanism, always
check to make sure that the carabiner is properly locked. Test it manually
before relying on it.

Pear-shaped locking carabiners, also called HMS carabiners (fig. 9-36h),

are much larger at the gate-opening end than at the hinge end; they are ideal
for belaying with the munter hitch (see Figure 9-26). They are also a good
choice for use in conjunction with the seat harness. The extra cost and
weight of pear-shaped locking carabiners is justified by the increased ease
they provide in loading and managing all the ropes, knots, cords, and
runners that are used at the seat harness’s anchor point.

Two regular carabiners can be substituted for a locking carabiner, but only
if they are joined correctly. Align the gate side of each carabiner with the
spine side of the other, so their gates are on opposite sides. The gate-
opening ends should face the same direction, so the two gates open toward
—or opposed to—each other (fig. 9-37a). This opposite and opposed
configuration helps prevent the carabiners from being forced open and
accidentally unclipping (as they could if configured as in fig. 9-37b, c, or
d). You can check that the carabiners are in the proper configuration by
opening both gates at the same time; in profile, the gates should appear to
cross, forming an X.

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Fig. 9-37. Substituting double oval carabiners for a locking carabiner: a,

gates are on opposite sides and the same ends, so they are opposite and
opposed (correct); b, gates are on opposite sides and ends, so they are
opposite and parallel (poor); c, gates are on same sides and opposite ends,
so they are parallel and opposed (poor); d, gates are on the same sides and
ends, so they are doubly parallel (dangerous).

USE AND CARE

A few basic rules apply to the use and care of all carabiners. Always make
sure the force on a carabiner falls along the long axis and closer to the spine
side; be especially careful that the gate does not receive the load. For
example, see Figure 14-9 on clipping technique in Chapter 14, Leading on
Rock.

Check the carabiner gates occasionally. A gate should open easily, even
when the carabiner is loaded, and the gate should have good side-to-side
rigidity when open.

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Fig. 9-38. Knife attached to carabiner with a lanyard.

A dirty gate can be cleaned by applying a solvent or lubricant (lightweight

oil, citrus solvent, or products such as WD-40) to the hinge, working the
hinge until it operates smoothly again, and then dipping the carabiner in
boiling water for about 20 seconds to remove the cleaning agent.

Also, avoid bringing carabiners into contact with corrosive chemicals,

especially acids, and avoid storing metals in damp and acidic environments.

KNIFE

A knife is an essential climbing tool that should always be kept within easy
reach. It should be attached to the harness with a carabiner, and secured
with an arm’s length lanyard to avoid dropping it when unclipped for use
(fig. 9-38). A knife could prove invaluable if an item becomes caught in the
rappel device, for example. Always use caution when wielding a knife to
avoid nicking the rope, especially when the rope is weighted. Ropes under
tension can be easily nicked or worse.

KEEPING THE SAFETY NET STRONG

Ropes, harnesses, runners, and carabiners, as well as protection pieces (see

Chapter 13, Rock Protection) and belay devices (see Chapter 10, Belaying),
are all vital links in your chain of protection. Knowing your equipment and
knowing how to use it is essential for safe climbing. But the most important
part of the basic safety system is you. Your safety net, and the common
sense, judgment, and awareness to use it properly, will keep you safe in a
climbing environment.
HOW BELAYS ARE USED IN CLIMBING • CHOOSING A BELAY
SPOT • APPLYING BRAKING FORCE TO THE ROPE • ANCHORS •
BELAY POSITION AND STANCE • ROPE HANDLING •
COMMUNICATION • ESCAPING THE BELAY • SECURING THE
FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

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CHAPTER 10

BELAYING

A fundamental technique for climbing safely, belaying is a system of

using a rope to stop a fall if one should occur. This system can safely
control the enormous energy that a falling climber generates, but
belaying well takes practice and requires an understanding of its
underlying principles.

In its simplest form, a belay consists of nothing more than a rope that runs
from a climber to another person—the belayer—who is ready to stop a fall.
Three things are necessary to make the system work: a method of applying
and amplifying a stopping force to the rope, an anchor strong enough to
resist the pull of the fall, and a skilled belayer. There are different ways to
apply this stopping force and many methods of setting up and tying in to a
belay anchor—a secure point to which the rest of the system is attached.
This chapter introduces the principal techniques and major options of
belaying so that climbers can choose the methods that work best in their own
climbing.

HOW BELAYS ARE USED IN CLIMBING

On a climb, belay setups are usually established on the ground or on a ledge

that provides reasonable comfort and the possibility of solid anchors. A long
climb is divided into sections, with one climber taking the lead and, belayed
from below, moving up the route to the next desirable stopping spot and
setting up a new belay. The distance between belays is known as a pitch or a
lead. Rope length and the location of a convenient spot to establish the next
belay usually determine the length of each pitch. A short climb can be
climbed in a single pitch; longer climbs are called multipitch.

THREE BELAY SCENARIOS

This section discusses how the mechanics work in each of three types of
belay scenarios.

Slingshot top-rope belay. In this scenario, the anchor is on the top of the
route and the belayer belays at the bottom of the route. The rope has already
been set up, running from the bottom of the route to the top anchor and back
to the ground (fig. 10-1). This scenario, which usually only applies to single-
pitch routes, is typical at a climbing gym or a cragging area.

In the slingshot top-rope belay, the rope always runs down toward the
belayer, who takes rope in as the climber heads up. The direction of rope
travel never changes. As long as the belayer keeps the slack out of the rope,
the force of a fall is similar to the weight of the climber.

The belayer is not always connected to a ground anchor, and instead often
uses his or her weight as the counterforce for the climber. However, certain
factors may demand an anchor—for example, if the weight difference
between the climber and the belayer is significant or if they are starting the
climb (or pitch) from an exposed ledge.

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Fig. 10-1. Slingshot top-rope belay.

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Fig. 10-2. Lead belay.

Lead belay. In a lead belay, the climber is leading the route, placing
protection while climbing up. This scenario applies to both single-pitch and
multipitch climbs. When the top of a route is not accessible by other means,
a slingshot top rope has to be set up this way.
In a lead belay, most of the time the rope moves up and away from the
belayer. The exception is that after the leader has clipped the rope to a piece
of protection above waist height, as the leader resumes climbing the rope
will drop down before going up again. The belayer should be vigilant and
move the rope to keep slack at a minimum, without pulling down on the
leader. In Figure 10-2, the leader has climbed above the last piece of
protection.

In a lead belay, the force of a fall depends on how far the climber is above
the last piece of protection—and the fall force could potentially be much
greater than the climber’s body weight. Thus, in belaying a leader, especially
when a long fall could happen, the belayer is typically tied to a ground
anchor to avoid being yanked off the ground in the case of a fall. This is
extremely important if the belay is on an exposed ledge or under a roof.
Exceptions can be made if there is no risk of falling off exposed ledges, if
the belayer outweighs the climber significantly, or if the falls are expected to
be short—for instance, in a climbing gym.

images

Fig. 10-3. Belaying a follower.

Belaying a follower. After a lead climber has finished leading a pitch, he or

she can belay the other climber (who has finished belaying the leader) from
the top of the pitch (fig. 10-3). Belaying the follower from the top is done
for numerous reasons: it could be a multipitch route on which they both will
continue climbing; the route could be too long for slingshot top roping; rope
drag (friction that impedes the rope’s travel) or traverses could make this
scenario safer than slingshot top roping. In any case, the climber being
belayed from above is known as a follower or a second; these terms are used
interchangeably throughout this chapter.

In this scenario, the rope always moves up and toward the anchor. As in a
slingshot top-rope belay, the force of a fall in this scenario should be similar
to the follower’s body weight as long as the belayer always keeps the slack
in the rope at a minimum. The belayer is usually anchored to the belay
anchor unless the belayer is belaying directly off the belay anchor and the
belay is located on a sizable ledge where falls are not a concern.
CHOOSING A BELAY SPOT

Belaying is a demanding and important task that is often awkward, of long

duration, and boring—yet it also requires constant vigilance for the safety of
the climber. The belayer’s job is much easier if the belayer is able to find a
comfortable spot on which to establish a secure position. A good belay
location should have three attributes:

1. Good placement for anchors (when an anchor is warranted)

2. Safe position

3. Reasonable comfort

Good placement for anchors. When choosing a belay position, always look
for solid anchor placements. Critical to a safe belay, solid anchors are of
paramount concern.

Safe position. When selecting a belay location, be aware of the possibility

of rockfall or icefall, and pick a stance that will provide some shelter if they
seem a likely hazard. If a belay location is exposed to imminent danger from
rockfall or icefall, safety may require moving the belay to a location with
less-desirable anchors. Additionally, it is useful, though not always possible,
to find a position where climbing partners can see and/or communicate with
each other.

Reasonable comfort. A leader may shorten a pitch because a comfortable

stance at a partial rope length is of greater advantage than pushing the lead
as far as possible.

Many factors ultimately determine the best choice for a belay spot. Longer
leads are more efficient, so if several good belay ledges are available,
climbers generally pick the highest one. However, the leader may decide to
stop and set up the next belay early to mitigate rope drag. Belay spots can
also be limited by the protection options on the leader’s rack for building an
anchor.

HOLDING A FALL
A belay serves two equally important purposes: to catch a fall so the climber
doesn’t hit the ground and to limit the impact force exerted on the climber so
that the climber isn’t injured.

Understanding Impact Force

The basic concepts of climbing physics discussed here provide an

understanding of impact force.

Mass. The first concept climbers need to understand is mass. In simple

terms, mass is the amount of material an object has. The bigger and the
denser an object, the more mass it has.

Gravity is the downward force exerted by the earth. Gravity gives weight to
objects that have mass. The direction of gravity is always downward, and
the magnitude of gravity’s pull is proportional to the mass of the object.

Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity of an object changes. Velocity

is the speed and direction in which an object travels. If the speed and
direction of travel don’t change, the acceleration is zero. Note that
deceleration is also acceleration, but in the opposite direction of the velocity.
For example, if it takes 5 seconds for a car to reach the speed of 60 miles per
hour and it also takes 5 seconds for it to come to a full stop, the average
acceleration during the two events is of the same magnitude but in opposite
directions.

Now, with an understanding of these three concepts, it is possible to explore

how Newton’s laws of motion are applied in climbing.

Newton’s first law of motion states that an object at rest stays at rest, or an
object in motion travels at the same velocity unless acted upon by a force or
by forces that don’t completely cancel each other (an unbalanced force). In
other words, the acceleration of an object is zero unless there is an
unbalanced force on it. Acceleration is not zero for the falling climber
because of the force of gravity. And because any object on the earth that has
mass is acted upon by the planet’s gravity, for an object to stay at rest, there
must be another force or forces to counter the pull of gravity. When a
climber hangs on a rope, the rope provides that counterforce by holding the
climber in the air against gravity’s pull.

In a somewhat simplified model in which rope stretch and slippage are

ignored, when someone is climbing or following on a top rope and the
belayer always holds the rope tight, the climber’s velocity is zero before and
after a fall—therefore the acceleration is also zero during the fall. The rope
only needs to provide enough force to counter the climber’s weight.

However, when a climber is leading, the scenario becomes rather

complicated. The lead climber places intermediate pieces of protection and
clips the rope in to these pieces, then climbs past them until placing another
piece. If the climber falls when he or she is above the last piece of
protection, the climber will experience a free fall for double the distance
from the last piece of protection (the climber falls to the last piece of
protection, and then that much again beyond it). To better understand this
scenario, consider Newton’s second law of motion, in which unbalanced
forces that don’t cancel each other are called the net force.

Newton’s second law of motion states that the net force on an object is equal
to the mass of the object multiplied by the acceleration of the object. This
relationship is expressed mathematically as F = m x a, or force equals mass
times acceleration. In intuitive terms, the more mass an object has, the more
force it exerts; the more acceleration an object has, the more force it exerts.

What this means for climbers is, due to gravity (an unbalanced force), a
falling climber’s velocity will increase as he or she free-falls. This
acceleration will remain constant because the earth’s gravity does not
change. The longer the climber free-falls, the faster he or she will fall. The
purpose of belaying is to use the rope to catch the climber, reducing the
velocity of the climber’s fall to zero. During the catch, an unbalanced net
force must act upon the climber to cause that deceleration, and in a belay
that force is upward, coming from the rope—this is called impact force.

Limiting Impact Force with Dynamic Rope

During the belayer’s catch of a climber’s fall, if the rope is allowed to slip or
stretch more, stopping the fall will take longer—that is, the magnitude of the
deceleration is reduced. Thus, according to Newton’s second law, less force
will be needed to stop the climber—but then the fall will last longer.
Stopping a fall as quickly as possible may prevent the falling climber from
hitting something, such as a ledge; however, stopping a fall too suddenly
would subject every component of the system—including the falling climber
—to dangerously high impact forces. Thus there is a trade-off to be made
between minimizing the length of the fall and minimizing the fall’s impact
force. Climbers say a catch is “soft,” or a belay is “dynamic,” when the rope
slips or stretches to limit the impact force to a comfortable range.

Because modern belay devices limit rope slippage, something else in the
belay system must provide a soft catch for a falling climber. That something
is rope stretch, and often movement of the belayer as well. In many
situations, the belayer is confined in a small space and rope stretch is the
only means of limiting impact force. Modern dynamic climbing ropes are
designed to prevent dangerously high impact forces by elongating under
load to absorb energy.

In the days of hemp ropes, the golden rule of belaying was “the rope must
run.” That was because the rope had neither the strength to withstand high
impact forces nor the shock absorption to avoid injuring the climber. The
only safe way to stop a fall was by making the belay dynamic, allowing
some rope to slip through the belay to make a soft catch. This worked, but
not without problems: it was difficult to learn, and the friction of the running
rope could badly burn a belayer’s hands.

For a rope to be safe for leading—an activity in which falls must be

anticipated—it must be an approved dynamic climbing rope. The
International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA) and
European Committee on Standardization (CEN) are two equipment safety
organizations that test the designs of new climbing gear prior to production
and help set safety ratings. All safe and tested climbing equipment will
depict the UIAA safety label and/or the CEN mark (see Figure 9-2 in
Chapter 9, Basic Safety System). For detailed information on how ropes are
tested, see “The Standard Drop-Test Fall for Dynamic Ropes” sidebar.

Static ropes, webbing slings, and accessory cord, while fine for rappelling,
constructing anchors, or other uses, do not stretch enough to safely catch a
dynamic fall. Look at the manufacturer’s specifications for climbing ropes.
They are rated not by tensile strength but by impact force. This is because
the rope does more than simply not break under the impact of a falling
climber; it also stretches to absorb the energy of multiple falls. These two
criteria align with the two purposes of the belay: to catch a fall and to limit
the impact force.

The beauty of dynamic climbing ropes is that, because they limit the impact
force of a fall, less force is exerted throughout the system. As a result, the
anchor is subjected to lower stresses, the falling leader receives a softer
catch, and the belayer has an easier task holding the fall.

Understanding Fall Factors

Impact forces generated by falls onto dynamic ropes are determined by both
the length of the fall and how much dynamic rope is available to absorb the
energy of that fall. Together, these determine the fall factor: the length of the
fall divided by the length of rope fallen on. It may not seem intuitive, but fall
factor, not length of fall, determines the impact force that is generated in a
fall. This is written mathematically as follows: fall factor = length of fall ÷
length of rope fallen on.

THE STANDARD DROP-TEST FALL FOR DYNAMIC ROPES

In the standard UIAA-CEN single dynamic-rope drop-test fall, an 80-

kilogram (176-pound) mass affixed to a solid fixed anchor is dropped 5
meters (16 feet 5 inches) on a 2.8-meter (9-foot and 2-inch) section of rope
running over a 1-centimeter (3/8-inch) steel bar. To pass the test, a rope must
withstand at least five standard drops and not exceed a 12 kilonewton (kN)
impact force on the first drop.

This maximum 12 kN figure is derived from studies showing that the human
body could briefly withstand 15 times its weight when dropped. Maximum
impact forces for current single ropes usually range between 8.5 and 10.5
kN. Be aware that as a rope ages it loses some of its ability to absorb energy.
A frequently used rope may generate considerably higher forces than the
figures for new test ropes (see “Rope Care” in Chapter 9, Basic Safety
System).
By design, the standard drop test produces a fall that would be considered
severe in normal climbing situations. First, in most real-life situations any
belay is, to a certain extent, a dynamic belay. Rope slippage, belayer
movement, and rope friction against rock and through carabiners all
dissipate impact force. The standard drop test is not a dynamic belay; the
rope absorbs virtually all of the impact force of the fall.

Additionally, the standard drop-test fall is set up with a high fall factor: the
length of the fall divided by the length of rope fallen on. In the UIAA-CEN
standard drop test, the fall factor is calculated like this: fall factor = 5 m ÷
2.8 m = 1.78, where 5 m is the fall length and 2.8 m is the rope length, as
mentioned above.

This test gauges the rope’s properties to ensure that it will absorb the impact
force generated by a severe fall without subjecting the system to excessively
high loads. While the maximum fall factor of 2.0 could be encountered
under normal climbing circumstances, such high-factor falls are uncommon
enough that 1.78 is an acceptable and more realistic fall factor.

The longer the fall, the bigger the fall factor; the more rope to fall on, the
smaller the fall factor. Therefore, lower fall factors always mean lower
impact forces because there is more rope relative to the length of fall, hence
more rope to stretch and absorb impact.

In any normal climbing situation, a fall factor of 2.0 is the highest a climber
could ever encounter, because this would mean falling exactly twice the
length of the rope that the climber has run out. For example, assume that two
climbers are on a smooth vertical face with no ledges or other hazards to hit
in a fall. If the leader falls from 10 feet (3 meters) above the belay without
any protection, there would have been 10 feet of rope played out. That
climber would end up 10 feet below the belay stance (the point of
protection), having fallen 20 feet (6 meters) on 10 feet (3 meters) of rope.
Applying this example to the fall factor formula looks like this: fall factor =
20 feet ÷ 10 feet = 2.0.

This would be a fall factor of 2.0, also stated as a factor 2 fall. Such a fall
would generate the maximum impact on anchors and climbers, creating a
hazardous situation. If there is any slack in the rope, intermediate points of
protection, rope slippage, or movement of the belayer, the fall factor would
always be less than 2.0. When more rope is played out, falls of a similar
length will generate much lower impact forces, putting less stress on the
system. That same 20-foot fall on a 100-foot section of rope would still
involve an exciting bit of air time, but the catch would be quite gentle by
comparison: fall factor = 20 feet ÷ 100 feet = 0.2.

It is important to realize that any fall of the same factor will generate the
same impact force, although this is not immediately obvious. An intuitive
explanation without involving math is, the length of the fall determines the
maximum speed the fallen climber reaches before being caught by the rope
and starting to decelerate. Obviously, the longer the fall, the greater the
speed. On the other hand, the length of rope catching the fall determines
how fast the fall is stopped. The more rope, the more it stretches, and the
longer it takes to stop the fall. So although a longer fall involves higher
speed, if the fall factor is constant, reducing that speed to zero also takes
longer. The deceleration rate remains the same.

Take the 5-meter UIAA-CEN drop-test fall described in the sidebar “The
Standard Drop-Test Fall for Dynamic Ropes” and multiply it by 5; now it is
a 25-meter (82-foot) fall on 14 meters (46 feet) of rope, but the fall factor
remains the same: 1.78. The fall is much longer (and clearly riskier for the
falling climber), but because the amount of rope available to absorb shock is
also greater, the amount of impact force that the belay system is subjected to
remains the same.

PROTECTING THE LEADER

Understanding fall factor and how it determines impact forces is

fundamental to safe leading. As described in “Lead belay” above, the leader
places intermediate points of protection to reduce potential fall length, and a
leader fall is at least twice the distance between the climber and the last
placement of protection. As described in “Understanding Fall Factors”
above, the impact forces are highest when a fall occurs when the fall factor
is 2.0. This would happen when the leader starts up a pitch and falls before
any intermediate protection has been placed to limit the distance of that fall.
Therefore, climbers should always establish a solid first placement as soon
as possible after starting a new lead. This will not only reduce the chance for
a high-factor fall, but will also establish the direction from which the force
of a leader fall will come (see “Judging the Direction of Fall Forces” in
Chapter 14, Leading on Rock). Understanding the dynamics involved will
help climbers make more sense of how belaying protects the leader.

APPLYING BRAKING FORCE TO THE ROPE

Climbing belays must be able to resist the large forces generated in a fall.
With the dynamic climbing rope acting as the shock absorber in the system,
the belayer’s job is to quickly stop the rope from running. Any additional
rope that runs through the belay system as the fall is caught has two related
effects: reducing the impact forces and lengthening the distance fallen.
Occasionally the belayer may want to deliberately provide a more dynamic
belay—for instance, if protection is suspected to be weak. But there is
always the trade-off of a longer fall, with increased possibility of the lead
climber hitting a ledge or other hazard.

Because everything starts with the braking force applied by the belayer’s
grip, it is important to consider the factors that affect the generation of this
force. Grip strength varies considerably from one person to another, with the
average being somewhere around 50 pounds (about 0.2 kilonewton). This
likely becomes reduced when the belayer is substantially fatigued or
awkwardly positioned. Ropes that are thinner, as is the current trend, are
more difficult to grip, and reduced rope friction, as occurs with wet, icy, or
(possibly) dry-treated ropes, will lower braking force to some degree.
Conversely, as ropes age they develop a rougher sheath with higher friction
and therefore can be easier to grip.

However, in all cases, grip strength alone is not sufficient to stop a fall.
Instead, climbers rely on a mechanical means of amplifying the force of
their grip strength. This arresting force is greatly enhanced by the use of
some friction-producing element, commonly a belay device, to stop the
falling climber.

The belayer’s hand that holds the rope coming from the climber is known as
the feeling hand and is used to pay the rope in and out. The other hand,
known as the braking hand, must never let go of its grip on the rope,
remaining ready to catch a fall at any time. In any belay method, the rope
from the climber goes around or through the friction-producing element—a
belay device, the camming action of an assisted-braking belay device, a
munter hitch on a carabiner, or the belayer’s hips—and then to the belayer’s
braking hand. The braking hand gripping the rope produces the initial force.
The braking method or belay device is the essential means by which the
limited force of the belayer’s grip strength can control the large impact
forces generated in a fall.

Stopping a fall is accomplished when a belayer assumes the braking

position, gripping the rope tightly with the braking hand, then pulls back on
the free end of the rope (see Figure 10-10 as an example). This action must
be practiced and learned well so that it becomes automatic; immediately
going into braking position as soon as a fall is sensed is the best way to stop
a fall.

Wearing gloves while belaying is an option some belayers consider for

safety and comfort. Gloves protect the belayer’s hands from friction burns in
the case of rope slippage. The material of the gloves should be rough enough
to add some friction to the system, essentially increasing the belayer’s grip
strength. Gloves should fit well enough that there are no wrinkles or folds of
fabric. Some climbers dislike the fact that gloves may interfere with
dexterity and tend to leave their hands damp and soft, which is undesirable
for climbing rock; some wear fingerless gloves to mitigate the reduction of
dexterity while still protecting the palm.

The most important thing for all belayers to do is to perfect whichever belay
method they use. Having one method that you can absolutely count on is the
first priority; after that, learning other methods for versatility is valuable.

USING BELAY DEVICES

When properly used, belay devices multiply the rope friction and the grip
strength of the belayer’s braking hand by passing the rope through an
aperture, wrapping it around a post in the device, and passing the rope back
out through the aperture. This configuration provides a wrap, or bend, in the
rope to assist in producing a stopping force. The post is usually a locking
carabiner or a part of the belay device itself. The belayer’s braking hand is
the initial, and critical, source of friction; without the braking hand on the
rope, there is no belay.

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Fig. 10-4. Angle of separation between the two rope strands.

The total braking force exerted on the rope during the arrest of a fall
depends on three things: (1) the total degree of bend that the belay device
produces in the rope, as well as the rope’s inherent resistance to bending and
deforming; (2) the friction generated as the rope runs over the surfaces of the
belay device; and (3) the force exerted by the belayer’s grip. Fortunately,
despite the variations in the strength of belayers’ grips, modern belay
devices work well enough that when they are properly used, adequate
stopping force can be generated with even modest grip strength.

To stop a fall, the belayer pulls back on the free end of the rope with the
braking hand to create a difference in angle of at least 90 degrees between
the rope from the climber entering the belay device and the rope leaving the
device to the braking hand. This angle of separation between the two strands
of the rope (fig. 10-4) is critical to the strength of the belay. Figure 10-4
shows how the braking force is increased as the braking hand pulls the rope
farther back to increase the angle of separation from 90 degrees toward 180
degrees. Nothing must be in the way of the braking hand or elbow (such as a
rock wall behind the belayer’s arm) when the belayer goes into the braking
position; also, this critical task must not require an unnatural body twist or
motion.

images

Fig. 10-5. Belay devices: a, Sticht plate; b, figure eight; c, tubular device; d,
tubular device with friction grooves.

One of the simplest and most convenient belay methods is to clip a belay
device in to a locking carabiner on the harness, which is typically clipped
through a sewn belay loop, as shown in Figure 10-10. It is important to
follow the manufacturer’s instructions for clipping in properly, as to do
otherwise loads the harness in ways it was not designed for and may lead to
failure. Many harnesses have a sewn-in label showing the proper way to
wear the harness and clip in to it.

Types of Belay Devices

Before mechanical belay devices were invented, climbers ran ropes around
their hips and relied on the friction of the rope around their body to arrest a
fall. Nowadays, with the advanced dynamic-rope technologies and
mechanical belay devices, climbers should seldom rely on their body as a
belay device, though the hip belay may be useful in some situations (see
“Using the Hip Belay” later in this chapter).

There are many popular belay devices; this section describes some of them.
When using any belay device, always read and follow the manufacturer’s
instructions carefully; be certain that you fully understand these instructions
and that the device is properly rigged each time you use it. Note that each
belay device works with only a certain range of rope diameters.

Aperture belay devices include Sticht plates (fig. 10-5a), figure eights (fig.
10-5b), and tubular devices (fig. 10-5c). These devices all work in a similar
fashion: they simply provide an opening through which a bight of rope is
pushed and then clipped in to the locking carabiner on the belay loop of the
seat harness, as shown in Figure 10-10. The Sticht plate was the first
mechanical belay and rappel device, created in the 1960s and named after its
designer, Fritz Sticht. Sticht plates have become less popular now that more-
modern tubular designs provide smoother control over the rope and are less
prone to jamming. Figure-eight devices were originally designed for
rappelling, not belaying, but some figure-eight devices can serve both
functions. Make certain that the figure-eight device is intended for belaying
use by the manufacturer; many are not. Although figure-eight devices are
not used as much these days as a belay and rappel device because of their
lack of versatility and because they tend to twist the rope, some climbers
still prefer them for their smoothness, especially when the load is heavy.

Most current belay devices are a cone-shaped or somewhat square tube, as

shown in Figure 10-5c; the Black Diamond ATC (air traffic controller),
DMM Bug, and Trango Pyramid are examples of such devices. Plates and
tubes must be kept from sliding down the rope and out of reach, so most of
these devices include a wire loop that is clipped in to the locking carabiner
on the seat harness, as shown in Figure 10-4. The connection to the harness
must be long enough so that it does not interfere with belaying in any
direction.

Many current tubular devices have a high-and a regular-friction mode,

usually achieved by adding V-shaped slots and/or ridges to one side of the
aperture: Figure 10-6a shows the regular-friction mode. In high-friction
mode (fig. 10-6b), the device is rigged so that the rope going to the braking
hand is pulled into the narrower V slot or over the ridges to increase the
braking force. This is useful when extra friction is desirable for belaying and
rappelling.

images

Fig. 10-6. Aperture belay device: a, in regular-friction mode; b, in high-

friction mode.

Auto-locking belay devices are designed to function in the same way as a

standard aperture device, but they also have an alternative rigging mode that
provides a secure means of belaying one or two followers directly off an
anchor. Typical examples include the Petzl Reverso 4 and Black Diamond
ATC Guide, but many climbing equipment manufacturers have their own
versions of auto-locking belay devices. Most work in a similar way. Most of
these devices can be used to belay two followers at the same time. Follow
the manufacturer’s instructions to safely use these devices. Note that auto-
locking belay devices are not hands-free devices: they still require the
belayer’s braking hand to provide the initial force. The braking hand must
never lose its grip on the rope.

These devices look similar to other aperture devices and may be used off the
harness in the same way as a standard aperture device; but in auto-locking
mode, the device is connected directly to the anchor with a locking carabiner
while the rope runs through the device and through a second locking
carabiner (fig. 10-7). When the device is rigged this way, the belayer can
easily pull the rope in, but if the climber’s strand is loaded, as in a fall, the
rope locks down on itself. When the climber falls, the climber’s strand of the
rope is loaded with the climber’s weight, and that loaded strand presses on
the braking strand, preventing it from moving, similar to trying to pull a rug
out from under someone who is standing on it.

images

Fig. 10-7. Auto-locking belay device rigged in auto-locking mode.

If the belayed climber falls and is unable to unload the device, the belayer
must have a way to unlock the device. To release the device, the belayer
needs to find a way to lift the loaded climber’s strand off the braking strand.
A climber’s fingers do not have enough strength to do that, so the belayer
can use a carabiner (or any rod that is strong enough) as a lever—or,
alternatively, the belayer can attach a cord and redirect his or her body
weight to pull against the load. Many newer auto-locking devices have a
hole specifically designed for attaching a cord or carabiner (fig. 10-8) to
release a locked device in order to lower the fallen climber. Otherwise, it
would be necessary to attach a raising system to the rope to take the fallen
climber’s weight off the device so it can be unlocked.

images

Fig. 10-8. Releasing a loaded auto-locking belay device.

Assisted-braking belay devices are specialized devices with an internal

cam that locks down on the rope when the rope suddenly accelerates in a
fall; this locking action creates a braking force that is not dependent on
resistance from the belayer’s grip (fig. 10-9b). Models include the Petzl
Grigri+ (fig. 10-9a), Trango Vergo (fig. 10-9c), and Edelrid Eddy. Popular
for gym, sport, and aid climbing, they have definite advantages when used
properly. For example, they enable a smaller, lighter belayer to confidently
arrest and hold even heavy partners or to stop long falls. All current models
have a release mechanism, a lever, that allows controlled rappelling or
lowering of a climber on top-rope (fig. 10-9d).

These devices have a tendency to lock up when the lead climber makes a
sudden move up or when the belayer feeds the rope too quickly. It is
extremely important to carefully follow manufacturer’s instructions and test
proper setup each time the device is rigged. Disadvantages include their
greater weight and bulk. It is also harder to give a soft and dynamic belay
with an assisted-braking belay device, compared with tubular belay devices,
because the former catches the rope much more quickly. With assisted-
braking belay devices, the belayer often must resort to body movement to
soften the catch. These devices also cannot be used to rappel on two strands,
hence they are not suitable for alpine climbing. Note that assisted-braking
belay devices are not hands-free devices: they still require the belayer’s
braking hand to provide the initial force. The braking hand must never lose
its grip on the rope.

Belaying Technique When Using a Belay Device

This section describes the technique of belaying a climber off the harness
using a belay device. To assume the belay position, grab the rope with the
braking hand, with the thumb pointing upward and the palm facing yourself
or the ground. This is a natural position in which your hand has the greatest
strength. Make sure the belay device, the rope, and the harness’s belay loop
are not twisted. Grip the rope with the feeling hand at your eye level, feeling
the slack of the rope, but not pulling it, as shown in Figure 10-10a.

images

Fig. 10-9. Assisted-braking belay devices: a, Petzl Grigri+; b, Grigri+ in

belaying mode; c, Trango Vergo; d, Vergo in lowering mode.

images

Fig. 10-10. Hand motions for taking in rope from a standing belay, with the
braking hand never leaving the rope:
a, start with both hands on the rope with the feeling hand extended and the
braking hand close to the body; b, pull the feeling hand toward your body
and the braking hand away from your body; c, drop the braking hand into
the braking position and move the feeling hand to grasp the rope under the
braking hand; d, slide the braking hand back toward your body while
maintaining the braking position.
Taking in the rope. Known as PBUS (pull, brake, under, slide), this current
standard technique is taught at most rock gyms and by most climbing
guides. With both hands on the rope, start with the braking hand close to the
body and the feeling hand extended to eye level (fig. 10-10a). First, pull
down the climber’s strand of the rope with the feeling hand; at the same
time, pull the braking hand away from your body to pull the rope through
the belay device (fig. 10-10b). Then without losing the grip, brake by
dropping the braking hand down to the braking position. Place the feeling
hand under the braking hand and grasp the rope (fig. 10-10c). Without
removing the braking hand from the rope, slide it up until it’s close to the
belay device and grasp the rope again (fig. 10-10d). Then move the feeling
hand back up on the climber’s strand of the rope. Repeat the sequence as
often as needed to take in the appropriate amount of rope. Remember that
the braking hand must never leave the rope.

Letting out the rope. It is easy and intuitive to let out the rope. With the
feeling hand, pull the rope away from your body while using the braking
hand to feed the rope toward the climber. Again, the braking hand must
never leave the rope. If you are letting out a lot of rope quickly, slide your
braking hand away from your body until it is fully extended, so you can
maximize the amount of rope you can feed to the feeling hand in one
motion.

USING THE MUNTER HITCH

The munter hitch is an effective alternative to using a belay device. It uses

only the rope, a specialized carabiner, and a hitch to provide the friction
necessary to stop a fall. Efficient belaying with a munter hitch requires an
HMS-type (pear-shaped) carabiner with an opening large enough to allow
the hitch to feed through smoothly. As a result of its configuration, the hitch
multiplies the effect of the braking hand with friction created by the rope
being wrapped on itself and around the HMS carabiner.

The munter hitch is unique in that it provides sufficient friction regardless of

the angle at which the braking end of the rope is held. With regular aperture
belay devices, maximum friction is generated when the braking hand strand
of the rope is held at an angle of 180 degrees from the strand of rope
attached to the climber, as shown in Figure 10-4. These devices are useless
when both strands are aligned. In contrast, the munter hitch, because of the
way it wraps around the HMS carabiner, actually generates more friction
when both strands of the rope are aligned (see Figure 9-26 in Chapter 9,
Basic Safety System). At an angle of 180 degrees, it still provides about 85
percent of the maximum friction. In other words, you can hold the munter
hitch at any position and still have sufficient friction.

Because no special braking position is required, the munter hitch has an

advantage over most belay devices in that if a climber fall takes a belayer by
surprise, the hitch will function even if the belayer does no more than firmly
grip the rope. With the munter hitch, rope handling is quick and easy,
making the munter hitch an ideal method when climbers are moving rapidly
over easy ground. Because no specialized equipment other than an HMS
carabiner is required, the munter hitch provides a ready backup belay
method if a belay device is lost.

The munter hitch has some drawbacks as well as advantages. It can kink the
rope more than other belay methods, but this can be minimized by allowing
the rope to feed freely unless needed to arrest a fall. To unkink the rope,
shake it out while it is hanging free. The munter hitch can also unscrew the
lock on a carabiner gate as the rope runs across the gate. Pay attention to the
carabiner gate when using a munter hitch. After a big fall, the outermost
layer of the rope’s sheath may be glazed—which is only cosmetic; this
glazing, which also occurs to some degree with mechanical belay devices,
wears off with use.

USING THE HIP BELAY

The hip belay—also called the body belay—is a belay method in which the
rope is wrapped around the belayer’s body to generate enough friction to
stop a climber’s fall. The belayer clips in to a solid anchor and assumes a
stable stance facing the direction of an anticipated pull on the rope. The rope
from the climber passes around the belayer’s back and rides just below the
top of the hips (fig. 10-11a). To arrest a fall, grip the rope tightly with the
braking hand and pull the braking arm across the stomach into the braking,
or arrest, position (fig. 10-11b). The braking action must be practiced and
learned well so that it becomes automatic; immediately going into arrest
position as soon as a fall is sensed is the best way to stop a fall using the hip
belay. The braking position increases the amount of friction-producing wrap
of the rope around the body, thereby increasing the stopping force.

images

Fig. 10-11. The hip or body belay: a, the belayer is anchored and ready to
arrest a fall—the rope goes from the braking hand around the back (to
produce friction) and to the climber; b, the braking position—with the
braking arm extended across the stomach to create additional friction; c, if
the elbow of the braking hand is not straightened before braking begins,
then the braking arm may be pulled into a helpless position (dangerous); d,
having the anchor attachment on the same side as the braking hand can
allow the hip belay to unwrap (dangerous).

Because the force of a fall is dissipated as friction against the belayer’s body,
a belayer stopping a severe fall can suffer serious rope burns. Protective
clothes are required to prevent this. Even fairly minor leader falls can melt
and severely damage expensive synthetic garments. If a belayer is burned
badly enough, the belayer could drop a falling climber. Because the
belayer’s hands provide a greater proportion of friction in the hip belay than
in other methods, gloves are essential to protect the hands from burns. A
tighter grip causes less-severe burns because faster stops and less rope
slippage generate less heat. Another problem with the hip belay is that if the
climbing rope runs over the anchor attachment during a fall, the anchor
attachment may be burned.

Because the hip belay requires more time for the belayer to attain braking
position and generates less braking force than any other method, more rope
slippage generally occurs and the climber usually falls farther. If the belay
stance fails, it is much more likely that the belayer will lose control of the
rope than with other methods. In summary, all elements of the hip belay
must come together to make it work effectively during a long, hard fall.

Despite its drawbacks as a general-purpose belay method, the hip belay does
have advantages that make it worth learning, if only for special purposes.
With the hip belay, the belayer can take in rope much faster than with other
methods, and the hip belay can be set up quickly with a minimum of
equipment. It is probably most useful when belaying a fast-moving partner
over moderate terrain. A common and efficient practice is to use a simple
hip belay to bring a following climber up a relatively easy pitch and then
switch to another method when this climber leads the next pitch.

The hip belay can also be useful for belaying on snow, where it may be
desirable to have a more dynamic belay because anchors are absent or
suspect (see Chapters 16, Snow Travel and Climbing, and 19, Alpine Ice
Climbing). Also, if climbers have lost or forgotten their belay device and do
not have the right kind of carabiner (pear-shaped carabiner is recommended)
for a munter hitch, there may be no choice but to use the hip belay.

Special Considerations in Using the Hip Belay

When using the hip belay, climbers must keep a number of special
considerations in mind. To catch a fall with this method, straighten the
elbow of the braking arm before beginning to grip hard. Then bring the
braking arm across in front of your body to increase the amount of wrap for
maximum friction. The natural reaction is to grip the rope first, but this may
pull the braking arm into a helpless position (fig. 10-11c), requiring the
belayer to let go and grasp the rope again. An optimal braking position can
be learned only with practice, ideally with actual weights being dropped and
held.

When the belayer attaches to the anchor, rig the connection to the side
opposite the braking hand. Note that this is different from tying in for
belaying with a mechanical device. If the braking hand and anchor rope are
on the same side of your body, the force of a fall can partly unwrap the rope
from around your body (fig. 10-11d), decreasing both friction and stability.

Another precaution is to clip a control carabiner on your seat harness (fig.

10-12). The carabiner goes in front, or on the same side as the rope coming
from the climber, but well forward of your hip bone. Clipping the rope in to
this carabiner keeps the rope where it is needed (at your hip), counteracts
body rotation, and adds friction to the system.

Be aware of any potential direction of pull from a fallen climber, and take
advantage of a stable stance and the anchor attachment to keep you and the
climbing rope from being pulled out of position, causing loss of control of
the belay. Wrapping the rope around your back and above the anchor
attachment will prevent the rope from being pulled below your seat. If the
pull will come from above with no possibility of a downward pull, wrap the
rope around your back and below the anchor attachment to prevent the rope
from being pulled over your head.

images

Fig. 10-12. Control carabiner added to a hip belay.

CHOOSING A BELAY METHOD

It might seem that the choice of a general-purpose belay method would be a

simple matter of choosing the method that exerts the most stopping force.
However, even if two belay methods differ significantly in the maximum
stopping force they can exert, there may be little practical difference
between them. For most falls, the belayer can exert sufficient force
regardless of the method.

However, the choice of belay methods does matter in the case of a high-
factor fall on steep terrain, with little or nothing to produce friction other
than the belay; in this situation, the belay method can mean the difference
between the rope running and not running. These types of falls are the
critical ones, wherein there is little margin for error.

If the rope starts to run while the belayer is holding a fall, the climber will
fall that much farther than if the fall were held with no run-through. A
longer fall is generally undesirable and potentially dangerous. However, in
any protected leader fall, it is important to consider that the force acts on the
protection as well as the climber: the maximum force on the top piece of
protection is one and a half to two times as high as the maximum force on
the climber—in a high-factor fall on vertical rock, the maximum force on
the climber can easily reach 7 kilonewtons (more than 1,500 pounds). If the
protection fails under this force, the climber will definitely fall farther. To
reduce this force on the protection, some belayers choose a relatively weak
method of belaying, one that will let the rope start to run at a lower force to
lessen the likelihood of the protection failing.
The leader can also effectively limit the maximum impact on individual
protection placements by using a load-limiting runner (see “Runners” in
Chapter 9, Basic Safety System). The leader may clip in to a suspect
placement with one of these devices without compromising overall belay
strength. During a fall, a force greater than the runner’s activation point
(usually 2 kilonewtons) will start to tear the load-limiting runner’s weak bar
tacks. As the total energy of the fall increases, more of the weak bar tacks on
the load-limiting runner will fail and can reduce by 3 to 8 kilonewtons the
peak load that the fall imposes on the placement.

ANCHORS

Secure anchors are vital. Climbers should remind themselves that they
cannot anticipate the moment when they will have to stop an extreme leader
fall. And when it happens, the anchor must hold, or the climbers—leader
and belayer both—will suffer a catastrophic fall.

The word “anchor” refers to a whole system. An anchor can be composed of

many components and one or more anchor points: it may include natural
features, fixed protection pieces, removable protection pieces, runners,
carabiners, and the climbing rope itself.

SELECTING AN ANCHOR

This section gives a few tips on selecting good anchors for belays, but for
full details on finding and using natural features and on setting artificial
anchors on rock, snow, and ice, study Chapters 13, Rock Protection; 14,
Leading on Rock; 16, Snow Travel and Climbing; and 19, Alpine Ice
Climbing. Also see Resources for all these chapters.

When selecting belay anchors, always consider every possible direction

from which a force may load the anchors. Ideally, the anchor should be
directly above the last piece of protection, or as close to it as possible. If a
follower falls, the direction of the pull is from the last piece of protection
below the belay anchor (fig. 10-13). Once that piece is removed or fails,
then the follower pendulums to and past the fall line (fig. 10-14). In a free-
hanging situation without friction, the follower can pendulum past the fall
line to the same angle as the initial angle between the rope and the fall line.
The leader should pay attention to the angle and distance between the anchor
and the last piece of protection for the sake of the follower. A big angle puts
the follower at a higher risk if he or she falls. A belay anchor directly above
the last piece minimizes such a pendulum.

If a leader falls, the belayer is pulled toward the first piece of protection,
which is usually upward. This is a good reminder to make sure the belay
anchors will withstand a pull from any conceivable fall.

Natural Anchors

A large natural feature, such as a good-sized, well-rooted live tree or a pillar

of sound rock, can make an ideal anchor. Climbers can also build and
remove an anchor very quickly on such features.

Trees and large bushes provide the most obvious anchors, but do not trust a
tree or shrub that is loose or appears weak or brittle. Carefully evaluate tree
anchors near or on cliff faces; these trees may be shallow-rooted and not as
solid as they appear. Test all trees by pushing against them with one foot.
Attaching to an unquestionably stout tree branch rather than low on the
trunk helps limit the rope’s contact with the ground, reducing abrasion on
the rope and reducing the risk of falling rock. However, connecting to a
branch rather than the trunk puts more leverage on the tree, increasing the
danger that the tree could be uprooted. Be cautious about using a bush as an
anchor. If you use one, consider placing an additional anchor or two for
safety. Also be careful about using trees and bushes in very cold weather,
when their wood can become brittle.

images

Fig. 10-13. When a follower falls, the direction of pull on the belayer is from
the last piece of protection.

images

Fig. 10-14. If the last piece of protection is removed or fails, then the
follower pendulums to and past the fall line.
Rock features—horns, columns, rock tunnels such as those formed by the
contact point between two boulders, large and flat-bottomed boulders—are
commonly used as anchors. Note that it is easy to overestimate the stability
of large boulders. As important as size are the shape of the boulder’s bottom,
the shape of the socket it is sitting in or the angle of the slope it is on, and
the ratio of its height to width. Imagine the hidden undersurface and the
block’s center of gravity: Will it pull over under a big load? Test it gently at
first so you do not send it over the edge. Occasionally, climbers have to set
up a belay at a jumble of large boulders, where some are resting on others. A
boulder underneath other large boulders might be quite solid but can be
difficult to assess even with careful checking.

Check any rock feature used as an anchor for fracture lines, which may be
subtle and difficult to judge, such as at the base of a rock horn or near the
edge of a crack. When using protection in a crack for an anchor, check to see
whether one side of the crack may actually be a detachable block or movable
flake; a crack has to widen only a fraction of an inch under the force of a fall
for the protection to pull out.

Always evaluate the probable strength and stability of a rock feature or

chockstone prior to using it as an anchor. Place a sling on a rock feature well
below the feature’s center of gravity to reduce the chance of it tipping or
dislodging. If there is any question about a natural anchor, test it before gear
is attached, never after the rope or the belayer is clipped in. (See also
“Natural Protection” in Chapter 13, Rock Protection.)

Fixed Anchors

Artificial (manufactured) anchors include bolts and pitons that, once set, are
usually left “fixed” permanently in place. On established routes, climbers
may encounter previously placed bolts and pitons; in unknown alpine
terrain, some climbers carry pitons and a hammer to set anchors.

Bolts are permanent pieces of artificial protection that are driven into a hole
that has been drilled into the rock. Bolt hangers, which may or may not be
permanent, allow carabiners to be attached to bolts (see Figure 13-6 in
Chapter 13, Rock Protection). Pitons are metal spikes pounded into cracks.
The blade of the piton is driven into the crack; the eye is the point of
attachment for a carabiner (see Figure 13-8 in Chapter 13, Rock Protection).
On rock climbing topo maps, bolts and fixed pitons are often shown as “x”
and “fp” (for “fixed protection”), respectively (see Figure 14-3 in Chapter
14, Leading on Rock).

Climbers may also encounter other fixed pieces—hardware such as nuts,

hexes, and so forth—which are normally removable protection that became
fixed when someone could not remove them. Fixed pieces left in place by
previous climbers must be evaluated for safety. Bolts and fixed pitons are
often solid if of recent vintage, but older placements are notoriously difficult
to assess (see “Fixed Protection” in Chapter 13, Rock Protection). Old 1/4-
inch bolts are no longer the accepted standard and should not be trusted.

Many popular routes now feature fixed anchors at belay stations; commonly
these consist of two or more bolts, sometimes connected with a short section
or sections of chain.

Removable Anchors

Where natural features or fixed protection are not available, climbers build
anchors and remove them as they complete a pitch (see Chapters 13, Rock
Protection, and 14, Leading on Rock, for rock anchors; Chapter 16, Snow
Travel and Climbing, for snow anchors; and Chapter 19, Alpine Ice
Climbing, for ice anchors).

EQUALIZING THE ANCHOR

Commonly, belays use two or three anchor placements, so the anchor system
has redundancy and is not dependent on any single anchor placement: if one
anchor placement fails, one or both of the two other anchor placements may
still hold. The reliability of multiple anchor placements is further increased
by distributing the load among the placements, a technique called
equalization.

Most ways of equalizing the load on multiple anchor points make use of
runners or loops of accessory cord (both of which are called legs) to connect
the anchor points into a single power point, or master point. These
equalization methods can be roughly divided into two types: static
equalization and self-equalization. Static equalization distributes the load in
only one direction. Self-equalization distributes the load in a range of
directions. Various commonly used equalization methods have advantages
and disadvantages, and no one choice is preferable across all scenarios. It is
important to understand the variables involved, to know how anchors
function in different situations, and to make informed decisions about how
best to construct anchors in various configurations. Ultimately, any multipart
anchor is only as good as its individual components, and safety depends on
skillful placement of individual pieces.

In building a multipoint anchor, the first question to ask is, how many
anchor points are needed? There is no universal answer to this question. It
depends on lots of factors: the maximum possible force, the quality of rock
or natural protection, et cetera. But the general rule of thumb is, to build two
bombproof pieces or three good pieces. As your confidence in pieces lowers,
add more pieces and do a better job of equalizing them.

The next factor to consider is the angle formed by all the legs at the power
point: the main connection point of the anchor system. This angle is
sometimes called the V-angle because the legs form the shape of a V. Figure
10-15 shows a two-point anchor, in which the two legs are symmetric.
According to rules of basic physics, the bigger the angle, the more force is
delivered to each anchor point and the less effective the equalization is.

At a V-angle approaching 0 degrees, or when the two anchor points are

perfectly aligned, each anchor point receives half the load (fig. 10-15a).
Strive to keep the V-angle of a belay anchor system less than 60 degrees
(fig. 10-15b). With a V-angle greater than 60 degrees, the load on each
anchor point increases significantly (fig. 10-15c). When the V-angle is 120
degrees, the force on either anchor point is the same as the load itself (fig.
10-15d). In this case, the force is not reduced at all—the equalization serves
no purpose other than providing redundancy (if one anchor point fails, the
other takes over). When the V-angle exceeds 120 degrees, the force is
amplified, and it grows rapidly as the V-angle increases (fig. 10-16). An
anchor system with more than two anchor points is a little harder to analyze,
but the principles remain the same: keep the overall V-angle relatively small.

images
Fig. 10-15. V-angle effect on percent load or force in a two-point anchor
system equalized with sewn runners: a, at a V-angle approaching 0 degrees
the load is shared equally; b and c, as the V-angle increases, the load on
each anchor point increases; d, at angles greater than 120 degrees, the load
exceeds 100 percent on each anchor point. Strive to keep the V-angle of a
belay anchor system less than 60 degrees.

Static Equalization

With static equalization, the anchor takes the load in only one direction.

Two anchor points. To statically equalize two anchor points, a common

method is to clip a double-length (48-inch/120-centimeter) runner in to the
two anchor points—one end of the runner to one anchor point, the other end
of the runner to the other anchor point—then gather the resulting four
strands of the runner, tie them in an overhand or figure-eight knot, and clip a
locking carabiner to the resulting loop (power point) that is on the opposite
side of the knot from the anchor points (fig. 10-17).

images

Fig. 10-16. V-angle effect on force multiplication.

images

Fig. 10-17. Statically equalizing two anchor points with a double-length

runner.

The drawback of this method is that the overhand or figure-eight knot is

hard to untie after it has been heavily loaded. Also, the knot is usually very
small if the runner is skinny, and a small knot on a skinny runner
significantly weakens the strength of the runner. To mitigate this problem,
climbers can use a cordelette, a long runner of about 20 feet (about 6 meters)
usually made of 7-to 8-millimeter nylon accessory cord or a small-diameter,
high-strength cord of a material such as Spectra or Dyneema. First, double
the cordelette to half its length, then create a power point with the loop (fig.
10-18) as for a double-length runner. Alternatively, if the power point must
be extended a little farther from the anchor points, clip one bight of the
cordelette in to one anchor point and clip both strands of the cordelette to the
other anchor point (fig. 10-19a), then tie a figure eight or overhand knot with
the resulting six strands to create the power point (fig. 10-19b).

images

Fig. 10-18. Statically equalizing two anchor points with a cordelette by

doubling it and tying an overhand knot to create a power point.

images

Fig. 10-19. When a bit more length is needed, alternative method of

statically equalizing two anchor points with cordelette: a, clip one bight of
the cordelette into one anchor point and clip both strands of the cordelette to
the other anchor point; b, knot the resulting six strands together to create a
power point.

Three anchor points. To equalize three anchor points, clip the cordelette in
to each anchor point’s carabiner and pull down the top segments between the
anchor points (fig. 10-20a). Join these segments with the bottom part of the
cordelette by gripping the resulting three loops and connecting a locking
carabiner to all three loops (fig. 10-20b). Shift the carabiner around while
you gather the strands together to even out the tension in all strands as best
you can. Then, while pulling in the anticipated direction of force, tie all
three segments together into an overhand or figure eight (fig. 10-20c). Either
knot is acceptable; the over-hand requires less cord than the figure eight, but
it will be much harder to untie if it is heavily loaded. Pull on the carabiner at
the end loop (power point) to make sure all three legs are weighted. Static
equalization with a cordelette can also be done with more than three anchor
points.

The shelf. In either a two-point or three-point anchor, the end loop (power
point) created by the overhand or figure-eight knot is the main attachment
point to the belay anchor. Additional connection points, such as a second
climber clipping in on arrival at the belay station, can be made by creating a
“shelf” consisting of all anchor placements above the power point: clip a
carabiner to one strand coming from each of the anchor points (fig. 10-20d).
It is very important that only one strand from each anchor point is clipped. A
shelf does not exist in an anchor system unless each anchor point has two
strands. This shelf can simplify clipping in to or unclipping from a loaded
anchor and can avoid much clutter and confusion.

images

Fig. 10-20. Static equalization of three anchor points with cordelette: a, clip
in to each of three anchor point carabiners and pull down the top segments
between the anchor points; b, gather the strands together at an even length;
c, knot the resulting six strands together to create a power point with a
locking carabiner; d, clip another locker into the shelf.

Uneven distribution of forces in static equalization. Load-testing of

cordelettes shows that the ideal, even distribution of forces is not usually
achieved using three anchor points: even under ideal circumstances—with
three anchor placements symmetrically arranged—the middle leg may be
subjected to twice the load of the two side legs (fig. 10-21a). Asymmetrical
configurations tend to primarily load the two legs closest to the direction of
pull. As the lengths of the different legs become more uneven, as is common
when an anchor is rigged in a vertical crack, the lowest leg is subjected to
much higher loads than the longer legs (fig. 10-21b). These differences are
due to greater elongation that occurs with longer sections of cord. The
effects of unevenly rigged configurations can be reduced by extending the
individual placements with low-stretch runners to equalize the length of the
elastic cordelette legs. Any slack in a leg of the cordelette means that it
supports negligible weight and is not equalized.

Self-Equalization

Self-equalization is intended to react to changing load direction and to

distribute any force equally among all the anchor components. There are two
primary methods of self-equalization.

images

Fig. 10-21. Uneven distribution of forces in static equalization: a, in a

symmetrical anchor, pull appears equal on both side strands, but the middle
strand may be subjected to twice their load; b, in an asymmetrical anchor,
the load is shifted to one side—now the lowest anchor point is subjected to
higher loads than the other two longer legs.

Sliding X. Two-point equalizing is the simplest example of self-

equalization. Clip a runner in to the two anchor carabiners; grasp the top part
of the runner between the two anchor points and put a half twist in it,
making an X and forming a loop (fig. 10-22a); then clip the loop and the
bottom part of the runner together with a locking carabiner. Tie the rope to
this carabiner (fig. 10-22b). It is essential to put the loop in the runner rather
than just clipping the top and bottom of the runner. Otherwise, if one anchor
point fails, the runner will simply slip through this carabiner, leaving the
rope completely unanchored. With a longer runner, the sliding X can work
well to equalize more than two anchor points.

images

Fig. 10-22. Sliding X self-equalizing anchor: a, grasp the top part of the
runner between the two anchor points and put a half twist in it, making an X
and forming a loop; b, clip the loop and the bottom part of the runner
together with a locking carabiner and tie the rope to this carabiner.

The sliding X method depends on the carabiner attachment sliding freely to

self-equalize as the direction of pull changes. Take care in rigging this
system to minimize friction between the sliding carabiner and the X. New,
thinner sewn runners work better with this method than bulky 9/16-inch or
wider webbing. Using larger-diameter carabiners also reduces friction.

Equalization always conflicts with the “No Extension” principle described in

the “SERENE Anchor Systems” sidebar. To mitigate, you can use shorter
slings or tie limiter knots (usually overhand knots) in the runner (fig. 10-23).
Limiter knots minimize the length the anchor can extend as well as limit the
extent to which the anchor is equalized. Without such limiter knots, if one
anchor point fails, it shock-loads the remaining anchor points, creating a risk
of failure.

SERENE ANCHOR SYSTEMS

A simple yet highly effective set of principles to follow when evaluating
anchor systems goes by the acronym SERENE. Strive to fulfill these
requirements, but note that the principles of “Equalized” and “No
Extension” are inherently in conflict with each other. Climbers must make
conscious compromises.

imagesSolid. Each individual component should be solid to the greatest

extent feasible.

imagesEfficient. An anchor system should be efficiently built and

dismantled.

imagesRedundant. Always use redundant components in setting up an

anchor; this applies not only to anchor points but to all elements in an
anchor system.

imagesEqualized. Use a rigging method that tries to equally distribute the

load among the various individual anchor points, which greatly increases the
reliability of each part of the system.

imagesNo Extension. Minimize the possibility that failure of one

component in the anchor system will cause the anchor to suddenly extend,
which would cause subsequent shock loading and generate dangerously high
impact forces on the remaining components.

images

Fig. 10-23. Sliding X with limiter knots.

images

Figure 10-24. Self-equalizing with an equalette: a, grab a bight to form a

double-stranded U, with the fisherman’s bend slightly offset from one end of
the loop; b, tie overhand limiter knots on both sides, creating an isolated
center section with two longer side loops; c, connect the side loops to one or
more anchor components, and clip in to the central section with two
carabiners, one per strand. Here, the right-hand loop is connected to two
anchors and equalized with clove hitches.
Equalettes. The equalette was developed to overcome the disadvantages of
friction and elongation associated with the sliding X and the potentially poor
equalization of a cordelette. It combines elements from both the sliding X
and the cordelette.

Equalettes are normally constructed from 20 feet (6 meters) of 7-millimeter

nylon or smaller-diameter, high-strength cord. Tie the cord into a loop with a
double or triple fisherman’s bend, as appropriate to the material. Grab a
bight to form a double-stranded U, with the fisherman’s bend slightly offset
from one end of the loop (fig. 10-24a), then tie overhand limiter knots on
both sides of the U to create a section about 10 inches (25 centimeters) long.
You now have a loop about 8 feet (2.5 meters) long consisting of an isolated
center section and two longer side loops (fig. 10-24b). To build a multipoint
anchor using the equalette, estimate the most likely direction that the force
of a fall will come from, and orient the central section toward that pull, just
as is done when tying a power point in a cordelette anchor system.

Now connect both of the side loops to one or more anchor components.
Various configurations are possible using one or more anchor elements per
side, equalized with combinations of clove hitches, sliding Xs, and so on.
Once the anchor is constructed, clip in to the bottom center section of the
equalette, preferably using one locking carabiner for each of the two central
strands (fig. 10-24c). If using one carabiner to clip in, instead of two, be sure
to put a half twist and loop in one of the strands, just as with the sliding X,
to prevent complete disconnection if one side of the equalette were to fail.

In action, this method is designed to self-equalize; the tie-in can redirect

itself and maintain load distribution to both sides if the direction of pull
changes. If one leg were to completely fail, the limiter knots would keep
extension to a reasonable minimum. Though it might seem rather
complicated at first, the equalette addresses the criticisms of static and self-
equalized systems, and it does not add too much complexity or time to
anchor setups.

TYING IN TO THE ANCHOR

The connection between the harness and the anchor, whether the belayer
uses a tie-in or a clip-in, should be made with a separate carabiner. The best
way for the belayer to connect to the anchor is to tie in with the climbing
rope itself, using the first few feet of rope as it comes from its tie-in at the
belayer’s harness. This ensures that there will be a dynamic link between the
belayer and anchor because the rope itself is dynamic.

Climbers often connect to the anchor using runners or their personal

anchors. Although this may save time and keeps the maximum amount of
rope available for climbing longer pitches, there are hazards associated with
this practice. Runners and personal anchors usually have low stretch and do
not react dynamically under load. If a climber is any distance above the
anchor and falls, the climber may experience a high-factor fall, and even
short falls on these low-stretch materials can generate extremely high impact
forces. Despite their high strength, such runners, as well as carabiners, have
failed under these circumstances. An even bigger risk is the high impact
force on the climber in the case of a high-factor fall. Human bodies can
usually tolerate 12 kilonewtons without serious or fatal injuries. If using a
personal anchor, keep the slack minimal, and do not climb above the anchor.

BELAY POSITION AND STANCE

In deciding on a belay position in relation to the belay anchor, think through

the possibilities of what could go wrong given varying positions and
potential falls. Try to plan for worst-case scenarios and make sure that a bad
fall would be caught by the belay anchor before the belayer would be pulled
off the belay stance, which entails the very real possibility of losing control
of the belay.

BELAYING A LEADER OR TOP-ROPE CLIMBER

When belaying a leader or a top-rope climber, belay directly off the seat
harness. This position puts the belayer’s hands and arms in the correct
position to manage the rope and to apply braking force the instant a fall
occurs.

Anticipate the direction of pull in case of a fall. That force tends to pull the
belayer upward and into the rock. If you are not anchored (often the case in
single-pitch cragging), you could be slammed into any object in the way.
Therefore, it’s best to stand close to the rock, with a stable bent-knee athletic
stance. No matter which direction you are facing—in toward the mountain
or out—keep in line with the anchor and the direction of pull. Otherwise the
fall will spin you into an awkward position.

If the belay is anchored, tie in to the anchor no more than an arm’s length
away, so that you can still reach the anchor if your tie-in is pulled tight by a
fall. At the same time, don’t tie in awkwardly close to the anchor. Leave a
little room for the braking hand, as well as a little slack in the rope should
you need to move your body to give the climber a soft catch if a fall occurs.

When belaying a leader, there are many advantages to facing in toward the
mountain. Facing in usually allows you to watch your partner climb,
enabling you to anticipate movements and to pay out or take in rope more
efficiently (see “Rope Handling” below). You may also be able to figure out
how to get past some of the difficult sections when it is time for you to
climb if you have seen where your partner had difficulty and how your
partner negotiated these cruxes. You are better able to see rockfall early and
take cover. And you are in the best position to see a leader fall start, so you
can quickly brace and go into the braking position. Being able to see a
leader’s fall begin is a particular advantage when the first piece of protection
is low and the force of the fall would tend to pull you into the rock.

These advantages of facing in are lost when belaying in an alcove with a

roof or bulge overhead that prevents you from watching your partner. In this
situation, you are no worse off facing out when it comes to holding a
protected leader fall, and you are probably in a much better position to hold
an unprotected leader fall because you are not in danger of being spun
around.

When belaying a leader, the most likely direction of pull in the case of a
leader fall is upward. But in the severe situation in which the leader falls
past the anchor before placing the first piece of protection (factor 2 fall), the
force is downward. A belayer with a fairly long attachment to an anchor at
about waist height or lower—very commonly seen—is not prepared to stop
an unprotected leader fall. If the belayer is standing on a ledge and the
partner falls past the belayer, the downward force builds quickly beyond the
point that the belay stance can hold. The belayer would then be pulled
violently off the ledge or driven sharply down onto it, with almost certain
loss of control of the belay and probable injuries. To prevent this possibility,
attach tightly to an anchor above waist level so that you cannot be pulled
down more than a few inches.

BELAYING A FOLLOWER

When belaying a follower, choose between belaying off the anchor or the
harness.

Belay Off the Harness

The traditional way to belay a second is off the harness—that is, the belay
device is clipped directly to the belay loop on the harness (fig. 10-25). The
advantage is that you can use your body movement to provide a soft belay,
which is useful when the anchor is less than bombproof. However, this
method doesn’t work very well if the terrain below is vertical, because the
follower’s weight will pull the belayer to the fall line. When that happens,
the belayer could be pulled out of the belay stance and end up suspended
awkwardly, unable to get the braking hand back into the brake position.
Most belay device manufacturers also don’t recommend belaying the second
off the harness.

images

Fig. 10-25. Belaying a follower off the harness.

images

Fig. 10-26. Belaying a follower off the harness with a redirect.

Belay Off the Harness with a Redirect

An improvement over belaying off the harness is to redirect the rope through
a carabiner above the belayer’s harness, as shown in Figure 10-26. This way,
the fall force would come from above instead of below, and the belayer is in
a more comfortable position when holding a fall. However, when the belayer
catches the fall, the force on the redirect carabiner is twice the body weight
of the follower (not considering friction) due to the pulley effect. Be aware
of the multiplied force when choosing this method. Also consider using the
strongest point in the anchor system for redirection, which is usually the
power point or shelf. However, the force multiplication is irrelevant in a
hanging belay, wherein the weight of the belayer is already on the anchor.

Belay Off the Anchor

The preferred method of belaying a follower is directly off the anchor (from
a belay device or munter hitch on the anchor), sometimes also called a
“direct belay.” One big advantage is that the belayer is out of the system,
hence not subject to the forces created by a fall and therefore less likely to
be injured or lose control of the belay. When something goes wrong, it’s
easy for the belayer to “escape” (see “Escaping the Belay” below). This is
also very useful if the follower is less experienced and needs to be coached
from above.

A common method for a direct belay is to use an assisted-braking belay

device or an auto-locking belay device in its auto-locking mode clipped
directly in to the anchor, as shown in Figure 10-7. An alternative method is
to belay with a munter hitch on the anchor (fig. 10-27). Different
manufacturers use different terminologies for auto-locking mode. For
instance, Black Diamond calls it “guide mode”; consult the manufacturer’s
instructions.

images

Fig. 10-27. Belaying off the anchor using a munter hitch.

A regular non-auto-locking belay device should not be used for a belay

directly off the anchor. To arrest a fall, the belayer would have to push the
braking hand away from the body and back behind the device in order to
separate the rope strands by the minimum of 90 degrees. This can be
awkward, perhaps impossible, and the braking hand grip will be
comparatively weak. In fact, most manufacturers do not allow a regular
aperture belay device to be used directly off the anchor at all. When an auto-
locking belay device is not used in the auto-locking mode, it should be
treated like a regular belay device.
Regardless of the belay device or method used to belay off the anchor,
position the tie-in so that the anchor’s power point is at roughly shoulder
level when the belayer is leaning on the anchor. This way, the belayer has
enough work space between the tie-in and the anchor to make pulling and
coiling the rope easier. If the power point is too low, consider using the
anchor shelf if there is one.

ROPE HANDLING

In addition to stopping a fall if one should occur, it is important for the

belayer to maintain the correct tension on the rope: prevent excess slack,
anticipate the climber’s movements and rope needs, let out rope as the
climber moves up or clips in to protection, take rope in as needed, and
manage the accumulating rope. The techniques below are described in the
stance for belaying the leader off the harness, but the techniques can easily
be modified for other belay methods. Practice until you learn to quickly take
in or let out rope with the feeling hand as needed while never removing the
braking hand from the rope.

Maintaining the right amount of slack. Keeping just enough but not too
much slack in the rope during a belay is a skill that requires practice.
Obviously, too much slack will lengthen a fall and hence increase the impact
force and the risk of the climber getting injured (fig. 10-28). Too much slack
also makes it hard for the belayer to “feel” the rope movement and needs of
the climber. Too little slack, on the other hand, can impede the climber’s
movement and balance. A good belayer uses the feeling hand and is always
aware of how much slack is in the rope. Ideally, when belaying a follower,
there is almost no slack in the rope (fig. 10-29), but at the same time, the
rope should not be taut, especially on a traverse when balance is crucial.
Fig. 10-28. Too much rope slack.

Fig. 10-29. Right amount of rope slack.

Fig. 10-30. Managing the rope at the belay: a, a butterfly coil laid across
the belayer’s anchor tie-in; b, stacking the rope on the ground.

Anticipating the leader’s rope needs. To minimize falling distance, leaders

preparing to make difficult moves often place protection well above their
harness tie-in and clip in to that protection before moving up. In these cases,
the leader needs some additional slack, and the direction of rope movement
will reverse twice. After letting out rope for the leader to make a clip, the
belayer will need to take in slack as the climber moves up to the protection.
The belayer will then pay out rope again once the climber moves past the
protection and uses up most of the slack in the rope. These switches call for
extra attention, especially because this tends to happen at the most difficult
spots on a route. It’s worth noting, however, that when the leader clips above
waist level and pulls extra rope to clip in, he or she is momentarily subject to
a longer fall, so the leader should do this only from a comfortable and safe
stance.

When belaying the leader, an alert belayer keeps just a hint of slack and
responds immediately to the leader’s advance by paying out more rope. The
belayer is also always ready to transition between paying out rope and
pulling in slack when the leader clips in to protection. Any friction applied
by the belayer is multiplied, so if the leader says that rope drag is a problem,
keep about a foot or so of slack in the rope and do everything possible to
eliminate any pull. If the climber falls when there is a lot of friction in the
system, the belayer may actually be unsure whether a fall even took place. If
it is impossible to communicate with the climber, the belayer can find out by
letting out a few inches of rope. If the same tension remains, then the
belayer is probably holding the climber’s weight.

Managing the rope. Proper rope management is essential so that the

belayer may keep the right amount of slack at all times. The belayer does not
want to be distracted by knots and tangles in the rope when belaying. Before
belaying a leader, neatly pile or coil the rope with the climber’s end on top.
Do this by carefully flaking out the rope, shaking it out as needed to avoid
unwanted twists, and stacking the rope on the ground before starting to
belay.

When belaying a follower up to the belay station, either stack the rope on the
ground if the belay station is big enough or coil it using the butterfly coil.
For the butterfly coil, coil the rope back and forth across the belayer’s
anchor tie-in (fig. 10-30a); it helps to keep the tie-in under a little tension
even if it’s not a hanging belay. If the belayer stacks the rope on the ground,
make sure the rope pile has a small footprint and is not tangled with rock
flakes and tree branches (fig. 10-30b).

If the climbing team is swapping leads—that is, the follower will become
the new leader on the next pitch—the belayer doesn’t need to do anything
with the rope because the leader’s end is already on the top and the rope
should be nicely piled or coiled for the next pitch. However, if the climbing
team is leading in blocks—that is, the climber who led the last pitch is going
to lead the next—the belayer must reverse the rope. If the rope is butterfly-
coiled, grab the middle of the coil and flip it onto the follower’s anchor tie-
in. Reversing the rope is a little more difficult if the rope is stacked in a pile:
the belayer can carefully flip the whole pile like a pancake, but if that fails,
the whole rope must be reflaked, which is time-consuming.

COMMUNICATION

Effective and efficient communication between members of a climbing party

is key to safe and speedy ascents. A set of standardized and concise
commands understood by all climbers can tremendously reduce confusion
and save time and hassle. Make sure everyone in the climbing party agrees
upon the commands before they start climbing, especially if they are
breaking in a new climbing partner. The commands in Table 10-1 have been
developed to produce a distinctive pattern, and they are used universally,
even among non-English-speaking climbers.

As climber and belayer get farther apart, they begin to have difficulty
hearing each other. It is impossible to communicate in full sentences, and
often the first syllable is not heard. When the belayer is a long way from the
climbing partner, shout as loudly as possible and space out each syllable,
using very big spaces if there are echoes. In a crowded area, clearly preface
commands with your partner’s name to avoid confusion about who is being
safely belayed or lowered, who is off belay, et cetera. Prefixing commands
with climbers’ names also has the advantage that climbers will pause upon
hearing their name as the first word and thus have a better chance of
understanding the remainder of the command. Sometimes climbers may rely
on a third party to relay their commands.

Verbal communication often becomes impossible because of wind or

obstructions. In such cases, people have suggested using rope pulls.
However, there is no universal protocol for rope signals. Also, if there is
enough wind or obstructions to impede verbal communication, rope tugs
usually cannot be easily or reliably felt.

Some climbers use two-way radios for communication. If you do, check
local radio frequency regulations and make sure your radios conform. Also
be aware of the limitations of radios. Battery life is shorter in cold
conditions. When the batteries run out, make sure you have alternative
means of communication. A useful tip for radios is to not start talking at the
same time you press the “talk” button because the first couple of words will
be lost. Instead, press the button, wait for a second or two, and then start
talking.

Always use positive commands instead of negative ones. For example, when
there is too much slack in the rope, use “Up rope” instead of “Too muck
slack,” because the latter can be misheard or mistakenly interpreted as
“Slack,” which is the exact opposite of what you mean. Always try to stick
to the standard commands listed in Table 10-1 instead of creating your own
commands, because standard commands can be understood by everyone.

The rule of thumb in communication is to keep it simple. Here are the

recommended commands in Table 10-1 configured for exchanges between
the climber and the belayer in two different scenarios.

SINGLE-PITCH CLIMB

In this scenario, the belayer is belaying a climber who is either leading or

top-roping on a slingshot setup. The command exchange takes place after
both parties have done the safety check.

Climber: “On belay?”

Belayer: “Belay on.”
Climber: “Climbing.”
Belayer: “Climb on.”

The climber climbs to the top. If the climber is leading, he or she sets up the
top anchor and clips the rope in to the anchor. Now the climber is ready to
put the weight on the rope and be lowered.

TABLE 10-1. COMMONLY USED CLIMBING COMMANDS

COMMAND SAID BY MEANING

“On belay?” Climber Do you have me on belay? Are you ready

to brake my fall?
 Yes, I have you on belay. Can be a
“Belay on.” Belayer
response to “On belay?”

“Climbing.” Climber I’m about to climb.

“Climb on/climb Go ahead and climb. Response to

Belayer
away.” “Climbing.”

I’m safe, either on the ground or attached

“Off belay.” Climber to an anchor. Please take the rope out of
the belay device.

You are no longer on belay. Response to

“Belay off.” Belayer
“Off belay.”

Pull all the slack in the rope and I’m

“Take.” Climber
going to put my weight on it.

All slack has been pulled out. Go ahead

“Got you.” Belayer
and lean on the rope. Response to “Take.”

I have finished climbing. Please lower me

“Lower me/lower.” Climber
to the ground.

I’m starting to lower you. Response to

“Lowering.” Belayer
“Lower me.”

“That’s me.” Follower You have taken in all the slack in the
rope. The resistance to your pull is my
body.
 Give me some slack. The rope is too
“Slack.” Climber
tight.

Pull up some slack. The rope has too

“Up rope.” Climber
much slack.

“Watch me.” Climber Give me an attentive belay. I may fall.

“Falling!” Climber I’m falling. Brake my fall.

Falling rock, ice, or other objects. Take

“Rock/ice!” Anyone
cover, everyone!

I’m about to clip the rope into a piece of

“Clipping.” Leader
protection.

“Half rope.” Belayer You have led half the length of the rope.

“X feet/X meters.” Belayer You have X feet (meters) of rope left.

Climber: “Take.”
Belayer: “Got you.”
Climber: “Lower me.”
Belayer: “Lowering.”

The belayer lowers the climber to the ground.

Climber: “Off belay.”

Belayer: “Belay off.”
If the leader is cleaning the protection on the way down, he or she may also
ask the belayer to pause at each protection point so he or she can remove
them. The commands are “Stop” for pausing and “Lower” for resuming.

MULTIPITCH CLIMB

In this scenario, the follower belays the leader. When the leader gets to the
top of a pitch, he or she sets up an anchor and belays the follower to the top.
When they continue climbing the next pitch, they may or may not exchange
roles as belayer and leader for the next pitch.

Leader: “On belay?”

Belayer: “Belay on.”
Leader: “Climbing.”
Belayer: “Climb away.”

The leader arrives at the top of the first pitch, sets up an anchor, and secures
him-or herself to the anchor.

Leader: “Off belay.”

Follower: “Belay off.”

The leader pulls the rope and the follower gets ready to follow the pitch. As
the rope gets taut, they communicate:

Follower: “That’s me!”

Leader: “Belay on.”

The follower removes the previous anchor, then starts ascending.

Follower: “Climbing.”
Leader: “Climb on.”

The follower arrives at the belay station and secures him-or herself to the
anchor.

Follower: “Off belay.”

Leader: “Belay off.”
ACTIONS BASED ON THE COMMANDS

Specific actions are associated with particular commands that the belayer
and follower use.

Slack is especially useful to a climber who is leading or traversing.

Up rope is used when there is too much slack in the system and the belayer
should take up the slack.

Watch me is used when the climber is about to make some difficult moves
and needs an especially attentive belay.

Clipping is used to indicate that the belayer should pay attention to the
direction of the rope travel, and to warn of a possible pull on the rope made
by the leader. If the protection is above the leader’s waist, the rope will
travel away from the belayer, then toward him or her before traveling away
again.

Half rope gives the leader a sense of the length of the route.

X feet (X meters) is used in a multipitch scenario to help the leader decide

when and where to build an anchor. Outside of the United States, people
usually use meters (a meter is roughly 3 feet).

ESCAPING THE BELAY

One aspect of belaying that most climbers hope they will never have to use
is tying off and escaping the belay in order to help an injured partner. If a
climbing partner is seriously injured and other climbers are nearby, it is
usually best to let them help while you continue to belay. By staying in
place, you could also help in raising or lowering the victim if needed. But if
two climbers are alone, it may be necessary to tie off the climbing rope to
remove yourself from the belay system, so you can investigate, help your
partner, or go for help. Escaping the belay is the first step of many rescue
scenarios. The goal of belay escape is to have the load connected directly to
the anchor and the belayer out of the system.
When belaying off the anchor. When you are belaying off the anchor using
a munter hitch or auto-locking device, the fallen climber’s weight is already
on the anchor, and the only thing the belayer needs to do is to free the
braking hand (remember, an auto-locking device is not a hands-free device).
To do so, you simply need to tie a mule knot with the braking strand while
still holding on to the braking strand, backing it up with an overhand knot
(fig. 10-31; see also Figures 9-20 and 9-21 in Chapter 9, Basic Safety
System).

When belaying using a belay device attached to the seat harness. If

belaying from the harness, more steps are involved to escape the belay
because the fallen climber’s weight is on the belayer. The first step is to free
the belayer’s hands. With the braking hand still holding the rope, stick a
couple fingers of your other hand through the belay carabiner and pull a
bight of rope over so that now your other hand becomes the braking hand.
The braking strand is now in line with the load. Use your free hand to tie a
device-mule knot with an overhand backup knot (fig. 10-32a). Both hands of
the belayer are now free.

Fig. 10-31. Tying off a direct belay.

The next steps are to transfer the weight to the anchor so that the belayer can
get out of the system. To achieve this, attach a cord tie-off loop to the
climber’s end of the rope with a prusik hitch and connect this loop to a
locking carabiner. Attach this locking carabiner to the loose rope coming
from the belayer tie-in at the anchor, using a munter hitch with a mule knot
to connect the carabiner and rope, then back it up with an overhand knot; the
entire knot is called a munter-mule-overhand, or MMO (fig. 10-32b; see also
Figure 9-21 in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System). Now, put a braking hand
back on the braking strand to backup the connection to the anchor as you
follow the next step. Untie the first overhand knot backup and device-mule
knot (from the belay setup on the harness), and slowly transfer the load to
the tie-off loop using the belay device (fig. 10-32c).

Now the fallen climber’s weight is secured to the anchor but on a potentially
weak tie-off cord. Connect the rope from the fallen climber to the anchor
with another MMO as a backup leaving just enough slack to disassemble the
belay (fig. 10-32d). Now disassemble the belay, disconnect the belay device
from the system, and untie from the anchor (fig. 10-32e).
Fig. 10-32. Escaping the belay: a, tie off the belay device with a device-mule
knot with overhand backup; b, attach a cord tie-off loop to the climber’s end
of the rope with a prusik hitch, connect this loop to a locking carabiner, and
attach it to the loose rope coming from the belayer tie-in at the anchor using
a munter-mule-overhand (MMO); c, untie the first overhand knot backup
and device-mule knot (from the belay setup on the harness) and slowly
transfer the load to the tie-off loop using the belay device; d, connect the
rope coming out of the belay device to the anchor with another MMO; e,
disassemble the belay by disconnecting the belay device, and then untie
yourself from the anchor so you can help the climber, rappel for assistance,
et cetera.

When belaying using a munter hitch attached to the seat harness. The
steps involved are very similar except the first step. To free your hands, tie
an MMO (see Figure 9-21). The rest of the steps to escape the belay are
exactly the same. As the above steps illustrate, an MMO knot or a device-
mule knot with an overhand backup is used in transferring a live load. Such
a knot is also called a releasable knot. Releasable knots are extremely
helpful in a rescue scenario because it should always be assumed that the
fallen climber is incapacitated and cannot release the load from the rope,
even momentarily. That’s the reason a second MMO is used to hold the
fallen climber’s weight and a third MMO is used as the backup. This
provides the flexibility needed later to either lower the fallen climber using
the belay device or munter hitch or to rig a raising system.

SECURING THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

Belaying and anchor setup are the fundamental skills of technical climbing.
Practice belaying often, alternating between using your right hand and left
hand as the braking hand. Study and practice anchor techniques. There are
many different ways of anchoring yourself. Always use the SERENE
principles to evaluate your anchors.

Being proficient with belay technique and anchor setup helps climbers
become good team partners. These methods are also related to skills
required for rappelling; once climbers become proficient in belay skills, they
will have more confidence when it comes time to rappel. Overall, solid skills
in belaying and anchor setup will help climbers secure the freedom of the
hills.
THE RAPPEL SYSTEM • SETTING UP RAPPEL ANCHORS •
SETTING UP THE ROPE • RAPPEL METHOD • RAPPEL TECHNIQUE
• SAFETY BACKUPS • FINISHING THE RAPPEL • MULTIPLE
RAPPELS • EXPERIENCING THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

images

CHAPTER 11

RAPPELLING

Indispensable to technical climbing in the mountains, rappelling is the

technique of descending an anchored rope by using friction to safely
control the rate of descent. Unfortunately, because rappelling is often
so easy and routine, climbers may forget or ignore its inherent risks,
making it one of the more dangerous techniques they employ. Proper
rappelling technique is vital to a safe descent of many climbs.

In the words of climber Ed Viesturs, “Getting to the top is optional; getting

down is mandatory.” Safe rappelling can be achieved only by using a
trustworthy anchor and rope and proper technique. If any element of the
rappel system fails, the result will likely be catastrophic. Unlike the belay
system, which is a secondary safety system—it is called upon only if a fall
occurs—the rappel system is the primary fall restraint system, necessarily
called upon to absorb the forces exerted by the rappel the entire time it is in
use. Consequently, there is no room for error in the setup or use of the
rappel system. The 2011 edition of Accidents in North American
Mountaineering notes most rappelling accidents are preventable: the top
three causes are (1) uneven rope lengths, (2) an inadequate anchor system,
and (3) an inadequate rappel backup.

When descending a climb, a team may have the choice to down-climb

instead of rappel. Party size and experience, timing, weather, terrain, and
available equipment should be factored into the decision regarding how to
descend. When down-climbing is within the capability of the climbing
party, it can be preferable because it can be faster and pose a lower risk
than rappelling. Down-climbing is particularly attractive in terrain rated
Class 4 and below, where the slope angle and presence of loose rocks
increase the likelihood of getting a rappel rope stuck or of pulling rocks
down on climbers while rappelling or retrieving the rope. When there are
varying skill levels within a climbing team, it may be appropriate to set up
a fixed rope for less-experienced climbers to use as a hand line or to
connect to with a prusik while down-climbing (see “Fixed Lines” in
Chapter 21, Expedition Climbing). If the team chooses to rappel, safety and
efficiency are imperative; this chapter describes best practices to ensure
safe and efficient rappels.

THE RAPPEL SYSTEM

A rappel system has four basic elements: an anchor, a rope, a rappel

method for applying friction to the rope, and the person rappelling (fig. 11-
1). Each element is equally and vitally important. Always remember all
four of the rappel elements—especially when you are cold, tired, hungry, or
racing to beat the darkness—and double-check that every element is in
place, functioning properly, and connected together to make an integrated
system.

It is common practice for climbing partners to check each other’s

equipment setup at the start of a climb; partner checks during descent are
equally important and should be routine. The last person to rappel may be
able to set up his or her rappel before the second-to-last person leaves the
anchor (see “Finishing the Rappel” later in this chapter), but if this is not
possible, the last climber should consider him- or herself at elevated risk
for mistakes and take extra measures to check, recheck, and test his or her
own setup. Another important measure to confirm correct setup of a rappel
before heading down is to weight the rappel while maintaining security
through use of a personal anchor (fig. 11-2).

images

Fig. 11-1. Components of mechanical rappel system: anchor, rope, rappel

method for applying friction to the rope, and rappeller. Each element is
equally and vitally important.
Following a routine checklist before every rappel can help ensure nothing
is missed. One example of a routine that ensures a coherent system
involves starting with the rock or mountain and working outward toward
the climber: check the anchor attached to the rock, then the rope attached to
the anchor, then the rope properly threaded through the rappel device
(assuming a mechanical system is being used—see “Rappel Method”
below), then the device properly attached to the rappeller’s harness, and
finally the harness properly fastened to the rappeller. Each of these
elements is briefly described below, followed by expanded sections in the
rest of this chapter.

Fig. 11-2. Weighting a rappel setup to test it while attached to anchor with
a personal anchor.

RAPPEL ANCHOR

The first element of the rappel system is the anchor: the point on the rock
or mountain to which the rest of the system is attached. The anchor must be
carefully selected for strength and reliability. Once the rappel has begun, a
safe descent depends on the integrity of the anchor, and returning to the
anchor to make adjustments can be problematic, if not impossible.
ROPE

The second element is the rope. Typically, the midpoint of the rope is
looped through a metal ring (called a rappel ring) at the anchor, with the
two ends of the rope hanging down the descent route. The rappeller
descends both halves of the doubled rope and then retrieves it from below
by pulling on one end.

Rappels shorter than half a rope length can be made with just one rope.
Longer rappels need the extra length of two ropes tied together. It is
necessary to research a route beforehand to determine whether the rappels
will require one or two ropes. If two ropes are required (often called a
double-rope rappel), the knot joining the ropes should be placed near the
anchor, with the two equal-length ends hanging down the route. Using two
ropes of different colors can help you remember which rope to pull when
retrieving the ropes, for example, “pull on blue.”

RAPPEL METHOD

The third element is the method used to apply friction to the rope to control
the rate of descent while the rappeller remains firmly attached to the rope.
There are two types of systems for applying friction:

Mechanical systems. The rope passes through a friction device attached to

the harness.

Nonmechanical systems. The rope is wrapped around the rappeller’s body

to provide the necessary friction.

In either case, the braking hand grasps the rope to control the amount of
friction and the rate of descent. Be aware of atypical circumstances that
could reduce the friction in the system, such as a new, small-diameter, stiff,
or icy rope, a heavier pack, and so forth.

RAPPELLER

The final and most variable element in the rappel system is the rappeller,
who must use proper technique both to attach into the rappel system and to
descend safely. Transient circumstances such as the rappeller’s attitude,
level of fatigue and anxiety, level of attentiveness, level of skill and
training, poor weather, impending darkness, and presence of rockfall or
icefall can affect the safety of the rappel.

SETTING UP RAPPEL ANCHORS

A rappel anchor attaches the rappel system to the rock, snow, or ice that
will be descended. The rappel anchor must be strong enough to support one
or more climbers’ full weight as well as any additional forces that may
occur, such as the dynamic force of bouncing or a sudden stop during the
rappel.

Set up the anchor as near to the edge of the rappel route as possible while
ensuring a solid and safe anchor. This affords the longest possible rappel
and minimizes risks of getting the rope stuck or inducing rockfall during
retrieval of the rope. When looking for an anchor, think about how the rope
will route from the anchor location to the ground. Consider any sharp edges
that might damage the rope as it is loaded. Choose an anchor location that
minimizes chances of the rope being pulled into a crack or otherwise
hanging up on horns or features when it is retrieved from below. Consider
these risks when setting up the anchor and then double-check the rappel
route after the first rappeller is down. In winter conditions, be aware that if
the rope cuts into snow or ice, it can freeze in place.

images

Fig. 11-3. Rope threaded through rappel rings at the ends of bolted chains.

Natural anchors or artificial (manufactured) anchors serve as suitable

rappel anchors (see “Selecting an Anchor” in Chapter 10, Belaying). For
details on placing removable protection in rock, using natural features, and
clipping bolted anchors, see Chapter 13, Rock Protection. For information
on anchors for use in snow and ice, see the sections on anchors in Chapters
16, Snow Travel and Climbing; 19, Alpine Ice Climbing; and 20, Waterfall
Ice and Mixed Climbing.
A commonly found anchor used for rappelling consists of bolts with chains
(fig. 11-3). The rope can be routed directly through the circular rings at the
end of the chains for rappelling only—do not top-rope this way, it wears
out and weakens the rings quickly. If chains and rings are not secured to the
bolts at the anchor, add webbing and rappel rings.

On popular climbs, established rappel anchors will have slings (fig. 11-4)
and perhaps rappel rings left behind from prior parties, with some parties
adding a newer sling to back up the rappel station; these remnants need to
be closely scrutinized for wear and damage:

imagesSlings with significant wear, damage, nicks, et cetera, should be

considered unsafe and removed.

imagesSlings that are bleached or washed-out in color and have a dry,

stiff feel exhibit evidence of damage from ultraviolet light (new slings have
saturated color and are supple). However, nylon may be weakened by
ultraviolet exposure without visible effects.

images

Fig. 11-4. Locking carabiner clipped to layers of webbing and cord tied
around a rock horn.

imagesInspecting the entire length of slings routed around large boulders

may often be difficult since sections of the slings may be hidden. Do not
trust existing slings unless the entire length can be inspected.

imagesSlings not equipped with a rappel ring or carabiner may no longer

be safe because rappel ropes have been pulled through them on previous
rappels, which generates friction capable of melting and weakening the
sling.

imagesSometimes so many slings compose an anchor that total failure of

every sling is unlikely. Still, a prudent rappeller might cut out a few of the
oldest slings and add a new one before attaching the rope.
 imagesIf using more than one sling, make them of equal length to help
distribute the load and avoid shock-loading the rappel system should one
fail.

When two anchor points are used, it is common to run a separate sling from
each point, with the slings meeting at the rappel ring. Try to adjust the
slings so the force is the same on each anchor point. Keep the V-angle
between the two slings narrow (fig. 11-5). See Chapter 10, Belaying, for
methods of equalizing anchor points and Figure 10-15 for an explanation of
forces at work.

When climbing and belaying, climbers build strong and redundant anchors
in case of a fall. But when climbers rappel, their life hangs on the loaded
anchor from start to finish. It is essential to build rappel anchors that are
SERENE: Solid, Efficient, Redundant, Equalized, and with No Extension
(see the “SERENE Anchor Systems” sidebar in Chapter 10, Belaying).

images

Fig. 11-5. The most common method of attaching the rope to multiple
anchors uses a separate sling attached to each of two anchors meeting at
the rappel ring; a, a narrow angle between slings provides a stronger
overall anchor; b, when the angle between slings is too wide, the load on
each anchor point increases significantly.

NATURAL ANCHORS

Often the best natural anchor is a healthy, live, large, well-rooted tree (see
“Natural Anchors” in Chapter 10, Belaying). The rope usually goes through
a rappel ring attached to a runner (or sling) that is attached to the tree (fig.
11-6a). The rope could be looped directly around a tree without the use of a
sling (fig. 11-6b), but this abrades the rope, soils the rope with tree resins,
makes it harder to retrieve the rope, and causes unnecessary damage to the
tree. Attaching a runner to an unquestionably stout tree branch rather than
low on the trunk often helps make it easier to retrieve the rope (the rope
runs more directly to the person retrieving it) and reduces the risk of
rockfall. However, connecting to a branch rather than the trunk puts more
leverage on the tree and should not be practiced unless the trade-offs have
been considered.

images

Fig. 11-6. A tree as a natural rappel anchor: a, rappel rope through a

rappel ring on a sling tied around a tree (good); b, rappel rope looped
directly around tree (poor).

A single anchor point might be used if it is an unquestionably solid,

dependable natural anchor. But if there are any doubts, add another
equalizing feature or two to the anchor (see “Equalizing the Anchor” in
Chapter 10, Belaying). If there are no other natural options for creating a
multipoint anchor, the team will gain additional confidence by backing up
the anchor with cams or nuts, allowing the heaviest climbers to rappel first,
and then removing the backup for the last rappeller if the natural anchor
performed well on the first rappels. Note that the natural anchor must carry
all the weight under this test scenario, and thus the backup protection
should be extremely robust to handle the excess force should the natural
anchor fail and the weight suddenly shift to the backup.

Another useful natural anchor is a rock horn slung with a runner. Never run
the rope directly around a rock horn. Always inspect and test the horn
carefully to be sure it is not in fact a loose rock masquerading as a solid
feature. Guard against the dire possibility that the runner could slide up and
come off the horn during a rappel (fig. 11-7).

images

Fig. 11-7. Poor use of a rock horn as a natural rappel anchor: a,

dangerous runner placement; b, runner can ride up and slip off rock horn.

Single natural anchors are not recommended if multiple people need to

rappel simultaneously, such as in a rescue situation.

ARTIFICIAL ANCHORS
As a rule, when using artificial (manufactured) fixed or removable
protection for an anchor, use two or more anchor points and equalize the
load between them. The most common artificial rappel anchors are bolts or
pitons in the rock that have been left in place by previous climbers. These
must be evaluated for damage, corrosion, and improper installation just as
they would if they were being used for belaying or for protection while
climbing. Never put the rope directly through the eye of the bolt hanger or
piton, because friction may make it impossible to pull the rope back down
from below, and the hanger’s or piton’s sharp edges might damage the rope.

Removable protection such as nuts and hexes are usually used only if no
good alternative is available, because it requires leaving behind gear; but it
is better to use and leave behind some equipment for added safety than to
rely upon a dubious natural anchor. Be suspicious of removable protection
found already in place, perhaps left behind by climbers who were unable to
remove the pieces. Also be wary of slings attached to such protection,
because they may be old, damaged, and unsafe. If fully set and immovable
in the rock, an abandoned nut or hex may be used like a natural chockstone
by looping a runner directly around it, ignoring the original sling.

SETTING UP THE ROPE

Before setting up the rappel, run through the entire length of the rope to
check that no cuts, fraying, or other damage occurred during the climb or
on a previous rappel.

ATTACHING THE ROPE TO THE ANCHOR

To prepare the rope for rappelling, attach it to the anchor, in the simplest
case suspending the midpoint of the rope from one or more runners or
slings that have been attached to the anchor (as shown in Figures 11-1, 11-
3, and 11-5a). Some rappellers prefer to use two slings instead of one, for
added security. Keep the point of connection between the rappel anchor
sling and the rope away from the edge of the rock, snow, or ice of the
rappel route (fig. 11-8a) to help prevent abrasion (fig. 11-8b) and binding
(fig. 11-8c).

Rappel Rings
Best practice is to use a rappel ring instead of looping the rope directly
through the slings; because if the rope rubs significantly on the slings, the
friction will create heat that may weaken or melt the slings. Rappel rings
(also known as “descending rings” or “rap rings”) are simply continuous
aluminum, steel, or titanium rings about 1.5 inches (3 centimeters) in
diameter, made for rappelling. Note that instead of rappel rings, quick links
—metal ovals with threaded sleeves for opening and closing the link (fig.
11-9)—may be used, but only those that are made specifically for climbing.

The rappel ring (fig. 11-10a) does add another possible point of failure, and
some climbers insist on using two rings for redundancy. An alternative is a
single ring backed up by a non-weight-bearing sling from the anchor
through the rope, ready to hold the rope if the ring fails (fig. 11-10b).
Carabiners can be used in place of rappel rings, but as part of the anchor
they also must then be left behind.

images

Fig. 11-8. The point of connection between rappel slings with attached ring
and rappel rope: a, rope clear of the rock and free to move (good); b, rope
will not bind but will still abrade (poor); c, rope, placed at a rock lip or
edge, will bind and abrade (dangerous).

images

Fig. 11-9. Rappel quick link with threaded sleeve.

images

Fig. 11-10. Rappel rope attached to anchor through a rappel ring: a, single
ring; b, single ring with loose backup sling.

One Rope

If the rappel is shorter than half a rope length, put one end of the rope
through the rappel ring and pull it through until the rope’s midpoint is
reached and the ends are even.
Two Ropes

For longer rappels, join two ropes together. If the rope lies with one strand
against the rock and the other strand on top of the first, friction will impede
retrieval, and it may be possible to pull only the strand closest to the rock.
When using two ropes, place the knot joining them below the anchor, on
the side of the strand to be pulled, which is also the lower of the two
strands (fig. 11-11a)—otherwise, the rope may pinch between the rock and
the end of the rope being pulled, and retrieval may not be possible (fig. 11-
11b).

images

Fig. 11-11. Knot placement with two-rope rappel: a, with the knot on the
side of the lower rope, the rope can be retrieved without getting stuck; b,
with the knot on the side of the upper rope, the lower rope can be pinched
tight (between rock and upper rope) when you try to retrieve the rope by
pulling on the top strand.

There are multiple ways to tie the rappel ropes together, each having
benefits and drawbacks; “Knots, Bends, and Hitches” in Chapter 9, Basic
Safety System, describes all of these knots. Here we highlight knots for
joining rappel ropes; these knots are easy to untie following tension.

Flat overhand bend. This knot is also called an offset overhand bend or
“European Death Knot” even though it is very safe when tied properly. To
tie this knot, hold the tails of the two ropes together and tie an overhand
knot. Dress the knot carefully, taking care to tighten it by pulling on each of
the four strands (fig. 11-12a). It is extremely important for the tails to be 12
to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long, because the knot has been known
to roll (or “capsize”) under load. When the knot rolls, one side of the knot
flips over the other side (toward the tail), shortening the tails. If rolled
enough times, the knot will roll off the ends of the rope. The rolled knot is
identical to the original knot, but has shorter tails.

images
Fig. 11-12. Joining rappel ropes with a flat overhand bend: a, flat overhand
bend; b, the bend will rotate, making it less likely to catch on an edge or in
a crack.

Because the flat overhand bend’s knot lies offset from the axis of the
direction of force, it is less likely than other knots to get stuck in cracks
(fig. 11-12b). It is a good idea to use a second overhand as a backup knot
(see the next section), which could optionally be removed before the last
climber rappels to reduce the chance of the rope getting stuck in a crack
when it is retrieved. Note that it is important that this is an overhand, not a
figure eight.

Double fisherman’s bend. This is a very secure knot, so if more than one
person must rappel at the same time, it is the preferred knot. It must be tied
with long tails. However, it is bulkier and more likely to become stuck in
cracks.

USING BACKUP KNOTS

Even very experienced rappellers have inadvertently rappelled off the end
of their ropes, with tragic results. When using a rappel device, put a large
knot, such as a double or triple barrel (fig. 11-13), or a figure eight, in the
ends of the rope to reduce this danger. If you add knots, do not rely blindly
on them; knots might come untied, and in any case, you must keep an eye
on the ends of the rope to plan where to stop. Knots also may jam in the
rappel device or become lodged in a crack. To prevent the knots from
becoming lodged in a crack below the next belay station, knot the ends of
the rope and then secure them to the harness while you descend.

images

Fig. 11-13. Barrel knot: a, wrap the end of the rope around itself twice,
pulling the end through the loops; b, cinch down the loose end and make
sure the tail is at least 4 inches long; c, back side of the resulting barrel
knot; d, add another wrap for a triple barrel knot.

images
Fig. 11-14. Throwing down the rope: Climber is connected to the anchor
for safety while working near the edge; rope (in this case two tied together)
is clipped to the anchor with a bight near the middle to prevent losing it
and has been threaded through the rappel rings then coiled. Toss the coil
nearest the anchor first, then the rope-end coil.

THROWING DOWN THE ROPE

After threading the rappel rope through an anchor and equalizing the ends,
prepare the rope for the rappel. There are several methods for tossing, or
lowering, the rope down the rappel route. With any method, the goal is to
reduce rope snags and tangling, as well as move the rope toward the
bottom.

1.Attach yourself to an anchor using a personal anchor to secure yourself,

preferably with a locking carabiner (see “Personal Anchors” in Chapter 9,
Basic Safety System). Make sure your waist is not above the anchor: a slip
could apply significant load to the anchor because the personal anchor
system is static (fig. 11-14).

2.Tie an overhand knot on a bight of rope near its midpoint and clip it to the
rappel anchor with a carabiner to prevent the disaster of losing the rope
when the coils are tossed.

3.Tie backup knots at the ends of the rope (see “Using Backup Knots”
above).

4.Beginning from the middle of the rope, coil each half of the rope
separately into two butterfly coils, creating a total of four butterfly coils,
two on each side of the anchor.

5.Evaluate the wind and terrain before throwing the coils out. Be sure to
compensate for any significant wind. Avoid throwing the coils onto snags,
pinch points, or sharp edges below.

6.Before making the toss, alert others below by shouting “Rope!” It is a

good idea to shout the word two times and/or wait a moment after the
warning before throwing the rope, to give anyone below time to respond.
7.Start on one side of the anchor, tossing the coil nearest the anchor out and
down the route, then the rope-end coil. Repeat for the other half of the rope
(in Figure 11-14, one half of the rope has already been dropped below).

8.After all the coils have been tossed, remove the carabiner and bight,
leaving the rope running free in the rappel rings.

If the rope tangles or hangs up on the rappel route below, it is usually best
to pull it back up, recoil it, and toss it again. Sometimes, however, it is
possible to free the rope during the rappel.

Instead of throwing the rope, an alternative is to secure the coiled rope to

your harness and feed it out as you rappel. This works better than tossing
the rope in windy conditions. One method is to simply feed the rope out of
a pack or rope bag during the descent.

Another option is to fashion the rope coil into “saddlebags”: girth-hitch a

single-length runner to the harness wherever it is convenient. Cradle the
butterfly coils in the runner next to the harness, and clip the other end of the
runner to the harness with a carabiner (fig. 11-15). The butterfly coil should
be oriented so that it feeds freely as the climber rappels.

When either feeding rope out of a rope bag or using this saddlebag method,
the rappeller may need to actively tend the rope to get it to feed out
properly during the rappel.

images

Fig. 11-15. Setting up the rappel with “saddlebags” of rope.

KEEPING ROPE LENGTHS EQUAL

As noted at the start of this chapter, rappelling with ropes of unequal length
was found to be the top cause of accidents reported in Accidents in North
American Mountaineering. Both strands of the rappel rope must either
touch the next stance or hang equally. If not, one end may pull through the
rappel device before the rappeller reaches a stance at the end of the rappel.
Should this occur, the rappeller would lose the ability to control the descent
and would free-fall. Watch for the potential problems discussed below.
Backup knots at the ends of the rope are strongly recommended (see
“Using Backup Knots” above). These stopper knots keep you from
rappelling off the ends of the rope should the rope be too short. The correct
stopper knot prevents the end of the rope from passing through your rappel
device.

When using two ropes of unequal diameters, take extra care to monitor the
length of each strand during the rappel. The differing diameters and elastic
characteristics of the ropes may cause one rope to advance through the
rappel device more quickly than the other, thereby altering the relative
lengths of the rope strands. Place the knot on the side of the anchor with the
rope that is most likely to slide; usually this is the smaller-diameter rope.

Also, be aware that ropes that are nominally equal in length, even from the
same manufacturer, are often actually somewhat different lengths.

RAPPEL METHOD

Once the rappel anchor and the rope are set up, the climber needs a method
of connecting to the rope and applying friction to it to control the rappel.
Typically, a mechanical device provides a secure means of attachment, but
methods of wrapping the rope around the body may also be used. If
climbers rely on a mechanical rappel device, it is imperative that they be
skilled in a secondary rappel method such as carabiner brake or munter
rappel in case they drop their rappel device midclimb.

MECHANICAL RAPPEL SYSTEMS

Most rappellers use a system consisting of their climbing harness and a

belay-rappel device as their principal rappelling method. All of the devices
operate in essentially the same manner: by applying varying degrees of
friction to the rope. With some belay devices, the rope does not feed
through the device smoothly on rappel. Some devices may also easily heat
up from rope friction. Before using any new device, closely read and follow
the manufacturer’s instructions.
The two strands of rope at the rappel anchor are inserted into the rappel
device, which is then clipped with a locking carabiner to the climber’s
harness, in much the same way as for belaying. During the rappel, the
bends in the rope that pass through the device and around the locking
carabiner apply friction, magnifying the force exerted by the climber’s
braking hand (fig. 11-16). The position of the braking hand, which holds
both strands of rope below the device (see Figure 11-15), provides a
controlled descent. The rappel device and the braking hand together control
the speed of descent and allow the rappeller to halt the descent at any time.

At the top of the rappel, the weight of the rope hanging below the device
adds friction, making it easier to control the rate of descent near the top of a
rappel than at the bottom. This is especially so on very steep or
overhanging rappels where most of the rope hangs free. But no matter how
little grip strength may be required to control the descent, the braking hand
must never leave the rope. The other hand—the guiding, or uphill, hand—
may slide freely along the rope to help maintain balance. With some setups,
wrapping the rope partly around your back further increases friction. A
leather glove is recommended to protect the braking hand, which is
important when a rappel exceeds the desired speed and would otherwise
burn a bare hand.

images

Fig. 11-16. An aperture-style device set up for rappelling.

Rappelling with a mechanical system requires a harness (see Chapter 9,

Basic Safety System). Never rappel with just a waist loop (a simple loop of
webbing tied around your waist); it can constrict your diaphragm enough to
cause you to lose consciousness. In an emergency, an improvised diaper
sling may be used for rappelling, even though it would not ordinarily be
used for climbing (see “Diaper Sling” in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System).

Carabiner Brake Method

The carabiner brake method for rappelling is somewhat complex to set up

but has the virtue of not requiring any special equipment—just carabiners.
The carabiner brake system works best with oval carabiners but can also be
managed with D-shaped carabiners (see “Carabiners” in Chapter 9, Basic
Safety System).

To create the carabiner brake setup, start by attaching one locking or two
regular carabiners to the seat harness. Because a harness carabiner could be
subjected to a twisting or side load, two carabiners or a locking carabiner
should be used. When using two nonlocking carabiners, position the gates
to keep them from being forced open and accidentally unclipping. The
correct position (called “opposite and opposed”) is with the gates on
opposing sides, forming an X when they are opened at the same time (see
Figure 9-37a in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System).

Next, clip a pair of carabiners—here, a pair is required: a single locking

carabiner will not suffice—to the harness belay loop carabiner(s), also with
the gates opposite and opposed. Lift a bight of the rappel ropes through the
outer carabiner pair, from the bottom—do this facing the anchor to ensure
the system is oriented properly for descent. Take yet another carabiner and
clip it across the outer carabiner pair, beneath the bight of rope, so its gate
is facing away from the rope loop. The rope then runs across the spine (not
the gate!) of this final carabiner, known as the braking carabiner (fig. 11-
17a).

images

Fig. 11-17. Carabiner brake system: a, with two opposite and opposed
carabiners at the harness and one braking carabiner clipped across the
outer (opposite and opposed) carabiner pair; b, with one locking carabiner
at the harness and two braking carabiners clipped across the outer
(opposite and opposed) carabiner pair in order to provide greater friction.

One braking carabiner provides enough friction for most rappels on ropes
that are 10 to 11 millimeters in diameter. A second (or even third) braking
carabiner will add friction to the system (fig. 11-17b) and might be used for
thinner ropes, heavy climbers, heavy packs, or steep or overhanging
rappels. The ropes must always run over the solid side of the braking
carabiner(s), never across the gate.
The weight of the rope hanging down the cliff may make it very difficult to
pull the bight of rope up through the outer pair of carabiners and hold it
while you clip in the braking carabiner. It helps to get that weight off the
system. Pull up some slack rope and throw a couple of wraps around your
leg to take the weight in order to solve this problem. Alternatively, set up
an autoblock first (see “Safety Backups” later in this chapter) and pull up
the rope, allowing the autoblock to hold the rope’s weight.

Improvised Carabiner Brake

A second carabiner brake method, an improvised carabiner brake, is

simpler than the carabiner brake method and requires only three locking
carabiners. The steps to setting up this method are outlined below and
shown in Figure 11-18.

images

Fig. 11-18. Improvised carabiner brake system.

1.Clip and lock one locking carabiner to the harness belay loop.

2.Clip and lock a second locking carabiner to the first.

3.Pull a bight of rope through the second carabiner.

4.Clip and lock a third locking carabiner to this bight and the rope strand
running to the anchor.

5.Ensure all carabiners are locked, and take care that the rope does not run
against the screw gates of any of the carabiners.

This approach generally provides less friction than other methods of

rappelling but has the advantages of using fewer carabiners than the
carabiner brake method and not adding twists to the rope, which is common
with the munter hitch shown below.

Munter Hitch
The same hitch that is used for belaying can also be used for rappelling (see
Chapter 10, Belaying). It is worthwhile to learn this method as insurance
because it requires only one locking carabiner and no other equipment.
Though it is easy to set up and very safe, it puts significantly more twists in
the rope than other rappel methods do. You must be very sure to keep the
brake rope on the spine side of the carabiner (fig. 11-19), because if the
rope runs over the gate, it may unlock the carabiner while you are
rappelling. For additional security, a backup is recommended, such as an
autoblock or a fireman’s belay (see “Safety Backups” later in this chapter).

images

Fig. 11-19. To rappel using a munter hitch: a, clip locking carabiner

around rope; b, create loop using both strands of rope above carabiner,
with anchor strand of rope behind the climber strand; c, hook carabiner
into loop; d, lock carabiner gate.

Rappel Extension

Many climbers extend the rappel device connection to their harness with a
personal anchor so that the rappel device rides higher on the rappel rope
and in front of their chest (fig. 11-20). Rappel extension is recommended
for its advantages:

imagesThe rappeller can comfortably use either hand (or both hands) to
brake the rappel and can add—and manage—a superior autoblock (see
“Safety Backups” later in this chapter).

imagesBoth ends of the autoblock can be clipped in to the belay loop of

the harness, which is better than using the leg loop attachment.

imagesThat way, the autoblock cannot run against the rappel device,
which can cause the autoblock to fail.

imagesThe personal anchor is readily available for clipping to anchors.

The disadvantages of rappel extension are that this technique introduces

one more piece into the rappel system—the runner used for the extension—
and it brings the rappel device closer to long hair, which may get caught in
the device; it is essential to have a knife handy to remedy this situation.

Here is how to create the extension with double-length runner, although a

personal anchor can be used as well. Tie an overhand knot in the middle of
the runner to create two loops of equal length. Girth-hitch the runner to the
harness tie-in points, not to the belay loop, keeping its knot or stitching
points clear of the girth hitch or carabiner clipping points. A locking
carabiner at the far end of the two-loop runner (fig. 11-20a) serves as the
personal anchor (a slipknot at the end keeps the carabiner in place); a
locking carabiner attached to both loops of the runner (fig. 11-20b) serves
as the attachment for the rappel device. To add an autoblock, attach both of
its ends directly to the carabiner on the harness belay loop instead of to the
harness leg loop (fig. 11-20c), and loop the cord around the rope below the
rappel connection. When the personal-anchor component is not in use,
simply “stow it”by clipping and locking the carabiner to the harness belay
loop (fig. 11-21).

images

Fig. 11-20. Rappel extension (double-length runner clipped in the middle to

the rappel device) with: a, integrated personal anchor (carabiner in
climber’s left hand, the outer half of the rappel extension); b, carabiner
below knot, clipped in to runner and both rope strands; c, autoblock,
wrapped around the rappel rope and both ends clipped to the belay loop
with a locking carabiner.

NONMECHANICAL METHODS

Two traditional rappel methods use no hardware what-soever to create

friction on the rope. Instead, the rope is simply wrapped around parts of the
climber’s body. These methods can be especially helpful if climbers find
themselves without a harness.

images

Fig. 11-21. Rappel extension setup with personal anchor stowed on harness
belay loop.
Dulfersitz

A simple, all-purpose method, the dulfersitz (fig. 11-22) should be mastered

by every climber in the event that a harness or carabiners are not available.
To set up, face the anchor and straddle the rope. Bring it from behind you
and around one hip, up across your chest, over the opposite shoulder, and
then down your back to be held by the braking hand (the downhill hand) on
the same side as your wrapped hip. Your other hand is the guiding hand,
which holds the rope above and keeps you upright. Add padding if possible
between your body and the rope.

The dulfersitz has a number of drawbacks compared with mechanical

rappel systems. It can unwrap from your leg, especially on high-angle
rappels; this risk can be mitigated by keeping your wrapped leg slightly
lower than your other leg. As with all rappel methods, stay under careful
control. If you are wearing a pack, the dulfersitz is even more awkward.
The dulfersitz is used in modern climbing only when there is no reasonable
alternative or for short and easy, low-angle rappels to save the trouble of
putting a harness back on (though down-climbing should be considered as
an alternative in this case).

images

Fig. 11-22. The dulfersitz: a nonmechanical rappel method.

images

Fig. 11-23. The arm rappel: another nonmechanical rappel method.

Arm Rappel

Though the arm rappel is not used much, it is occasionally helpful for quick
descent of a low-angle slope. Lay the rappel rope behind your back, bring it
under your armpits, and wrap it once around each arm (fig. 11-23). Be sure
the rope does not run over any exposed flesh, which can cause rope burns.
Control the rate of descent with your hand grip. For an arm rappel with a
pack, be sure the rope goes around your pack rather than on top of or
underneath it.
RAPPEL TECHNIQUE

Typically the first rappeller is one of the more experienced members of the
group. On the rappel, this first rappeller usually fixes any tangles or
problems with the rope and clears the anchor area and route of debris that
might be dislodged during rappels.

GETTING STARTED

Just before descending, shout “On rappel!” to warn others that a rappel has
begun. Now comes the most nerve-wracking part of many rappels. To gain
stability, your legs must be nearly perpendicular to the rock, which means
you must lean backward, out over the edge of the cliff (fig. 11-24), and
commit to weighting the rope for rappel. If the terrain allows it, ease the
transition by down-climbing several feet before leaning out and weighting
the rope to start the rappel (fig. 11-25). Take up any slack between you and
the anchor before leaning out or weighting the rope.

images

Fig. 11-24. Starting to rappel from a high anchor.

images

Fig. 11-25. Down-climbing to get below a low anchor before starting to

rappel.

You may be able to sit or crouch on the edge of the rappel ledge (fig. 11-
26a) and wiggle gently off (fig. 11-26b), simultaneously turning inward to
face the slope (fig. 11-26c). This technique is referred to as a “sit-and-
spin.” It is particularly useful when you are starting the rappel above an
overhang or when the anchor is located lower than your harness when you
are standing on the rappel edge.

MAKING THE RAPPEL

Three things that must be considered during the rappel are position, speed,
and movement.
Position

While descending, seek a stable body position: feet shoulder-width apart,

knees flexed, body at a comfortable angle to the slope and facing a little
toward the braking hand for a view of the route (see Figure 11-26c).
Common beginners’ mistakes include keeping the feet too close together
and not leaning back far enough, which can cause feet to slip off the rock.
Some go to the other extreme and lean too far back, increasing their chance
of flipping over. If anything should happen, such as tipping over or losing
your footing, it is absolutely critical to remember to hold on to the rope
with the braking hand.

images

Fig. 11-26. Starting to rappel from a steep ledge and a low anchor: a,
sitting down on the ledge; b, squirming off to get started; c, turning inward
to face the slope.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS WHEN RAPPELLING

Climbers have to be aware of the many problems they may encounter when
rappelling, especially because climbers are often tired when setting up to
rappel. These tips will help you troubleshoot.

Loose rock. Use extreme caution when rappelling a face with loose or
rotten rock. Rock may be knocked loose either by you as you descend, or
by the rope as it rubs against the rock above you. The loose rock could
injure you or damage the rope. Another danger is that the next rappeller
could knock rocks down on you. Take care to position yourself in a safe
area (out of the fall line or under a rock outcropping) before calling “Off
rappel!,” and stay there until the entire party has rappelled. Rocks are also
often knocked loose when the rope is pulled at the end of the rappel. Keep
an eye above you while pulling the rope and make sure no party members
remove their helmets until the rope has been safely retrieved after the final
rappel.

Overhangs. It is easy to swing into the face below an overhang, smashing

your hands and feet. There is also the risk of jamming the brake system on
the lip of the overhang. A couple of methods assist in making the difficult
transition from above the lip of an overhang to below it.

One method is to bend deeply at your knees with your feet at the uppermost
edge of the overhang, then release enough braking tension to slip down 3 or
4 feet (about 1 meter) at once, and then lock off the rappel with sudden
braking action, which halts further acceleration once you are past the lip of
the overhang. The abrupt halt and resulting bounce stress the rappel system,
but this method helps reduce both the chance of a swing into the face below
and of jamming the brake system on the lip.

Another method is to place your feet on the lip of the overhang and then
lower your waist down below your feet. Then “walk” your feet down the
underside of the overhang until the rope above makes contact with the rock
face above.

Below an overhang, you will dangle free on the rope. Assume a sitting
position, use the guiding hand on the rope above to remain upright, and
continue steadily downward. Often you will slowly spin as twists in the
rope unwind.

Pendulums. Sometimes reaching the next rappel stance requires you to

move to the right or left of the fall line, walking down the face diagonally
instead of moving straight down. If a slip occurs, you will pendulum back
toward the fall line. After such a fall, it may be difficult to get reestablished
on the proper rappel course without climbing back up the rope with prusik
slings or mechanical devices. To avoid this potentially dangerous situation,
try to set up rappel routes so that you are rappelling down the fall line as
much as possible. A pendulum fall presents a risk of injury and possibly
letting go of the brake rope—making a backup method imperative when a
diagonal rappel is unavoidable.

Loose ends. Clothing, long hair, pack straps, chin straps from a helmet, and
just about anything with a loose end all have the potential to get pulled into
the braking system. Keep a knife handy to cut foreign material out of the
system, but be extremely careful with a sharp knife around rope, especially
a rope under tension, which cuts easily.
Rope tangles. If the rope gets tangled or jammed during your descent, the
problem must be corrected before you rappel past it. Stop at the last
convenient ledge above the area, or stop with a leg wrap (see “Stopping
Midrappel” below). Pull the rope up, correct the problem, then throw it
down again. Sometimes there is a simple solution; for instance, when you
are rappelling down blank slabs, tangles often may be shaken out as they
are encountered. Keep an eye out for tangles or other possible problems
below you.

Jammed rappel device. If the rappel brake system jams on something

(such as a shirt) despite your precautions, it can most likely be freed by
unweighting it. First, free your hands by using a leg wrap or a backup mule
knot (see “Stopping Midrappel” below). Next, unweight the brake system
by either standing on a ledge or tying a prusik hitch above your brake
system and chaining slings together until they are long enough to stand in.
In the worst case, you might even Texas-prusik some distance up the rappel
ropes (see “Prusik System” in Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse
Rescue, for information on the Texas prusik) or climb the wall. Then, if you
are unable to free the jammed material, cut it away from the brake system,
taking care not to nick the rope. A prusik loop, three or four slings, and a
knife should always be on hand.

Some climbers prefer to brake with both hands. With two hands, use an
alternating, hand-over-hand, shuffle-brake motion to feed the rope through
the rappel device. Others feel more secure with a nonbraking hand high on
the rope, to help keep them upright and to fend off any hazards (see the
“Potential Problems When Rappelling” sidebar). Either way, what is
imperative is that one hand remains on the brake rope at all times.

Speed and Movement

As you rappel, move slowly and steadily, with no bounces or leaps. Feed
the rope slowly and steadily into the rappel system, avoiding fast stops and
jerks, which shock-load the anchor. A sudden stop during a rapid descent
subjects the anchor to additional force. Higher rappel speeds put more heat
and stress on the rappel system; very fast rappels can damage a rope. You
could also lose control of the rope.
STOPPING MIDRAPPEL

If you need to stop partway down a rappel, you can secure the rope in a
couple of ways, described below. Some rappel or belay devices have other
ways to stop the rope in the device; consult the manufacturer’s instructions
or obtain reliable instruction on their use.

images

Fig. 11-27. Leg wrap: stopping “hands free” midrappel with the rope
wrapped around one leg.

Leg Wrap

One method for securing the rope midrappel is to wrap the rope two or
three times around one leg. The friction of the wrap, increased by the
weight of the rope hanging below the wrap, is usually enough to halt
further descent. Keep the braking hand on the rope while passing the rope
behind your back, and use the guiding hand to assist with wrapping the
rope around your leg (fig. 11-27). Keep the braking hand in position until
the wraps are completed and tested. For even more friction, tuck a bight of
the loose end of the rope under all the leg wraps.

To continue the descent, be sure to reestablish the braking hand before

releasing the leg wraps. On steep rappels, simply remove your foot and leg
from contact with the rock and shake the wraps off while holding the rope
with the braking hand.

Mule Knot

Another method for securing the rope midrappel is to use a mule knot to tie
off the rappel, just like tying off a belay; see “Mule Knot” and Figures 9-20
and 9-21 in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System. The mule knot is a load-
releasing knot; other knots may be difficult to remove once they are loaded.

SAFETY BACKUPS
Belay methods and backup knots at the end of rappel ropes can enhance the
safety of a rappel. In addition, they add security to particularly risky or
unnerving rappels and may save the life of a rappeller hit by rockfall. They
also help beginners gain confidence in rappelling.

SELF-BELAY WITH AN AUTOBLOCK OR PRUSIK

Tying a friction hitch (such as an autoblock or a prusik) on to the rope

below the rappel device, clipped to a harness belay loop or leg loop,
enables you to stop without gripping the ropes. If tied properly, these self-
belay hitches will grip the rope and halt your descent any time you do not
actively tend them.

To make a self-belay autoblock, use a sewn runner or accessory cord tied in

a loop (see “Runners” in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System); the appropriate
size of the runner or cord varies with rope diameter—always test
compatibility before you use the hitch by making sure the hitch will grab
the rope. Attach the runner or loop to the seat-harness leg loop with a
carabiner or a girth hitch; wrap the loop around both strands of the rappel
rope(s) below the rappel device—typically, three wraps provide enough
(but not too much) friction; then clip the end of the runner or loop to the
seat-harness leg loop with the same carabiner (fig. 11-28a). Alternatively,
tie the tie-off loop to both strands of the rappel rope(s) with a prusik hitch
below the rappel device and clip the free end of the loop to the harness leg
loop. The autoblock can be connected to the belay loop on the harness in
the case of an extended rappel (see “Rappel Extension” above). If the
rappel is not extended, the leg loop must be used to avoid having the cord
pulled into the rappel device.

images

Fig. 11-28. Self-belay autoblock on rappel: a, with an aperture-style device

setup; b, tend the friction hitch by manually sliding it down along the rope.

In general, the autoblock is easier than the prusik to release once it has been
loaded. For both the autoblock and the prusik, the runner or loop must be
short enough that the hitch cannot either jam the rappel device or be tended
by the rappel device (which could result in failure of the hitch to hold).
If the braking hand releases the rope—for instance, as the result of rockfall
—a self-belay friction hitch can prevent a rappeller from accelerating out of
control. Reestablish the braking hand and tend the self-belay hitch by
manually sliding it down along the rope to allow the descent to resume (fig.
11-28b).

These hitches require some testing and adjustment before each rappel in
order to establish the runner or loop’s proper length (so the hitch does not
hang up in the rappel device) and the proper amount of friction (adjusted by
the number of wraps) to accommodate the climber’s weight, rappel device,
comfort, and any other individual considerations.

FIREMAN’S BELAY

A person standing below a rappeller can easily control the rappeller’s

movement or stop it altogether—thus providing an effective backup—
simply by pulling down on the rappel rope(s), which puts friction on the
brake system (fig. 11-29). To safeguard the rappeller with this method, the
person at the bottom simply holds the rope strands loosely, ready to pull
them tight the instant the rappeller has difficulty.

TOP BELAY

A rappeller can also be protected by a belay from above with a separate

rope. If the belayer uses a separate anchor, there is redundancy for the
entire system, even the rappel anchor. A top belay may be chosen for use
with beginners, climbers with minor injuries, and the first person
descending on a suspect anchor. Top belays are too time-consuming for
routine use.

images

Fig. 11-29. Fireman’s belay: rappel halted by a climber below, who is

pulling down on the ends of the rope.

FINISHING THE RAPPEL

Near the end of the rappel, it becomes much easier to feed rope through the
rappel device because the extra friction caused by the weight of the rope
below the rappeller is now considerably less. The amount of rope stretch,
particularly on a two-rope rappel, may be surprising. Be aware of this
stretch factor as the rope is cleared from the rappel device after the rappel is
completed. If you let go of the rappel rope, it could contract to its normal
length and suddenly be up out of reach. It’s better to end the rappel near the
end of the rope rather than at the very end of it.

As you near the end of the rope, look for a good place to finish the rappel.
Establish a good stance and anchor yourself in before clearing the rope
from the rappel device. In establishing a secure stance, consider the
possibility of rockfall and icefall, and attempt to be out of the way of the
next person coming down.

Shout “Off rappel!” only after you are detached from the rope and safely
away from the fall line, to avoid rock or ice the next rappeller might
dislodge. If you are the first person down a double-rope rappel, test the pull
on the rope with the knot to make sure it is running smoothly. Recenter the
knot before the second person descends.

THE LAST RAPPELLER

With a double-rope rappel, it is critical to know which rope to pull on from

below when the rappel is completed. Pull the wrong one, and the knot will
jam in the rappel ring (see Figure 11-11b).

The last rappeller should take a good final look at the rope(s) and the rappel
sling to see that everything is in order and that the rope(s) will not catch on
the sling or the rock, snow, or ice. Before the last person starts down, a
person at the bottom should pull on the proper strand to check that it pulls
freely. The rappeller above should confirm that the connecting knot in a
double-rope rappel can be pulled free of the edge and that the rope does not
bind on itself when pulled (see Figures 11-11b and 11-12).

On a double-rope rappel, the last person who starts down may want to stop
at the first convenient ledge and pull enough of the rope down so that the
connecting knot is clear of the edge. However, this practice also shortens
one rope end, so be sure there is still enough rope to reach the next rappel
stance safely and that there are knots in the ends of both ropes.

PULLING THE ROPE(S) DOWN

Once everyone has made the rappel, take out any visible twists in the rope
and remove any safety knots in the ends of the strands. Stand away from
the rock, if possible, then give the proper strand a slow, steady pull. Before
the pulled strand starts to travel freely, yell “Rope!” to warn of falling rope.
Others should take shelter to stay out of the way of falling rope, rocks, or
other debris. Until all climbers and ropes are on the ground, everyone
should keep their helmets on.

Rope Jams

A jammed rappel rope may be a serious problem, perhaps even stranding a

party on a descent that requires further rappels. If the rope hangs up, either
before or after the end clears the anchor, try flipping the rope with
whipping and circular motions before attempting any extreme pulling.
Often a change in angle, back from the face or to the right or left, can free
the rope. Sometimes pulling on the other end of the rope (if it is still in
reach) or using a seesaw motion to pull on each end alternately can free the
rope. Be alert and cautious when pulling a stuck rope; as it springs free, it
may be accompanied by rock- or icefall.

If the rope gets stuck and cannot be pulled free, below are some options, in
descending order of preference:

1.Climb with a secured prusik. If both ends of the rope(s) are still in
reach when the hangup occurs, it is possible to safely prusik up both strands
(see “The Texas Prusik” in Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse
Rescue, for one ascending method on a free-hanging rope), clear the jam,
and rappel back down. Tie in to the rope at frequent intervals to back up the
prusiks.

2.Climb with a belay. If only one rope end can be reached, it may be
necessary to climb up and free the rope(s). If enough rope is available from
the pulled strand, lead climb with a belay to reach the knot. There is a risk
you may end up stuck, unable to be lowered or to rappel if you cannot
reach the hangup, so don’t attempt this if you are unsure whether the
available rope will reach.

3.Climb self-belayed. If not enough rope is available from the pulled

strand, lead climb with a self-belay by attaching to the available rope with a
prusik. Anchor the end of the rope at the belay ledge and then further
secure it to the mountain with conventional protection as you climb. If the
rope suddenly pulls free from above, hopefully the combination of the
prusik attachment, the periodic protection, and the anchor will limit the
length of the fall.

4.Climb with an unsecured prusik. If no belay is possible, and if the party

cannot proceed without the rope, a final resort is to attempt the desperate
and very dangerous tactic of ascending the stuck rope with a prusik or
mechanical ascenders. The extreme danger of climbing an unsecured rope
must be weighed against the consequences of remaining stranded until
another rope is available. If it is possible to place protection during the
ascent, tie in to the loose end and attach the rope to protection with clove
hitches; the consequences of the rope pulling free from above might be
mitigated. If the stuck rope is not necessary to complete the descent and
cannot be freed, consider leaving it rather than undertaking risky
maneuvers to free it.

If the rope available from the pulled strand is not enough, there are some
alternative approaches appropriate for advanced climbers, but these
alternatives are not described here. Note that climbing up to free a stuck
rope may require building a new anchor for the climber to rappel from after
freeing the rope. He or she should bring up enough gear to build a new
solid anchor.

MULTIPLE RAPPELS

A descent route often involves a series of rappels. These multiple rappels,

especially in alpine terrain, present special problems and require maximum
efficiency to keep the party moving.
As a party moves through a series of rappels, the first person down each
pitch usually carries gear for setting up the next rappel—after finding a
secure stance, establishing an anchor, and attaching to it out of the path of
icefall and rockfall. More experienced climbers in a party can take turns
being first and last. It is best for beginners to be in the middle of the
rotation so that assistance is available at the start and end of each rappel.

UNKNOWN TERRAIN

The trickiest multiple rappel is one down an unfamiliar route. Avoid this if
possible. If an unfamiliar rappel is necessary, take time to check out the
possible rappel lines as carefully as time and terrain permit. If a photo of
the rappel route can be found, bring it along for reference. Keep in mind
that the first few rappels down an unfamiliar route may, for better or worse,
commit the party to that route.

If the bottom of an unfamiliar rappel pitch cannot be seen, the first person
down must be prepared to climb back up in case the rappel hangs free at the
end of the rope before there is a good stance or anchor. This rappeller
should carry prusik slings or mechanical ascenders for ascending the rope if
necessary.

Rappelling down unfamiliar terrain brings an increased risk of getting the

rope hung up. Minimize the problem by down-climbing as much as
possible instead of rappelling. Also, consider rappels using just one rope,
even if two ropes are available. Although this increases the number of
rappels and the time spent descending, one rope is less likely to hang up
than two. If one rope does get stuck, the second rope is available to protect
a climb back up to free the stuck rope. You may then carefully climb back
down or establish an intermediate rappel where the hangup occurred.

Although it is efficient to gain the maximum distance from each rappel, do

not bypass a good rappel anchor spot—even well before the end of the rope
—if there are doubts about finding a good place farther down.

EXPERIENCING THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

Rappelling is one of the activities central to climbing; learn it thoroughly
and employ it carefully, so that it is safe and works well. Take care to avoid
complacency. Rappelling is an essential, specialized technique that enables
climbers to experience the freedom of the hills.
 images

PART III

ROCK CLIMBING

12 ALPINE ROCK CLIMBING

13 ROCK PROTECTION

14 LEADING ON ROCK

15 AID AND BIG WALL CLIMBING

TYPES OF ROCK CLIMBING • GEAR • CLIMBING EFFICIENTLY •
BASIC TECHNIQUES • FACE CLIMBING • CRACK CLIMBING •
OTHER CLIMBING TECHNIQUES • STYLE AND ETHICS • BEING
PREPARED

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CHAPTER 12

ALPINE ROCK CLIMBING

Alpine rock climbing can range from moderate routes only a few hours
from the trailhead to multiday climbs in remote settings. Rock
climbing provides the kinesthetic pleasure of movement combined with
the challenge of solving a three-dimensional puzzle on intriguing
landforms.

This chapter focuses on the basic and intermediate-level rock climbing

skills needed in the mountains. For those interested in a sport-climbing
emphasis, see Resources for several excellent texts on techniques more
suited to that environment.

Note: When rock climbing on technical terrain, you should always be on

belay. However, to more clearly show body positions involved in different
climbing techniques, the illustrations in this chapter omit components of
the basic safety system such as ropes, harnesses, and protection.

TYPES OF ROCK CLIMBING

Technical climbing begins when the party’s safety requires the use of
anchored belays. Free climbing is simply climbing using your own physical
ability to move over the rock via handholds and footholds, with the rope
and protection used only for safety. This is in contrast with aid climbing,
which involves the use of artificial aids to make upward progress, such as
protection placed in the rock for use as hand- and footholds. Climbers use
aid technique (see Chapter 15, Aid and Big Wall Climbing) if the rock does
not offer enough natural features or if the route is too hard for their skill
level. Big wall climbing means climbing on—what else?—a large, sheer
wall, which usually requires extensive aid, but frequently these wall routes
include sections of free climbing. Ascents of big walls typically take longer
than one day, usually including either a hanging bivouac or ledge bivouac
as well as bag hauling. Solo climbing is, of course, climbing alone, but it
usually refers to unroped climbing (called free soloing); a climber can also
rope-solo a route, using gear, and so self-belay on a solo free or aid climb.

A climb is rated by its most difficult portion. Nontechnical climbs, or

scrambles, occur on second-, third-, or even fourth-class terrain (see
Appendix: Rating Systems). Note that “third-classing” a climb also means
to do it unroped. Portions of a long route may be considerably easier than
the route’s overall rating, perhaps even second class. Depending on the
skills and experience of the climbers and the condition of the routes, some
easier sections may be climbed unroped, walked while the rope is coiled
short (see “Climbing in Coils” in Chapter 14, Leading on Rock), or climbed
with a running belay (using a technique called simul-climbing; again, see
Chapter 14). This compromise of safety is often made to gain the speed
necessary to climb a longer route in a shorter period of time with less gear.
For experts, these easier sections may be as hard as midfifth class, despite
the potential for fatal consequences should a climber fall.

Although experienced climbers occasionally free-solo a route, all unroped

climbing is risky. The risk depends on not only how likely a climber is to
fall but what the consequences of a fall would be. Is the rock loose? Is it
raining, which makes the rock slippery? Could a climber be hit by rockfall
—or by a climber falling from above—and thereby be knocked off the
holds? Is the ground 10 feet (3 meters) below or several hundred feet? Fatal
falls have occurred on third-class terrain as well as on 5.12 routes.

Sport climbing and crag climbing are two types of free climbing that refer
to technical rock climbs close to roads and civilization that do not require
alpine skills. To the mountaineer who climbs distant peaks in the
wilderness, sport and crag climbing might be viewed as ways to practice
the technical, physical, and mental aspects of rock climbing in a less
remote, relatively lower-risk environment—for example, where help is
usually more accessible in the event of an accident.
In contrast to a traditional climb, or trad climb, in which climbers place and
remove rock protection, sport climbing involves routes where bolts have
been previously drilled into the rock face for protection. The emphasis is on
each climber pushing personal physical limits in terms of gymnastic ability,
physical strength, and endurance. For more information on sport climbing,
refer to books in Resources, and seek out instruction in the proper
techniques for falling while on lead, belaying a climber on lead who is
expected to fall, and assessing the safety of falling on a given route.

Crag climbs generally require placement of traditional rock protection in

cracks in the rock face. However, entire routes or sections of routes with
extensive face climbing and little opportunity for traditional protection
placements may be bolted. Lead falls taken on bolts or traditional rock gear
while crag climbing are not necessarily safe; carefully assess each route’s
risk compared with the level of risk you are willing to accept and the
likelihood of falling, compounded by the consequences of such a fall. Crag
routes vary widely in length, ranging from one to more than 15 pitches.
Some have bolts for belay and rappel anchors, whereas others require that
climbers build an anchor for belaying or that they walk or scramble down
for the descent.

Alpine rock climbing refers to routes farther from civilization that require
many of the technical, physical, and mental aspects of rock climbing
involved in sport and crag climbing, in addition to alpine routefinding or
glacier climbing skills and equipment. Alpine routes are almost never
bolted.

Of course, all these categories have some overlap. For example, some
multipitch bolted climbs are in somewhat remote areas.

GEAR

Ropes and harnesses are covered in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System;

protection hardware is covered in Chapter 13, Rock Protection.

FOOTWEAR
On rock climbs of easy difficulty, the same boots climbers wear on the
approach generally work well for the actual climbing. (For more
information on mountaineering boots, see Chapter 2, Clothing and
Equipment.) When the climbing is more difficult, specialized footwear—
rock shoes (fig. 12-1a, b, and c)—give a significant advantage. Most rock
shoes have flexible uppers, plus smooth, flexible soles and rands of sticky
rubber. These soles create excellent friction when weighted on rock,
allowing purchase on angles and nubbins that can amaze the beginning
climber.

On a climb that is a carryover—climbers do not go back to their starting

point or base camp on the way down—using rock shoes on the route means
climbing with the weight and bulk of boots in their pack. If the climbing
includes patches of snow or ice between the rock sections, wearing boots
for the entire route avoids time-consuming breaks for changing footwear.
Some advanced climbers climb through short sections of snow with rock
shoes, or one climber leads the rock pitches in rock shoes and the other
climber leads the mixed pitches of rock, snow, and ice in boots. For
difficult rock climbing, especially narrow cracks, the better purchase and
thinner profile afforded by rock shoes may make for safer and faster
climbing. The choice of footwear and pack is personal and depends on the
route. Climbing in mountaineering boots is more common on alpine rock
routes without technically difficult rock sections. Rock shoes are used on
more technical rock terrain, usually rated 5.6 or harder, when crack
climbing is required.

images

Fig. 12-1. Rock shoes: a, all-around shoe (flat last); b, more specialized
edging shoe; c, Velcro-closure slipper (cambered last); d, combined
approach and climbing shoe.

Approach shoes (fig. 12-1d) are a compromise between mountaineering

boots and rock shoes. These are useful when the approach is snow free, and
they can be worn on the climb itself if the route is of moderate difficulty. To
avoid the burden of carrying boots on a sustained rock climb, some
experienced climbers strap crampons onto running shoes for short snow
crossings, such as a small pocket glacier.
When choosing an appropriate pair of rock shoes, climbers can find the
confusing array at outdoor stores daunting. Remember that climbing
technique is far more important than the shoes! Specifically, until you have
mastered the techniques necessary to climb at the 5.10 or 5.11 level and
beyond, your choice of rock shoe will likely not make a significant
difference. That said, below are some useful guidelines on rock-shoe
selection.

Stiff-soled, more cambered shoes are better at edging (see Figure 12-1b);
flexible shoes are better at frictioning or smearing (see “Footholds” later in
this chapter). Shoes with laces, such as in Figure 12-1a and b (as opposed
to laceless “slippers” in Figure 12-1c), and higher tops that cover the
anklebones (as in Figure 12-1a) offer protection when climbers jam their
feet in cracks. If a climber is restricted to owning only one pair of rock
shoes, a pair with all-around characteristics is best.

Good fit is paramount. Rock shoes should fit snugly, to allow dexterity and
a good sense of the rock’s features, yet not so tightly as to cause pain. Rock
shoes should be comfortable enough to wear for an all-day climb. Unlike
sport climbers at local crags, crag and alpine rock climbers do not have the
luxury of taking their shoes off after each 40-foot (12-meter) pitch. Some
makes of rock shoes are sized for wider or narrower feet than others; try on
different styles to find what fits. A thin pair of liner socks add comfort and
a little warmth, a bonus when climbing in chilly conditions. Some climbers
have a pair of “alpine rock shoes” sized to fit over their mountain-boot
socks. All rock shoes stretch somewhat, usually only a quarter to a half size
in width and much less in length. Leather shoes stretch more than synthetic
shoes. Lined shoes stretch the least.

Rock-shoe rubber oxidizes and hardens over time; try a brisk scrubbing
with a wire brush to expose a new, stickier layer. Rock shoes can often be
resoled when their rubber wears down but usually only if a hole has not yet
been worn through. Resoling is significantly less expensive than buying a
new pair.

CLOTHING
Alpine rock climbing clothing must be comfortable, allow free range of
movement, and handle changing weather conditions. For details on fabrics
and general information on alpine clothing, see Chapter 2, Clothing and
Equipment.

Remove rings, bracelets, and watches before climbing rock, because they
will probably get scratched at the very least; much worse, they may catch in
a crack and damage your hands. A stuck ring can cause serious injury, even
amputation of the finger.

TAPE

Athletic tape can be used to protect hands from abrasive rock when you are
crack climbing. Tape is advisable for those learning crack techniques, for
those climbing more difficult cracks (especially on rock that has many
sharp crystals), or for those who have occupations where raw hands could
be a hazard (such as health care or food service). Some climbers feel that
tape around their fingers helps support and protect finger tendons.

Taping methods vary; see Figure 12-2 for a method that leaves the palm
untaped, to ensure sensitivity while face climbing. When taping your
hands, flex them so that when you later make a fist or hand jam, the tape
will not be too tight. After climbing, you can often cut off your tape
“gloves” and save them for later use.

CHALK

Climbers chalk can improve a climber’s grip, especially in hot weather, by

absorbing sweat. Chalk is available as loose powder and as a crushable
block, either of which climbers usually carry in a chalk bag. Chalk is also
available contained inside mesh balls (refillable) that allow smaller
amounts of chalk to sift out into the chalk bag and minimize spillage.

Chalk marks tend to identify the holds that are used, thus making a
climber’s moves obvious and minimizing the adventure for the next
climber. Excess chalk on holds makes them slippery and leaves residue on
the rock, which affects other users. Use chalk sparingly, especially in
sensitive or heavily used areas.
 images

Fig. 12-2. Hand taped for climbing: a, wrap tape around first finger; b,
wrap tape around pinky; c, cover back of hand with overlapping tape
strips; d, palm is left mostly open; e, add wraps down to wrist to protect
entire back of hand.

CLIMBING EFFICIENTLY

Efficient technique makes alpine rock climbing more enjoyable. It enables

climbers to ascend with as much speed as is reasonable, without
exhaustion. Climbers must have enough strength for the approach and the
climb itself, as well as the descent and the hike back out. Good technique
combines balance, footwork, and handwork with the minimum expenditure
of strength. Climbing efficiently also requires proficiency with technical
gear by both the leader and follower (described in Chapters 13, Rock
Protection, and 14, Leading on Rock). All of this comes with time and
practice.

Rock climbing may appear to require great arm strength. It is true that
strength may get climbers up certain rock sections if they have no
technique, but they will also burn out quickly. On some rock features,
strength alone will not work; technique is necessary. The best of both
worlds combines technique with good physical training in strength, power,
and endurance (see Chapter 4, Physical Conditioning; Eric Hörst’s How to
Climb 5.12 is also a good resource for physical training, listed in
Resources). Following are some general guidelines about technique that
apply to climbing any type of rock, whether a face or a crack.

FOCUS ON SPEED AND SAFETY

Speed is often an important part of safety on an alpine rock climb. Less

time climbing means less time exposed to rockfall and changing weather, as
well as more time to solve routefinding problems, deal with injury, get off
the mountain before dark, or handle any number of possible risks inherent
in the alpine environment. However, reasonable caution must not be
sacrificed to speed. Practice on shorter, easier routes and move to longer,
more difficult routes as your efficiency improves.
Aim to move smoothly over the rock and set up belays, exchange gear, and
manage the rope with a minimum of wasted time. Alpine rock climbing
often necessitates carrying a pack, and choices regarding packs depend on
the route and personal preference. Pack enough gear to do the climb and
survive unexpected situations, but be spartan. Depending on the situation,
for speed and safety, both climbers in a climbing team may choose to carry
similar packs, or the follower might carry either the only pack or the larger
one.

Keep small snacks and water readily accessible for nibbling or sipping in a
few seconds at a belay station. Many a climber has “bonked” while up
high: gotten dangerously tired and slow from inadequate nutrition or
hydration during the day. Be aware of your own—as well as your partner’s
—food and water intake and energy levels.

The size of the climbing party and the number of rope teams affect overall
trip speed. The more rope teams there are, the longer it will take for the
entire party to finish, all else being equal.

CLIMB WITH YOUR EYES

Observe the rock. See where the holds are—the edges, the cracks—before
even setting foot on the rock. Obviously, specifics of the entire pitch cannot
be visually memorized beforehand, but it is possible to get an overall idea.
Look off to the side as well as up and down while climbing, to continually
check where the holds are and will be in relation to your hands and feet.
Many choices of holds are available on easy to moderate routes; look
around and do not let tunnel vision stop you from seeing them.

Because the number of available holds decreases as the route’s difficulty

increases, a calm attitude helps on more difficult terrain. (Arno Ilgner’s
book The Rock Warrior’s Way: Mental Training for Climbers discusses the
mental aspects of climbing in detail; see Resources.) Tune in to how your
balance feels as you move deliberately, smoothly, and fluidly. Much of
successful climbing results from a relaxed yet alert mind.

USE FOOTWORK
Footwork and balance are the foundations of rock climbing. Good footwork
gives a climber good balance and requires less exertion than handwork
does. Leg muscles are larger and stronger than arm muscles, and therefore
they provide the most efficient use of muscle power. That is why climbers
are frequently told to climb with their feet. Look for footholds that are
comfortably spaced. Shorter steps take less energy than longer, higher
steps, and you will stay in balance more easily. However, steps too close
together take up more time per foot of upward progress.

Stand erect over your feet—this keeps your body weight centered over your
feet, and the resulting down-pressure helps keep your feet on the holds.
Anxious climbers tend to hug or lean into the rock, but this just tends to
push their feet off the rock because the pressure is out, not down.

Try to walk up the rock from foothold to foothold, as if you were going up
a ladder—use your hands merely for balance. When you raise a foot toward
the next foothold, eye the hold and aim precisely for it. Once your foot is
set in place, commit to the hold and leave your foot there. Adjust your
balance to the new position by shifting your hips over the new hold.
Continue transferring your weight through your leg down to that foot.
Complete the move: stand up by using your leg muscles to push your body
up.

MAINTAIN THREE POINTS OF CONTACT

When you begin to learn rock climbing, keep three body points—any
combination of hands and feet—weighted on the rock at all times. This can
be two hands and one foot (fig. 12-3) or one hand and two feet. Keep your
balance over your feet until you release a hold to move for the next one.
This is an especially useful approach when testing a hold for looseness
without weighting it because it allows you to balance securely on three
holds while testing the new one.

images

Fig. 12-3. Three-point suspension: Keep three body points weighted on

rock at all times; here, the climber’s hands and right foot provide a secure
stance while she moves her left foot higher.
Be aware of where your center of gravity is—directly over your feet is
usually the most stable stance. Moving your center of gravity over a new
foot- or handhold causes your weight to shift to that new hold.

On more difficult climbs, it is not always possible to keep three body points
in contact with the rock. There may be only one or two sound holds, so use
your body position to maintain a delicate balance over those holds.
Regardless of the number of points you have in contact, however, the same
principle of balance applies: keep your weight over your holds.

CHECK FOR LOOSE HOLDS

Loose rock can be all too common in the mountains. Many loose holds are
obvious, but be alert for those that are not. Look for fracture lines and loose
rocks (fig. 12-4a). Gently nudge any suspect hold, or give it a push with the
heel of your hand (fig. 12-4b). A hollow-sounding rock is usually loose.
Make sure your testing does not actually dislodge the rock! If loose rock
cannot be avoided, move with extra care and deliberation. Sometimes a
loose hand- or foothold can be used if you carefully push downward and in
on it while weighting it—but be careful.

images

Fig. 12-4. Looking for loose holds: a, visually inspect the route for loose
rocks (circled); b, if loose rock cannot be avoided, use extra caution in that
area and test holds before using them.

BASIC TECHNIQUES

This section covers concepts, rather than specific types of moves, that can
be used in all kinds of climbing.

DOWNWARD-PRESSURE

For the downward-pressure technique, place fingertips or the palm, side, or

heel of the hand on the hold and press down (fig. 12-5). Pressing down with
the thumb can be useful on very small holds. A common technique is to
pull down on a hold from above and then put downward-pressure on it after
you move above it. Downward-pressure may be used alone or in
combination with other techniques, such as in counterforce with a lieback
hold or as part of a stemming move (see “Crack Climbing” later in this
chapter). With arm extended and elbow locked, climbers can balance one-
handed by pressing down on a hold as they move the other hand to the next
hold.

COUNTERFORCE

Counterforce plays a part in many of the climbing maneuvers described in

this chapter. It is the use of pressure in opposing directions to help keep the
climber in place. Specific counterforce techniques can be used in face
climbing or crack climbing.

images

Fig. 12-5. Using left hand to exert downward-pressure.

COUNTERBALANCE

Counterbalance, or flagging, is the principle of distributing your body

weight in a way that maintains your balance. This means selecting holds
that do the best job of keeping your body in balance. But it also sometimes
means putting a hand or foot in a particular location, even if no obvious
hold is available, in order to provide counterbalance to the rest of your
body (fig. 12-6). Your hips and shoulders also come into play as you move
them to provide counterbalance. Flagging is useful because it enables
climbers to extend their reach.

LONG REACHES

Several techniques can be used when the next available handhold is a long
reach away or even out of reach. First, make the most of available holds.
Move as high as possible on existing holds. Stand on your toes, but
remember that this is strenuous and can contribute to muscle fatigue if you
continue too long. Sometimes a longer reach is possible by standing on the
outside edge of a climbing shoe, which tends to turn the body somewhat
sideways to the rock. The longest reach possible is with the hand on the
same side of your body as the foot you are standing on.

DYNAMIC MOVES

Another option for overcoming a long reach is to make quick intermediate

moves, using holds that are marginal but can be used just long enough to
allow the climber to scamper up to the next good hold. This leads to using a
dynamic move (or dyno): a lunge or simply a quick move before you lose
your balance. The time to grab the next higher handhold while making a
dynamic move is at the “dead point”: the apex of the arc of movement
when your body is weightless for a fraction of a second before it begins to
fall. Movement is most efficient at that point.

Make a dynamic move only after calculating and accepting the

consequences of failure. If a dynamic move fails, a fall is likely. Do not
make a dynamic move out of desperation. Ensure beforehand that the
protection is secure and that a fall onto the protection will not result in
hitting a ledge or the ground.

PLACEMENT EXCHANGES

Sometimes a climber needs to move one foot onto a small hold already
occupied by the other foot or one hand onto a hold being used by the other
hand. Either move can be made several different ways.

images

Fig. 12-6. Two examples of counterbalance, which enables an extended

reach: a, the left foot is flagged to the side to provide counterbalance; b,
the left foot is flagged behind the right for counterbalance.

images

Fig. 12-7. Using a crossover to exchange foot placements on a small hold:

a, right foot is on a hold; b, left foot crosses in front of the right and presses
down; c, left foot presses on the hold while right foot readies for next hold;
d, right foot shifts to next hold.
To exchange a foot placement, make an intermediate move using a poorer,
even marginal, hold to get the one foot off the good hold long enough for
the other one to take it over. Or hop off the hold while replacing one foot
with the other. Or try sharing the hold by matching feet (this is known as
matching), moving one foot to the very edge of the hold to make enough
room for the other.

The crossover is another technique: one foot crosses in front of the other
(fig. 12-7a and b) to occupy a small spot on the hold while the first foot
moves off that hold (fig. 12-7c) to another (fig. 12-7d).

An intermediate move can be made to trade hands, much as might be done

in exchanging feet. Place both hands on the same hold, one on top of the
other, or if space is limited, try picking up the fingers of one hand, one
finger at a time, and replacing them with the fingers of the other hand. The
crossover technique also is occasionally useful.

FACE CLIMBING

Face climbing is simply climbing by using the various features on the

surface of a rock face, as contrasted with climbing the cracks that may split
a face. A particular hold may be used in a variety of ways by feet and hands
as the climber moves up the rock. Face climbing also includes the ascent of
nearly featureless slabs, using friction and balance (fig. 12-8).

HANDHOLDS

Handholds can be used for balance, for helping climbers raise themselves
by pulling up on the hold, or for providing various forms of
counterpressure. Handholds that are at about head height are best because
they do not demand a tiring overreach.

images

Fig. 12-8. Face climbing uses friction and balance when holds are
minimal.
Handholds offer maximum security when all the fingers are used. Keeping
fingers close together provides a stronger grip on the hold. A large hold,
commonly known as a jug, allows the entire hand to be cupped over the
hold (fig. 12-9a). A smaller open grip hold (fig. 12-9b) may allow room
only for fingertips. If the hold is not large enough for all the fingers to be
placed on it, “crimp”it by curling the other fingers and placing the thumb
over the index finger, which permits the fingers in use to get the most force
from the muscle and tendon system (fig. 12-9c); this type of hold is called a
crimp. Be careful not to overstress fingers and cause injury by using holds
that are too difficult or small for your technique or conditioning level.

images

Fig. 12-9. Handholds: a, hands on a jug with fingers close together; b,

smaller open grip hold; c, crimping on a smaller hold (more stressful on
finger joints); d, finger pinch; e, thumb pinch; f, two-finger pocket; g, mono
pocket; h, stacked fingers.

Because climbers depend mainly on their legs for upward progress,

handholds are sometimes used only for balance. The finger pinch (fig. 12-
9d) is a handhold that may allow climbers to maintain a balanced stance on
good footholds long enough to shake out their free arm and to reach for a
higher, more secure handhold or to place protection.

Smaller holds require different techniques. For example, with fingers

holding onto a tiny ledge, for additional strength climbers may use the
thumb in opposition on a minor wrinkle, as in a thumb pinch (fig. 12-9e),
or in small holes, they may use more than one finger, as in a two-pocket
(fig. 12-9f). On a narrow hold or a small pocket in the rock, climbers can
use one or two fingers in a mono pocket (fig. 12-9g). On a very narrow
hold, climbers can stack fingers on top of each other to increase pressure on
the hold (fig. 12-9h).

Handholds that are at about head height are ideal if it is necessary to hang
straight-armed for a rest (fig. 12-10), which is less tiring than hanging from
bent arms. Climbers can lower their center of gravity by bending their
knees or leaning out away from the rock. When it is possible, hang an arm
down and shake it out for a brief recovery before climbing again.
Some other types of handholds include slopers and side pulls. Slopers
require an open hand and skin friction, and the holds, true to their name,
slope downward. A side pull is a vertically oriented hold off to one side.
Lean away from it as you pull on it.

Other techniques can also be useful on friction slabs. Face holds and cracks
may be intermittently available for hands or feet. On small edges or
irregularities, use down-pressure (see above) with fingertips, thumb, or heel
of the hand. A lieback (see later in this chapter) with one hand might be
possible using tiny edges. Look for an opportunity for stemming (see later
in this chapter), which could mean a chance to rest.

images

Fig. 12-10. “Resting” an outstretched arm while hanging on a straight

arm.

images

Fig. 12-11. Footholds: a, edging; b, smearing.

FOOTHOLDS

Climbers use most footholds by employing one of two techniques: edging

and smearing. On many holds, either technique will work, and the one to
use depends on personal preference and the stiffness of the climber’s
footwear. A third technique, foot jamming, is covered in “Crack Climbing”
later in this chapter.

When edging, the climber weights the edge of the shoe sole over the hold
(fig. 12-11a). Climbers use either the inside or outside edge, but they
usually prefer the inside for greater ease and security. The ideal point of
contact may vary, but generally it is between the ball of the foot and the end
of the big toe. Keeping the heel higher than the toes provides greater
precision but is more tiring. Using the toe of a boot or rock shoe on a hold
(toeing in) is also very tiring. With practice, climbers become proficient
using progressively smaller footholds.
In smearing, the foot points uphill, with the sole of the shoe “smeared”
over the hold (fig. 12-11b). Smearing works best with rock shoes or flexible
boots. On lower-angle rock, climbers may not need to use an actual hold
but only to achieve enough friction between sole and rock. On steeper
terrain, smearing the front of the foot over a hold allows even tiny
irregularities in the rock to provide significant friction and security. Slab or
friction climbing requires liberal use of smearing (also called frictioning)
moves. Balance and footwork are the keys to success, and the primary
technique is smearing with the feet. In using footholds, make the best use
of the direction of force on the hold. Flexing the ankle may increase the
surface area of contact between sole and rock, giving maximum holding
power. Leaning away from the rock creates inward as well as downward
force on the hold, increasing security.

When using large footholds, called buckets, place only as much of the foot
as necessary on the hold (fig. 12-12a). Putting a foot too far into the bucket
can sometimes force the lower leg outward, making for an out-of-balance
stance (fig. 12-12b).

images

Fig. 12-12. Bucket hold: a, use only as much of the hold as is needed
(good); b, a foot too far into a bucket can force lower leg outward (poor).

images

Fig. 12-13. Slab (friction) climbing: a, keep weight over feet and push hips
away from rock (good); b, avoid leaning into the slope, which causes feet to
slide (poor).

Avoid placing knees on a hold, because knees are susceptible to injury and
offer little stability. Nevertheless, even experienced climbers may on rare
occasions use a knee hold to avoid an especially high or awkward step. The
main considerations are to avoid injury from pebbles and sharp crystals and
to avoid becoming trapped on your knees, unable to rise beneath a bulge or
roof.
Fatigue, often aggravated by anxiety, can lead to troublesome spastic
contractions of the leg muscles, jocularly known among climbers as
“sewing-machine” or “Elvis” leg. The best way to stop it is to relax your
mind, remember to breathe, and change your leg position somehow, by
moving on to the next hold, lowering your heel, or straightening your leg.

When smearing, remember to flex the ankle (lowering the heel) and to keep
weight directly over the ball of the foot for maximum friction between rock
and sole (fig. 12-13a). Avoid leaning into the slope with your body, which
causes the feet to slide down and out from under you (fig. 12-13b). Instead,
keep your weight over the feet, bending at the waist to allow the hands to
touch the rock and pushing the hips and buttocks away.

Take short steps to maintain balance with your weight over your feet. Look
for the small edges, rough spots, or changes in angle that provide the best
foot placements. Sometimes climbers actually have to feel with their hands
or feet to find the irregularities.

MANTEL

The mantel is a specific use of the down-pressure technique. It lets climbers

use hand down-pressure to get their feet up onto the same hold that their
hands are using when no useful handholds are available higher.

The classic mantel is easiest if the ledge is at about chest height (fig. 12-
14a). As you grip the ledge, walk your feet up the rock (fig. 12-14b) until
you can place both hands flat on the ledge, palms down, with the fingers of
each hand pointing toward the other hand. Then raise your body up onto
stiffened arms (fig. 12-14c). Continue to walk your feet up the rock or, if
you can, spring up from a good foothold, lifting one foot up onto the ledge
(fig. 12-14d), and stand up, reaching for the next handholds for balance
(fig. 12-14e).

This basic mantel, however, is not always possible, because a ledge is often
higher, smaller, or steeper than a climber might wish. If the ledge is narrow,
it may be possible to use the heel of the hand, with the fingers pointed
down. If the ledge is over your head, pull down on it first and then use
downward-pressure as you move upward. If the ledge is not big enough for
both hands, mantel on just one arm while the other hand makes use of any
available hold or perhaps just balances against the rock. Do not forget to
leave room for your foot.

Avoid using knees on a mantel because it may be difficult to get off them
and back on your feet, especially if the rock above is steep or overhanging.
Sometimes in midmantel it is possible to reach up to a handhold to help as
you begin standing up.

COUNTERFORCE IN FACE CLIMBING

Counterforce can be used to pull in on widely spaced holds—a pulling-

together action (fig. 12-15a)—or to press in on both sides of a sharp ridge
(fig. 12-15b) to create inward pressure. The hands can also be used in
counterforce to the feet, as in the undercling (see below).

Stemming on a Face

Stemming is a valuable counterforce technique that lets climbers support

themselves between two spots on the rock that might be of little or no use
alone. It often provides a method of climbing steep rock where no holds are
apparent, simply by pressing in opposing directions with the feet or with a
hand and a foot.

images
images

Fig. 12-14. Mantel: (facing page) a, with a ledge at about chest height; b,
walk feet up; (above) c, place both hands flat on ledge, palms down and
fingers of each hand pointing toward the other hand; d, place one foot on
the ledge; e, stand up and reach for the next handholds.

images

Fig. 12-15. Counterforce: a, inward pressure, pulling together; b, inward

pressure, pressing in on a sharp ridge.
Stemming may open an avenue of ascent on a steep face, where climbers
can press one foot against a slight protrusion while the other foot or a hand
gives opposing pressure against another wrinkle (also known as a
“rugosity”) in the rock (fig. 12-16).

Undercling

To undercling, your hands (palms up) pull outward beneath a flake or lip of
rock while your body leans out and your feet push against rock (fig. 12-17).
Your arms pull while your feet push, creating a counterforce. Try to keep
your arms extended. Both hands can undercling at the same time, or one
hand can undercling while the other uses a different type of hold.

An undercling hold may have multiple uses. For example, from below a
rock flake, climbers can hold its bottom edge in a finger pinch or thumb
pinch and then convert to an undercling as they move up to the flake.

images

Fig. 12-16. Stemming on a steep face.

images

Fig. 12-17. Undercling: arrows show direction of pressure—hands pull out,

feet push in.

CRACK CLIMBING

Many climbing routes follow the natural lines of cracks in the rock. Cracks
have the advantage of offering handholds and footholds virtually anywhere
along their length, as well as protection opportunities (see Chapter 13,
Rock Protection). Some climbers seem to find crack-climbing technique
more difficult to develop than face-climbing technique. Perhaps this is
because even easy crack climbs demand a higher proportion of technique to
strength than do face climbs. Crack climbing is also very individualized,
based on the size of each climber’s hands and fingers. A crack climb that is
easy for one climber may be more difficult for others with smaller hands,
for example, or vice versa. Because of the individualized nature of crack
climbing, experiment with what works for you; as with face climbing,
balance and continued practice are the keys to success. That said, the
following crack-climbing techniques are essential tools.

JAMMING

Jamming is the basic technique of crack climbing. To jam, place a hand or

foot into a crack, then turn the foot or flex the hand so that it is snugly in
contact with both sides of the crack. This wedging must be secure enough
that the hand or foot will not come out when weighted. Look for
constrictions in the crack, and place hand and foot jams just above these
constrictions. When learning to crack climb, it is a good idea to try
weighting jams as a test—while remaining balanced on the other points of
contact—before actually trying to move up on the jams.

Cracks may be climbed with a pure jamming technique, with both feet and
hands using jams, or in combination with other types of holds. While
moving up on a jam, maintain the jammed position by using down-pressure
(see above). Of course, there is nothing to stop a climber from also using
any nearby face holds (fig. 12-18).

The following technique descriptions are basic guidelines that may be

adapted to the varying size and configuration of the particular crack a
climber is on. With practice, climbers become more adept at selecting the
appropriate technique to apply in a given situation.

Hand-Sized Cracks

The easiest crack to master is the hand-sized crack. As the name implies,
climbers insert their entire hand into the crack—relax the hand when you
insert it, and then expand it so that it becomes wedged in the crack.
Different ways to increase hand width include flexing the thumb toward the
palm so that the lower “meaty” part of the hand firmly contacts the walls of
the crack, as well as cupping the hand for full contact (fig. 12-19a). To
increase pressure against the walls, climbers sometimes tuck their thumb
below their fingers and across the palm, especially in wider cracks (fig. 12-
19b). The hold can often be improved by bending the wrist so the hand
points into the crack rather than straight up and down.
 images

Fig. 12-18. Combining jamming with face climbing.

The hand jam is done either thumb up or thumb down. The thumb-up
technique often is easiest and most comfortable for a vertical crack (see
Figure 12-19a and b; see also bottom hand in Figure 12-19d), and it allows
climbers to reach higher in vertical cracks. The thumb-up configuration is
most secure when the climber’s body leans to the same side as the hand that
is jammed.

The thumb-down technique (fig. 12-19c; see also top hand in Figure 12-
19d) may allow for a more secure jam when the thumbs-up technique feels
insecure. However, it is not possible to reach as high with this jam in a
vertical crack, resulting in more hand jams and more energy expended.
Because the hand can be twisted for better adhesion, climbers can lean in
any direction off this jam.

images

Fig. 12-19. Hand jams: a, thumb-up jam; b, with thumb tucked across
palm; c, thumb-down jam; d, combining thumb-down and thumb-up jams in
a diagonal crack.

Climbers use a combination of thumbs up and thumbs down, especially in

diagonal cracks, where it is often useful to jam the upper hand thumb down
and the lower hand thumb up (fig. 12-19d).

With hand jams, climbers must keep alert to the effect of their elbow and
body position on the security of the hold. As they move up, they may have
to rotate their shoulder or trunk to keep sufficient torque and downward
pressure to maintain the jam. Direction of force should be pulling down,
not out of the crack. In general, keep the forearm parallel to the crack while
climbing.

In dealing with hand jams, climbers encounter variants at both ends of the
size scale: thinner cracks that will not admit an entire hand but are larger
than finger cracks, up to wider cracks that are not quite large enough for a
fist jam but require extra hand twisting to create enough expansion for a
secure hand jam. The size of a climber’s hand is a major factor in
determining the appropriate technique and the degree of difficulty of any
particular crack.

Hand-sized cracks are good for foot jamming too, and it is generally
possible to wedge a shoe in as far as the ball of the foot. Insert a foot
sideways (fig. 12-20a), with the sole facing the side of the crack (big toe
facing up), and then twist it sole-down to jam (fig. 12-20b). Avoid twisting
the foot so securely that it gets stuck.

images

Fig. 12-20. Foot jams: a, with foot facing sideways, stick toe in crack; b,
then twist foot sole-down to jam.

images

Fig. 12-21. Fist jams: a, palm facing in; b, palm facing out; c, oblique
facing in; d, oblique facing out.

Fist-Sized Cracks

In a crack that is too wide for a hand jam, climbers can insert a fist. The
thumb may be inside or outside the fist, depending on which provides the
best fit. The palm may face either the back of the crack (fig. 12-21a) or the
front (fig. 12-21b); if a full fist jam cannot be done, try turning the hand
slightly to the side to do an oblique fist jam (fig. 12-21c and d). Flexing the
muscles in the fist can expand it slightly to help fit the crack. Fist jams are
often painful, but they can be very useful. For the most secure hold, try to
find a constriction in the crack and jam the fist above it. If the crack is too
wide for a hand but too small for a fist, it is often possible to shove an
entire forearm into the crack and flex it for purchase.

Fist-sized cracks can generally accept an entire foot. As with hand-sized

cracks, insert a foot sideways, sole facing the side of the crack, and rotate
the foot to jam it securely in place. In even wider cracks, it is possible to
jam a foot diagonally or heel to toe (fig. 12-22).
Finger-Sized Cracks

Finger jams make it possible to climb some of the narrowest cracks, where
a climber may be able to insert only one or more fingers or perhaps just the
fingertips. Finger jams are commonly done with the thumb down. Slip the
fingers into the crack and twist the hand to lock the fingers in place (fig.
12-23a). Climbers get added strength by stacking fingers and also by
pressing their thumb against their index finger in a ring jam (fig. 12-23b
and c).

images

Fig. 12-22. Heel-toe foot jam.

In slightly wider cracks, try a thumb lock, also called a thumb cam (fig. 12-
23d). Place an upward-pointing thumb in the crack, the thumb pad against
one side of the crack and a knuckle against the other. Slide the tip of the
index finger tightly down over the first joint of the thumb to create the lock.

The pinkie jam is done with a thumb up (fig. 12-23e and f). Put the little
finger in a crack and stack the other fingers on top—fingertips down, nails
up. In slightly larger cracks, it may be possible to wedge the heel of a hand
and its smaller fingers into a crack that is not quite wide enough for a full
hand jam. The weight here is borne by the heel of the hand.

images

Fig. 12-23. Finger jams:

a, thumb-down jam; b, ring jam; c, hand configuration for a ring jam; d,
thumb cam; e, pinkie jam; f, hand configuration for a pinkie jam; g,
counterpressure with thumb.

For another variation done with thumb down, use the counterpressure of a
thumb pushing against one side of the crack and the fingers pushing against
the other (fig. 12-23g).

Finger-sized cracks are not big enough to accept a climber’s foot, but there
is often room for toes. Wedge toes into a crack by turning the foot sideways
—usually with the inside of the ankle up—and inserting toes in the crack
(see Figure 12-20a), then twist the foot to jam it (fig. 12-24a). Climbers
also wedge their toes into a steep inside corner with a smearing technique,
keeping their heel lower than their toes and putting pressure down and in to
keep their toes in place (fig. 12-24b). Using smearing and friction for the
feet also works well when climbing a finger-sized crack.

COUNTERFORCE IN CRACK CLIMBING

Counterforce can be used in a vertical crack by placing both hands in the

crack and pulling in opposite directions on the sides of the crack—a
pulling-apart action (fig. 12-25)—to create outward pressure. Two other
types of counterforce are described below.

images

Fig. 12-24. Toe jams: a, jamming in a crack; b, smearing in a corner.

images

Fig. 12-25. Counterforce in a vertical crack: outward pressure.

Classic Stemming

The classic use of stemming is in climbing a rock chimney. It also comes

into play in climbing a dihedral (also called an open book), where two walls
meet in an approximately right-angled inside corner. One foot presses
against one wall of the chimney or dihedral, while the other foot or an
opposing hand pushes against the other wall (fig. 12-26).

Liebacking

The classic lieback technique, another form of counterforce, uses hands

pulling and feet pushing in opposition as the climber moves upward in
shuffling movements (fig. 12-27a). It is used to climb a crack in a corner, a
crack with one edge offset beyond the other, or along the edge of a flake.
Grasp one edge of the crack with both hands and lean back and to the side,
away from the crack, on straightened arms. At the same time, push your
feet against the opposite wall of the crack. Keep your arms extended to
minimize muscle stress. Keep your feet high enough to maintain friction on
the rock, but not so high that it is too strenuous. As always, feel for your
body’s balance and adjust accordingly. This is a strenuous technique, and it
is difficult to place protection when liebacking.

images

Fig. 12-26. Stemming across a chimney.

images

Fig. 12-27. Lieback: a, classic lieback; b, combining a lieback (right hand

and foot) with face holds (left hand and foot). Arrows show direction of
pressure.

The lieback can be used along with other holds as the rock allows.
Climbers can lieback on a single handhold in combination with other holds
or use one hand and foot in a lieback while using face holds for the
opposite hand and foot (fig. 12-27b).

When using the lieback technique, a climber’s body may have a tendency
to swing sideways out of balance toward the crack, in what is known as the
“barn-door” effect, which usually results in a fall. To avoid the barn-door
effect, do not apply too much pressure with the leg closest to the rock.

CHIMNEYS

A chimney is any crack big enough to climb inside, ranging in size from
those that will barely admit a climber’s body (called squeeze chimneys) to
those that a climber’s body can barely span.

The basic principle is to span the chimney with the body, using
counterforce to keep from falling. Depending on the width of the crack,
either face one side of the chimney or face directly into or out of the
chimney. The best body position and technique to use depend on the
situation, the climber’s size, and whether the climber is wearing a pack.
Which direction to face may depend on what holds are available outside the
chimney and what the best way will be to climb out of it.

In squeeze chimneys, wedge the body in whatever way works best (fig. 12-
28a) and squirm upward (fig. 12-28b). Look for handholds on the outside
edge or inside the chimney. Arm bars and chicken wings (see “Off-Width
Cracks” below) may be useful. It is helpful, sometimes, to press a foot and
knee of one or both legs, for example, against opposite sides of the
chimney (fig. 12-28c and d). Try stacking both feet in a T configuration,
with one foot placed parallel to one side of the rock and the other placed
perpendicular to it, jammed between the first foot and the opposite wall
(fig. 12-28e). Climbing squeeze chimneys can be very strenuous.

A crack that is somewhat wider than a squeeze chimney offers more room
to maneuver. Press the back and feet against one side of the chimney as the
knees and hands push against the other side (fig. 12-29a). Move upward by
squirming. Or try a sequence of wedging the upper body while raising feet
and knees and then wedging them and raising the upper body.

images

Fig. 12-28. Chimney technique in a squeeze chimney: a, wedge whole body

into chimney; b, press foot and knee against opposite sides; c, squirm up;
d, begin another sequence; e, stacking feet.

images

Fig. 12-29. Chimney techniques: a, in a narrow chimney; b, in a wide

chimney.

images

Fig. 12-30. Chimney techniques in a moderate-width chimney: a, using

counterforce between hands and between feet; b, moving up; c, using
counterforce between buttocks and feet; d, beginning the sequence again.

A wide chimney calls for stemming technique, in which a climber faces

directly into or out of the chimney (fig. 12-29b). Counterforce is applied
between the right hand and foot on one side of the chimney and the left
hand and foot on the other side. Press down as well as against the sides,
especially if there are holds on the sides of the chimney. Ascend either by
alternately moving arms and legs or by moving each leg and then each arm.

A moderate-width chimney is perhaps 3 feet (1 meter) wide. To climb a

moderate-width chimney, start by facing one wall of the chimney with your
back toward the other one wall. Press one foot against each wall and one
hand against each wall (fig. 12-30a). Move upward by straightening your
legs and then reestablishing hand positions (fig. 12-30b). Immediately
bring your back-wall leg across to the same side as the forward leg (fig. 12-
30c). Then swing your forward leg across to the back-wall position (fig. 12-
30d). Now move upward again by straightening your legs. Alternatively,
your hands may push against one wall in counterforce to your back pressed
against the other, or your feet may push against one wall in counterforce to
your buttocks against the other (see Figure 12-30c).

Beware of getting too far inside a chimney: though it may feel more secure
psychologically, it can leave you lodged deep inside and make it difficult to
move back out. There is a better chance of finding useful handholds and
footholds near the outside of the chimney. Climbing deep inside the
chimney also can make it harder to exit at the top. The transition from the
top of the chimney to other types of climbing is often a challenge that may
require extra thought and creativity.

Chimney technique may be useful in places that do not look like classic
chimneys. It can be used to climb dihedrals (fig. 12-31) or short, wide
sections of otherwise narrower cracks. Knee pads can be very useful when
climbing routes with extensive chimney sections.

OFF-WIDTH CRACKS

Climbers have figured out ways to jam their arms, shoulders, hips, knees,
and just about anything else into the difficult and awkward features known
as off-width cracks. They are “off-width” because they are too wide for
hand or fist jams but too narrow to admit the entire body for chimneying.
The basic off-width technique calls for standing sideways to the crack and
inserting one full side of the body into it (fig. 12-32). When confronted
with an off-width crack, first decide which side of the body to put inside the
crack. This depends on several things, such as holds in the crack or on the
face, the direction in which the crack leans, and whether it flares larger in
places.

images

Fig. 12-31. Chimney technique in a dihedral.

images

Fig. 12-32. Climbing an off-width crack: countepressure between hip or

knee and foot, plus heel-toe jams.

images

Fig. 12-33. Off-width climbing techniques: a, arm bar; b, chicken wing.

After settling on which side to use, put the inside leg inside the crack to
form a leg bar, usually with counterpressure between foot and knee or foot
and hip. This foot is often placed in a heel-toe jam (see Figure 12-22). The
outside foot also is inside the crack in a heel-toe jam. Try to keep heels
above toes (for better friction) and turned into the crack (to allow the
outside knee to turn out).

A primary body-jam technique is the arm bar. With your body sideways to
the crack, insert one arm fully into the crack, with the elbow and the back
of the upper arm on one side of the crack giving counterpressure to the heel
of the hand on the other side (fig. 12-33a). Get the shoulder in as far as
possible, and have the arm bar extend diagonally down from the shoulder.

For chicken-winging, a variation of the arm bar, fold an arm back at the
elbow before inserting it in the crack, and press the palm against the
opposite side in counterforce to the shoulder (fig. 12-33b).
In either the arm bar or the chicken wing, use the outside arm to provide
down-pressure to help hold you in the crack, or bring it across the front of
your chest and push it against the opposite side of the crack, elbow out.

You are now wedged securely in the crack. To climb, move the outside leg
upward to establish a higher heel-toe jam. When this jam is set, stand up on
it. Then reestablish the inside leg bar and arm bar (or chicken wing), and
reposition the outside arm. This again wedges your body in the crack. You
are now ready to move the outside leg upward again to establish a yet
higher heel-toe jam. Continue repeating this procedure.

Climbers may use their outside foot occasionally on face holds, but watch
out for the tendency for these outside footholds to pull you out of the crack.

For especially awkward crack sizes, climbers may have to stack hand jams
(the “butterfly technique”) or fist jams in the crack, or jam with the knee. A
specialized technique, Leavittation (named after Yosemite climber Randy
Leavitt), is used to climb an overhanging off-width.

Many alpine climbs have short sections of off-width cracks, but some
climbs with long, strenuous off-widths have a cultlike following. For these,
specialized rock protection (such as Big Bros; see Chapter 13, Rock
Protection) and extra clothing and padding to protect the skin are a must.
Online resources go into detail about specialized crack climbing (see
Resources).

COMBINING CRACK- AND FACE-CLIMBING TECHNIQUES

Cracks also may be climbed with a pure lieback technique (see Figure 12-
27a), by liebacking with one hand and foot (see Figure 12-27b), or by
liebacking with one arm in combination with face holds for the other hand
(fig. 12-34). This may result in a kind of stemming action.

Dihedrals may be climbed by using various combinations, such as hands

jammed in a crack splitting the dihedral, combined with feet stemming on
opposite sides of the dihedral (fig. 12-35).
Climbers may find useful edges or other holds hidden within cracks—on
the sides or even at the back of wide cracks. It is also possible to pull down
on a horizontal crack like a regular hold or ledge.

OTHER CLIMBING TECHNIQUES

Features such as overhangs, roofs, horizontal or diagonal sequences, and

ledges challenge climbers to employ a variety of techniques, tactics, and
body positions.

NEGOTIATING OVERHANGS AND ROOFS

To climb overhangs and roofs, remember the main points for any style of
climbing: stay in balance and conserve strength. Identify handholds for
moving up and over the bulge. Make the most of footholds by keeping feet
high and hips low to help press weight against the footholds (fig. 12-36). In
some situations, it means pressing hips into the rock, with the back arched,
to keep weight over feet while poised under an overhang.

To conserve strength, weight the feet as much as possible, even when

negotiating a roof (fig. 12-37a). Keep arms straight while raising the feet
(fig. 12-37b). Avoid hanging on bent arms, because this position will
quickly exhaust arm strength. Push your body up with your legs rather than
pulling with your arms (fig. 12-37c). Move quickly to minimize the time
spent in these strenuous positions. Occasionally it may be necessary to rise
up on the feet while making a dynamic reach to a handhold. Another trick
is to throw one foot up onto a ledge while pushing with the other foot and
pulling with the arms to swing up onto the top foot (fig. 12-37d).

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Fig. 12-34. Liebacking combined with face holds.

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Fig. 12-35. Climbing a dihedral using stemming and hand jams.

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Fig. 12-36. Climbing an overhanging route: keep feet high and hips low.

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Fig. 12-37. Climbing over a roof: a, lean out with an outstretched arm to
locate a hold above the roof, keeping hips close to the rock and feet
weighted; b, move other hand up above roof, keeping arms straight; c,
move feet up higher and push them against the rock; d, bring one foot up
and begin to pull over the roof.

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Fig. 12-38. Traversing a steep face (an advanced technique): a, start with
right foot on a hold in the direction of the traverse; b, twisting the body,
reach through with left hand and shift weight over right foot; c, move right
hand to new hold, while shifting both feet to right.

TRAVERSING

Traversing—going sideways across a section of rock—calls for a wide

variety of climbing techniques. The main ones are side-pulling, liebacking,
and stemming. Good balance and being aware of your center of gravity are
especially important during traverses.

Usually climbers face into the rock when traversing, their feet pointed away
from each other (fig. 12-38a). Commonly climbers shuffle their hands and
feet sideways, although it can be very useful to exchange one hand for the
other (see “Placement Exchanges” above), or one foot for the other, on a
single hold. Climbers may occasionally cross one foot behind the other or
one hand over the other to reach the next hold (fig. 12-38b and c).

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Fig. 12-39. Hand traverse: a, push feet against rock, providing

counterforce; b, cross one hand over the other.

A hand traverse is necessary when footholds are marginal or nonexistent.

The hands grip a series of holds or shuffle along an edge, while the feet
provide a counterforce by pushing against the rock, as in a lieback or
undercling (fig. 12-39a). Keep feet high and the center of gravity low so
feet are pushed into the rock. Cross one hand over the other (fig. 12-39b).
Again, keep arms straight to conserve arm strength and to let the legs do as
much of the work as possible.

EXITING ONTO LEDGES

When approaching a ledge, continue to walk the feet up the rock, and then
use down-pressure with hands near the edge of the ledge. A classic mantel
(see Figure 12-14) is often an excellent exit move onto a ledge (fig. 12-
40a). Avoid the temptation to simply lean forward and pull your torso onto
the ledge; shifting your weight like that may throw you off balance and also
make it impossible to keep an eye on the footholds (fig. 12-40b).

DOWN-CLIMBING

Efficient down-climbing is useful on many alpine climbs. Down-climbing

is sometimes faster, safer, or easier than rappelling, and it may provide
another retreat option when necessary.

Holds are harder to see when down-climbing than when climbing upward.
The steeper the face, the harder the holds are to see. It is difficult to test
holds without committing to them. On low-angle rock, face outward for the
best ability to see the route when down-climbing (fig. 12-41a). Keep hands
low and use down-pressure holds whenever possible. Keep your weight
over your feet to maximize friction, especially when going down slabs. It
may help to keep your center of gravity low, with knees well bent (fig. 12-
41b). As the rock steepens, turn sideways, leaning away from the rock for
better ability to see the route (fig. 12-41c). If the angle gets even steeper,
face into the rock and look down and around behind you (fig. 12-41d).

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Fig. 12-40. Exiting onto a ledge: a, keep hands close to lip of ledge and
mantel up (good); b, reaching too far forward with hands causes feet to
lose their purchase (poor).
 images

Fig. 12-41. Down-climbing techniques: a, facing out on low-angle rock; b,

going down a friction slab; c, facing sideways on steeper rock; d, facing in
on steep rock.

STYLE AND ETHICS

Climbers debate endlessly over which styles are fair and which are less
than sporting and over which practices are harmful to the environment and
which are not. Climbers soon discover that getting to the end of the pitch or
the top of the peak is not the only goal—another is getting there in a way
that feels right, respects the rock, and tests a climber’s skill and resolve.
These are matters of style and ethics.

The terms “style” and “ethics” are sometimes used interchangeably by

climbers, but style is generally an individual attribute, while ethics pertains
to overall application of the pursuit. In other words, style refers to each
climber’s personal mode of climbing; for example, is it fair to say you have
led a first ascent if you first climbed the route on a top rope? Ethics pertain
to issues concerning preservation of the rock and the environment itself.

DIVERSITY OF STYLES

Styles change and attitudes evolve, but the core of the debate on climbing
styles is about how to maintain the challenge of climber against rock and
how to play the game in a way that fairly tests the climber.

Climbers adhering to traditional style prefer to climb each route strictly

from the ground up, with no help from such aids as top ropes or preplaced
protection such as bolts. New routes are explored and protected only on
lead. This type of climbing characterizes rock climbing in the alpine
setting, but it is also found at many popular crags.

Climbers following the sport-climbing style influenced by Europeans are

more likely to find other techniques acceptable as well. This can include
inspecting the route on rappel before trying to lead it from below. It can
also mean cleaning the route (removing protection placed by the lead
climber or by another climber) and perhaps preplacing protection on rappel.
Routes may be climbed with multiple falls, by resting on the rope while
checking out the next move (hangdogging), or by rehearsing moves with
the help of a top rope. These techniques have made it possible to climb
harder and harder routes with the climber assuming less risk.

Often, due to the commitment and remoteness of alpine ascents, climbers

will pull on gear or stand in a sling to climb through a hard section with
greater speed and safety. Just as alpine climbers can improve their
technique by cross training with sport climbing, they will also benefit from
a knowledge of aid climbing (see Chapter 15, Aid and Big Wall Climbing).

A particular climbing area may lend itself more to one style than another
because of the type of rock, the difficulty of the routes, or the prevailing
style among the local climbers. In the world of climbing, there is room for a
diversity of styles, and most climbers experience a variety of them.

ETHICS AND THE ROCK

The subject of ethics has to do with respecting the rock and every person’s
chance to use it. Unlike climbing style, ethics involves personal decisions
that do affect others’ experience and enjoyment. This includes the sticky
question of the manner in which bolts are placed on a route. Are bolts that
are placed on rappel different from—less “ethical” than—bolts placed on
the lead? Some climbers may argue that bolts placed while on rappel rob
others of the chance to try the route from the ground up, and such bolts are
often placed at less-convenient places than they would be if they were
placed on a ground-up ascent. But other climbers may say that placing the
bolts on rappel gives them a chance at an otherwise unclimbable route.

Each area has its own tradition of what styles and ethics are acceptable.
Visiting climbers should observe the local standards, which are usually
described in local guidebooks, as well as any land management regulations,
since some areas prohibit any bolting or placing of permanent anchors.
Sometimes locals may disagree among themselves. This book does not try
to resolve issues of style and ethics, but there is general agreement on a
couple of principles.
Preservation of the rock is paramount. Chipping the rock to create new
holds is unacceptable and destroys a natural feature—and who knows? It
may be climbed someday as it is. Although bolt-protected routes are
common in many areas, bolting should not be indiscriminate. In the
mountains or other wilderness areas, away from concentrated centers of
rock climbing, it is particularly important to preserve the environment for
those who follow. If possible, stick to clean climbing, using only removable
gear for protection (see Chapter 13, Rock Protection).

It is almost never justifiable to add a bolt to an existing route (retro-

bolting). If you feel you cannot safely climb the route as it is, do not try it.
Retro-bolting usually occurs when a consensus of local climbers agree that
more bolts should be placed to promote safety and enjoyment and the first
ascensionists concur.

There should be no objection to replacement of an old bolt with a newer,

stronger one at an established belay or rappel point, provided you have the
necessary skills and experience to replace it.

COURTESY

Climbers should keep others in mind when they are out climbing. If a
climbing party is moving up a multipitch route at a much slower pace than
that of the people behind them, the first group should let the following
party pass at a safe spot, such as a belay ledge. Passing can be awkward or
dangerous on some longer, harder routes so a party traveling more slowly
than the norm for such a route may leave many frustrated climbers waiting
for several hours or having to retreat.

BEING PREPARED

Beware of tackling climbs that are beyond your personal abilities. Try
climbs at your limit on the crags rather than in the mountains. If
inexperience gets a climbing party in trouble in the mountains, they may
involve other climbers in a time-consuming and dangerous rescue of their
party. Come prepared to handle the possibilities inherent in the chosen
climb. Aim to be self-reliant within your climbing party and capable of
self-rescue. This competence will add to climbers’ confidence and
enjoyment of the alpine environment.
CONNECTING THE ROPE TO PROTECTION • NATURAL
PROTECTION • FIXED PROTECTION • REMOVABLE PROTECTION
• ROCK PROTECTION ETIQUETTE • BUILDING SKILLS

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CHAPTER 13

ROCK PROTECTION

The “rack and rope” are, collectively, the rock climber’s protection.
The rope connects two climbers—one leading a pitch while the other
belays. Protection, or “pro,” connects them both to the rock face. The
belayer is connected to an anchor that can be natural, such as a live
tree, or formed from several pieces of protection. To limit a fall, the
climber on lead periodically places protection from the rack (the
collection of gear used for protection) while climbing.

The quality and location of the protection that the lead climber places
largely determine the consequences of a potential fall. If a climber falls
while leading, the length of the fall will be about twice the distance
between the climber and the last point of protection, plus rope stretch (fig.
13-1). If the last piece placed pulls out, the fall increases in length by
double the distance to the next piece that holds the fall (see “Understanding
Impact Force” and “Understanding Fall Factors” in Chapter 10, Belaying).
Climbers need to be skilled at both selecting solid locations for protection
and in making the placement.

CONNECTING THE ROPE TO PROTECTION

Carabiners and runners are the tools climbers use to connect the climbing
rope to protection (fig. 13-2a). One carabiner is attached to the protection,
the other is attached to the rope. The carabiner should almost always be
used in the down-and-out position: the gate should point down and away
from the rock surface (fig. 13-2b). This position lessens the chance that the
carabiner gate will accidentally open during a fall—potentially disastrous.
The rope itself should be clipped in so that it runs freely through the
carabiner in the direction of travel (fig. 13-2c): the rope should travel from
the rock surface upward through the carabiner and then out toward the
climber. If the climbing route does not take the climber straight upward, the
rope exits the carabiner on one side or the other; it should exit on the side
opposite from the gate. This minimizes the chance that the rope will twist
across the gate and open it during a fall (see Figure 14-9 in Chapter 14,
Leading on Rock).

Runners, slings, and cordelette serve to lengthen the distance between the
point of protection and the rope. This helps to isolate rope movement from
the protection, keeping protection from wiggling or “walking” from its
intended placement or dislodging completely, and also helps to minimize
friction or rope drag on the climbing rope by allowing it to run in more of a
straight line. Runners, slings, and cordelette can connect directly to natural
protection (see Figures 13-3 and 13-4) or, rarely, to preexisting fixed
protection without the use of an intervening carabiner. Carabiners should be
placed so they are not at risk of being cross-loaded across the rock in the
event of a fall.

NATURAL PROTECTION

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Fig. 13-1. Leader fall with intermediate points of protection in place.

Trees and rock features can provide excellent protection, conserve gear, and
offer a quicker alternative than placing gear, but carefully evaluate them for
stability and strength. “Test before you trust” is a good rule. Be wary of
rock that is brittle, vegetation that is poorly rooted, and other suggestions of
weakness. (See “Natural Anchors” in Chapter 10, Belaying.) An error in
judgment could result not only in failed protection but also in a rock or tree
crashing down upon the climber, the belayer, or other parties on the route.

Trees and large bushes provide the most obvious points of attachment, but
do not trust a dead, brittle, weak, or loose tree or shrub. Look for a healthy
trunk with live branches and a solid root system. If there is any question,
test smaller trees by pushing against them with one foot. For using natural
protection midpitch, single or double runners are commonly looped around
the base of the trunk, with the ends clipped together with a carabiner (fig.
13-3a). You can also untie a knotted sling and retie it around the trunk. A
third method is to use a girth hitch (fig. 13-3b). If using the natural
protection point as an anchor, a cordelette is commonly looped around the
base of the trunk and tied with a figure eight, with the resulting power point
of all strands clipped to a locking carabiner (fig. 13-3c). The cordelette
usually should be as close to the tree roots as possible, although with a
strong tree the cordelette may be placed higher if necessary. Often a 20-foot
(6 meters) or longer cordelette is needed.

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Fig. 13-2. Correct down-and-out positioning of a carabiner: a, clip the

carabiner into the pro’s runner in a downward direction; b, then rotate it
out and away from the rock (gate opening is now down and facing out from
rock); c, rope clipped through carabiner in direction of travel.

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Fig. 13-3. Using a tree trunk as a protection point: a, sewn sling wrapped
around trunk; b, sewn sling girth hitched around trunk; c, anchor setup
with a cordelette tied around trunk using a figure eight.

Rock features—horns, columns, rock tunnels, chockstones, large and flat-

bottomed boulders—are other common forms of natural protection. In
evaluating a rock feature, consider its relative hardness, how crumbly it is,
and whether it is firmly attached to the rock around it. Attempt to move the
rock, being careful not to pull it loose. Whack it a few times with a hand or
fist. Beware of hollow sounds or brittleness.

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Fig. 13-4. Attaching the rope to a rock feature: a, using one runner and one
carabiner to link a point of natural protection with the rope; b, securing a
runner to a rock horn with a clove hitch; c, slinging a horn with a slipknot
on a runner, with the dressed slipknot shown at right.
Horns (also called knobs or chicken heads, depending on their shape and
size) are the most common type of natural rock protection. If there is any
question about rock horns, test them by pushing against them with one foot.
To attach to a rock horn, a runner can be looped over the horn and clipped
in to the rope (fig. 13-4a), but it may be pulled off the horn by rope
movement. Use a clove hitch (fig. 13-4b) or slipknot (fig. 13-4c) to tighten
the runner around the horn to help prevent it from slipping off. The slipknot
can be tied easily with one hand and requires less sling material than a girth
hitch or clove hitch. (See “Knots, Bends, and Hitches” in Chapter 9, Basic
Safety System.)

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Fig. 13-5. Attaching a sewn runner to a rock column using a girth hitch.

To attach to a rock column or chockstone or through a rock tunnel, first

thread a sewn runner around the feature, then clip both ends of the loop
with a carabiner. Alternatively, thread the runner around the rock feature
and then secure it with a girth hitch (fig. 13-5) or untie a knotted runner and
retie it after threading it through the point of protection.

Take extra care when using freestanding boulders. They should not move or
rock when tested. Consider not just the size but the shape of the boulder,
what it rests on, and how it is affected by changing conditions such as snow
or ice. Avoid any feature with a rounded bottom or a narrowed base, as well
as features that rest on gravel, sand, or downsloping ledges. Sling a boulder
around its base. Keep the pulling point low to minimize leverage on the
boulder.

Natural protection used for anchors on popular routes often accumulates

slings as each party rappels from a route and leaves yet another sling
behind. Do not trust these slings with your life without inspecting and
testing their strength. Sunlight, weather, and age can degrade them.

FIXED PROTECTION

On established routes, climbers may encounter previously placed bolts and

pitons (see also “Fixed Anchors” in Chapter 10, Belaying). Climbers also
may encounter removable protection that became fixed when someone
could not remove it. On rock climbing topo maps (see Figure 14-3 in
Chapter 14, Leading on Rock), bolts and fixed pitons are often shown as
“x” and “fp,” respectively.

BOLTS

Bolts are most commonly seen in sport-climbing areas, but they may also
be found on traditional or aid-climbing routes. Bolt hangers allow
carabiners to be attached to bolts (fig. 13-6a and b). Chains are sometimes
found at sport-climbing anchors (fig. 13-6c) to facilitate rappelling (see
Figure 11-3 for a bolted rappel anchor setup).

A well-placed bolt will last for years, but age and weather can compromise
it. Be especially wary of ¼-inch bolts, which were placed primarily in the
1960s and 1970s. Bolts measuring 3/16 to 1/2 inch in diameter have been
used since the mid-1980s and are now the standard. Standard metric bolts
are 10, 12, and 14 millimeters in diameter.

Visually check both the bolt and its hanger for signs of weakness,
especially for cracks, excessive corrosion, or brittleness. A rust streak
below the bolt indicates metal wear. Do not trust an old sheet-metal-style
hanger with heavy rust. Test whether the bolt is securely anchored into the
rock by clipping in to the bolt hanger with a carabiner and trying to pull the
bolt around or out. Any bolt that can be moved in any direction, however
slightly, is probably not trustworthy. Avoid banging on the bolt, which
weakens it. Back up any suspect bolt with another point of protection
wherever possible.

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Fig. 13-6. Bolt and bolt hanger: a, from the side with a carabiner clipped
to hanger; b, from the front with a quickdraw clipped to hanger; c, with
quick link and chains attached.

If the bolt and its placement seem solid, use a carabiner to clip a runner to
the bolt hanger. At a fixed anchor with chains hanging from the bolt
hangers (see Figure 13-6c), clip the bolt hangers if at all possible, to free up
the quick links, chain links, or rap rings for rappels. Some carabiners may
not fit through the chains’ upper links.

Bolts without hangers can be reliable protection if a hanger is added. If you

anticipate hangerless bolts, carry extra hangers and nuts. If a bolt has no
hanger, a last-resort solution is to slide a wired nut down its wires (fig. 13-
7a), slip the upper wire loop around the bolt stud, and snug the nut up again
against the bolt (fig. 13-7b). Attach a runner to the lower end of the nut
wire.

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Fig. 13-7. Placing a wired nut on a hangerless bolt: a, create a loop by

sliding the nut down its wires; b, slide the nut up its wires to form a noose
around the bolt.

PITONS

Pitons were commonly used in mountaineering through the 1970s but are
rarely used today, because placing and removing them scars the rock.
However, many pitons remain as fixed placements on various routes. While
it is better to rely on your own protection, these fixed pitons may be clipped
as protection and might be helpful at times in retreating, when attempting
to minimize gear left behind.

Pitons, even more than bolts, are vulnerable to weathering. Years of melt-
freeze cycles widen cracks in the rock and loosen pitons. Examine pitons
closely for signs of corrosion or weakness, and examine the cracks they are
in for deterioration. Heavy use, failed attempts at removal, and falls on a
piton can lead to cracks in the metal around the eye or other damage.

Ideally the piton was driven in all the way, with its eye close to the rock and
the piton perpendicular to the likely direction of pull. If the piton appears
secure, and in good condition, clip a carabiner (with runner attached)
through the eye of the piton (fig. 13-8). Place the carabiner so that under a
load it will not be levered against the rock.
If a piton is driven in only partially but otherwise is secure, or if the eye is
damaged and can’t accept a carabiner, use a runner to tie the piton off next
to the rock with a girth hitch, clove hitch, or slipknot (fig. 13-9) to reduce
the leverage on the piton under the impact of a fall. If the eye is usable, you
may want to girth hitch a keeper sling to the eye and clip the carabiner in to
it to catch the piton if it falls. Do not rely on this setup if there is better
protection available.

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Fig. 13-8. Piton driven into rock: carabiner (with runner attached) clipped
through piton’s eye.

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Fig. 13-9. Partially driven piton, with a runner girth-hitched to it close to

the rock to reduce leverage and a keeper sling added to catch the piton if it
pulls out.

OTHER FIXED PIECES

Removable protection may be abandoned when a party is unable to remove

it. Do not trust removable gear that someone else placed. When these
“fixed” pieces are encountered, examine them carefully and consider that
the party may have abandoned it as the oldest piece on the rack that they
were retiring anyway.

In addition to examining the gear and the rock where the piece is placed,
note whether the sling attached to the fixed gear appears to be worn or
damaged. Because of fixed gear’s questionable integrity, consider it
primarily backup protection.

REMOVABLE PROTECTION

Removable protection includes the various types of artificial protection

other than bolts and pitons. Removable protection generally consists of a
metal device that can be secured into the rock, with a sling for use in
linking the metal piece to the rope. Removable protection must be placed in
high-quality rock to maximize strength. For environmental reasons, using
removable protection is preferred to placing new pitons or bolts because it
leaves no scars on the rock. Removable protection generally falls into one
of two categories: without moving parts (passive) or with moving parts
(active).

Passive removable protection pieces, also known as chocks, are made from
a single piece of metal and a connecting sling or cable. A typical placement
is into a constriction in a crack. Shapes can vary from a tapered wedge,
often called a nut or stopper (see Figure 13-10), to a deformed hexagonal
tube, often called a hex (see Figure 13-11a, b, c, and d), to the more
unusually shaped passive camming pieces such as the Tricam (see Figure
13-11e) that can be used in a torquing orientation, with counterforce
exerted between the piece’s point and its curved side. Tube chocks, often
called Big Bros (see Figure 13-13), do have movable parts—they telescope
out to a desired size—but they are passively placed much like a hex or a
Tricam.

Spring-loaded camming devices (SLCDs), which are commonly called

cams, are active devices that use spring mechanisms to allow portions of
the device to cam against opposite walls of a crack (see Figure 13-14).
Loading the device increases the pressure against the rock. Triggers on the
device retract the parts, allowing insertion and removal.

PASSIVE REMOVABLE PROTECTION

Multiple chock shapes fit multiple rock cracks, but chocks are strongest
when the most metal is in contact with the rock. Chocks have a primary
placement direction, but many chocks also are designed for multiple
placement options to maximize adaptability. Manufacturers rate the
breaking strength of gear, and in general bigger chocks have higher
breaking strength.

Passive wedging chocks come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, but
most have a generally wedge-shaped appearance (see Figure 13-10). They
are called by many names, from brand names such as Stoppers to simply
“wired nuts” or “nuts.” Nuts are narrower at the base than at the top (fig.
13-10a), which lets them slip down into a constriction. Variations of nuts
include flat faces, curved faces (fig. 13-10b), more-curved faces (fig. 13-
10c), faces with notches or grooves (fig. 13-10d),and sides that may be
parallel or offset, with both horizontal and vertical tapers. Some of the
smallest nuts, referred to as micronuts, are designed for very thin cracks
and for aid climbing (fig. 13-10e). Manufacturers construct the nuts with
softer metals so that the rock bites into them better than it does into
standard aluminum nuts, but this also makes micronuts less durable. The
thinness of the micronut’s cable makes it more prone to damage from
normal use. Inspect micronuts and their cables often for nicks and other
signs of wear, and retire them if the cable is damaged.

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Fig. 13-10. Nuts: a, Stopper; b, curved nut; c, Wallnut; d, offset nut with
grooves; e, micronut.

Hexentrics and other similar chocks take their name from their hexagonal
shape (fig. 13-11a through d). Each pair of opposing sides on a hex is a
different distance apart, permitting three different placement options per
piece. The off-center sling creates the camming action (fig. 13-12a), or the
piece can be wedged in a constriction. More-rounded versions of the hex
work on the same principles.

Tricams have curved rails along one side opposite from a point, or
“stinger,” on the other side (fig. 13-11e). Camming action is produced by
running the sling between the curved side rails and setting the stinger in a
small depression or irregularity in the crack (fig. 13-12b); the load on the
sling rotates the device into the rock with a camlike action. Tricams also
can be used as passive devices simply set into a constriction (see Figure 13-
20b), particularly those that narrow sharply.

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Fig. 13-11. Passive camming chocks: a, wired hex; b, wired curved hex; c,
hex slung with high-strength webbing; d, curved hex slung with high-
strength webbing; e, Tricam.

images
Fig. 13-12. Passive camming chocks in a vertical crack: a, Hexentric; b,
Tricam.

Another device that acts as a passive cam (even though it is spring loaded)
is the Big Bro, a tube chock with a spring-loaded inner sleeve that
telescopes out to bridge a crack when a release button is pressed (fig. 13-
13a). The extended sleeve is then locked into place by spinning the collar
down snugly against the outer tube. The sling is attached at one end so a
torquing action adds to stability when loaded (fig. 13-13b). Tube chocks are
specialized for wide parallel cracks known as off-widths.

Most nuts and some hexes are slung with wire cable, which is much
stronger than cord or webbing of the same size. The stiffness of the wire
cable sometimes aids in placing the chock. Other chocks have sewn slings
of cord, nylon webbing, or high-strength materials such as Spectra. A few
are available without slings, and the climber must tie them. The sling
material should be rated for climbing forces and should be twice as long as
the desired sling length, plus about 12 inches (30 centimeters) for the knot
and 1-inch-long (2.5-centimeter-long) tails—or 28 to 32 inches (71 to 81
centimeters) of material to make a loop 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25
centimeters) long. Due to the greater stiffness and lower friction of Spectra
and other high-strength materials, a triple fisherman’s bend is
recommended for tying the sling (see Figure 13-13b). Inspect cables and
slings regularly for damage, and follow manufacturer’s instructions for
replacing or repairing them.

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Fig. 13-13. Spring-loaded tube chock: a, contracted and expanded; b,

correctly placed in a vertical crack, where it acts as a passive cam.

ACTIVE REMOVABLE PROTECTION

Spring-loaded protection devices expand the limits of free climbing by

providing protection that can be placed easily with one hand and that can
adapt to a variety of cracks.

Spring-Loaded Camming Devices

The first spring-loaded cams, called Friends, were introduced in the mid-
1970s. Now spring-loaded camming devices (SLCDs or “cams”) are
manufactured in a wide size range and with multiple designs (see Figure
13-15). The basic design has four lobes—called a four-cam unit—that
rotate from one or two axles, connected to a trigger mechanism on a stem.
When the trigger is pulled, the lobes retract (fig. 13-14a), narrowing the
profile of the device for placement in a crack or pocket. When the trigger is
released, the lobes open up against the sides of the rock (fig. 13-14b). The
cams move independently of each other, permitting each to rotate to the
point needed for maximum contact with the rock. This movement sets the
device in place. If you fall, the stem is pulled downward or outward,
increasing both the camming action and the outward pressure of the cams
on the rock.

images

Fig. 13-14. SLCD or cam: a, retracted; b, correctly placed in a vertically

oriented crack.

images

Fig. 13-15. SLCDs: a, Black Diamond Camalot C4; b, Metolius three-cam

unit (TCU); c, CCH Alien; d, Wild Country Technical Friend; e, Black
Diamond Camalot C3; f, Omega Pacific Link Cam, g, Totem Cam.

Variations of SLCDs include double-axle cams that can be used in the

totally open position—called Camalots (figure 13-15a is a C4)—and those
that cannot; specialized cams that fit into narrower placements (side to
side) such as three-cam units (fig. 13-15b), called TCUs, and Aliens (fig.
13-15c), as well as two-cam units; cams with rigid stems or flexible stems;
specialized cams designed to hold better in sandstone—called Fat Cams;
cams with different trigger designs; specialized cams designed for flaring
cracks, such as the Hybrid Alien; lightweight cams that cover wide ranges
(figure 13-15d is a Technical Friend); cams for small cracks (figure 13-15e
is a C3); extended-range cams (fig. 13-15f) that maximize the range of a
single piece of gear; and flexible-body cams (figure 13-15g is a Totem
Cam) with a wide expansion range. Some manufacturers, such as Metolius,
indicate the optimal camming range with colored dots on the sides of the
camming units.

Spring-Loaded Nuts

Spring-loaded nuts (fig. 13-16a) use a small sliding piece to expand the
profile of the nut after it is placed in a crack. To place one, first retract the
smaller piece by pulling back on the spring-loaded trigger, thereby
narrowing the profile of the nut so it can be inserted into a thin crack (fig.
13-16b). Then release the trigger, permitting the smaller piece to press up
between the larger piece and the rock, filling in the gap and increasing the
area of the nut that is in contact with the rock (fig. 13-16c).

Spring-loaded nuts work particularly well in small, parallel-sided cracks

where other devices may be difficult or impossible to place. But like
micronuts, these nuts have less holding power than larger nuts with no
moving parts because of the smaller surface area gripping the rock and
because the spring may allow some movement—or “walking”—within the
crack after placement.

images

Fig. 13-16. Spring-loaded nuts: a, C.A.M.P. USA Ball Nut; b, contracted; c,

expanded.

PLACING REMOVABLE PROTECTION

Placing solid protection is both art and science. Developing an eye for good
placement sites and then placing the right piece into the right place securely
and efficiently require practice to perfect (see the “General Considerations
in Placing Removable Protection” sidebar).

Good placements start with good rock; in poor rock, even apparently good
placements may not hold a fall at all. In good rock, look for constrictions in
a crack, irregularities in crack surfaces, and prominences behind a flake. A
good site for protection placement has solid rock sides—free of vegetation,
dirt, or deteriorating rock. Avoid crystals or irregularities that may not be
bonded strongly to the surrounding rock. Check for loose blocks or flakes
by shaking or hitting the rock with your fist; if the rock moves or sounds
hollow, look for a better spot.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PLACING REMOVABLE

PROTECTION

To climb confidently and safely, climbers must know how to place

protection efficiently. Consider these guidelines when selecting where to
place protection on difficult terrain.

imagesSelect high-quality rock and avoid rock that crumbles or flakes.

imagesLearn to estimate the right chock size and shape for a particular
placement. Use your hands to size the crack to the equipment. The better
your estimate, the more efficient the placement.

imagesCams or hexes are often best in parallel cracks, while offset

cams or Tricams are best in flaring cracks. Chocks with slings or flexible
stems are best in horizontal cracks.

imagesUse your fingers to place the piece just where you want it. Avoid
dragging the chock blindly through a crack and hoping it catches.

imagesReinforce doubtful placements with another chock, use a load-

limiting runner to decrease forces on the piece, or find a better placement.

imagesRemember the climber who will be following behind you and

removing the protection. Make your placements secure, but also try to
make them reasonably easy to remove and within reach of a shorter
follower if necessary.

imagesLet your follower know (if possible) if an intricate series of

moves was necessary to place the piece, so your follower can reverse the
moves and return your gear.

imagesAvoid shallow placements where chocks can easily pull out of

the crack, but avoid very deep placements that are hard for the follower to
retrieve.
 imagesRecheck the chock after it is placed. Look to see that it is in
good contact with the rock. Give the piece a strong tug in the direction of
pull to set the piece and test the reliability of the placement.

imagesClip a runner between the chock and the rope to minimize the
effect of rope movement on the piece. An adequate length of runner not
only prevents pulling on the piece but also helps prevent rope drag (see
Chapter 14, Leading on Rock).

imagesUse a cam or oppositional chocks as the first placement to

avoid the zipper effect caused by an outward or upward pull in a fall (see
“Using Opposition Placement,” later in this chapter).

The next consideration is the type of protection to use. Wedges work best
when placed behind constrictions in a vertically oriented crack. Hexes or
Tricams work well in horizontal cracks and behind small irregularities in
cracks or flakes where it may be difficult or impossible to position wedges.
Tricams often are the only pieces that will work in shallow, flaring pockets.
SLCDs are easier to place, but they are relatively heavy and expensive, and
placement integrity can be more difficult to evaluate. However, SLCDs
often work in parallel-sided or slightly flaring cracks where it is difficult or
impossible to get anything else to hold.

More than one type of device may work in a given spot. Make a choice
based on ease of placement and what may be needed later on the pitch.
Ration the pieces that will be needed higher up.

Placing Nuts

The basic procedure for placing nuts (passive wedging chocks) is quite
simple: find a crack with a constriction at some point, place an appropriate
piece of protection above the constriction (fig. 13-17a), slide it into place
(fig. 13-17b), and pull down on the sling to set the nut firmly in position
(fig. 13-17c). Slot the nut completely into the crack, with as much of the
metal surface as possible contacting the rock. Use your fingers to set the
piece in the best spot, although sometimes threading the cable behind a
protrusion is the best option.
 images

Fig. 13-17. Placing a nut: a, place nut into crack above constriction; b,
slide it into place; c, tug on nut wire to set it.

images

Fig. 13-18. Placement of nuts: a, stronger placement with wide sides in

contact with rock; b, weaker placement with ends in contact with rock.

The best choice of nut for any given placement is whichever size and shape
offers the best fit. As a general rule, greater contact between nut and rock
means a stronger placement. Therefore, larger nuts generally are stronger
than smaller ones, and wide-side placements (fig. 13-18a; presenting more
surface area) generally are stronger than end placements (13-18b);
however, the fit is most important. Micronuts must be placed especially
carefully and have excellent contact with the rock, given their lower
strength.

Evaluate nut placements from multiple directions if possible. Even if the

front looks good, the back may not be in contact with the rock. If it looks
doubtful from other angles, find a better placement or piece. Carefully
evaluate the potential effects of rope drag and the direction of loading in the
event of a fall. In vertical cracks, setting a nut with a downward pull
usually keeps the chock in place, although the rope may pull sideways or
upward. In horizontal cracks, nuts will be pulled outward. Climbers can
also place two nuts to equalize or oppose for greater security (techniques
discussed in “Using Opposition Placement” and “Equalizing Protection”
later in this chapter).

Placing Hexes and Tricams

In addition to being used as a chock in a constriction, a hex or a Tricam

also is designed to cam under load. In parallel-sided cracks, this feature
must be used for the placement to work. A good placement is tight enough
to have good contact with the rock and to avoid being displaced by the
rope, yet positioned to allow camming action under load.
 images

Fig. 13-19. Placements of a hex: a, in a vertical crack as a passive cam; b,

sideways in a vertical crack as a passive wedging chock; c, facing out in a
horizontal crack as a passive cam.

In vertical cracks, the piece will be more secure if it is placed just above a
constriction or irregularity in the crack and if it is oriented so that the
camming action pulls it more tightly against any irregularity (figs. 13-19a
and 13-20a and b). Placed as a passive wedging chock, a hex’s camming
surfaces face out (fig. 13-19b).

In horizontal cracks, the piece should be placed so that the downward or

outward pull of a fall would maximize camming action. Hexes should be
positioned so that the sling exits the crack closer to the roof than to the
floor (fig. 13-19c) to maximize camming action. Tricams should be placed
to optimize overall fit, and the sling and rails can be either down or up
(Figure 13-20c shows rails and sling up).

images

Fig. 13-20. Placements of the Tricam: a, as a passive cam in a vertical

crack; b, as a passive wedging chock in a vertical crack; c, as a passive
cam in a horizontal crack.

Placing Spring-Loaded Camming Devices

An SLCD can be placed very quickly. It is the device of choice for parallel-
sided cracks that lack the constrictions or irregularities needed for passive
chocks. It also can be used in slightly flaring cracks and in cracks under
roofs where other chocks may be slow or difficult to place or questionable
to use.

images

Fig. 13-21. Placement of SLCDs: a, cams expanded to midpoint—stem in

likely direction of pull (good); b, cams are over-retracted—hard to remove
(poor); c, cams are overexpanded—failure likely (dangerous).
TIPS FOR PLACING SLCDS

imagesBe certain all cams contact the rock so the placement is stable
(see Figure 13-21a).

imagesBe aware that the device may become jammed in the crack and
impossible to remove if the cams are fully retracted in the placement (see
Figure 13-21b).

imagesDo not overexpand the cams, since little camming action can
then occur (see Figure 13-21c), making the device more likely to pull loose
during a fall.

imagesRemember that SLCDs placed in soft rock can be pulled out

by a hard fall, even when they are placed properly. This is true of
sandstone and limestone.

imagesPlace SLCDs with their stems pointing in the direction of pull

from a fall.

imagesMake a careful placement and use a suitable runner to

minimize “walking”: rope movement can cause the entire piece to “walk,”
moving it either deeper into or out of the crack, jeopardizing stability of the
placement.

imagesIn a horizontal crack, place a three-cam unit’s side with two

cams on the bottom for best stability. In vertical cracks, place the two
cams on whichever side provides the best fit in the crack.

Within their given range, the three or four individual cams in the device
will adjust to the width and irregularities of the crack as the trigger is
released. The stem of the device must be pointed in the likely direction of
pull during a fall to provide maximum strength and to help keep it from
being pulled out of position. SLCDs work best in harder rock such as
granite rather than sandstone and in cracks with relatively even sides.

When placed well (see the “Tips for Placing SLCDs” sidebar and Figure
13-21), SLCDs can protect against somewhat multidirectional loads, and
climbers may use these to decrease chances of the zipper effect (see
Chapter 14, Leading on Rock). After clipping a runner to the SLCD and
rope, wiggle the rope and make sure the SLCD does not walk back in the
crack. SLCDs have a flexible stem that will hang out over the edge of the
crack in horizontal or near-horizontal cracks (fig. 13-22).

Placing Spring-Loaded Nuts

Spring-loaded nuts can be used almost anywhere a passive nut would be

used, but they really come into their own in thin cracks, including parallel-
sided cracks (fig. 13-23). When placing spring-loaded nuts, select just the
right size for the crack, because the placement size range for any one of
these devices is quite narrow. They are susceptible to being pulled out of
place by rope movement, so attach a runner to the piece. As with any piece
of protection, place the device so it is strongest in the direction of the force
of a potential fall.

images

Fig. 13-22. SLCD placement in a horizontal crack: the flexible cable stem
can bend and adjust to the direction of pull.

images

Fig. 13-23. Placement of spring-loaded nut.

USING OPPOSITION PLACEMENT

Sometimes a second chock must be placed in order to keep the initial one in
position, such as the first placement on a pitch to avoid the zipper effect
(see Chapter 14, Leading on Rock). Single placements can sometimes be
dislodged by sideways or upward pulls on the rope as the lead climber
advances, because of changes in the direction of the route (see Figure 14-10
in Chapter 14, Leading on Rock).

To form an opposition placement, place two pieces that will pull toward
each other when linked. Use carabiners with slings to link the chocks.
Ideally the chocks should be held together under a slight tension. Use clove
hitches to tie a runner between the carabiners on the chock slings, then
cinch up the runner; the climbing rope may then be clipped to the long loop
of the runner (fig. 13-24a). Or just clove-hitch the runner to the upper
carabiner, which tensions the lower carabiner, and clip the climbing rope to
the runner (fig. 13-24b).

images

Fig. 13-24. Opposing chocks in a vertically oriented crack: a, connected by

a runner secured with clove hitches to each chock’s carabiner; b, connected
by a runner clove-hitched to the upper chock’s carabiner, which tensions
the lower carabiner.

EQUALIZING PROTECTION

A leader who is faced with a hard move or questionable protection may

decide to place two pieces of protection close together. If one piece fails,
the other remains as a backup. Another option is to equalize the load over
two protection points, subjecting each to only a portion of the total force.
(For equalizing protection to establish an anchor, see “Equalizing the
Anchor” in Chapter 10, Belaying.)

It is possible to equalize the forces between two points of protection with

one hand and only one runner. First clip the runner in to both chocks. Next
put a half twist in the middle of one length of the runner and pull the
resulting loop down to meet the other side of the runner (see Figure 10-22,
the sliding X, in Chapter 10, Belaying). Then simply clip an extra carabiner
through both runner strands, with the rope attached to this carabiner. If one
chock later pulls out, the twist in the runner will slide down and catch
around the carabiner, but some extension will occur. Clipping in to the twist
is essential because without it the entire setup will fail if one chock comes
loose.

STACKING

If nothing on a rack will accommodate the crack in which protection must

be placed, the advanced technique called stacking can sometimes help.
Place two passive wedges in opposition, with the larger one on top (fig. 13-
25).

images

Fig. 13-25. Stacking chocks.

A downward pull on the larger chock causes it to wedge between one side
of the crack and one side of the other chock. Seat the larger chock with a
firm tug before using it, and connect it to the rope in the usual way. Use a
runner to clip the smaller chock in to the wire of the larger chock or another
runner to keep the smaller chock from becoming a flying missile when it is
removed by the follower or if it comes loose in a fall. Use only chocks that
seat well against one another; otherwise, stacking is not effective.

REMOVING PROTECTION

Removable pro can be easy to place but sometimes difficult to remove,

whether for the leader who wants to choose a different piece for a crack
other than the one just placed or for the follower cleaning the pitch. A nut
tool (also known as a cleaning tool or chock pick) is a specialized tool to
assist in removing protection (see Figure 14-4 in Chapter 14, Leading on
Rock). Nut tools often are racked separately on the harness, sometimes
with retractable cord to avoid losing them if dropped. Nut tools can be used
to apply force underneath a stubborn piece to push it up and to reverse how
it was placed. In a narrow crack, the tool can be used to grab the cable at
the top of a wedge and pull it out from above.

ROCK PROTECTION ETIQUETTE

Chapter 12, Alpine Rock Climbing, discusses the issue of ethics in placing
protection. Specifically, many climbing areas expressly forbid placing or
even replacing bolts, and it is each climber’s responsibility to understand
the rules before installing a bolt. Some land managers request that climbers
receive permission before placing or replacing bolts. Common practice for
sport-climbing routes is for the first ascensionist to place the only bolts.
Popular routes where natural features such as trees and horns are common
rappel stations often collect slings from various parties over time. If
climbers find damaged slings, they should cut the slings off and remove
them from the route. Many climbing areas encourage the use of natural-
colored bolts and slings for those that are left on routes, to address aesthetic
concerns of nonclimbing visitors.

BUILDING SKILLS

The way to become proficient at placing protection is very simple: practice.

First, practice by placing protection while standing on the ground. When
following as a second, observe closely how the leader places protection.
Practice placing pieces while climbing on a top rope. When you believe
you are ready to try leading, start on an easy pitch that you have already
climbed as a second or while on top-rope. Place more pieces than are
needed, just for the practice. Do not be discouraged if the first time turns
out to be harder than it looks. Bring along a knowledgeable, experienced
climber as your second—it is a great way to get valuable feedback. Just
keep at it, and soon you will be the one giving advice.
LEADING ON NONTECHNICAL TERRAIN • LEADING TECHNICAL
CLIMBS • LEADING ON ROCK, STEP BY STEP • PERSONAL
RESPONSIBILITY

images

CHAPTER 14

LEADING ON ROCK

Leading on rock requires the complementary skills of both the leader

and the belayer. The lead climber determines the route ahead, places
protection for the pitch, and sets up the next belay station. The belayer
monitors the leader, feeds out rope, anticipates the leader’s need for
tension or slack, and comunicates with the leader about remaining rope
length, route descriptions, and more. Although the leader incurs
additional risk while on the “sharp end of the rope,” the belayer and
leader both play a critical role in making each pitch safe and successful.

Imagine two climbers high on a rock face. One is on lead, climbing up a

crack, belayed by rope through numerous points of protection by a partner
anchored to a ledge below. The leader gives a sharp yank to the stopper he
just placed in the crack. Grasping the rope tied to his harness, he pulls it up
and clips it in to the protection. His belayer yells up to him “Halfway!” to
indicate that he has reached the midpoint on the rope. He exhales deeply,
switches hands in the crack, and shakes out his arm before raising his eyes to
study the route ahead. He sees that the thin splitter crack continues up
steeply, with a few uneven pockets where a hand jam appears solid. From
his rack, he readies a cam he feels would be ideal for placement when he
reaches the most promising pocket several moves up. He mentally rehearses
his moves, then resumes climbing.

Leading on rock requires merging climbing skill and psychological

readiness. How do climbers decide whether they are ready? Others,
especially more experienced climbers, can help assess someone’s skills.
However, only the individual climber can assess personal mental
preparation, so each must search deeply within. Prepare by practicing and
gaining confidence with placing rock protection, building anchors, belaying,
learning how to manage the rope, and understanding fall forces (see Chapter
9, Basic Safety System). Work on rock technique, a methodology of gear
selection and placement, and routefinding. Use every pitch you follow as an
opportunity to observe and learn. Experience helps refine judgment.

LEADING ON NONTECHNICAL TERRAIN

A climbing party may travel unroped or unbelayed over second-class and

third-class rock, each person climbing in balance and maintaining three
points of contact with the rock. If the risks of the climb escalate beyond the
party’s comfort level, the leader has several options for using a rope to help
minimize danger, short of full belayed climbing.

HAND LINE

A fixed hand line can be set up for members of an unroped party on less
technical but exposed terrain to save the time it would take to belay multiple
party members. The leader can either be belayed up or can scramble up this
section, bringing along the loose end of the rope and placing protection
along the way, if warranted. At the top, the leader anchors the rope, taking
care not to place the rope under tension over sharp edges. The other climbers
then move through this section, either holding on to this hand line or
preparing to grab it if needed. Alternatively, if they are wearing harnesses,
they can clip in to the line with a carabiner attached to a runner from their
harness (fig. 14-1), or they can clip a carabiner directly from their harness in
to a sling attached to the line with a prusik hitch. The rope may also be
anchored at the start of this section to make it easier to prusik—that is, to
move along the rope using the climbers’ prusik slings tied to the rope or to
safeguard a traverse. The last climber removes the protection and breaks
down the hand line while ascending, possibly on belay or while prusiking up
the hand line.

images

Fig. 14-1. A hand line offers limited protection for an unroped party.

RUNNING BELAY
The running belay, also known as simul-climbing, is another useful option
when a team is climbing together over relatively easy terrain but is still
roped together (fig. 14-2). Roped climbing teams normally consist of only
two people. To establish a running belay, the lead climber simply clips the
rope in to some rock protection that she places at appropriate intervals. At
least two pieces of protection should be in place, clipped in to the rope
between the leader and the follower at all times. The follower climbs
simultaneously with the leader (hence the term “simul-climbing”), removing
any protection that he passes. If one climber takes a fall, the rope will
remain linked to the protection—and the weight of the other climber will
naturally arrest the fall at some point.

If a party decides to use a running belay, the climbers must decide how
much rope to leave between the leader and follower. Having more rope out
has the advantage of absorbing more force should a fall occur, but it also
increases the potential for the rope to snag on blocky or bushy terrain,
introduces rope drag, and can make communication between the leader and
follower more difficult. When the situation calls for it, coils (see below) can
be used to shorten the rope to the appropriate length.

The running belay is less secure than belayed climbing but considerably
safer than no protection at all. Given the advantages and disadvantages of
this technique, the decision to simul-climb should be made carefully,
weighing the potential risks and benefits for the given party and the specific
situation. Important factors to consider include both the skill and comfort
level of the climbing party, the degree of time pressure experienced during
the climb, the likelihood of falling, and the degree of runout and exposure or
the consequences of falling in the given situation. The lead climber needs to
be sensitive to the skill level of the follower and should be ready to set up an
anchored belay if the follower needs that degree of security. Communication
is imperative between the climbing team. An anchored belay would also
need to be set up if the lead climber runs out of protection while simul-
climbing, so that the follower can either transfer gear back to the leader or
can switch leads and continue the running belay.

CLIMBING IN COILS
Sometimes, between sections of more technical terrain where running or
fixed belays are used, climbers coil most of the rope between them, leaving
themselves tied in and with about 10–16 feet (3–5 meters) of climbing rope
separating them. This is called “climbing in coils.” (See more about
“Shortening the Rope with Coils” in Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and
Crevasse Rescue.) Climbers coil the extra rope over their shoulders and tie
in short to a locking carabiner attached to their harness. This method can
increase efficiency, saving time because climbers can forgo untying from the
rope and packing it up in between more technical pitches. Also, by climbing
closely together, climbers can minimize rope-induced rockfall.

images

Fig. 14-2. A running belay offers limited protection for a two-member

climbing team.

LEADING TECHNICAL CLIMBS

Technical rock climbing begins when anchored belays are needed for the
party’s safety, and deciding when to choose this option is subjective. In this
scenario, each pitch is led and belayed. The leader accepts more risk than the
second, who is belayed from above. An aspiring leader should learn the
mechanics of leading while climbing well below his or her actual climbing
ability. It may sound obvious, but always be sure your climbing ability is
consistent with the route you decide to lead. For example, you may be good
at face climbing but have trouble with cracks; in that case, if a route requires
crack climbing, make sure that it is within your crack-climbing ability.

Steep, bolt-protected sport-climbing routes can be relatively safe places to

attempt leading hard moves. An overhanging 5.11 route can be safer to lead
than a 5.7 climb with ledges if the only risk in a fall off the former is hitting
air. When transitioning from sport climbing to alpine rock climbing, be
conservative in estimating your climbing abilities. The extra time and
additional skills required for setting protection can substantially increase the
difficulty of a traditional climb compared with a bolted sport climb of the
same rating. In addition, trad climbing difficulty is increased by carrying a
pack and wearing or carrying mountaineering boots. On a long, remote
alpine climb, even if the actual rating of the climb is relatively easy, the
consequences of a fall can be great. Evaluate routes in terms of potential risk
and your ability to manage the consequences of a fall, and be conservative in
choosing an alpine route and gear.

CHOOSING THE RACK

The collection of gear used for protection is called the rack. Each climbing
team prepares just one rack, which is carried by the leader. While climbing
each pitch, the leader places individual pieces of protection from the rack;
the follower removes the equipment and carries the pieces up while
climbing. At the top of the pitch, the rack is reorganized, and the leader
takes the gear needed for protecting the next pitch.

The decision about what to bring is determined by the climb and each
climber’s comfort level. If the selected climb is in an area covered by a
guidebook, check the book for general information such as the type of rock
and what a “standard rack” for that area contains. The climbing route sketch
map (fig. 14-3) for the selected climb, called a topo, may show the width of
cracks, the amount of natural protection or fixed protection (labeled as “fp”),
the length and direction of each pitch, the difficulty of each section and the
overall climb, and perhaps even the precise sizes of the pieces of protection
needed. Particularly on commonly climbed routes, more detailed
information regarding the specific protection needed can sometimes be
found online in climbing trip reports or climbing community blogs or
websites.

images

Fig. 14-3. A typical climbing route topo.

If the selected climb is in a remote area, usually less information is

available. Take too big a rack, and the extra weight and equipment can
impede the climbing. Take too little protection or the wrong pieces, and the
team may not have what it needs to safely climb the route. Research the
climb by consulting several guidebooks or talking with other climbers who
have done the route, as well as by checking any relevant resources on the
internet.
A typical rack includes a selection of passive chocks (nuts and hexes, for
example), spring-loaded camming devices (SLCDs or cams), carabiners, and
runners. The specific selection of protection varies with each route. A long,
thin crack might dictate small wired nuts and some small cams. A wide
crack may require the largest cams, hexes, or tube chocks. A long, parallel
hand crack may require multiple 2-inch (5-centimeter) cams. Many cases are
less clear-cut, requiring a full range of sizes. The “standard rack” is difficult
to define narrowly, since different climbs call for different types and sizes of
protection; in addition, individual climbers often have their own preferences
for gear that they never leave home without. However, as an example, a rack
that will accommodate a large number of traditional alpine climbs in
Washington State’s Cascade Mountains and beyond is generally defined as
one that includes gear up to 2 or 3 inches (5 to 7.6 centimeters), consisting
of at least a full set of nuts, some additional chocks (such as hexes and
Tricams), and a set of cams ranging from small to medium-sized.

Each piece of protection typically connects to the rope with two nonlocking
carabiners and a runner or quickdraw. Locking carabiners can be used
instead if the gate is in a position where it could be forced open during a fall
(by striking the rock). Carry a few extra carabiners as insurance against
running short of them. The ideal runner at any protection point will be just
long enough to help the rope stay in as straight a line as possible. A runner
that is longer than necessary lengthens a fall, and one that is shorter than
necessary causes rope drag. Quickdraws may work well for a straight-up
climb. A zigzag route line, roofs, or turns on the pitch require longer
runners. Additional runners may be needed for belay anchors, unanticipated
protection placements, and rappel slings. Especially on alpine climbs and
any routes that deviate from a direct vertical line, it is recommended to bring
several longer slings (multiple singles and at least a few doubles), as
quickdraws will be insufficient. Slings are inexpensive and light, and they
can be shortened and used as quickdraws for straight pitches (see Figure 14-
7). The importance of bringing and using sufficiently long runners for
reducing or preventing rope drag cannot be overemphasized (see Figure 14-
10), yet failing to do so is a common mistake made by novice leaders.

The nut tool, a thin metal device designed to help extract pieces of
protection (fig. 14-4), is carried by each climber to use when following a
pitch; if a team is swinging leads, both climbers will take turns following.
Also known as a cleaning tool or chock pick, the nut tool can help the
follower retrieve pieces of protection that do not come out easily. It is also
recommended that climbers carry this device when leading, since
occasionally the leader may need it to reset or replace a piece of protection
in order to take advantage of a more secure placement.

images

Fig. 14-4. Nut tools.

In addition to carrying gear for protection, carabiners, runners, and a nut

tool, a rock climber also carries a few other important pieces of equipment.
These include a belay device, material for building belay anchors (in other
words, a cordelette, equalette, and/or webbing for equalizing anchor points
—see Chapter 10, Belaying), a tie-off loop (a short loop of accessory cord
for emergency techniques, tying off a climber after a fall, or backing up a
rappel—see Chapters 9, Basic Safety System; 10, Belaying; and 11,
Rappelling), at least one rappel ring, a knife for removing old slings (or for
emergencies), and perhaps chalk for keeping hands dry. Overall equipment
choices, which are influenced by the setting and the type and length of the
rock climb, warrant careful consideration and planning.

OTHER IMPORTANT ITEMS

Particularly for multipitch routes that the climbing party is not intimately
familiar with, it is also a good idea for the party to bring along a route
description, route topo, and/or notes to help with routefinding. Packs (of
varying sizes, depending on the route and the speed of the climbing party)
are often carried by at least one member of the climbing team for many
alpine climbs or for traditional crag climbs in which the party does not plan
to return to the base of the climb. Depending on conditions and the comfort
level and skill of the individual climbers, various types of footwear may be
chosen for the approach and the climb itself. Mountaineering boots (from
very lightweight to heavyweight) or lightweight approach shoes are typically
used for the approach (and sometimes on the climb itself as well). Rock
shoes (see Figure 12-1 in Chapter 12, Alpine Rock Climbing) are generally
the preferred choice for climbers leading technical routes, especially on
climbs of higher relative difficulty and on virtually all cragging and sport
climbs.

HOW TO RACK

The ideal racking method permits the leader to place protection efficiently
and to climb smoothly despite carrying the gear; it also allows easy transfers
between climbers for swinging leads. Keeping the hardware away from the
rock makes the gear more readily available. For instance, when you are
climbing an inside corner with your left side in, it is easier to have the rack
hang from your left shoulder and under your right arm, using a sling to carry
the equipment (see “Where to Rack Gear,” below). No racking method is
perfect, but several are commonly used, alone or in combination.

Group passive pieces or small cams together on a single carabiner.

When you are organizing gear for the rack, it generally works best to group
several pieces of passive protection (nuts, hexes, or Tricams) on a single
carabiner (see Figure 14-6a). For example, most climbers group a partial or
full set of nuts together on a single carabiner. If a large number of nuts are
included on the rack, or if there are doubles in certain sizes, sometimes
climbers will divide the set of nuts into smaller and larger sizes, and use a
couple of carabiners. Climbers often use the same method for small cams as
well.

This strategy reduces the number of carabiners needed for carrying these
pieces, and this method can make climbing easier because it results in a less
bulky rack with better weight distribution. This technique also facilitates
more efficient gear placement for these types of pieces. To choose the best
piece for a placement, unclip the carabiner of gear for that size range and
hold the whole batch of pieces up to the placement, eyeing each piece for fit.
Then unclip the carabiner from the chosen piece, place the chock or cam,
and return the carabiner and unused pieces to the gear sling.

With this method, climbers usually have two carabiners pre-attached to

several runners or quickdraws because the placed protection lacks a
carabiner (remember that one carabiner attaches to the protection and the
other carabiner attaches to the rope; see Figure 13-2 in Chapter 13, Rock
Protection). Although this method of racking may somewhat increase the
risk of dropping gear, since more gear is handled every time a piece is
placed, many climbers feel that the increased ease of climbing this method
offers far outweighs this disadvantage.

Place other pieces of protection on separate carabiners. In contrast to

passive pieces and small cams, most climbers prefer racking medium-sized
to large cams and other active pieces such as tube chocks on separate
carabiners (see Figure 14-6). By design, active pieces of protection like
cams (at least medium-sized to large units) cover a wider range of sizes than
passive pieces such as nuts or hexes. With experience, it is easier to select
the single right cam for a given placement than it is to identify a single nut
that is the right size in a given situation. Arranging medium-sized to large
cams on separate carabiners results in faster placement and less awkward
juggling of multiple large pieces of protection on the same carabiner. After
placing the appropriate cam in the rock, the leader can simply clip the cam’s
pre-attached carabiner to a runner, then the runner’s carabiner to the rope.

WHERE TO RACK GEAR

After deciding how many pieces to place on the carabiners on the rack, the
next question to answer is where a climber will rack the gear. The three most
common options are on a gear sling, on the climbing harness, or on a
combination of the two. A padded gear sling from a climbing shop may be
the most comfortable choice, but a single-length runner can also be used.
Commercial gear slings (fig. 14-5a) are also available with partitions (fig.
14-5b).

images

Fig. 14-5. Commercial gear slings: a, basic padded gear sling; b,

partitioned gear sling.

Rack gear on a sling. Climbers racking protection on a gear sling (fig. 14-
6a) place the sling over one shoulder and under the opposite arm (see Figure
14-6c). This method of racking has the advantage of smooth gear transfers
when switching leads, since the entire rack can be passed from the belayer to
the leader at once. The primary disadvantage of this method is that having
the entire rack over the shoulder can make the climber feel a bit top-heavy,
and, at least with nonpartitioned slings, the weight of the rack can shift quite
a bit when the leader is climbing.

images

Fig. 14-6. Examples of racking methods: a, pieces of protection racked on a

gear sling; b, pieces of protection attached to gear loops on the seat
harness; c, hybrid method in which gear is racked on both a gear sling and
the harness, and one or more double-length runners are also looped over
one shoulder.

Rack gear on the climbing harness gear loops. Using the gear loops on
the climbing harness to rack gear (fig. 14-6b) evenly distributes the weight
of the rack on the climber’s waist, and the different types of protection can
be separated (although the latter can also be done with a partitioned gear
sling; see Figure 14-5b).

Transfer of gear at belays can take longer with this method of racking, since
gear must be transferred from multiple gear loops rather than a single gear
sling. However, for experienced climbers, this time difference is likely to be
nominal. Besides the time needed for reracking, the primary disadvantage of
this system is that some equipment will be inaccessible when you wedge
your body into larger cracks. When using this racking method, be sure the
gear does not hang down so far that it interferes with climbing footwork.
Also, on many climbs, it is a good idea to rack runners and/or quickdraws
and carabiners on both sides of the harness for easy access when clipping the
rope in to protection.

Rack gear on both the harness and a gear sling. Perhaps the most
common method of racking is a hybrid of these two systems (fig. 14-6c). For
example, a climber could place all the pieces of protection on a sling over
the shoulder but place runners and carabiners on the harness. Conversely, a
climber could place the protection on the harness, with runners and
carabiners on a sling. Or a climber could place some gear on a sling and
some on the harness.

Whatever method is used, rack the protection in a systematic order so that a

particular piece can be found in a hurry. The usual order is to start at the
front with the smallest wired chocks and work back with larger pieces. For
each carabiner clipped to the rack, use the same orientation so that each one
unclips in exactly the same way. For example, all the gates of the carabiners
should be facing the same way—either in or out, but not both. This allows
you to unclip by feel rather than having to look at the gear.

Particularly for climbers who are relatively inexperienced at swinging leads

or transferring gear at belays, it is recommended that climbing partners
agree beforehand on using one racking technique; otherwise, much precious
time may be lost in reracking at each belay when climbers are swinging
leads.

OTHER RACKING CONSIDERATIONS

Runners need to be racked as well. Quickdraws can be racked on the harness

or on a sling. Climbers can carry single-length runners over one shoulder,
but if a number of them are carried, it can be difficult to retrieve just one
from the tangle. Climbers can carry a single-length runner quickdraw-style
by attaching two carabiners to it and threading one carabiner through the
other (fig. 14-7a), then clipping the resulting loop (fig. 14-7b) and
straightening it (fig. 14-7c). This style is also called an alpine draw; clip one
carabiner to protection (fig. 14-7d). Such runners can be quickly extended
by unclipping all but a single strand from one carabiner (fig. 14-7e) and then
pulling this carabiner until the runner is fully extended (fig. 14-7f). Climbers
can carry double-length runners looped over a shoulder and connected with
a carabiner (see Figure 14-6c). Alternatively, climbers can chain the runner
(fig. 14-8) before attaching it to the harness; when it is needed, pull or shake
it out to remove the loops. Climbers can also fold a double- or triple-length
runner several times and tie it in an overhand or figure-eight knot, then clip
it to the harness.

images

Fig. 14-7. Racking and extending a single-length runner quickdraw-style

(also known as an alpine draw): a, clip two carabiners to a single-length
runner and pass one carabiner through the other; b, clip the first carabiner
back in to the newly formed loop; c, straighten the loops; d, clip the
protection to one carabiner; e, unclip the other carabiner from all but one
loop of the runner; f, straighten and extend the runner.

images

Fig. 14-8. Chaining a long runner: a, form a slipknot; b, pull runner

through the loop formed by the slipknot; c, repeat this process until the
runner is chained; d, attach the final loop to a carabiner to carry it and to
ensure that it does not unravel.

When climbing with a pack, put it on first, then the rack. When carrying
double-length and single-length runners over one shoulder (or both
shoulders), put the single-length runners on top so that the singles come off
without tangles and the doubles can be removed without displacing the
singles.

Carry cordelette (or other anchor-equalizing cord or webbing), nut tool, and
belay device on the harness gear loops so that they are easily accessible.
Other gear such as a knife and tie-off loop can be clipped to the harness or
carried around the neck so they are out of the way but accessible.

LEADING ON ROCK, STEP BY STEP

Whether you are leading the next pitch or the next climb, it is imperative to
plan the route, evaluate rope and rack requirements, and know the descent.
Leading is a complex business. Beginners usually need an apprenticeship,
moving behind seasoned climbers before they can safely “take the sharp end
of the rope” (lead). Never take the lead if you do not feel ready, and do not
pressure others into leading. Keep the art of leading exciting, challenging,
satisfying, and safe—as it ought to be.

PLANNING THE ROUTE

Planning a route begins with background research at home. Look for climb
descriptions in printed guidebooks and online climbers’ blogs. Talk to others
who have climbed the route before. For alpine climbs, obtain needed maps
for the approach, and check weather and avalanche conditions for the dates
being considered (see Chapters 5, Navigation, and 28, Mountain Weather).
The skill required depends on the location and nature of the climb as well as
potential difficulties that might be encountered on the approach and descent.

Routefinding can be as easy as following a guidebook picture with a

climbing route topo or simply following a line of bolts on a crag, but it can
also be as difficult as an off-trail multiday approach and ambiguous
technical climb with a vague route description. Routefinding on alpine
climbs or some long crag routes can be complex. Longer routes often are
less clearly defined. The guidebook description may be sketchy: “Ascend
northeast buttress for several hundred feet of moderate climbing.” The
descent may be complicated and vaguely described.

For any climb, confirm the descent and—if it is not obvious—perhaps check
with others who have done the route. Decide whether boots are needed for
the descent in addition to rock shoes for the climb. Make sure the rope is
long enough for rappels.

ON THE WAY IN

Once the climbing party is on the way, study the route on the approach if
possible; often the best view of a climbing route is at a distance from the
start of the climb. Look for major features that the line of ascent might
follow, such as crack systems, dihedrals, chimneys, or areas of broken rock.
Note areas of small trees or bushes that could indicate belay ledges or rappel
anchors. Identify landmarks that, when reached, will help determine the
party’s position on the route. For this kind of planning, the climbers’ eyes
will tell them what the topographical map cannot.

Watch out for deceptively tempting lines leading to poor-quality rock, broad
roofs, blank walls, or false summits. These may not be visible once the party
is on the climb, and if they climb these features in error, they may dead-end
after several pitches.

QUESTIONS TO ASK BEFORE LEADING A PITCH

How long and hard is the pitch?

Can the leader see the general path of the pitch and where the next
anchor will be?
 What is the nature and location of the crux (most difficult move of the
pitch)?

What sizes, types, and amount of protection will be needed?

How much other gear, including carabiners and runners, will be needed to
protect the lead?

What gear will be needed to build the anchor at the end of the pitch?

What climbing techniques will be used? Liebacking? Chimneying?

Jamming? As a result, on what side should the climber rack?

Does the leader want the belayer to shout out how much rope is left
while climbing, calling out “halfway,” “20 feet,” or “3 feet . . . 2 feet . . .
0”?

Will the belayer and leader be able to hear each other throughout the
climb? If not, do they have rope signals? Radios?

How will a fall affect the belay? Could the leader drop past the belayer in
a fall? Is the belayer well secured for any pull from a potential leader fall?

Where and how will the first piece of protection be placed? Will it
minimize the fall factor and the chance of setting off the zipper effect? (See
“The Zipper Effect” later in this chapter.)

Develop a plan for the line of ascent, but keep likely alternatives in mind.
Continue planning the routefinding as the actual climb begins, looking for
more local features and landmarks. Seek out natural lines to follow when
leading the route. Form a tentative plan for each pitch, perhaps including a
place for the first piece of protection and a spot for the next belay station.
Do not hesitate to look around the corner for easier route alternatives that
may not be visible from below.

When faced with a choice between pitches of varying difficulty, consider the
rest of the climb. Two moderate pitches are better than an easy pitch
followed by one beyond the party’s ability (see the “Questions to Ask
Before Leading a Pitch” sidebar).
On the way up, keep track of retreat possibilities in case the climb is
aborted, and study—to the extent possible—the party’s planned descent
route. Rain, lightning, unexpected wind or cold, injury, or illness may make
it prudent to retreat from the route. As the climb progresses, evaluate
changing route conditions, the weather, and the climbing party. Know the
party’s alternative responses to any changes, weighing all resources.
Consider whether the party is equipped to deal with an unplanned bivy while
on the climb. Know descent or escape routes in case they are needed. See
Part V, Emergency Prevention and Response, for more about dealing with
uexpected or emergency situations.

PROTECTING THE LEAD

Placing protection every few feet requires a big rack and eats up time.
Placing very little protection at all greatly increases the risk of a long leader
fall and potential injury. Learning the appropriate balance requires practice
and sound judgment. Climbers certainly should protect moves they expect to
be hard. Always space the protection to avoid potential falls that are
excessively long or dangerous. Protection above a move provides the safety
of a top rope. In deciding when to place another piece of protection, keep in
mind the quality of the placements already made. Consider how to minimize
dangerous rope drag—which is exacerbated by changing rope angles
through protection and around rock corners, and which is eased by keeping
the rope running straight on route—and how to take the fall factor into
account (see Chapter 10, Belaying).

SELECTING AND MAKING A PLACEMENT

The perfect placement is a combination of a crack sized and shaped ideally

for placing protection with a comfortable stance from which to place it,
located right at the next hard move—but two out of three is not bad either.
When on the sharp end of the rope, avoid making difficult moves far away
from the last protection. Place protection right before and after a hard move.

Chapter 13, Rock Protection, details types of protection and good

placements. Consider the stability of the rock when placing protection.
Look, listen, and feel for the soundness of the rock by hitting suspect rock
with the heel of a hand. Beware of expanding flakes and hollow-sounding or
crumbling rock. Remember that a protection placement is only as solid as
the rock into which it is placed.

To place protection, find a stance that is secure enough that you can release
one hand, because you must be able to make the placement and then clip in
to it without falling or seriously tiring. When possible, take advantage of
natural protection—a tree, bush, rock tunnel, or horn—because it can be
easy to use and is often multidirectional, and doing so can save on gear. The
leader must be able to quickly place and clip sound protection (see
“Connecting the Rope to Protection” in Chapter 13, Rock Protection) with
either hand, whether the carabiner gate faces left (fig. 14-9a and b) or right
(fig. 14-9c and d), to make the lead safer. Reverse these techniques when
using your left hand.
Fig. 14-9. Clipping technique: a and b, gate facing left, right hand; c and d,
gate facing right, right hand; e, rope is back-clipped (dangerous); f and g,
back-clipped rope causes carabiner gate to open in a fall; h, correctly
clipped carabiner.

Clipping inefficiently and incorrectly is a common and potentially

dangerous mistake made by new leaders. An especially common mistake
among novice leaders is back-clipping: that is, the leader’s end of the rope is
clipped so that it travels behind—rather than in front of—the carabiner to
which it is clipped (fig. 14-9e) as the leader ascends above this piece of
protection. A consequence of back-clipping is the rope accidentally opening
the carabiner gate (fig. 14-9f and g) during a leader fall. In a correct clip the
leader’s end of the rope travels out the front of the carabiner to which it is
clipped and up to the lead climber (fig. 14-9h). (See “Clipping Bolts and
Other Protection,” later in this chapter.) Study diagrams on correct clipping
technique, and then practice clipping with either hand until the process is
fluid and fast.

Suppose that as a leader you are faced with a choice between two or more
possible placements. Ask these questions:

Which placement combines the best fit with stability in the direction(s) of
pull?

Which placement will be stronger?

What size chocks or cams should be conserved for use higher on the pitch
or at the anchor?

Which placement will be easier for the second to remove?

Will one placement interfere with a needed foothold or handhold?

Which placement will minimize rope drag?

If the unfortunate choice is between questionable protection and none at all,

by all means place something, but also plan to place additional protection as
soon as possible. Placing and equalizing two pieces can also help (see
Chapter 13, Rock Protection). Do not let such placement give a sense of
false security, however. Do not trust obviously bad protection.

Suppose the leader faces a hard move without any apparent protection.
Restudy the rock for some less obvious way of protecting the move.
Evaluate whether there is a movement sequence or rock feature not seen at
the outset. The options are these:

Protect the move after all, and then resume climbing.

Go ahead and attempt the move without good protection.

Down-climb and see if the belayer will lead the pitch.

Find an easier line to climb.

Consider retreating from the climb.

After studying the situation and evaluating the consequences of a fall,

carefully and calmly weigh the options, and then decide on the course of
action that seems best.

DETERMINING THE LENGTH OF THE PITCH

The length of a given pitch is dictated by several factors. On most sport

climbs and many single-pitch traditional crag climbs, the end of a pitch is
clearly indicated by the presence of bolt anchors and/or chains, and the pitch
is often short enough that the leader can be lowered back to the ground by
the belayer. On other traditional crag climbs and most alpine rock climbs,
the pitches are more variable in length and may be considerably more
ambiguous, since they are often not marked with bolted belay anchors but
instead utilize natural anchors or require the leader to construct gear
anchors. This latter type of route requires more routefinding and discretion
by the leader.

The maximum length of a pitch can never exceed the length of the rope,
which typically ranges from 50 to 70 meters (164 to 230 feet), with 60
meters (197 feet) being the most commonly used rope length for most rock
climbs. However, in many cases, the ideal pitch length will be less than the
full length of the rope, often considerably less. The key point is that the
leader should be prepared to do pitches of varying lengths, depending on the
circumstances. Avoid the temptation to make every pitch a full rope length,
which can result in slower, rather than faster, climbing, especially when it
causes rope drag or the need to down-climb to a more secure belay location
that a leader passed up.

When determining pitch length, use any available information from route
descriptions and topos. Beyond this, seek out and use good belay spots
(when in doubt about the best pitch length, do not pass up a great location to
set up a belay anchor), try to maintain communication (particularly in windy
conditions, long pitches can significantly compromise communication with a
climbing partner), and work to prevent or minimize rope drag. If rope drag
becomes a problem, seek out a good belay spot sooner rather than later.

JUDGING THE DIRECTION OF FALL FORCES

The leader must anticipate the direction of forces on the protection in order
to make placements, but this judgment must take into account the entire
climbing system. A protection point may seem solid for a fall when it is
placed, but later it could pop out when the system causes pulls in directions
not initially anticipated.

A zigzagging climbing rope causes severe directional forces as well as rope

drag that, at its worst, can immobilize the leader (fig. 14-10a). Pieces of
protection that may have been placed to hold only a downward pull may
now be in danger of taking sharp pulls from quite different directions in case
of a fall. In catching a fall, the rope loads and straightens from the belayer
up to the highest protection point and then back down to the falling climber.
When the protection has been placed in a zigzag, pieces can be pulled
sideways or upward by the tightening rope. If protection is placed for only a
downward pull, it can be pulled out by falls higher up the pitch. Instead,
extend the runner from protection to the rope, so the line of the rope from
belayer to leader is more vertical than zigzagging (fig. 14-10b).

images

Fig. 14-10. Avoid rope drag: a, zigzagging rope can result in severe rope
drag, which can impede the leader’s ability to move upward; b, use runners
to extend the connection to the pieces of protection and keep the line of the
rope more vertical, reducing drag and keeping the pieces from being loaded
from the side.

images

Fig. 14-11. The combined force on the top piece of placed protection during
a fall.

During a fall, the top piece of protection is loaded with high forces: the force
of the falling climber, plus the force of the belayer holding the fallen
climber, potentially increased by other factors such as distance of fall,
amount of rope out, diameter of rope, and how the belayer is anchored,
minus friction forces in the system between the fallen climber and belayer.
Typically a piece of protection would see at least two times the forces
exerted below it when arresting a fall (fig. 14-11). All protection placements
should be solid, but consider backing up protection before hard moves if the
placements afforded are less than ideal. Protection that allows the rope to
follow in a straight line helps preserve the integrity of the system and
minimizes rope drag; extend protection by using longer runners to connect it
to the rope where needed (see Figure 14-10b). Rope drag not only makes
climbing harder for the leader, but it also decreases the rope’s ability to
absorb forces in case of a fall by effectively increasing the fall factor (see
Chapter 10, Belaying). Make placements multidirectional when a bend in
the climbing line must be made—use natural protection, opposing chocks, or
cams that can safely rotate with minimal walking (see “Using Opposition
Placement” in Chapter 13, Rock Protection). Or consider placing the belay
on the other side of the bend.

The Zipper Effect

The full-scale zipper effect is a dramatic demonstration of the importance of

anticipating force directions. The zipper effect occurs most readily where the
belay is established away from the base of the pitch (fig. 14-12a) or where
the rope zigzags up the route (see Figure 14-10a). Again, as the rope loads
during a leader fall, the bottom chock can have a tremendous outward pull
placed on it. If it pulls out, the next piece becomes subject to the outward
pull. Each in turn could fail, causing the line of chocks to be yanked out one
by one as the “zipper” opens from the bottom up (as in Figure 14-12a).
Overhangs and sharp traverses also have the potential to zipper.

Prevent the zipper effect by making the suspect placements multidirectional

through the use of multidirectional cams (fig. 14-12b) and by eliminating the
potential for outward pull by extending pieces with runners. The belayer
could also reduce outward pull by belaying closer to the base of the route
(see Figure 14-12b).

PROTECTING SPECIAL SITUATIONS

Leading on overhangs or traverses requires special considerations to keep
climbers safe.

Overhangs

Keep the rope running as free of an overhang as possible. Extend the rope
with runners in order to reduce rope drag (fig. 14-13a), prevent dangerous
fall forces such as the zipper effect, and keep the rope from being cut by the
edge of the overhang (fig. 14-13b). On small overhangs, leaning out and
placing protection above it may be the most effective strategy.

Traverses

When leading a traverse, be sure to place protection both before and after a
hard move (fig. 14-14a). This guards not only the leader but also the
follower from the possibility of a long pendulum fall (fig. 14-14b). In
addition to the danger of injury, that kind of fall could leave the second in a
tough spot, off route and with no easy way back.

images

Fig. 14-12. The zipper effect: a, the zipper effect in action; b, a well-placed
cam (or opposing chocks) placed at the bottom of a pitch provides
multidirectional protection against the zipper effect.

images

Fig. 14-13. Placements under overhangs: a, rope running free of the

overhang (good); b, bends cause rope drag, and rope could be cut by rock
edge during a fall (poor).

When leading a diagonal or traversing section, keep in mind the effect each
placement could have on the second climber. Put yourself in the second’s
shoes and ask, “Would I like some protection here?” If so, place it. Asking
this question will help climbers avoid a common and potentially dangerous
mistake made by beginning leaders: neglecting to adequately protect the
follower on a traverse.

images
Fig. 14-14. Protecting a traverse: a, placing a piece of protection both
before and after a hard move on a traverse reduces potential for a long
pendulum fall (good); b, the second climber faces a long pendulum in case
of a fall because of inadequate protection (poor).

If the party has the necessary equipment and it seems prudent, consider
belaying the second with an extra rope, which may help protect against a
long pendulum fall and provide better protection than using the leader’s
rope. If the party is using the double-rope technique (see “Double- and
Twin-Rope Techniques” later in this chapter), do not clip in both ropes
during the traverse, so that the follower can receive a belay from above on
the free rope.

CLIPPING BOLTS AND OTHER PROTECTION

A carabiner clipped to a bolt hanger should normally have its gate facing
away from the leader’s subsequent direction of travel (fig. 14-15a and b).
Otherwise, the carabiner may rotate or slide in such a way that the gate
makes direct contact with the bolt hanger (fig. 14-15c). In the case of a
sudden fall, the gate can then open and potentially unclip by striking the bolt
hanger. However, not all carabiners and bolt hangers are alike, so the leader
should evaluate each circumstance with that in mind, with the goal of trying
to safeguard against situations in which the gate of a carabiner could unclip
when sudden force is applied.

The same basic principle applies when clipping in to pieces of protection

other than bolts. Avoid placing a carabiner in a position wherein the gate
could open if it strikes the rock or any other contact point.

images

Fig. 14-15. Clipping a carabiner in to a bolt hanger: a and b, gates face

opposite direction of climb that goes up and right and are not in danger of
unclipping (good); c, gates face wrong direction and are in danger of
unclipping (poor).

Similarly, the gate of the carabiner clipped in to the rope should always face
the opposite direction that the rope is traveling. If the climb proceeds to the
right after a protection point, the gate of the lower carabiner clipped to the
rope should face left (as in Figure 14-15a). If the climb proceeds to the left,
the gate should face right. If this principle is not followed, there is an
increased risk that the rope could travel over the gate if a fall occurs and
open up the carabiner, causing the rope to become unclipped. When the
climb travels straight up from the last protection point, the gate can be
facing either left or right.

ARRIVING AT THE NEXT BELAY

At the top of the pitch, clip in to a solid anchor before signaling “Off belay!”
Add additional pieces as needed to form a multidirectional belay anchor (see
Chapter 10, Belaying). Make sure the anchor secures the leader against
being pulled from the stance by the second.

Think through the belay sequence before settling in so that it is clear which
hand to use for the braking hand and where to flake the rope while belaying
up the second. Keep the belay system simple. Strive for straight, easily
traceable lines from the anchor points to you. Effective rope management
techniques are critical to a safe belay, especially when at a hanging or
sloping belay stance (fig. 14-16). The most common method is for the
belayer to flake or stack the rope neatly on the rope or runner that connects
him or her to the belay anchor; alternatively, devices such as rope hooks or
rope buckets specifically made for this purpose can be used.

Never lay belay devices, gloves, carabiners, or other items on the ground. If
an item is not in use, keep it attached to your harness or a sling or to an
anchor. Have only one item, such as the rope, a chock, or a carabiner, in
hand at a time. The moment an item is no longer needed for whatever you
are doing, reattach it to your harness or a sling or the anchor. Unattached
objects are easily knocked or blown off the belay ledge. Take off your pack
and rack and attach them to the anchor, but keep them within easy reach.
That way, you will be more comfortable while belaying the second.

When the belayer is settled in, haul up the slack rope until it is taut. The
second should yell, “That’s me.” After placing the second on belay, yell,
“On belay.” See Chapter 10, Belaying, for a full set of climbing commands.
CLEANING A PITCH

The climber who follows the leader should climb as quickly and efficiently
as possible after being put on belay (see the “Tips to Save Time and Energy
as the Second” sidebar). While ascending, the second climber cleans the
pitch: removes the protection from the rock in an orderly way, organizes it,
and efficiently transfers it to the belayer at the end of the pitch.

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Fig. 14-16. Multidirectional belay anchor at top of a pitch: careful and

clean rope management, shown here at a sloping belay stance, is a critical
skill for leaders.

The second can minimize the risk of dropping gear by using a careful
cleaning procedure, which may depend on the method used to rack the
hardware. Consider a typical placement consisting of chock-carabiner-
runner-carabiner-rope. The following procedure is an efficient way to clean
gear that minimizes the risk of dropping gear:

1.First remove the chock from the rock.

2.Holding the carabiner that is clipped to the chock, clip the carabiner-chock
combination directly to the gear sling or harness gear loop.

3.Then unclip the carabiner-chock combination from the runner.

4.Next, loop the runner over your head, unclip the runner-carabiner
combination from the rope, and rotate the runner-carabiner combination so
that it is under one arm.

5.Continue climbing to the next piece of protection, then repeat.

If the placement uses a quickdraw instead of a runner, follow this procedure:

1.First remove the chock from the rock.

2.Next, clip the carabiner that connects the chock and quickdraw in to the
racking sling.
3.Last, unclip the quickdraw’s other carabiner from the rope.

In general, cleaning from rock to the rope is best. This keeps the pieces
clipped to something at all times, and there is little possibility of dropping
any gear. In any racking procedure, minimize the handling of unattached
gear to also lessen the risk of dropping it.

TRANSFERRING EQUIPMENT AT THE TOP OF A PITCH

The first thing the second climber needs to do when arriving at a belay
station—before being taken off belay—is to clip in to the belay anchor. If
the climbers are swinging leads, then the belayer need not remove the rope
from the belay device but can back it up with an overhand or figure eight on
a bight. If they are not swinging leads, the climbers have to trade places,
with the follower taking over the belay to free up the leader to lead the next
pitch. In either case, if the second is neat, organized, and efficient in
cleaning the pitch, the transfer of gear at the belay station should go quickly,
whether the original leader transfers the rest of the rack to the second, who
will now lead, or the second transfers the cleaned pieces back to the leader’s
rack. Follow this sequence, remembering that both climbers always stay
anchored to the rock:

1.First, reconstruct the rack. Clip the cleaned pieces to the rack, whether the
original leader or the new leader has it. Be careful not to drop any gear.

2.Then hand the removed runners and/or quickdraws over to whoever will
lead.

3.If either climber is wearing a pack, it can be removed and clipped in to the
anchor.

4.If the original leader plans to lead the next pitch, reflake the rope so that
the second’s end of the rope is on the bottom and the leader’s end is on top;
the second should then settle into the belay position.

TIPS TO SAVE TIME AND ENERGY AS THE SECOND

Start preparing to climb as soon as the leader is off belay. When it is

safe to do so, begin breaking down the belay station (but always stay clipped
in to at least one anchor until the leader has you on belay).

Put the pack on before anything else. If you are already carrying climbing
hardware on a gear sling, put it on next. Plan where to put the gear that you
clean, whether on the gear sling, the harness, or another sling.

Give the area a last look to make sure nothing is left behind. Then, once
you are on belay, yell, “Climbing!” and start out.

Remove each chock by reversing the way it was placed. A stopper

slotted down and behind a constriction should be removed by pushing it
back away from the constriction and up.

Be persistent but careful. Use the nut tool to tap on a stubborn wedge or
hex-shaped chock to loosen it, taking care to avoid hitting the piece’s wires;
then lift the chock out gently. Prying and tugging often only tightens or
wedges the chock more and can damage its wires. Use a loose rock or other
object, if available, to tap on the end of the nut tool.

Sometimes nut tools can retract the triggers of cams that have “walked”
back into a crack; if their trigger cannot be retracted with your fingers, try
the nut tool. Or use the wires of two stoppers to snare the trigger device so
you can retract the cams.

Consider asking your belayer for tension and put your weight on the
rope, freeing your hands to work on removing a chock that refuses to budge.

As a final option, simply abandon protection if necessary. Too much

time and effort can be wasted on a piece of protection that is not going to
come out.

Swinging leads is more efficient but requires both climbers to be competent

at leading. The new leader shoulders the reconstructed rack and then racks
the runners according to the climbers’ chosen system. The new leader
rechecks and adjusts the rack to ensure that everything is ready for the next
pitch. A look at the route description may be in order. At the very least, the
leader should examine the next pitch and have a sense for the general line to
be traveled. The leader is placed on belay and then unclips from the anchor,
and the climbing resumes.
CLIMBING WITH A PARTY OF THREE

Most rock climbing is done in pairs, but occasionally a party has three
climbers. A three-person team generally is more awkward and less efficient
than a two-person team. However, it has an advantage of an extra person
available for hauling, rescue, et cetera, and a team of three is faster than two
teams of two. Two ropes are required unless the pitches are extremely short.
Each of the three climbers must remain securely anchored when not
climbing.

Using two ropes sequentially, also known as caterpillar technique: In a

team of three, the leader climbs with one rope while the second belays and
the third remains anchored at the belay station. At the top of the pitch, the
leader sets up a belay and brings up the second, who is belayed on the first
rope and has the second rope either clipped with a locking carabiner to the
harness’s back haul loop or tied in at the front of the harness; the second
rope will be used by the third climber.

If the pitch follows a straight line up, the second can clean the pitch;
remember, a top belay is very safe, and if a fall occurs, the climber falls only
a very short distance. If the pitch includes some traversing, some or all of
the protection should stay in place for the third climber to help prevent a
pendulum fall. In this situation, the second climber unclips each piece of
protection from the first rope and clips the protection to the second rope.
Once the second climber is at the top of the pitch, the first rope is now
completely at the top belay, and the second rope is put on belay to bring up
the third climber. When the third climber reaches the top of the pitch, the
climbers then may decide to swing leads, with the third climber leading the
next pitch using the second rope. For the second to lead, the ropes may need
to be retied and perhaps restacked.

Using two ropes simultaneously, also known as parallel technique:

Another way to climb with three is for the leader to tie in to both ropes while
the second and third climbers each tie in to one of the ropes. Double ropes
can be used for this method instead of two larger-diameter single ropes (see
the next section), if desired. The leader then climbs the pitch, belayed on
both ropes. The belay can be provided by one belayer with two ropes in one
device (preferable) or by two belayers with one rope per belayer. At the top
of the pitch, the leader sets up a belay station. Then the leader can either
belay one follower at a time or bring both up together, one slightly ahead of
the other, making sure to leave sufficient space between the climbers so that
they will not collide if the higher climber falls.

Several belay devices available on the market work well for belaying two
climbers at a time (see “Auto-locking belay devices” in Chapter 10,
Belaying). This technique takes more rope management, but this way three
climbers can ascend nearly as fast as two. When using this strategy, it is
simplest for the original leader to remain on lead throughout the climb,
because with the additional rope and climber involved in a three-person
team, belay stations can be more confusing and messy.

DOUBLE- AND TWIN-ROPE TECHNIQUES

Most of this book describes climbing situations in which a single rope is

usually used. However, climbers can opt for one of the methods that use two
smaller-diameter ropes: double-rope technique or twin-rope technique. For
both techniques, an advantage is that two ropes are available for rappels.

Double-Rope Technique

The double-rope technique uses two ropes that serve as independent belay
lines. Each rope is referred to as a “half rope,” is approved by the UIAA
and/or CEN for such use, and is marked by a “½” on the end of the rope.
Half ropes are usually 8 to 9 millimeters in diameter. The leader clips each
rope in to its own protection on the way up, and the belayer manages the
ropes separately. Most belay devices with two slots can be used, but some
are specially designed for use with double ropes. See the manufacturer’s
guidelines for more details on the approved use of different devices.

Although the double-rope technique is more complicated than using a single

rope, it does offer some advantages. Rope friction can be greatly reduced,
falls can be shorter, two ropes are less likely than one to be severed by
rockfall or sharp edges, and two ropes are available for rappel. The
technique is widely used by European climbers, by ice climbers, and by an
increasing number of climbers everywhere to increase protection on highly
technical routes. The ropes should be different colors to allow for clear
communication about which rope needs slack or tension.

Fig. 14-17. Double-rope technique: a, two ropes do not cross but run
reasonably straight to reduce rope drag (good); b, two ropes cross and run
in a zigzag, increasing rope drag and sideways stress on the protection
(poor).

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Fig. 14-18. Advantages of double-rope technique: a, using a single rope, the

second climber will be exposed to a longer pendulum fall after traversing
beyond the first piece of protection; b, one rope through the first piece of
protection can safeguard the second climber on the traverse, while the
second rope protects the leader on the direct ascent; c, off-line protection
(placed off the route line) can be used to minimize or eliminate the
pendulum risk.

The double-rope technique offers great advantages when the route

meanders. With a series of zigzag placements, one rope can be clipped in to
the pieces on the left and one rope in to those on the right, allowing the
ropes to remain relatively straight, in roughly parallel lines that do not cross
(fig. 14-17a). Be careful to keep each rope on the same side so that rope drag
does not become a serious problem (fig. 14-17b). When both ropes are
clipped to the same protection placement, each rope is attached using a
separate carabiner.

Traverses can be better protected with the double-rope technique, especially

when the route traverses at the start of a pitch and then heads straight up.
The leader can use one rope for protection on the traverse and leave the
other free to belay the second climber from above. If the climbers are using
only a single rope, the second climber could risk a long pendulum fall (fig.
14-18a). But with double ropes, the belay on the free rope can minimize or
prevent a long pendulum (fig. 14-18b and c).

Another major advantage of the double-rope technique is that it reduces the

worries of the leader who is straining to clip in to the next piece of
protection. In single-rope climbing, the rope is slack as the leader pulls up a
big length to clip in to the next placement, but with a double rope, the slack
for clipping is provided on one rope, and the other rope is held snug by the
belayer. Thus, when the leader is clipping in to a newly placed piece of
protection, a potential fall is shorter.

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Fig. 14-19. Twin-rope technique: two small-diameter ropes are used as one,
with both attached to each piece of protection.

One disadvantage is that the belayer’s job is more complex, handling the
movements of two ropes at the same time—often letting out slack on one
rope while taking it in on the other. Also, the two ropes weigh and cost more
than a single rope or twin ropes. Another drawback is that the technique
requires more practice for both leader and belayer than does single-rope
technique. However, many climbers find that on long, challenging, and
complex rock pitches, the advantages of double ropes greatly outweigh the
disadvantages.

Twin-Rope Technique

UIAA- and/or CEN-approved twin ropes are generally 7.5 to 8.5 millimeters
in diameter, and they are not rated for use as single ropes. The ends of the
rope are marked with a symbol of two overlapping circles.

The twin-rope technique shares some characteristics with the single-rope

technique and some with the double-rope technique. Two ropes are used, but
they are each clipped in to the same pieces of protection, as a single larger-
diameter rope would be (fig. 14-19). Twin ropes are commonly used when
climbing a route that requires a double-rope rappel. This allows a team of
two to climb the route without having to carry an extra rope to rappel at the
end.

The twin ropes together absorb more energy and can withstand more falls
than a single rope. Though twin ropes are smaller-diameter, the likelihood of
severing both at one time is less likely than that of severing one larger-
diameter rope.

A disadvantage is that the thinner the rope, the more likely it is to tangle.
Also, together, twin ropes weigh and cost more than a single rope. Another
disadvantage is that the technique lacks the specific advantages of the
double-rope system on meandering routes, traverses, and shorter falls. As
with double-rope technique, the belayer has to deal with two ropes, but
separate management of each rope is greatly lessened.

PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY

Leading on rock is a serious commitment. Climbers face decisions in which

a poor choice may be fatal. It is impossible to have a rule for every possible
situation. Memorized dogma will not ensure safety. Accurately evaluating
the risks of climbing requires instead a fundamental understanding of the
risks of the environment and the consequences of each climber’s own
actions. Base your decisions and actions not on superficial rules but, rather,
on the knowledge gained through study and experience.
CLEAN AID CLIMBING • USES OF AID CLIMBING • AID-CLIMBING
EQUIPMENT • AID PLACEMENTS • BASIC AID TECHNIQUES •
SECONDING • CHANGING LEADS • BIG WALL MULTIDAY
TECHNIQUES • THE SPIRIT OF AID CLIMBING

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CHAPTER 15

AID AND BIG WALL CLIMBING

Aid climbing is the technique of using gear to support your weight as

you climb. It can be as simple as pulling on a quickdraw or as complex
as climbing an entire multiday route on big walls with your weight
suspended from gear you have placed. Aid climbing is an intricate and
personal art, and each climber approaches it somewhat differently.

Historically, nearly all rock climbs included piton placements and aid
climbing, and many classic free climbs enjoyed today were first established
as aid climbs. Pioneers such as Fred Beckey, Royal Robbins, Allen Steck,
and Layton Kor relied heavily on aid climbing to achieve historic first
ascents.

As free-climbing skills continue to rise, climbers are freeing many routes

originally climbed with aid. But despite the rise in free-climbing standards,
there will always be tempting routes that are more difficult still—and so
devoid of natural features—that a climber will need some of the aid-
climbing skills described in this chapter. And whereas today’s elite climbers
may be able to free an aid route at a high standard of free climbing, the
average climber will likely still perform aid climbing to complete these
routes in the historical style.

Skills in aid climbing can also help overcome unexpected difficulties during
normal free climbing. Aid techniques can provide a way to move safely up
or down when bad weather or an accident jeopardizes a climbing party.
Many routes have short sections of very difficult climbing or poor rock that
may be negotiated by aid climbing to reach excellent free climbing or a
summit. Finally, aid-climbing techniques give climbers access to the vertical
world of the big walls, such as El Capitan in Yosemite National Park,
California, that inspire the dreams of so many climbers around the world.

Aid climbing requires skill, judgment, and a lot of practice. To learn both the
basics and the many tricks of aid climbing, work with an experienced
partner, and climb often.

CLEAN AID CLIMBING

Aid climbing takes a lot of gear, but it does not need to damage the rock.
Traditionally, aid climbing involved hammering in pitons of various sizes,
and in the early development of climbing, the entire rack for a climb
consisted exclusively of pitons. Both placing and removing pitons
permanently damages the rock and over time creates scars and ever-
widening placements. On popular routes, tiny cracks sometimes evolve into
finger or hand cracks after generations of climbers force them to accept
pitons. Today, with chocks, spring-loaded camming devices, hooks, and
other gear available, climbers have a better chance of climbing aid routes
“clean.”

A clean placement is one made without using a hammer. Gear placed cleanly
can almost always be removed without defacing the rock, leaving no trace of
the party’s ascent. Nailing in gear with a hammer is more time-consuming
for both leader and follower than making clean placements, so climbing
clean not only benefits the rock and the state of the route for future parties,
but can also speed the ascent.

Because the first-ascent party may have left fixed protection (see “Fixed
Protection,” in Chapter 13, Rock Protection) such as bolts, pitons, or
copperheads, a clean ascent of an aid route often entails using fixed gear
while also carrying some pitons, copperheads, and other nailing hardware in
case fixed gear has been removed or is no longer usable. Thus, most clean
ascents rely on some protection that earlier parties placed with a hammer
and left in place.

Aid and big wall climbers almost always bring a hammer, even if they
intend to make only clean placements, as it is a critical tool used for a wide
range of functions in aid climbing. Route conditions may require unexpected
hammered placements, the hammer may be needed to extend the climber’s
reach, or it can be essential in removing gear needed to continue the route.
Some experienced aid climbers enjoy the added challenge of “hammerless”
climbing—climbing with no hammer available on the route—on established
aid routes with known fixed gear or even on new routes. Both the clean and
hammerless styles of climbing present increasing levels of commitment;
climbers choosing these styles should accept the possibility of retreat.

USES OF AID CLIMBING

Aid climbing can be roughly categorized based on the extent of its use on a
particular climb. See Appendix: Rating Systems, for information on the
various grades of difficulty in aid climbing.

Alpine climbing. When ascending a route in the alpine environment,

climbing without weighting any gear is usually the climber’s goal. However,
climbers may use aid techniques and equipment to overcome short, blank, or
extremely difficult sections of a route that otherwise can be free-climbed.
This type of climbing often requires little or no specialized aid equipment;
usually climbers just use the free-climbing gear they have along. Techniques
could include pulling on gear, stepping in a sling, or even creating a
makeshift aider or two from slings to get through a section. Sometimes
climbers pull on gear to speed progress and minimize exposure to objective
hazards or other risks in the mountains. Some routes have one pitch of aid
climbing (or a relatively small number of aid pitches on the overall route),
allowing an otherwise free line to be ascended. Packs may be hauled on a
difficult pitch, or climbers may perform a pendulum swing to reach the next
section of free climbing.

Aid may also be used on alpine climbs for extended distances and with aid-
specific equipment, although aid- and free-climbing techniques may be
interspersed. Long one-day climbs may involve fixing the initial pitches on a
preceding day—putting up ropes and leaving them in place so they can be
climbed with mechanical ascenders (a technique called jugging) to reach the
previous day’s high point—and completing the route on a second day.

Big wall aid climbing. Ascents of big walls typically take longer than one
day to complete, even if the initial pitches are fixed. These climbs usually
involve a bivouac and require hauling techniques. With the proliferation of
speed-climbing techniques, some big walls that originally took many days to
ascend can now be climbed in a day by expert climbers. Many big wall
climbs require aid on every pitch, and wall climbers typically have many
items of aid-specific equipment.

AID-CLIMBING EQUIPMENT

The range of equipment used in aid climbing builds on all the gear and
techniques described in Chapters 13, Rock Protection, and 14, Leading on
Rock. Unique to aid climbing is the use of gear that is designed only for the
body weight of the climber. All technical equipment for free climbing is
designed to protect climbers in the event of a fall and to withstand the high
fall forces generated. In aid climbing, certain equipment is used that is
designed only for upward progress on the climb, and this equipment is not
expected or rated to catch a fall.

BASIC EQUIPMENT FOR AID CLIMBING

Aid climbing relies heavily on standard free-climbing equipment—aid

climbers may simply need more of it. The following gear used in free
climbing is also used in aid climbing, with some differences in how it is
used at times discussed below.

Chocks and Camming Devices

The same chocks and spring-loaded camming devices (SLCDs, or cams)

used in free climbing are used on aid climbs. Units that feature shorter clip-
in points are preferred to help gain the maximum elevation out of each
placement. Some SLCDs, such as the Camalot and the Alien, feature a large
clip-in point on the unit itself in addition to the sling sewn onto the SLCD
(see Figure 13-15a and c in Chapter 13, Rock Protection). This feature
makes it possible to clip an aider (a webbing ladder used in aid climbing,
also called an etrier ) directly to the piece of protection, which is a higher
and more convenient clip-in point than the SLCD’s sewn sling (see also
“Racking” under “Basic Aid Techniques” later in this chapter). This
technique allows the climber to make fewer placements overall by getting as
high as possible in aiders on each SLCD placement.
SLCDs specifically designed for tricky placements, such as Totem Cams
(see Figure 13-15g in Chapter 13, Rock Protection), feature clip-in points
that weight only some of the SLCD lobes, instead of all lobes, to use when it
is not possible to place the SLCD with all lobes contacting the rock.
Extremely small SLCDs with a traditional design but a small size and low
load rating are also helpful on aid climbs to make upward progress. These
various specialty cams can be useful in passing difficult moves or sections,
but due to their narrow application of use, they usually do not make up the
bulk of the gear selected for the climb.

Some SLCDs fit better than others into flaring pin scars (rock that has been
damaged by placement and removal of pitons). Many aid climbers prefer
Aliens for pin scar placements. Alien Hybrids, also called offset Aliens, with
cams of different sizes on each side of the unit, eliminate the need to
hammer piton placements on many pitches. Similarly, some chocks fit better
into pin scars, such as offset nuts (discussed below).

It is often helpful to mix many brands and styles of chocks and SLCDs on
the rack when aid climbing, because sometimes the perfect piece for a
particular crack will be in between the sizes made by one manufacturer. In
that case, a different brand of chock or SLCD that is slightly different in size
may fit the crack better.

Small and Offset Nuts

Aid racks include small micronuts that are even more specialized than those
for typical free-climbing racks. These very small nuts are often used instead
of thin pitons or in pin scars, but they may not be as strong. The smallest
sizes are not rated to catch a fall and serve only for upward progress.

Two general styles of micronuts are available. The first is a smaller version
of the classic tapered Stopper. The other style, which has both horizontal and
vertical tapers, is referred to as an offset nut. More secure in flaring cracks
and pin scars, offset nuts come in larger sizes than micronuts, usually
aluminum in the larger sizes, and are very useful, possibly indispensable, for
climbing walls with pin scars. (See Figure 13-10d in Chapter 13, Rock
Protection.)
The heads of small nuts are usually made from softer metals, such as brass
or copper/iron mixtures. The rock bites into these softer materials, and so
these nuts tend to hold better in marginal placements. The very smallest of
micronuts by most manufacturers are not rated to take falls; they are used
just for upward progress in direct aid. Small and offset nuts can be difficult
or impossible to remove after they have been weighted by the aid climber.
The heads of the smallest nuts are very small, and the nut’s cable blocks the
area that a climber would normally hit with a nut tool (see Chapter 14,
Leading on Rock). Using a hammer and funkness device (see “Universal
Aid-Specific Equipment” below) is often the only way to remove micronuts
once they have been weighted.

Carabiners

Aid climbing employs many carabiners. Carabiners are used to rack

protection, to sling protection (see “Slings” below), to build anchors, to clip
the haul bag to the haul line, to clip critical gear to gear loops inside the haul
bag, to attach aiders, daisy chains, and ascenders—and for many other
purposes. The more organized and efficient the climbers are, especially at
building anchors and packing gear inside the haul bag, the fewer carabiners
they will need.

Traditionally, aid climbers preferred oval carabiners for the entire rack
because of the carabiner shift phenomenon. Carabiner shift occurs after a
climber clips one carabiner to another so that a piece of protection can be
weighted while the climber stands in aiders, and then a carabiner shifts,
making a sound like gear popping. In the context of aid climbing, this can be
a terrifying false alarm of an imminent fall. However, the modern techniques
of clipping directly in to the aid protection with the aider and using oval
keylock carabiners on both aiders eliminate carabiner shift most of the time.
As there is no longer a special emphasis on oval carabiners, most aid
climbers now carry lighter wire-gate carabiners as much as possible to
reduce the overall weight of the aid rack. One common method is to use
wire-gate carabiners for protection and slings and to carry conventional-gate
carabiners, including many locking carabiners, for anchors. Aid racks are
especially heavy on the climb’s descent, so saving weight using modern
lightweight and wire-gate carabiners pays off.
Ropes

The tough duty of aid climbing usually requires a 10- to 11-millimeter

kernmantle lead rope, 60 meters (approximately 200 feet) long. The haul
line is typically a second lead rope or a 10-millimeter static line. If the route
entails long pendulum swings or other unusual problems, a third rope may
be needed—either another kernmantle rope or another static line. When
selecting a rope, keep in mind its resistance to abrasion and edge cutting,
because of the typically rough terrain and demands associated with aid
climbing. See “Ropes” in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System.

Examine ropes often, and consider retiring aid ropes earlier than a free-
climbing rope might be retired. Jugging, rappelling, and hauling put extreme
wear on ropes. Climbers trust their life to the rope when using ascenders to
jug a fixed line, so they do not want to worry about whether they waited too
long before retiring it.

Slings

Carry single-length slings for establishing anchors, extending placements to

reduce rope drag, and other normal rock climbing uses. Single-length slings
are the most useful because they can easily be carried over the shoulder;
they can also be carried like quickdraws and easily extended to full length
after the first half is clipped to the placement (referred to as “alpine draws”;
see Figure 14-7 in Chapter 14, Leading on Rock).

Load-limiting runners, such as the Yates Screamer, are sometimes used to

climb above placements of questionable strength. In a fall, the slings limit
the shock delivered to the protection (see Figure 9-35 in Chapter 9, Basic
Safety System).

Cordelettes and other sling materials used to create anchors for free climbing
are equally useful for aid climbing. Cordelettes are popular for anchors on
big walls, because multiple anchor points are usually employed. See
Chapters 9, Basic Safety System, and 10, Belaying, for more information on
slings and cordelettes.

Assisted-Braking Belay Device

Certain assisted-braking belay devices, such as the Petzl Grigri, have special
uses in aid climbing. While aid routes can be climbed without these devices,
these multipurpose tools (see Figure 10-9 in Chapter 10, Belaying) are
helpful in many tricky situations encountered in aid climbing. During long
belays, for example, a Grigri can help climbers manage the rope while
accomplishing other tasks such as managing the haul line, eating, drinking,
and even relieving themselves. The Grigri is also helpful as a backup when a
climber is following; it can be used during hauling; it can substitute as a
mechanical ascender if one is dropped; it allows superior control during
rappels on a single line—and it serves many other helpful purposes on an aid
climb. Be sure to select a Grigri that functions properly on the 10- to 11-
millimeter ropes used in aid climbing, as some units are designed for
smaller-diameter free-climbing ropes.

Helmet

A helmet is absolutely essential for aid climbing (see Chapter 9, Basic

Safety System). Steep terrain, large racks (which make the climber top-
heavy), and the dynamics of a popped placement tend to send aid climbers
into headfirst falls. Other hazards include rockfall, dropped gear, roofs, and
other climbers. If used properly, a chest harness may keep the climber
upright if the rope draws taut prior to the climber contacting the rock, but
this in no way replaces the need for head protection. Within the range of
weight and materials that modern helmets offer, all-purpose hardshell
helmets better withstand the rigors and length of aid and big wall climbs.

Gloves

Over and above their value for belaying and rappelling, leather gloves are
critical for hauling. Gloves protect the climber’s hands during jugging and
removing protection. Aid climbing is very hard on gloves, and they need to
be replaced often. Leather gardening gloves can be used, with the fingertips
just slightly cut off. Tape makes a great reinforcement on the cut edge to
keep cut fingertips from unraveling (fig. 15-1).

images
Fig. 15-1. Leather gloves with cutoff fingers, reinforced with tape, and with
holes cut as a clip-in point.

Shoes

If the route involves only a small amount of aid, normal rock shoes perform
best. If sustained aid climbing is anticipated, shoes or boots with greater sole
rigidity provide a better working platform and more comfort. Sticky rubber
approach shoes are very popular for aid climbing, including on big walls.
They provide arch support and good torsional rigidity for aid climbing yet
have a flexible toe and a soft friction-rubber sole for good free-climbing
capabilities.

Eye Protection

It is important both for leaders and followers to protect their eyes from
debris when cleaning out cracks, from equipment, especially the hammer,
and other hazards that could contact the face. Sunglasses typically provide
adequate protection; however, leaders may not able to remove sunglasses
midlead, and lead times can be many hours. Therefore, consider
photochromic or changeable lenses so that eye protection can still be worn
comfortably when the weather is not sunny or when the climbing route is in
the shade.

Knife

Just as in free climbing, a sharp knife is required equipment on the harness.

Climbers often must remove webbing or cord in order to be able to clip a
carabiner to a piece of fixed protection, to replace the worn webbing with
new webbing, or simply to remove unnecessary old fixed slings from the
rock to help keep the climb pristine for other climbers. Given the heavy
loads involved in aid climbing, unexpected situations can occur wherein a
sling or cord has to be cut in order to free a load or fix an error. For example,
if a climber accidentally ties in a haul bag on a docking cord with a non-
releasable knot, the only way to free the bag might be to cut that docking
cord (see “Big Wall Multiday Techniques” later in this chapter). A knife
comes in handy for repairing or making homemade gear during a multiday
climb and for many other purposes.
UNIVERSAL AID-SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT

In addition to equipment normally used in free climbing, aid climbers need a

selection of gear that is used both for clean aid climbing and for aid that may
involve placing pitons.

Aiders (Etriers)

Webbing ladders, called aiders or etriers, allow the climber to step up from
one placement to the next when the aiders are clipped to a piece of
protection. When making or buying aiders, consider their intended use. For
alpine climbs, minimize weight by using a single lightweight pair of aiders.
For most aid climbing, offset-step or ladder-style five- or six-step aiders
sewn from 1-inch (2.5-centimeter) webbing are standard (fig. 15-2a and b).
They are used, usually in pairs, in leapfrog fashion as the climber ascends.
Aiders should be long enough to allow the climber to reach the bottom step
of the higher ladder when testing aid placements from a comfortable stance
on the lower ladder. More difficult aid routes usually require six-step
ladders, because there may be longer distances between placement options
and because down-climbing to the lower piece is more common.

images

Fig. 15-2. Types of aiders: a, offset-step style; b, ladder style; c, adjustable.

The basic aid sequence (see “The Basic Aid Sequence” later in this chapter)
uses two aiders. However, some aid climbers use four aiders, permanently
set up in pairs. A third method is to use two aiders but to have a spare third
aider available, possibly loose on the harness, for occasional tricky
sequences. The use of more than two aiders is popular on more difficult aid
routes, but ultimately, the number of aiders used depends on personal
preference.

An adjustable type of aider (fig. 15-2c) tends to be lighter and is especially

well suited for quick adjustment for optimal jugging. Most climbers use
adjustable aiders as follower gear only. Other different aider systems include
the “Russian aider” system, which completely diverges from the ladder
design: it instead uses a system of slings with small metal rings and a knee
strap, which is equipped with hooks that allow the climber to “hook” the
aider and stand suspended in the rings. However, the ladder-type system
remains the most commonly used and most commercially available.

Daisy Chains

Traditional daisy chains are sewn slings with multiple loops (fig. 15-3a)—
formed by stitching—every 3 to 6 inches (8 to 15 centimeters). Daisy chains
are used as tethers to keep new placements and aiders attached to the lead
climber; they are an integral part of the jugging setup. A daisy chain should,
when attached to the harness, reach at least as far as the climber’s raised
hand. Typical daisy chains are 45 to 55 inches (115 to 140 centimeters) long.
Longer daisy chains are helpful for difficult aid routes, because they permit
the climber to down-climb longer distances below a piece of protection,
which allows for adequate testing (see the “The Basic Aid Sequence” later
in this chapter). The sewn loops are used to shorten the daisy chain when it
is used in the jugging mode. This shortening must be done in accordance
with the manufacturer’s guidelines.

images

Fig. 15-3. Daisy chains: a, loop-style daisy chain; b, adjustable daisy strap.

Usually two daisy chains are carried, one for the left-side aider and one for
the right-side aider. One end of each daisy chain is girth-hitched to the
climbing harness through the tie-in points. The other end is attached to the
appropriate aider with a carabiner, preferably a dedicated oval keylock
carabiner. Connecting the aider to the daisy chain prevents the loss of an
aider if it is dropped or if a placement fails, and the daisy chain also
provides a convenient method for resting on a placement by using a fifi hook
(see below). Adjustable daisy straps (fig. 15-3b) are an alternative to the
classic daisy chain, and they have special features outside of their use as a
tether (see below). Adjustable daisy straps must also be used in accordance
with the manufacturer’s guidelines. Some designs are sturdier and more
reliable than others.

Fifi Hooks
The classic fifi hook (fig. 15-4a) is girth-hitched to the harness with a sling
that reaches 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters) away from the harness after
the girth hitch is tied. An adjustable fifi hook (fig. 15-4b) is rigged with
slippery 6-millimeter accessory cord and is tied in to the harness with one
end of this cord, typically with a rewoven figure-eight knot. The adjustable
fifi hook can be placed higher away from the harness initially than the
classic fifi hook, and then the distance can be shortened as needed by pulling
on the cord.

A fifi hook can be a critical part of the basic aid sequence, especially on
steep terrain. It is used to hook in to a placement and to hold the climber’s
body weight. Using a fifi hook or an adjustable daisy strap helps conserve
energy when aid climbing steep routes, including roofs. A fifi hook allows
climbers to rest on placements, which is more efficient than holding their
weight with body tension or with their arms and legs. The fifi hook also
provides helpful countertension when used to hook a piece at waist level,
after which the climber stands up above it to top-step (see Figure 15-21) or
to make difficult reaches above protection, such as on overhangs.

An adjustable daisy strap (see “Daisy Chains” above) can be used in place of
an adjustable fifi hook. Some climbers use two traditional daisy chains as
tethers to attach their aiders to their harness and one adjustable daisy strap to
rest on pieces.

images

Fig. 15-4. Fifi hooks: a, classic style; b, adjustable.

images

Fig. 15-5. Double gear sling with racked SLCDs (SLCD slings omitted for
clarity).

Double Gear Sling

A double gear sling distributes the weight of the hardware, utilizing

equipment slings on both sides of the climber’s body (fig. 15-5). It improves
balance and comfort, and it reduces neck strain caused by the single bearing
point of a traditional free-climbing gear sling. A double gear sling can also
serve as a chest harness, if it is designed for this use, assisting the climber
when jugging up a rope through a steep section, or helping to keep the
climber upright during a fall. Racking methods vary widely, but given the
weight and volume of gear carried on aid climbs, double gear slings are
standard equipment.

Aid-Specific Seat Harness

Harnesses made specifically for aid climbing are not required, but they
typically feature an extra-wide belt and larger leg loops, and on some
harnesses, both belt and leg loops have padding. Most such harnesses also
feature a hammer holster. Some have other special features, including wider,
extra-strong belay loops. All these features help ease the pain of continuous
days in the harness during big wall climbs.

Knee Pads

A climber’s knees are regularly in contact with the rock during low-angle
aid climbing and during hauling, so wearing knee pads protects them. Knee
pads should be comfortable. To avoid hot and sweaty knees, choose knee
pads with good ventilation.

Belay Seat

A belay seat is a great creature comfort during hanging belays. Warning:

Never let the belay seat be the sole means of attaching to an anchor. Clip in
from the harness to the anchor with the climbing rope as usual, and attach
the belay seat to any secure point with its own carabiner. Belay seats can be
purchased, or climbers can make their own out of wood, a little padding, and
some slings.

Mechanical Ascenders

When aid climbing was pioneered, ascending fixed ropes was always done
with prusik hitches. Mechanical ascenders—often referred to as jugs or
jumars (fig. 15-6)—are stronger, safer, faster, and less tiring; they have
generally replaced the prusik hitch for ascending a fixed line. The devices
are also very helpful for hauling bags up big walls.
All ascenders employ a cam, allowing them to slide freely in one direction
on a rope but to grip tightly when pulled in the opposite direction. Ascenders
also have a trigger or locking mechanism to keep them from accidentally
coming off the rope. Some triggers are difficult to release, decreasing the
chance of accidental removal but making it harder to get them off the rope
when the climber wants to remove them. They are designed for use by a
specific hand, either left or right, and when using two, climbers carry one for
each hand. (See “Using Ascenders” later in this chapter.)

Fig. 15-6. Handled mechanical ascender for left hand (right-hand ascender
is a mirror image): the rope passes through the vertical passage near the
top; carabiner holes at top and bottom are used for a number of purposes.

In addition to the main opening at the bottom of the ascender, which is used
as the primary attachment point, additional carabiner holes at the top and the
bottom of the ascender come in handy for a number of purposes.

Big Wall Hammers

The big wall hammer (see Figure 15-7) is a basic aid tool that has a flat
striking surface for cleaning and driving pitons and a blunt pick for prying
out protection, cleaning dirty cracks, and placing malleable pieces. A
carabiner hole in the head is useful for cleaning pieces (see “Cleaning” later
in this chapter).

A sling attached to the hammer handle helps prevent the hammer from being
lost if dropped. Hammer slings can be clipped to the harness, worn across
the body, or even clipped to an aider or piece of gear when the hammer is in
use. The sling length should allow a climber to have full arm extension
when using the hammer. Be sure to check the sling regularly for wear. It is a
good idea to holster the hammer whenever it is not in use, to keep it secure
and to allow quick access; a commercial holster can be added to the harness.

images

Fig. 15-7. A funkness device clipped to a small nut and the hammer allows
the climber to jerk the hammer up and out to clear the wedged piece of
protection.

Funkness Device

A funkness device (fig. 15-7), also called simply a funkness, is a metal sling
made from cable, with loops on each end for clipping carabiners. The device
is used as a static sling to assist in cleaning pieces; it is helpful for removing
pins as well as nuts that have been weighted by the leader. A climber clips
one of the funkness’s carabiners to the piece that needs to be removed and
connects the other carabiner to the hammer; then the climber jerks upward
and outward with the hammer to remove the wedged piece. To remove pins,
multiple directions of pull may be needed. A climbing team shares one
funkness, which is passed between climbers as they change leads, so the
device must work with all the climbers’ hammers. In order to withstand the
inevitable beating they take, carabiners used with a funkness should be
conventional (not wire-gate) and should fit comfortably in the holes of all
hammers used on the climb so that the funkness can be easily clipped in and
also have adequate range of movement while in use.

Tie-Off Loops

Tie-off loops are carried in a variety of sizes and strengths. Sizes range from
4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 centimeters) long when tied. The loops are made
either of full-strength webbing—meaning the webbing has a strength rating
expected to arrest a fall—or of thinner ½-inch webbing that is meant for
body weight only. Climbers often purchase sewn full-strength tie-off loops
to avoid having a knot on these small slings, but they typically tie their own
body-weight tie-off loops (see Figure 9-34b).
Body-weight tie-off loops are very inexpensive to create, which makes them
attractive for leaving behind on a route—for example, girth-hitched to fixed
gear, often for the purpose of lowering off of a fixed piece when following a
pitch. Body-weight tie-off loops are also used to prevent the loss of stacked
pieces (see “Piton Placement” later in this chapter).

Full-strength tie-off loops are used on a placement expected to hold a fall.

These loops might be used for threading through the head of a fixed piton if
the eye would not accommodate a carabiner, for tying off partially driven
pins (see Figure 13-9 in Chapter 13, Rock Protection), or for improvising a
quickdraw if the leader runs out of gear.

Hooks

Hooks (sometimes called standard hooks, with the advent of camming

hooks—see below) come in many shapes; they are commonly used to grip
ledges or small holes. Hooks are typically made of chromium molybdenum
steel for strength and curved for stability. Hooks are used for body weight
only and, by their nature, are almost never left behind as protection (see
“Hook Placement and Use” later in this chapter).

Attach a sling, usually ½-inch tie-off webbing, to a hook by feeding a tie-off

loop through from the front until the knot jams (see Figure 15-8b). The sling
should hang from the rock side of the hook, with the knot on the other side.
This puts the line of force next to the rock, eliminates rotation of the tip of
the hook off the rock feature, and keeps the knot out of the way, allowing the
hook to rest against the wall.

Many different sizes and types of hooks can be useful on a big wall. Some
popular models no longer commercially available are still considered critical
gear for certain types of ascents and popular routes. (This creates a sourcing
challenge for aspiring aid climbers.) In general, for most routes consider
carrying at least one basic hook (fig. 15-8a), one bat hook (fig. 15-8b), and
one large hook (fig. 15-8c). One model, the Talon, features three differently
shaped hooks (fig. 15-8d). Because the Talon’s two extra hooks can serve as
“legs,” this hook can be the best fit for some features. It is a good idea to
carry two of each type of hook on longer aid routes, in case the same type of
hook is needed two times in a row or in case a hook is dropped.
 images

Fig. 15-8. Standard hook types: a, basic; b, bat hook; c, large hook; d,
Talon.

Greater stability can be achieved on some placements if the tip of the hook
is filed to a point that can be set into small holes drilled at the back of tiny
ledges. Bat hooks are used almost exclusively in shallow, ¼-inch-diameter
(6-millimeter-diameter) holes that have been drilled for their use.

There are additional variations on the hooks shown here, as well as many
more shapes and sizes not shown.

Camming Hooks

Camming hooks (also called cam hooks) are simple, hardsteel levers that can
be used in any crack that is at least as wide as the thickness of the metal and
no wider than the width across the hook’s tip. Often, a cam hook can be used
to avoid placing a pin, especially in scars made by wedge pitons (Lost
Arrows, for instance). While all about the same thickness of metal, cam
hooks have different tip widths and “arm” lengths (fig. 15-9a), which
produce different leverage on the rock features (fig. 15-9b and c). Too much
leverage may bite into the rock or expand a flake, whereas too little leverage
may make the placement insecure. Narrow cam hooks tend to have higher
leverage; wider cam hooks tend to have lower leverage. Cam hooks can be
used in leapfrog style to advance quickly on relatively easy terrain.

images

Fig. 15-9. Cam hooks: a, typical cam hook sizes—small, medium, large; b,
cam hook placement in vertical crack; c, cam hook upside down under a
roof.

Rivet Hangers

Rivet hangers are used to attach to bolt studs and rivets, which are basically
shallowly driven ¼-inch bolts with a wide head.
Wire rivet hangers are loops of wire ⅛ inch or 3⁄32 inch (3 or 2 millimeters)
in diameter, with a slider to cinch the wire tight (fig. 15-10a and b). Small
nuts with wire slings can be used in a similar manner, with the nut itself
acting as the slider to tighten the wire against the bolt stud (see Figure 13-7
in Chapter 13, Rock Protection); however, because nuts have a longer wire
loop than wire rivet hangers do, and therefore hang lower, they do not
provide as much elevation gain. Wire rivet hangers primarily assist with
upward progress and may not catch a fall, and rivets are generally
considered body-weight protection only, so use careful judgment when
relying on them as protection.

Regular and keyhole hangers are rivet hangers made from shaped pieces of
metal (fig. 15-10c). They are especially useful for belay anchors and for
fixed bolts that have no hangers. On a keyhole hanger, the metal between the
bolt hole and the carabiner hole is filed out to allow placement over rivets
and buttonhead bolts. When a regular or keyhole hanger is placed over a
good bolt, it is considered protection that would arrest a fall. It is also wise
to carry a few loose ¼-inch and ⅜-inch nuts in your pocket to screw onto
bolts and rivets without hangers.

images

Fig. 15-10. Rivet hangers:

a, basic wire;
b, self-cinching wire;
c, keyhole.

IRON HARDWARE AND BOLTS

The full range of aid-climbing techniques can be mastered only with

knowledge of pitons, malleable hardware, and bolts.

Pitons

Modern pitons—also called pins—are made of hardened chromium

molybdenum steel or other suitable alloys such as titanium alloys. Rather
than molding to cracks the way the older, first-generation malleable pitons
did, modern pitons made of harder materials are more unyielding and force
the crack to their form. The key to effective piton placement is choosing the
piton that is the best size for the crack. To fit the diverse cracks climbers
encounter on rock walls, pitons vary tremendously in size and shape.

Realized Ultimate Reality Piton. The RURP is the smallest piton—a

postage-stamp-sized, hatchet-shaped pin (fig. 15-11a) used in incipient
cracks. It will usually support only body weight.

Birdbeaks. Also called beaks and commonly known by the brand name
Peckers, birdbeaks (fig. 15-11b) range from those close in size to RURPs to
larger units that fit in placements similar to those in which knifeblades or
even wedge pitons (see below) fit. Beaks are particularly strong when they
can be placed so that the long nose of the beak creates camming action
inside the crack, which often makes them a more secure choice than
knifeblades. In an excellent beak placement, the nose of the beak goes back
into the crack away from the climber and also angles down into the crack
toward the ground, so that when removing the beak, the follower must nail it
not only up and down, as with a typical piton (see “Seconding” below), but
also outward toward the follower. Thus, beaks can be especially difficult to
clean. It is common to damage the cable on the beak when cleaning, so take
care and consider backing up the cable with webbing.

Knifeblades. Also called blades, knifeblades are long and thin and have two
eyes: one at the end of the blade and a second in the offset portion of the pin
(fig. 15-11c). They come in different lengths and in thicknesses ranging
from 1/8 to 3/16 inch (3 to 4 millimeters). They are commonly used to fit
cracks that are too thin for tiny nuts. Many routes have plenty of fixed
blades in place, but their use has become less common because beaks tend to
be more secure in cracks of the same size.

images

Fig. 15-11. Piton types: a, Realized Ultimate Reality Piton (RURP); b,

Pecker (birdbeak); c, knifeblade; d, Lost Arrow (wedge piton); e, angle; f,
sawed-off angle; g, large sawed-off angle; h, Leeper Z; i, bong.

Wedge pitons. Known commonly by the brand name Lost Arrows or just
arrows, wedge pitons are one of the more commonly used versatile pins.
They have a single eye centered and set perpendicular to the end of the pin
(fig. 15-11d) and come in several lengths, in thicknesses ranging from 5/32
to 9/32 inch (4 to 8 millimeters). Among other uses, arrows are very good in
horizontal cracks.

Angles. Pitons formed into a V shape are called angles (fig. 15-11e, f, and
g). The V varies in height from ½ to 1½ inches (12 to 38 millimeters). The
strength of these pitons is derived from the metal’s resistance to bending and
spreading. Angles are commonly used in angle pin scars, since oftentimes
nothing else will fit in a pin scar except a pin. Otherwise, a crack large
enough to accept an angle will normally accept clean climbing equipment if
the crack has never been used for pin placements.

Leeper Z pitons. The Leeper Z piton has a Z-shaped profile (fig. 15-11h),
as opposed to the V profile of an angle. These pitons often make very solid
placements and work well for pin stacking (see “Stacking” later in this
chapter). Sawed-off Leeper Z pins (see below) can work well in angle scars.

Bongs. Bongs are large angle pitons, varying from 2 to 6 inches (5 to 15

centimeters) wide (fig. 15-11i). SLCDs and other large gear options have
generally replaced the need for bongs.

Sawed-off pitons. Angles and Leeper Z pitons with a few inches cut off the
end (see Figure 15-11f and g) are useful for shallow placements. These
sawed-off pitons are handy for protection on routes that have been heavily
climbed using pitons, which leave shallow pin scars. Pins with the
proportions of sawed-off angles are sometimes available commercially;
otherwise, climbers saw their own pitons using a vise and a hacksaw. Angles
of widths from 3/4 to 1½ inches (19 to 38 millimeters) are the most common
size of angle to saw off.

Malleable Hardware

Generally called copperheads (even when not made of copper), or just

heads, malleable hardware is designed to hold weight by melding the soft
head of the piece to the irregularities of the rock, such as a small constriction
or corner. The security of heads varies greatly, and it is difficult to gauge the
strength of a copperhead when placed, making them last-resort equipment,
generally capable of holding only body weight, although they may hold
falls.

Copperheads. Copperheads have a sleeve, called a ferrule, of copper or

aluminum, the “head,” swaged to one end of a short cable that has a clip
loop swaged at the other end (fig. 15-12a). They are placed by pounding the
relatively soft metal head end into an irregularity in the rock. Copper forms
well and is more durable than aluminum; aluminum copperheads (made of
softer aluminum than that used in carabiners, et cetera) are not as strong but
are more malleable, and because of that, they are generally easier to place
correctly. Aluminum is the best choice for most placements; copper is
generally used for only the smallest copperheads.

Circleheads. Circleheads consist of a wire loop with one or more copper or

aluminum ferrules swaged on the loop (fig. 15-12b), one of which is
pounded into the rock in the same manner as a copperhead. They are used in
horizontal cracks, overhead placements, and other applications wherein the
symmetry of the wire loop’s attachment point is preferable to a regular head
because of the anticipated direction of pull.

Bolts

Chapter 13, Rock Protection, includes a section on the use of existing bolts
found on climbing routes. Proper bolt placement, including rivet placement,
is a special skill beyond the scope of this book; bolt placement is best left to
the judgment and skill of very experienced climbers. (See “Rock Protection
Etiquette” in Chapter 13, Rock Protection.)

images

Fig. 15-12. Malleable hardware types: a, copperhead; b, circlehead.

BIG WALL EQUIPMENT

Climbers undertaking a big wall have other specialized equipment needs to

consider. Safeguard important equipment taken on a big wall climb by using
tie-in loops or lanyards to attach anything that might be dropped. Bring gear
that will get the party through the worst possible weather, because there is
not likely to be any easy way to retreat. Be sure all equipment is durable,
and consider reinforcing equipment—with duct tape, when applicable—such
as water bottles, portaledges, haul bags, and other items that can be
protected from failure with some preventive maintenance.

Pulleys and Hauling Devices

Pulleys are necessary to ease the chore of hauling. They receive much abuse,
so they must be durable. Pulleys with bearings and larger wheels operate
more smoothly. Commercially offered hauling devices (which are pulleys
with self-locking cams), also called haulers, are especially useful for
extensive hauling and are used by most climbers (fig. 15-13a, b, and c). A
large pulley combined with a locking carabiner, two slings, and one ascender
—all gear that is usually carried on an aid climb—can be assembled to form
a basic hauling system (fig. 15-13d) if the hauling device is dropped. Some
climbers prefer this type of noncommercial basic hauling system for heavy
loads, since they can select larger pulleys and this type of system has fewer
specialized parts that are subject to breaking (see “Hauling” later in this
chapter for additional discussion on rigging this setup). It is a good idea to
also carry simple pulleys for setting up mechanical advantage during a haul
or for rescue situations (see Chapter 25, Alpine Rescue).

images

Fig. 15-13. Hauling devices (or haulers): a, Kong Block Roll; b, Petzl Pro
Traxion; c, Petzl Micro Traxion; d, basic hauling system composed of an
ascender, pulley, locking carabiner, and two slings.

Haul Bags

Haul bags carry clothing, water, food, sleeping bags, and other climbing and
nonclimbing paraphernalia (fig. 15-14a). A good haul bag has adequate
cargo capacity, a solid haul suspension, durable fabric, no snag points, and a
removable backpacking harness system. A knot protector covers the knot
connecting the haul bag to the haul line to protect the knot, and may reduce
snagging problems during hauling. An effective knot protector can be
fashioned from the top of a 2-liter plastic bottle and some cord (fig. 15-14b).
Before leaving the ground, equip the haul bag with a docking cord, typically
20 feet (7 meters) of 8-millimeter cord. Attach the cord directly to the
primary haul strap of the haul bag with a rewoven figure eight (see also
“Hauling” under “Big Wall Multiday Techniques” later in this chapter).

Cheater Sticks

Cheater sticks allow climbers to clip the rope or an aider in to a piece of

hardware beyond their reach. The most important reason to carry some kind
of cheater stick on a big wall is for use in down-aiding (making placements
and clipping the rope in to them while rappelling) in the event of a retreat
through steep terrain. If a fixed placement is missing or broken, using a
cheater stick to reach another placement might provide an alternative to
placing new pitons, copperheads, or bolts.

A tent pole or hiking pole can be fashioned into a cheater stick in an

emergency by taping on a carabiner with duct tape or climbing tape. Cheater
sticks as simple as a quickdraw reinforced and taped to be rigid may be
mandatory for shorter climbers, especially when the gear is fixed and
intermediate placements are not available.

Duct Tape

On big walls, duct tape is indispensable for repairing equipment, protecting

gear, and climbing. Duct tape is used to tape down hooks, to tape the edges
of hangerless bolts to prevent rivet hangers from sliding off, to attach rivet
hangers to the aider carabiner to extend the climber’s reach to a rivet, or to
tape the nut tool or hammer (or both) to aiders, hooks, or protection to reach
an especially high placement. Duct tape can be stuck to the rock to pad sharp
edges in order to protect the rope. Duct tape is also commonly used to repair
gear and to fashion homemade aid-specific equipment. Small-diameter rolls
can be slung with cord and carried on the harness.

images

Fig. 15-14. Haul bag: a, features include solid haul suspension and
removable backpacking harness system; b, protecting the knot.

Portaledges
A climber’s sleeping platform, also called a portaledge (fig. 15-15), is a
lightweight cot that provides a place for climbers to sleep reasonably well on
a big wall without having to reach a natural ledge. Portaledges can be folded
up and hauled with the haul bag. They can also be equipped with a rain fly
to provide protection in a storm. Portaledges and rain-fly styles vary, and
some rain flies are more suitable for big storms than others. An alternative to
a portaledge is a hammock, which is significantly lighter and more
uncomfortable. As with belay seats (see “Universal Aid-Specific
Equipment” earlier in this chapter), when using portaledges or hammocks,
climbers must always be anchored directly to the rock, not to the portaledge
or hammock.

images

Fig. 15-15. Portaledge anchored to a wall (climbers’ individual anchors to

wall and helmets not shown, for clarity).

Waste Containers

On big wall ascents, waste containers must be carried to haul and pack out
human waste, and these containers are typically attached to and hauled
below the haul bag. It is very important that the haul straps on the container
are reliable and attached securely, so the container will not detach during the
ascent. Such detachments not only leave the team without an appropriate
waste container but they leave waste on the rock or at the base and can
injure parties below. While homemade containers may survive the rigors of
a big wall, commercial containers specifically designed for big wall
climbing, such as the Metolius Waste Case, tend to be more reliable. Outer
containers are usually used in combination with internal packaging of the
waste. (See Chapter 7, Leave No Trace.) It should go without saying that it
is never appropriate to toss waste off the cliff during an ascent.

AID PLACEMENTS

The general rule for aid climbing is to place each aid piece as high as
possible. For example, making most placements at 4-foot (1.2-meter)
intervals rather than at 3-foot (0.9-meter) intervals over the course of a 160-
foot (approximately 50-meter) pitch saves more than 10 placements and
much time.

Most of the techniques for placing free-climbing protection apply to aid

climbing; however, unlike in free climbing, some aid-climbing placements
are generally suitable to hold only body weight, not fall forces. Also more
often used in aid climbing than free climbing is the practice of back-
cleaning. Back-cleaning is when a leader climbs past a piece onto a new
piece of protection and decides to remove the previous piece, in order to use
it again higher on the climb (see the “Tips for Leading Aid Pitches” sidebar
later in this chapter). It is important to keep in mind good basic protection
skills and free-climbing concepts when back-cleaning and to leave quality
protection at adequate intervals. Also, always keep in mind that if the
follower will be jugging (climbing the rope using mechanical ascenders), the
leader needs to leave protection close enough together that the follower will
be able to clean the placements. When there is a change in direction or angle
of the climb, removing too many pieces can create a problem for the
follower jugging a rope under tension.

Using a solid cam hook placement rather than a nut or piton placement can
save considerable time for both leader (placement is much simpler) and
follower (because there is nothing to clean), but this provides no protection
against the consequences of a fall.

Placing nuts during an aid climb is similar to placing them on a free climb,
but because aid nuts take the weight of the lead climber, and because they
may be smaller than the nut tool, they can be difficult to remove. Consider
using nuts only for protection and not weighting nuts for upward progress if
possible.

Evaluate fixed pins, bolts, and other fixed gear before using them (see
Chapter 13, Rock Protection). Clip a carabiner directly to fixed gear left as
protection whenever possible rather than clipping in to old fixed slings that
might be attached to the fixed gear. For example, cut old slings from piton
eyes when necessary so that the piton eye can accept a carabiner. If for some
reason a carabiner will not fit in the eye—because the pin is bent or is too
close to an obstruction, or because fixed webbing cannot be removed from
the eye—thread a full-strength tie-off loop through the eye and then either
girth-hitch it or clip the two ends of the tie-off loop with a carabiner.

PITON PLACEMENT

A properly sized pin can be placed one-half to two-thirds of the way by

hand; the remainder of the pin is then hammered into place. Select the
correct pin to fit the crack. A pin that inserts smoothly, with good contact
between the pin and rock and reasonably matches the shape of the crack,
will do less damage to the rock when hammered in than a pin that is too
large or the wrong shape. Using an ill-fitting pin causes more destruction to
the rock. A sound piton rings with a higher-pitched ping with each strike of
the hammer. After the pin is driven, bounce-test the piece (see “The Basic
Aid Sequence” later in this chapter). Wellplaced pins or fixed pins can flex
when weighted, but they should not shift. Knowing just how much to
hammer a piton is a matter of touch and experience. Excessive hammering
wastes energy, makes it harder for the second to remove the piton, and
needlessly damages the rock. Under-driving a piton, however, increases the
risk of its pulling out. If several pins are underdriven, the failure of one
could result in a long fall as the series of pins zippers out. Here are
additional guidelines for the sound placement of pitons:

Hand-place pitons, without any driving by the hammer, if possible, to

eliminate damage to the rock; use an existing scar and do not hammer the
pin. Hand-placed pitons may be less secure for upward progress and are less
likely to catch a fall than hammered pitons, but with practice some
placements can be accomplished this way.

Try to determine what type of pin was previously placed and how it was
placed, since most piton placements now occur in pin scars, in order to use
the scar in the same manner it was created.

Place pins in wider portions of a crack, in the way nuts are placed. If the
crack is thinner below and above the pin, the pin will be supported when it
has to take your weight (fig. 15-16a).

Add a full-strength tie-off loop to the piton if the piton’s position causes
the connecting carabiner to extend over an edge, to prevent cross-loading the
carabiner across its sides (fig. 15-16b).

Keep the three points of the V in contact with the rock when placing
angles (fig. 15-16c). The back (the point of the V) must always be in contact
with one wall, while the edges (the two tips of the V) are in contact with the
opposing wall. In a horizontal crack, put the back of the angle up and the
edges down.

Stop hammering when a pin bottoms out in a crack—that is, cannot be

driven in all the way. The piton must be tied off around the shaft at the point
where it emerges from the rock. A tie-off loop connected with an overhand
slipknot, girth-hitched or clove-hitched to the pin, supports the climber’s
weight and reduces levering action (see Figure 13-9 in Chapter 13, Rock
Protection). Loop a longer sling (or a second carabiner) through the eye of
the pin and clip it in to the tie-off loop or its carabiner. This “keeper sling”
does not bear weight but will catch the pin if it pops out.

STACKING

When no single pin, chock, or SLCD fits the crack at hand, aid climbers get
very creative. Whether a climber has run out of proper-sized pieces or is
facing a beat-out, pod-shaped pin scar, it is time to improvise by driving in
two or more pins together, known as stacking. This can be done many
different ways, depending on the size of the crack and the pins available, as
shown in Figure 15-17.

Blades are stacked back to back and are usually driven together. If a third
blade is necessary, the first two are inserted by hand, and then the third is
driven in between them. Leeper Z pitons are especially useful for stacking,
and Lost Arrows can also be stacked, either back to back or with a shorter
arrow on top of a longer arrow. You can mix any pins together in a stack that
nicely fill the crack and with good contact between the individual pins in the
stack. Creativity is the key.

There is some disagreement about the best way to stack angles. Some
climbers stack them by keeping the spines of both angles against each other
and the edges of each piton into the rock, but any combination will work.
Try to avoid stacking angles by simply placing one over the other, because
these may be very hard to separate once they are removed.

When pins are stacked, girth-hitch the pins together with a tie-off loop (fig.
15-17a and c). It is typical to clip in to only one pin directly (fig. 15-17b), or
if the eyes of the stacked pins are blocked (as in Figure 15-17a), it may be
necessary to clip directly to the tie-off loop. In either case, using a tie-off
loop ensures that if the stacked pins fail, you will not lose the pins that have
not been clipped directly in to the rope.
Fig. 15-16. Piton placements: a, placements are best if crack constricts
above and below piton; b, safely extending a piton to avoid cross-loading
the carabiner; c, angle piton placements should have all three points in
contact with the rock.
 images

Fig. 15-17. Examples of pitons and angles stacked and nested (some keeper
slings omitted for clarity): a, arrow and knifeblade stacked back-to-back; b,
Leeper Z and angle, nested; c, two arrows and knifeblade, stacked.

HOOK PLACEMENT AND USE

To place a hook, set the hook on the ledge, flake, or hole where it will be
used. When learning, try several hooks to see which one sits most securely
in the feature. Move the hook around to try to find the most secure
positioning by feel, and if the hooked feature can be seen, visually inspect
the quality of the placement as well. Hooks can sometimes be placed on top
of a fixed copperhead that has lost its wire (called a “dead head”).

After selecting the hook and placement position, clip an aider and daisy
chain to the hook. Test all hooks before applying full body weight (or gently
“ooze” body weight onto the hook if it is off to the side or otherwise cannot
be tested). Climbers usually start very low in their aiders so that their weight
and stance are well below the hook before they move up the aiders one step
at a time. Climbers should avoid standing with their face directly in front of
the hook because it could pop out with a good deal of force. Once your
weight is on the hook in one aider (or one pair), it can be helpful to “fifi
in”—to hook in to the aider’s carabiner and hang your body weight—just as
with other pieces of protection. Always keep constant downward pressure on
the hook when standing in the aiders, especially when moving up in the
aiders and switching weight from one foot to the other.

Cam hooks should be placed in the crack or pocket in a fashion that will
make the hook bind up and rotate to cause a camming force on the rock.
These placements rely on the force created by the torque (camming action)
of the hook into the rock. With practice, cam hooks can be placed in many
seemingly unlikely positions and orientations. The tighter the cam hook fits
into the crack (in other words, the closer the width of the metal sheet is to
the width of the crack), the more secure the placement and the less potential
there is to do any damage to the rock. A cam hook can be hit once with a
hammer to increase the placement’s security when needed. Sometimes a
hammer is needed to remove a cam hook, even when it has supported only
body weight. Climbers generally agree that cam hooks should not be used in
certain rock, such as sandstone, because they may damage the rock with
their camming action.

MALLEABLE PLACEMENTS

Because climbers often cannot tell how secure the placements of malleable
heads are, and because such heads damage the rock, do not use them except
where other protection will not work. Heads are used like any other aid
piece but have an inescapable weakness: inspection cannot guarantee that
the head has been molded to the rock. Some heads may hold a short fall,
others will support body weight only, and others might fail. All malleable
head placements are suspect, and accepting this fact is inherent in their use.

Assuming that an adequate selection of heads is available, use the largest

head the rock feature will best accommodate. Gently bounce-test all head
placements (see “The Basic Aid Sequence” below), whether placed by you
or a previous party. Do not get impatient when placing heads—spend as
much time as needed to make the placement as good as possible. Consider
using load-limiting runners on heads, since a well-placed head may arrest a
fall.

Copperheads and circleheads take more practice to place than other types of
aid gear, and placing them requires specialized tools. The hammer pick
works for setting (“pasting”) large heads, but small heads require
hammering a striking tool such as a blunt chisel (fig. 15-18) or a punch—or,
in a pinch, a Lost Arrow or nut tool. Hammering a striking tool rather than
the piece itself reduces the likelihood of a missed hit, which causes undue
damage to the rock.

images

Fig. 15-18. Placing a copperhead by hammering directly on a chisel, rather

than on the copperhead itself.

Before placing a head, examine it carefully. Note that, starting with the clip-
in loop, the cable comes up through the “back” of the head, does a 180-
degree turn, and ends at the bottom of the “front” of the head (see Figure 15-
12a). Make sure the back of the head is placed against the rock and the
frayed ends of the cut cable at the front of the head are visible, in order to
minimize the cable’s outward bending movement (or torque) on the head
itself and to protect the cable when the head is being pasted.

Look for a placement option like a downward-tapered groove or crack that

at least has parallel sides, similar to a nut placement, but that can’t take a
nut, possibly because it is too shallow. Practice head placement on the
ground, perhaps in some boulders or other nonclimbable rock, to gain
experience before placing heads on an established climbing route. Follow
these steps when placing a head:

1.Warm up the head by hitting it on every surface with the hammer a few
times. If needed, carefully shape the head slightly to match the intended
placement by rotating the head while hitting it gently, approximately 10 to
20 times.

2.Place the head by positioning it similarly to a nut—in a narrowing portion

of a flare or seam, making sure to orient the head correctly: with the back of
the head placed against the rock.

3.Seat the head into the rock, preferably using a punch to hit it perhaps four
to five times, over the entire head. If no punch is available, at this stage use
the narrow tip of the wall hammer. At this point, the goal is simply for the
head to stay in place in the constriction during additional pasting without the
climber having to hold on to it.

4.Pound the head in, using a chisel to make many angled strokes that form
an X pattern on the head, or simply hit the head repeatedly enough times to
weld the head into the placement. Take care not to hit and damage the rock
or the cable of the head. Hit the head all over—top, middle, and bottom. If
the head rocks while being hit on its top or bottom, go back to hitting the
middle of the head. If the metal starts separating from the cable, stop hitting,
to avoid overpasting the head.

5.Paste the head on its edges by setting the chisel right on the edge of the
head and pounding both sides to past the edges of the head.
6.“Pin” the head on the top and bottom with special care; this is the area of
the head that often gets the best “bite” in the rock.

7.Gently bounce-test the head before committing your weight to ensure

that it will hold. However, overaggressive bounce-testing can pull a good
head placement, so try to generate only about twice the force of the body
weight to be held (see “The Basic Aid Sequence” below).

BASIC AID TECHNIQUES

Before starting to lead any aid pitch, study the terrain and make a plan.
Decide what gear the leader will need and what the second can carry.
Generally, the leader should carry personal ascenders, belay device(s)
including an assisted-braking belay device, and a nut tool, among other gear,
as this gear—normally considered follower gear—may be needed when
leading aid climbs. Figure out how to minimize rope drag. Spot any
obstructions that might create hauling problems. Decide whether to save aid
pieces of certain sizes for the end of the pitch.

RACKING

Racking varies greatly with personal style. It is common on aid routes to

have more than one SLCD on each racking carabiner. Racking SLCDs on
wire-gate carabiners is preferred because these carabiners are lighter.

A recommended racking system is to attach the SLCD’s clip-in loop to the

carabiner instead of clipping the SLCD in with its sewn sling as is done in
free climbing. Face the gate of the carabiner out and away from the harness,
with the opening of the gate at the bottom of the carabiner. This allows the
climber to open the carabiner by flicking the rigid loop of the SLCD against
the carabiner gate, removing just one SLCD from the carabiner with one
hand. When racking multiple SLCDs on one carabiner, consider mixing
sizes so that if one carabiner full of SLCDs is dropped, all of the pieces of
that size are not lost. (Figure 15-5 shows how SLCDs are typically racked
for aid climbing.)

Consider racking half of the SLCDs, nuts, pins, and slings of each size on
each side of your body so that all sizes of gear are available from both sides.
Typically, gear is racked from small to large or large to small. Some
climbers rack all their slings on their seat harness and all their protection on
their chest harness. Making “two-packs” of slings reduces the amount of
space the slings take up on the harness (fig. 15-19a). Or rack single slings
over a shoulder.

It is helpful to rack pitons on oval carabiners, because they allow pieces to

rotate on and off the carabiner smoothly in either direction (fig. 15-19b);
specialized oval wire-gate carabiners weigh less. Do not overload a
carabiner to the point that gear is lost because the equipment cannot be
accessed easily enough. Alternate the direction of angles and Lost Arrows
for better nesting on the carabiner, which allows more pins per carabiner.
Consider racking nuts and hooks onto traditional latch-style (nonkeylock)
carabiners (see Figure 9-36e), which have a hook that makes it that much
harder for the nuts or hooks to accidentally come off of the carabiner. Free
carabiners are often racked as “footballs” in groups of five or seven
carabiners, depending on the climber’s preference, to make them easy to
organize and to use minimal space on the rack (fig. 15-19c).

Often it is useful for the leader to have a nut tool for removing unsettled
placements and for cleaning grass, dirt, and other debris out of cracks as
necessary. Finally, check that the hammer, if one is being carried, is
accessible, with its sling untangled.

images

Fig. 15-19. Racking gear: a, quickdraw and alpine draw “two-packs”; b,

pitons nested on oval wire-gate carabiners; c, carabiners racked in
“footballs.”

images

Fig. 15-20. The basic aid sequence (some equipment omitted for clarity): a,
select and place piece of protection; b, clip aider-daisy to the protection; c,
bounce-test the protection (continued on facing page);

THE BASIC AID SEQUENCE

The basic aid sequence is the same no matter where the leader starts: from
the ground, a comfortable free stance, or the top step of the aiders. The
following basic sequence assumes that the climber is using two aiders (see
also the “Tips for Leading Aid Pitches” sidebar):

1.Look at and feel the terrain above, and select an aid piece to place at the
highest suitable spot within reach (fig. 15-20a).

2.Place the piece and visually inspect it if possible. Clip the free aider and
daisy chain combination in to the new piece with its dedicated oval keylock
carabiner (fig. 15-20b).

3.Bounce-test the new piece in the typical sequence: (a) Tug down firmly
one or more times on the aider with a hand; (b) step one foot into the aider
and give a few solid, down-forcing “kicks” with that foot (keep all your
weight supported on the previous piece during this first leg test); (c) transfer
about half of your weight to the new piece and give a few more vigorous
hops (keep a hand on the aider of the previous piece and the other foot in
that aider so that you can hold yourself upright and on the previous piece
should the new piece fail during this step; if possible, stay fified in to the
previous piece); and (d) transfer all of your weight to the new piece and give
more vigorous bounces (fig. 15-20c).
If the new piece is questionable, is not intended for more than body
weight, or is behind an expanding feature, some climbers may decide to
avoid aggressive bounce-testing. Instead, (a) hand-set the placement (if
appropriate) with a firm tug, and (b) simply “ooze” onto the new placement,
applying your weight as gradually and smoothly as possible.
Some climbers rely on their experience and knowledge of the specific
rock type to set good placements and forgo anything more than hand-setting
the placement. Others believe that the only safe climbing method is vigorous
bounce-testing. Warn the belayer when you are about to test or move onto a
dubious placement.

images

Fig. 15-20. (continued from facing page) d, shift weight to newly placed
aider and protection and rest on fifi hook; e, clip rope to previous piece of
protection and remove lower aider-daisy; f, clip lower aider-daisy to higher
aider-daisy and prepare to climb high in aiders and repeat the sequence.

4.Once your weight is committed to the new placement, fifi in to the piece
with the fifi hook, or clip in the adjustable daisy strap, and rest (fig. 15-20d).
If not using an adjustable fifi hook or an adjustable daisy, climb up to the
second or third steps in the aiders at this point in order to fifi in to the new
piece. With a classic fifi hook, it is also possible to fifi in to one of the
traditional daisy-chain loops.

5.While resting on the new piece, reach back to the previous piece. If
clipping this piece for protection, add a carabiner, quickdraw, or sling and
clip in the rope, then remove the aider and daisy chain combination (fig. 15-
20e) and clip the oval keylock carabiner of this aider and daisy chain
combination in to the oval keylock carabiner of the higher aider (fig. 15-
20f). If removing this lower piece, rerack the piece.

6.Climb as high as possible in the aiders, possibly to the second or top steps,
moving or adjusting the fifi or adjustable daisy while advancing higher (as
shown in Figure 15-20f). Resist the temptation to look for placements until
you have climbed as high as you plan to climb in the aiders. This helps
ensure that you do not get distracted by lower placement possibilities and
increases efficiency of piece selection.

7.Repeat the process starting with step 1.

TOP-STEPPING

Moving onto the top step of the aiders can be unnerving, but being able to
do so greatly improves the efficiency of aid climbing. The process is simple
on low-angle rock, where the top steps are used like any other foothold and
the climber’s hands provide balance. Sometimes it is faster and less
fatiguing to make multiple placements from steps lower than the top step,
such as on very steep terrain or when aiding deep inside awkward cracks and
corners. On such terrain, climbers may find that they can move faster by
always placing from the second step. However, the ideal is to top-step as
much as possible.
Vertical and overhanging rock can make top-stepping difficult because the
climber’s center of gravity moves away from the rock and above the point
where the aiders are clipped to the aid placement. If the rock offers any
features, use hands or an intermediate placement as a handhold to provide
balance. If the rock is blank and the placement suitable, keep your weight on
your feet while standing up and applying tension to the fifi hook or
adjustable daisy strap between the harness and the aid placement. That
tension provides the means of balancing yourself (fig. 15-21). If using a
classic fifi, an alternative method is to clip a quickdraw in to the piece and
use it as a handhold, pulling upward on the quickdraw with one hand and
making the next placement with the other hand.

TIPS FOR LEADING AID PITCHES

Minimize rope drag, as in free climbing. Consider each placement

carefully, and extend slings when necessary to keep the rope running
straight. If the follower will ascend using ascenders, pay attention to how the
rope runs over edges, and set protection and slings so that the rope does not
rub over sharp edges. If necessary, pad edges, usually with duct tape.

Think strategically while climbing about what pieces can be left and
what pieces should be removed as you go, known as back-cleaning, for
reuse later on the pitch. Some pitches will require a large number of pieces
of the same size, or the leader may have only one or two of certain critical
pieces, so these pieces will have to be back-cleaned often. Avoid back-
cleaning low on the start of a pitch, and leave protection at close-enough
intervals often enough to prevent serious falls.

Consider when to clip the rope, which depends on personal preference

and on the quality of the lower and higher pieces of protection. Some
climbers prefer to clip the rope in to the lower placement before completing
the final bounce-testing or before committing full weight to the new
placement, so that if the new placement fails, the leader will not take a fall
onto the lower piece caught only by the daisy chain and not the rope. Other
climbers rely on bounce-testing to ensure that the new higher piece will hold
their weight long enough for them to reach down and clip the rope to the
lower piece. Generally, climbers do not want to pull up rope in order to clip
to the highest piece before moving past it, as this increases the length of a
potential fall. However, the more suspect the new higher piece, the more
likely that the climber will clip the current piece as protection prior to
moving onto the higher piece, rather than after moving onto the higher
piece, as in the basic sequence. On pitches rated A1 or C1, where all
placements should be secure, generally follow the basic sequence.

images

Fig. 15-21. Top-stepping.

images

Fig. 15-22. Rest position.

RESTING

Do not wear yourself out. Climb in a relaxed fashion, taking rests as often as
necessary to conserve strength or to plot the next series of moves. The best
way to rest is to immediately clip in to a new tested piece with a fifi hook or
adjustable daisy strap. Rest by fully weighting the fifi or adjustable daisy,
freeing your feet completely before using the aiders to move up on the piece.
This also allows you to switch feet between aiders as needed, to reach
sideways to attach aiders to a new piece, or to execute whatever change of
direction the next move may require. As you advance upward on pieces,
move your classic fifi up or pull in your adjustable fifi or adjustable daisy,
resting on this equipment as much as possible.

If not using a fifi hook or adjustable daisy, or if on lower-angle terrain, try

this rest technique: With each foot in separate aiders and one foot one step
below the other, bend the knee of the higher leg and bring that foot under
you. Most of your weight now rests over the bent leg. The outstretched leg
takes minimal weight but maintains balance (fig. 15-22).

Another way to rest is to ask the belayer for tension and then rest on the
climbing rope once it has been clipped in to the supporting piece. This is not
an efficient method, however, due to stretch in the rope and the need for
verbal communication.
Finally, relaxing stances can often be found in the aiders. Generally, the
greatest stability is obtained by standing with heels together and toes spread
apart against the rock. The heels-together position can be very helpful when
standing high in the aiders and stretching up to make a difficult placement.

SWITCHING BETWEEN AID AND FREE CLIMBING

Stowing and deploying aiders as well as free climbing with aid gear, a large
rack, and a haul line are some of the difficulties in switching between aid
and free climbing during a big wall climb. For free climbers, reorienting to a
totally different style and repurposing free gear into aid gear is the
challenge. Weighting the first piece on aid after free climbing can be scary
when the last piece of protection is far away or untested. Communicate
clearly with your partner on transitions between aid and free.

From Free to Aid

Switching from free climbing to aid climbing is the easier transition, if the
climb accepts rock protection, as the climber can simply call for tension or
clip the belay loop directly in to a piece. If the climber has been free
climbing because the rock did not accept protection, the last piece may be
far below and the transition can be trickier. Whenever possible, start the
transition at a piece of reliable protection and consider placing two pieces.
Either way, test the first piece of aid protection carefully, especially with the
first visual inspection and tests prior to weighting the piece. If using aiders
to aid climb the section, release the aiders and daisy chains (see “Daisy
Chains,” earlier in the chapter), which could already be rigged on the
harness, and move into the basic aid sequence (see “The Basic Aid
Sequence”). This is easy if the climber has anticipated changing to aid, but if
the climber is not expecting to use aid and suddenly needs it, problems arise.
When in this bind, prepare slings or quickdraws for improvised aiders by
interconnecting several slings, and then use the improvised aiders to move
through the aid section over the blank area. If not using daisy chains on a
short section of aid, take great care not to drop the improvised aiders.

From Aid to Free

A climber may wish to transition from aid to free climbing when
encountering a section that cannot be aided (such as face climbing terrain
where no rock protection is available) or when the climbing becomes easy
enough that free climbing is faster and more efficient than aid climbing.
Make sure your belayer knows you will be moving faster as you transition to
free climbing. Two methods are commonly used to switch to free climbing:

1.On easier or low-angle terrain, it is often possible to move out of the

aiders and onto the rock with all your weight on your hands and feet and still
reach back to unclip the aiders to bring them along. If the transition occurs at
a ledge or stance, simply clip aiders and daisy chains to the harness gear
loops and start free climbing. Make sure that the aid equipment will not
hinder your movement when free climbing.

2.When the aid climbing is steep just before the transition to free
climbing, the preferred technique is to clip a single or double runner to the
last piece of aid protection. Then stand in the runner, using this sling as an
improvised aider. Remove the aiders and stow them on the harness. This
enables the climber to make free-climbing moves and not have to reach
down to retrieve the aiders. When possible, clip the rope to the sling before
stepping in the sling and free climbing away—otherwise, the piece will not
assist in catching a fall, and if it is not connected to the rope, the piece and
sling might be out of reach for the follower to clean. If moving from a hook
to free climbing, simply pull up on the aider or aiders from the first free
moves, and the hook and the aider should release.

TENSION TRAVERSES AND PENDULUM SWINGS

Tension traverses and pendulum swings are used to move horizontally

across unaidable territory into a new crack system. First ascensionists use
these techniques to avoid placing bolt ladders to reach the new system.

The main difference between a tension traverse and a pendulum is that a

pendulum requires the climber to run across the face in order to reach the
new system, while during a tension traverse the climber does not run but
uses friction on small holds to work hands and feet sideways. Both
pendulums and tension traverses can be difficult, and they pose special
problems for the second climber, who must both follow and clean
protection.

For both methods, the leader starts by placing a solid piece of protection at
the top of the planned traverse and clipping the rope in to this protection or
clipping in to fixed gear at this point. Usually the equipment used for the
tension or pendulum point cannot be retrieved, unless it is possible to come
back to it from above, so these points on most routes are equipped with fixed
gear. Climbers might use a locking carabiner on a tension or pendulum point
for extra security.

During a tension traverse, after clipping in the rope, the leader takes
tension from the belayer, lowers some amount, and starts to move toward the
new crack system, using hands and feet to move across the rock (fig. 15-
23a). Some tension traverses require climbers to achieve a sideways or even
nearly upside-down position as they move. Often during tension traverses,
leaders will call for more slack as they make progress. Keep good
communication with the belayer, with clear “Lower me,” “Stop,” or “Hold”
commands. Once the final destination is reached, the leader may need to call
for slack so that the tension ceases and climbing can continue in the new
crack.

Fig. 15-23. Leading horizontally: a, tension traverse; b, pendulum.

For a pendulum, the leader clips in to the pendulum point with the rope and
has the belayer take tension. Then the leader calls for a lower. The belayer
lowers the leader until there is enough rope out for the leader to run back
and forth across the rock and swing into the new crack system (fig. 15-23b).
When being lowered by the belayer, it is better to be lowered too little than
too much, because if you are too low, it may be very difficult to correct the
error. Stop early and try the pendulum. If necessary, lower again until the
best position is reached. While running back and forth across the rock, start
slow and increase speed on each back and forth. Stay in control to avoid
spinning and hitting the rock.

Some pendulums and traverses are difficult due to length, angle of the face,
or other factors. Climbers may want to attach an SLCD to their aider so that
they can jam this piece into the new crack very quickly (see Figure 5-23b).
If a climber has barely reached the new crack but has managed to bury the
right piece into it, the piece and the daisy chain will catch the climber’s
weight before he or she swings back into the old plumb line. Once in the
new crack system, climb as high as safety allows before clipping the rope in
to aid pieces for protection. The higher a climber gets before placing
protection, the easier it is for the belayer, who will second the pendulum (see
“Seconding Tension Traverses and Pendulum Swings” later in this chapter).

A Grigri is helpful for the belayer to use for tension traverses and
pendulums. In a tension traverse, it allows for a precise belay and perfect
amount of tension as called for by the leader. In a pendulum, it allows the
belayer to hold the leader in the exact position required.

OVERHANGS AND ROOFS

Overhangs and roofs can appear intimidating but often are easier than they
look to aid through, especially because fixed gear tends to be prevalent in
roofs. Keep ascenders handy, because if a piece pulls out and you end up
hanging, you may need ascenders to climb back up to the last secure piece.

Under a steep overhanging wall or a roof, it may not be possible to place

your feet against the rock. In this situation, start by hanging as far below the
piece as possible and in the low steps on the aiders. To move up and reach
the next placement, use the fifi hook or adjustable daisy strap to hang from
the harness rather than trying to stand with your full weight in the aiders.
After making the new placement, test it and clip in an aider, then step into
the lowest possible step and fifi in.

When climbing very steep overhangs, placements will probably be made

close together. Be careful not to remove gear during these sections, because
the follower will need more gear left in place in order to successfully clean
the pitch. Or consider back-cleaning the entire section to allow the second to
simply ascend the fixed line. As an overhang becomes horizontal, it will
actually become easier to aid because the climber can stand fully erect in the
aiders under the roof, possibly in the bottom steps, and aid sideways through
the horizontal crack system.

Despite the difference in balance, for aiding over a roof climbers use the
same basic aid sequence described earlier in this chapter. Reach up and over
the roof to find the next placement. It may be necessary to feel the
placement without getting a good visual inspection. When first moving onto
the aider clipped to the piece above the roof, it may be difficult to pull
yourself up to the piece and over the roof. Stepping into the lowest step on
the aider and standing up in that aider can help you get started. Then, with
an adjustable fifi or an adjustable daisy, it should be possible to fifi in to the
piece above the roof.

Rope drag is a common side effect of overhangs. Try not to give in to the
temptation to put long slings on these placements, because it will make
cleaning very difficult for the follower. Some climbers pull along a second
belay rope and start climbing on it after clearing the lip of the overhang,
although this technique is not common.

Finally, try to relax when working out moves over a big roof. Have
confidence in your pieces. Clutching at them will not keep them in place but
will drain your strength.

ESTABLISHING BELAYS

Upon reaching the end of a pitch, the leader must establish an anchor. Many
routes have bolts at the end of the pitches, but climbers may have to place
their own gear. If hauling, the leader will typically set up an anchor with two
main power points (see “Equalizing the Anchor” in Chapter 10, Belaying):
one for fixing the lead line and supporting the weight and safety of the
climbers, and one for the haul system. Carefully consider which side to put
the lead line on versus the haul system. Generally, try to keep the haul
system in a straight line, and position the haul anchor out of the path of the
route so that the follower does not have to push past the haul bag(s). Other
considerations in selecting the location of the lead-line and haul-system
anchors are the quality of the protection and the weight of the haul bag(s).
With these considerations in mind, the leader sets up an anchor upon
completing the pitch (fig. 15-24a).

images

Fig. 15-24. Establishing a belay: a, leader builds anchor; b, leader fixes

lead line; (continued on facing page)

images

Fig. 15-24. (continued from facing page) c, second attaches to lead line and
begins dismantling lower anchor; d, leader sets up the hauling system while
second prepares to jug and clean; e, second releases haul bag; f, leader
hauls while second jugs and cleans.

Lead-line anchor. Attach the lead line to the lead-line anchor first (fig. 15-
24b). To do this, call for slack, pull up several armfuls of rope, and fix the
line for the follower. Typically the rope is fixed by clove-hitching it to a
carabiner that is clipped to a solid piece of protection already used in the
anchor, preferably a bolt. Use a clove hitch so that it can be easily untied
after being weighted. Then back up this clove hitch with a figure eight on a
bight. Clip this figure eight to the power point of the lead-line anchor. Make
sure that there is enough rope between this figure eight and the leader
building the anchor to allow the leader to perform the haul. As soon as the
lead line is fixed with the clove hitch and backed up, the leader calls down
to the follower that the lead line is fixed. This also tells the follower that the
leader is off belay (or “Off belay” may be called separately).

The follower immediately attaches to the lead line with ascenders and a
backup, removes most of the anchor from the belay station, and unties the
backup knot in the haul line (fig. 15-24c). The only pieces that the follower
leaves in place until the haul starts are those directly weighted by the haul-
bag docking cord. This ensures that the follower will be ready to ascend as
soon as the haul bag leaves the belay station.

Haul-system anchor. After fixing the lead line and while the second is
preparing to jug and clean, the leader sets up the haul system (fig. 15-24d;
see also “Hauling” under “Big Wall Multiday Techniques,” later in this
chapter). When setting up the haul-system anchor, the leader may use one of
the points in the lead-line anchor as part of the haul anchor. This creates a
backup for both of the anchors. As part of the hauling sequence, the follower
releases the haul bag from the belay anchor so that the leader can haul (fig.
15-24e), then removes any pieces that the haul bag was directly weighting,
and finally ascends the fixed lead line.

As the leader hauls, the haul line is stacked neatly so that it is ready to go for
the next lead (fig. 15-24f). After the hauling is completed (or after the
climbing rope is fixed, if the leader is not hauling), the leader sets up a belay
seat, gets comfortable, and prepares to exchange leads by sorting the rack,
organizing the ropes, preparing the belay system, and so forth.

TYROLEAN TRAVERSES

Tyrolean traverses may be used to move between two rock features, such as
a main wall and a detached pinnacle. They are also useful for crossing rivers
and other spans. Ropes are strung between points on each side of the span,
allowing climbers to traverse through the air, attached to the rope. As an
example, the instructions that follow are for a Tyrolean traverse between a
main wall and a detached pinnacle, such as the Lost Arrow Spire in
Yosemite National Park, California.

1.After setting up a bombproof anchor on the main wall—one that can take
both a horizontal and a vertical pull—connect one end of a single-strand
rappel line to this anchor. Rappel this rope to the saddle between the main
wall and the detached pinnacle. Note the rappel line must be greater than
two times the distance of the span between the main wall and the detached
pinnacle, with the extra length more than two times what is needed for tying
two knots.
2.Climb the pinnacle using an additional climbing rope if needed. Build
an anchor at the top for a horizontal pull (or, as in many cases—including
this example of Lost Arrow Spire—use the fixed anchors that are provided).
Note that after the traverse, the equipment used for the pinnacle anchor
cannot be recovered. The follower brings up the free end of the rappel line if
it was not used as the climbing rope (consider tying in to this line to avoid
dropping it).

3.Once both climbers are atop the pinnacle and attached to the pinnacle
anchor, pull the rappel line (which becomes the traverse line) tight against
the anchor on the main wall and fix this rope to the pinnacle anchor. Feed
the free end of the traverse line through the anchor just as would be done to
set up a rappel (if using two ropes, untying and retying is best). If using the
free end of the rappel line to initiate the traverse (see step 5 below), consider
fixing the second rope to the pinnacle anchor for redundancy and to avoid
passing a knot on the rappel.

4.Select the gear to attach to the traverse line and use for crossing. If the
traverse line is mostly horizontal or if the destination is higher than the
starting point, many methods can be used to cross the span on the traverse
line: using a Micro Traxion clipped to the harness and one ascender, perhaps
with an aider or foot sling attached to the ascender (fig. 15-25a); using two
ascenders, with one ascender clipped to the harness, and again with perhaps
an aider or foot sling clipped to the other ascender (fig. 15-25b); or using a
combination of pulleys, carabiners, and prusik hitches. In addition to the two
primary devices used for connecting to the traverse line, always rig a
backup, such as a double runner girth-hitched to the harness tie-in point and
clipped around the traverse line with a locked carabiner.

5.The first climber connects to the tensioned traverse rope and takes the
free end of the traverse line with him or her (consider tying in to the end to
ensure that it is not dropped). Depending on the terrain, span distance,
elevation difference, rope stretch, and tension in the traverse line, a short
lower-out, rappel, down-jugging, or down-prusiking may be necessary to
start the traverse and prevent the climber from careening away from the
detached pillar at an uncontrolled speed. Often, the first climber may rappel
on the free, nontensioned end of the traverse line to initiate the traverse. Do
not attach a rappel device to the tensioned traverse rope, because this device
will likely become tensioned and stuck near the midpoint of the traverse. In
this case of the Lost Arrow Spire where the destination is higher than the
starting point, only a short rappel or lower-out is required before ascending
comes into play.
However, if the destination is lower than the starting point, a rappel will
likely be required for the entire traverse for all climbers, and ascending
equipment would be needed only for the final few feet and could be attached
when needed. In this case, climbers attach themselves to the traverse line
with a locking carabiner or a pulley and locking carabiner. They rappel on a
separate line while suspended from the traverse line. Plan ahead to ensure
that adequate equipment and lines are available to safely perform the
traverse.

images

Fig. 15-25. Tyrolean traverse setups: a, using Petzl Micro Traxion and one
ascender; b, using two ascenders.

6.After the first climber traverses from the pinnacle back to a new location
on the main wall, the second climber unfixes the first rope from the
pinnacle anchor, ensuring that the rope is threaded through the anchor; if
two ropes are used, the second takes note of the correct rope to pull when
the traverse is complete, just as when preparing a double-rope rappel. Then
the first climber tightens and fixes the free end of the traverse line in to the
new anchor at the new location on the main wall, which retensions the
original line and tensions the free end for the first time so that now two
tensioned lines cross the span.

7.The second climber sets up for the traverse using the system of choice
(see steps 4 and 5 above); if two ropes are used, the second selects the strand
of traverse rope without a knot so that no knot pass is required on the
traverse.

8.Once both climbers are at the new location on the main wall, they untie
the ends of the traverse line from the main wall anchor and pull the rope,
taking care that the ends of the lines do not tangle.

SECONDING
On short sections of aid, the second climber usually follows the same
sequence as the leader, except that the second is belayed from above. The
second might use aiders for following a short section of aid, clipping these
aiders to the protection left by the leader, or the second might just pull on the
protection left by the leader and use the rock for counterpressure or stances.
The follower’s technique depends on how steep and smooth the short section
of aid is that is being followed.

Long sections of aid and big walls call for a different strategy. The leader
fixes the lead line to the anchor, and the second uses mechanical ascenders
to ascend the fixed climbing rope and also cleans the protection left by the
leader. If the team is hauling a bag, the second must release the bag for
hauling before leaving the lower anchor (see Figure 15-24e). If the bag
hangs up along the way, the follower can help to free it.

USING ASCENDERS

Each ascender (left and right) should have a dedicated locking carabiner.
Smaller oval or D-shaped carabiners with a regular locking gate (not an
auto-locking gate) are usually most convenient. When ascenders are not in
use, they reside on the harness or gear sling on their dedicated locking
carabiner.

When preparing to follow a pitch, attach the locking carabiner to each aider
and daisy chain combination. The ascender is always clipped in to the end of
the daisy chain rather than in to one of its loops. Lock the carabiner to
ensure that the ascender will stay attached to the daisy chain and aider,
primarily to ensure that the attachment to the daisy chain is secure before
weighting it. Place the ascender for your dominant hand above the other
ascender on the rope (fig. 15-26a).

For most ascending, shorten the overall length of the daisy chain for the
upper ascender. The amount that this daisy chain is shortened varies based
on the steepness of the pitch and may change many times during an
individual pitch. In general, the upper daisy chain should be adjusted so that
it draws tight prior to or exactly at full arm extension.
To shorten the daisy chain, first place the ascender at approximately full arm
extension. Pull up the daisy chain from the harness and find the loop that
touches the locking carabiner attached to the ascender. Use a free carabiner
(usually the dedicated oval keylock carabiner belonging to the aider and
daisy chain combination) to attach this loop of the daisy chain directly to the
locking carabiner. This method of shortening the daisy chain allows the
climber to change the length of the daisy during the pitch without opening
the locking carabiner (fig. 15-26b). Experiment with jugging with the daisy
chain shortened to different lengths to find what is most comfortable and
efficient. It is not necessary to shorten the daisy chain for the nondominant
hand. Another option is to use an adjustable daisy strap.

When jugging, offset your feet in the aider steps: If the left hand is dominant
and that ascender is higher, and if the left foot is in the fifth step from the
top, the right foot would typically be in the fourth step from the top. This
way, your feet are at roughly the same height, which is an efficient jugging
technique.

images

Fig. 15-26. Using ascenders: a, efficient jugging technique, with dominant

left hand’s ascender higher and right foot higher in its aider’s ladder; b,
proper method to shorten daisy chain for attaching to ascender.

When you move the ascenders up, the upper ascender will move easily while
you stand with your weight on the lower ascender and aider, but the lower
ascender may be more difficult to advance because there is no weight below
that ascender. Resist the temptation to hold or pull down on the rope below
the lower ascender in order to be able to move it up. Although this works, it
is an inefficient and inadequate technique for covering long distances.
Instead, practice “thumbing”—using your thumb to slightly open the cam on
the lower ascender so that it will move upward. Most ascenders will open
with thumbing without risk of opening fully and detaching from the fixed
line. Thumbing is very efficient, and it may be necessary to do it on every
stroke.

Ascending Steep Terrain

When ascending very steep terrain, rather than fully weighting the aiders
during the entire ascending process, the climber should drastically shorten
the upper daisy chain, probably to about the third loop from the harness, and
rest body weight directly on the upper ascender after moving it up. In this
sequence, move up the upper ascender and then rest with all your weight by
hanging in the harness from the ascender. Move up the lower ascender, stand
up, and push up the upper ascender a few feet and hang again. Other
variations of this technique exist, so climbers should experiment to find out
what works best for them.

Backing Up Ascenders

As a rule, do not untie from the end of the climbing rope while ascending.
Remaining tied in serves as a backup in case both ascenders fail. To further
decrease the likelihood of a long fall, periodically “tie in short,” using the
climbing rope as the backup (as discussed below), or otherwise provide a
backup on the rope below the ascenders. Tying in short or providing a
backup below the ascenders is an easy precaution that has saved lives.
Conversely, mistakes in attaching and backing up ascenders have led to
many deaths.

As the second ascends, an ever-lengthening loop of climbing rope forms

below the lower ascender, making for a long fall if the ascenders fail. A
backup shortens this potential fall. One way to achieve this backup is to
attach the Grigri directly below the ascenders. This not only provides a
backup but also allows the Grigri to be employed in other simple and
extremely efficient techniques for following pitches and cleaning gear (for
example, the Grigri lower-out method, described later in this chapter).

To use the climbing rope as the backup, stop periodically and tie any knot,
such as an overhand on a bight, just below the ascenders, and clip the loop in
to your harness with a locking carabiner. This “ties you in short” to the
climbing rope. Repeat this procedure as often as necessary, clipping new
knots to the same one locking carabiner, to shorten the fall potential. Keep in
mind that the ascenders are most likely to come off on a traverse and less
likely to come off on simple jugging up a straight line. Most climbers using
this method keep all the loops clipped in to their harness until they reach the
anchor.
Often while jugging, the climber may choose to remove the upper ascender
from the rope and place it above a piece of protection that is under tension as
the climber ascends. It is prudent to tie in short or make sure to use a backup
method before removing the upper ascender from the rope.

Other Precautions While Ascending

Other precautions should be taken while ascending. First, carry a spare

prusik sling just in case an ascender fails or is dropped. A Grigri is a much
more effective and efficient lower ascender than a prusik, so this is the first
backup to an ascender. And, as in all climbing, beware of sharp edges.
Jugging places the rope under tension, and sharp edges can cut it. Ascend as
smoothly as possible to minimize any sawing action on the rope running
over an edge.

ROPE MANAGEMENT

Rope management while following is critical, especially when high winds or

“rope-eating” cracks may foul or snag the rope. Popular methods of
managing the rope include clipping a rope bag to some part of the harness,
such as a leg loop, and stuffing the rope hanging below the ascenders into
the rope bag while the climber is ascending; clipping in backup loops (see
“Backing Up Ascenders” above); or making coils of the rope and clipping
them to the harness. Leaving the rope hanging for the entire pitch is not
recommended, but it can work when the pitch is overhanging or there is
otherwise little risk of the rope hanging up. When the rope is hanging,
eventually this weight makes moving the lower ascender easier as the
climber ascends, and thumbing is not required (see “Using Ascenders”).

CLEANING

Efficiency in aid climbing is directly linked to organization. While

ascending and cleaning a pitch, the follower should take the extra time to
rerack the equipment for leading, including reracking single slings into
quickdraws. This makes belay transitions go faster. Keep specialized
cleaning gear handy, including the nut tool and funkness.

TIPS FOR CLEANING PINS

 First, tap the pin lightly to get an idea of how much it moves initially.
While pins may need to be hit many times to remove them, attaching a
carabiner to the pin too early makes it harder to hit and slows the cleaning.
For all pins except sawed-off angles, it should be possible to move the pin
before the sling is attached. But be careful! If the pin flies out with no sling
attached, the pin will probably be lost forever.

Attach either a carabiner with a sling or the funkness device once the
pin is loosened—or, for sawed-off angles, before hitting at all. Clip one end
to the pin and one end to yourself, possibly to the aider or daisy chain.
Continue to hit the pin back and forth until it comes out. Try not to hit the
funkness carabiner, because it can break. Use one hand to hold the carabiner
to the side while you make blows. It might be a good idea to use the pick
side of the hammer when the funkness is attached. For sawed-off angles, err
on the side of putting the sling on early. They do not visibly move much, and
it is hard to know when they will come out.

Try clipping the free end of the funkness to the hammer if the pin does
not come out with back-and-forth hits. Then “funk” on the pin by making a
big jerk out and up with the hammer (see Figure 15-7) and then another
separate “funk” with a jerk out and down. “Funk” the pin multiple times, as
needed, up and down to loosen it. Sometimes jerking straight out away from
the rock is helpful, especially with angles. Protect your face when using the
funkness.

When cleaning a pin, first hit it back and forth or up and down, along the
axis of the crack. For pins placed in vertical cracks, try to favor the upward
hits, which can create future nut placements. (See the “Tips for Cleaning
Pins” sidebar.)

SECONDING TRAVERSES AND OVERHANGS

Seconding traverses when aid climbing can be both strenuous and technical.
Some of the most common and useful methods are described below. These
basic methods can often be applied to overhangs as well.

Re-aiding
When traversing horizontally, it may be more efficient to aid climb across
the traverse, using aiders, as if leading (called re-aiding). Aiding in this
fashion, the second can self-belay by using a Grigri as an attachment point
to the rope to keep the rope tight from above or by attaching ascenders to the
harness with slings and sliding the ascenders along the climbing rope. Make
sure to back yourself up to the lead rope or tie in short from time to time,
while of course always staying tied in to the end of the rope.

Seconding Short and/or Diagonal Traverses

The second can cross short traverses and sections of pitches that are more
diagonal than horizontal by using normal jugging techniques. Two main
techniques can be used to second a short diagonal traverse with normal
jugging techniques, rather than re-aiding as described above:

Grigri lower-out method. The first technique is very easy and requires a
Grigri. Jug up to the piece you plan to pass, moving both ascenders as close
to the piece as possible (fig. 15-27a). Then bring the Grigri up under the
lower ascender and rest all weight onto the Grigri (fig. 15-27b). Remove the
top ascender and place it above the piece, and then repeat with the lower
ascender (fig. 15-27c). Then open the handle of the Grigri and feed out rope,
lowering yourself onto the ascenders and daisy chains (fig. 15-27d).
Reestablish your weight in the aiders and reach back to clean the piece (fig.
15-27e).

Alternate method without a Grigri. Although the alternate method is a

little trickier, it works if the climber does not have a Grigri. When
approaching a piece of protection, leave the lower ascender some distance
below the piece, about an arm’s length or so, depending on the steepness of
the terrain and the distance to and position of the next piece. With your
weight on the lower ascender, remove the upper ascender and attach it as far
as possible above the currently weighted piece. Then transfer your weight to
the upper ascender; this will pull the lower ascender up toward the piece. If
you have allowed enough space, the lower ascender will not jam into the
carabiner of the piece, and it will be possible to remove the piece and move
up the lower ascender.

Seconding Longer and/or Horizontal Traverses

Fig. 15-27. Grigri lower-out method: a, move ascenders to just below
protection; b, bring Grigri below lower ascender and transfer weight to it;
c, remove ascenders—upper first, then lower—and reinstall above
protection; d, lower with Grigri until weight is transferred to ascenders in
new plumb line; e, clean the piece.
The best way to follow longer traverses, tension traverses, and horizontal
traverses is often to do a “lower-out,” using the methods described below. If
the leader has left some kind of piece that is suitable to lower off of and then
cleans all of the traversing pieces, the second can lower from the beginning
of the traverse to the next piece left by the leader. This method is often faster
than other methods of following a traverse, but whether or not to use this
method is largely up to the leader, who has to decide whether a piece of gear
can be left fixed while he or she is protecting the pitch.

SECONDING TENSION TRAVERSES AND PENDULUM SWINGS

The best method for seconding a long, mostly horizontal span between gear,
including spans resulting from the leader performing a tension traverse or a
pendulum swing, depends on the distance to be traveled and the ropes
available. As described in “Tension Traverses and Pendulum Swings” earlier
in this chapter, the lower-off point is usually fixed and is often a carabiner, a
rappel ring, or a piece (or pieces) of webbing. If the leader climbs a long
distance without leaving gear, expecting the second to lower out to reach the
new plumb line, the leader should ensure that there is adequate fixed gear
left for the second to lower out from. The term lower-out is used to describe
a variety of methods of lowering into a new plumb line, including the two
techniques discussed below for following shorter and longer distances.

Short Pendulum Swings and Tension Traverses (“Stay Tied In”

Method)

One clever and useful method of accomplishing a shorter lower-out is shown

in Figure 15-28. The follower stays tied in to the climbing rope during the
entire sequence, making this a safe and preferable method. This method
requires the available rope to be four times as long as the distance to be
traveled.

1.Jug up to the fixed point. If possible, fifi in to something without

blocking the opening of the lower-out point (fig. 15-28a). Often, the leader
will place protection near but separate from the lower-out point itself. Or, if
using a Grigri as a backup, hold your weight on the Grigri.
2.Clip a carabiner to the belay loop on your harness. Then find the end of
the rope that is tied in to the harness. Take this rope out to about arm’s
length from the harness tie-in knot and make a bend in it. Push this bight of
rope through the lower-out point, and then bring the bight back toward the
harness (fig. 15-28b).

3.Clip the bight in to the carabiner attached to the belay loop. Pulling on
the free end that comes out of the lower-out point, cinch yourself up and
hold your weight on the climbing rope through the lower-out point (fig. 15-
28c). Retrieve all of the team gear before lowering out. Two additional
optional steps are (1) clipping a carabiner as a backup around the rope and
through the top hole of either (or both) ascender(s), to ensure that the
ascender stays on the rope (see Figure 15-29), and (2) shortening the daisy
chain on the upper ascender to reduce the overall lower-out distance.

Fig. 15-28. Lower-out method for seconding short pendulum or traverse: a,

jug until ascenders are just below protection at lower-out point, then fifi to
protection (here, a quickdraw); b, clip a carabiner to harness belay loop,
then pull a bight of rope through lower-out point; c, clip bight to harness
belay loop and transfer weight to rope; (continued on facing page)

4.To lower out, let the rope feed through your hand (fig. 15-28d). At first,
there will be considerable friction, but be diligent as you lower yourself to
avoid dropping the rope and lowering too fast. As your weight comes onto
the ascenders in the new plumb line, continue to feed rope through the
lower-out system.

5.Unclip the bight of rope from the carabiner on the harness belay loop
once you have all your weight on the ascenders in the new plumb line. Pull
the ends of the rope so that the bight of rope that was clipped to the harness
gets pulled through the lower-out point (fig. 15-28e). The rope has now been
freed.

Fig. 15-28. (continued from facing page) d, feed the rope through the
harness carabiner until ascenders are weighted; e, unclip the bight of rope
from harness and pull it through the lower-out point.
Fig. 15-29. Carabiner clipped through ascender top hole and around the
rope to prevent ascender from detaching from the rope.

Sometimes distances can be seconded without actually lowering out,

especially when the terrain is not steep. The follower moves up to the piece
and finds a stance or a nearby crack or feature to hold on to, which takes the
climber’s weight off of the piece to be cleaned. Then the follower removes
the piece and, with anticipation of a swing, lets go without lowering out,
swinging into the new plumb line while hanging from the ascenders and
daisy chains. When used with good judgment, this technique, sometimes
called the “Rudy,” can be a safe and fast way of following a short, low-angle
pendulum swing.

Long Pendulum Swings and Tension Traverses (“Untie” Method)

The lower-out method discussed above requires the available rope to be four
times as long as the distance the follower must span, so it works well for
seconding short pendulum swings and tension traverses. For longer lower-
outs, or when this length of rope is not available to the follower, a different
method that involves untying from the climbing rope must be used. Since it
is preferable to stay tied in to the climbing rope, this technique is used only
when the above technique suggested for shorter distances is not possible.
For this alternative method, the available rope must be twice as long as the
distance the follower needs to span.

1.After the leader indicates that the lead line is fixed, the follower prepares
to untie from the climbing rope. Before untying, the follower makes sure
their harness is attached to the anchor with at least two points of protection,
such as the daisy chains. Pull up a bight of rope and tie in short to the
harness. Check and double-check the attachment points, then untie from the
lead line (fig. 15-30a).

2.Thread the end of the lead line through the lower-out point. For large
lower-outs on established routes, the lower-out point should be fixed and is
likely to be a sturdy metal rappel ring. Feed the entire length of the rope
through the ring (fig. 15-30b).

Fig. 15-30. Seconding a long pendulum: a, tie in short, attach daisy chains
to two points of protection, then untie from the rope; b, feed the free end of
the rope through the lower-out point (here, a metal rappel ring on fixed
protection); c, rig rappel device, then attach both ascenders to rope;
(continued on facing page)
3.Put yourself on rappel on the tail of the rope, in the manner of a single-
rope rappel. Clip both of the ascenders to the lead line, above the rappel
setup (fig. 15-30c), and shorten the daisy chains (optional). It is possible to
make the lower-out much shorter by pushing the ascenders up the rope as
high as possible. If desired, use a Grigri below the ascenders on the end of
the rope that goes to the leader, for another backup. Consider clipping a
carabiner through the hole of the ascender and around the rope, for one or
both ascenders (fig. 15-29).

4.Rappel the pendulum (fig. 15-30d).

5.Once all weight is on the ascenders in the new plumb line, remove the
rappel device and pull the end of the rope through the lower-out point (fig.
15-30e). The rope has now been freed. Tie back in to the end of the rope
before continuing to follow the pitch.

CHANGING LEADS

Unorganized belay stations can become a rat’s nest of tangled ropes, twisted
slings, and jumbled hardware. Basic organization keeps the belay station
manageable and the team functioning efficiently. The following methods
improve organization of the belay station:

Use ropes of a different color when possible, to easily differentiate them.

Always stack the haul line while hauling the bag, using rest intervals to
stack the haul line in a rope bag or on a sling. After hauling, organize what
remains of the rack and put it all on one side of your body or on a sling on
the anchor so that the second can rerack for the next pitch without the
leader’s help, freeing the leader for other chores after the second arrives.

Plan where the second will come up, and have a locking carabiner ready
to clip the second in to the anchor, or ask the second for one as soon as he or
she arrives. This allows the second to safely and quickly anchor in.
Fig. 15-30. (continued from facing page) d, rappel the pendulum; e, remove
rappel device, pull rope through the lower-out point and tie back into the
rope.

Focus on the needs of the new leader when the second arrives. Get the
weight of the lead rope off of the second as soon as possible. While the
second reracks, pull up the lead line and restack it if necessary. Put the new
leader on belay immediately, even if that climber is not ready to lead. Find
out what the new leader needs in order to leave, and facilitate that. Accept
from the new leader any gear not wanted for the next pitch, and offer food or
water.

For a smooth belay transition, all team members should at all times be
doing some chore to advance the team, until the leader starts out on the next
pitch. If you are the next belayer, try not to eat, drink, adjust your clothing,
or take care of yourself when the new leader is still at the belay. These needs
should be taken care of after you finish hauling and before the follower
arrives, or while the new leader heads out on the next pitch. Watch the new
leader attentively until he or she places protection on the new pitch. Then
consider your needs while belaying the leader farther up the pitch.

BIG WALL MULTIDAY TECHNIQUES

For some climbers, only the reward of a big Grade VI wall could entice
them to pick up ascenders and aiders and undertake the process of aid
climbing. Big wall climbing is sometimes referred to as vertical
backpacking, because the big wall climber hauls heavy bags with water,
food, and camping supplies and typically covers ground very slowly,
compared with free climbing. Climbing big walls is hard work, with endless
chores of rope stacking, bag hauling, and ascending. Efficiency,
organization, and proper conditioning are critical to success.

Big walls also call for a high degree of mental composure. Inexperienced
wall climbers easily find themselves the victim of heightened fears brought
on by prolonged and severe exposure. Climbers who are new to the game
can perhaps soothe their fears by realizing that techniques for dealing with
major walls are much the same as those needed for smaller climbs.
Concentrate on the problem at hand, and work away at the objective one
move at a time.

Guidebooks and other climbers are helpful sources of information in

preparing for a big wall. Beware, however, of overdependence on climbing
route topos and equipment lists. Routes do change over time, especially if
pins are used regularly.

Solid, efficient aid technique is a prerequisite for completing a major wall

within the time constraints dictated by reasonable food and water supplies.
For success on big walls, develop competence in hoisting heavy haul bags
up a route and in living comfortably in the vertical world for days at a time.
Amazing journeys to seldom-visited places amid a sweeping sea of granite
await those who accept this adventure.

Note: The anchor setup and hauling diagrams in this chapter assume anchors
that include one or more bolts properly installed in good rock, which is the
situation most likely encountered on well-traveled aid routes. In the event
that climbers must construct their own anchors, they should carefully
evaluate the strength of each piece of protection used in the anchor and
consider fixing the lead line or attaching the haul device to the power point
of the anchor rather than directly to one point of protection.

HAULING
The leader anchors in and fixes the climbing rope for the second, then
begins hauling, using one or more of the techniques described below.
Regardless of which methods the team uses, the climbers should always
connect themselves to the anchor with the climbing rope.

1.Load the hauling device with the haul line. Tie an overhand knot on a
bight in the end of the haul line and attach this to the locking carabiner on
the hauling device. Clip this hauling device to the haul anchor. Prepare a
sling or rope bag to stack the haul line into while hauling (fig. 15-31a). Pull
up all the slack in the haul line, through the device, until the line comes
tight. Your follower should then call out “That’s the bag.”
If not using a hauling device, set up a haul system with a pulley and one
ascender (see Figure 15-13d). Run the haul line through a regular pulley and
clip the end of the haul line to the locking carabiner on this pulley. Clip this
pulley to the haul anchor. Attach an upside-down ascender to the haul line
on the haul-bag side of the pulley. Clip the upside-down ascender in to the
anchor, near the pulley. It may be helpful to use a short sling, such as a full-
strength tie-off loop, to connect the ascender to the pulley’s locking
carabiner so that it is positioned directly below the pulley on the anchor
system. Consider using two slings for redundancy.

2.Connect one ascender to the belay loop on the harness and lock the
carabiner. Attach this ascender to the haul line on the slack side of the rope
coming out of the hauling device or pulley. Do a small amount of hauling,
just a few inches at a time, as described in step 3 below, to unweight the
bags off of the lower anchor (fig. 15-31b). Then the follower can free the
haul bag from the anchor and call out, “Bags are free, haul away.”

3.Begin the regular hauling process. Push back from the wall using legs
and palms to raise the haul bag (fig. 15-31c). As the bag comes up, the
climber’s body lowers until the rope between harness and anchor tightens.
Then stop, stand up (maybe in the aiders), move the ascender back up the
rope toward the hauling device, and reset. Repeat. For heavy bags, it may be
necessary to also pull up with one hand on the weighted haul line while
pushing back with the legs. When you stop hauling, the cam in the hauling
device or upside-down ascender acts as a brake to prevent the haul bag from
slipping backward. Slack is needed in the climbing rope between yourself
and the anchor to allow hauling movement—usually a few feet.
 You can also haul by allowing greater slack of 6 to 8 feet (2 to 3 meters)
between the tie-in knot and attachment point to the anchor. Then walk down
the wall 6 to 8 feet until the anchor rope tightens. Climb back to your
original position by jugging, possibly with one aider and daisy chain on an
ascender and with one Grigri. Repeat the process. This method works best
with lighter bags.

Counterweight hauling. A counterweight method can be used if two people

are needed to lift a very heavy bag. The leader can stay at the anchor station
and haul the bag normally, while the follower can attach his or her ascenders
on the pulling side of the haul rope, about 6 to 8 feet (2 to 3 meters) below
the leader. As the leader hauls, the follower hangs on the haul line to provide
counterweight and walks down the wall while the leader hauls. The follower
must use a longer tie-in to the anchor, about 12 to 16 feet (4 to 6 meters). To
prevent the follower’s tie-in to the anchor from becoming tight, the follower
must jug periodically.

Fig. 15-31. Hauling: a, install haul rope in hauling device, then pull up and
stack rope until rope is taut; b, use one ascender (clipped to harness belay
loop) to haul rope until haul bag is lifted from lower anchor; c, haul away
after the second releases the haul bag from the lower anchor.
Docking the bag. Once the leader has completed the haul, the haul bag must
be “docked” in order to attach it to the wall and free the haul line for the
next pitch. First, always be sure to stop hauling before the knot in the haul
line that attaches the haul rope to the top of the haul bag reaches the haul
device’s pulley. This is critical—if the knot gets too close, it will be sucked
into the hauling device, jamming it. Then select a spot in the anchor to dock
the bag, and attach a carabiner to this location. Pull the docking cord up
from the top of the haul bag and tie the cord to the carabiner as close to the
haul bag as possible, using a load-releasing hitch such as a munter-mule (see
Figure 9-21 in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System). Back up the hitch with
another knot in the docking cord (fig. 15-32a).

Then do a minihaul on the hauling system, raising the bag just an inch or so,
to allow the cam of the hauling device or the upside-down ascender to be
disengaged. Unlock the hauling device or upside-down ascender, then
carefully lower the bag, using your weight and the ascender clipped to the
harness belay loop, so that the bag’s weight rests on the docking cord (fig.
15-32b).

It may be necessary to reengage the cam on the hauling device or upside-

down ascender and repeat this minihaul process one or more additional
times before the bag’s weight completely rests on the docking cord, allowing
the leader to fully disengage the hauling device or upside-down ascender
from the haul line and remove it. With the bag free from the hauling system,
also tie the haul line from the bag in to the anchor with a figure eight on a
bight as a backup (fig. 15-32c) in case the docking cord should fail.

Dock the bag as high as possible on the anchor, so that less bag height is lost
during the dock and so the bag can be accessed during the belay. If there is
time, the leader can restack the haul line so the free end of the haul line is
stacked on top. Or, more efficiently, just feed the haul line as it is while the
leader is aiding the next pitch.

FIXING PITCHES

On long aid climbs, climbers often “fix” pitches: put up ropes and leave
them in place so they can be climbed quickly with mechanical ascenders
later to reach the previous high point. Climbers frequently fix one or two
pitches above the ground or beyond the bivouac site, and at the high point
they leave gear not needed for the bivouac. The lower end of each fixed rope
is attached to the anchor of the previous pitch.

When fixing pitches, take care to protect the rope from sharp edges or abrupt
contours by using duct tape or other material to cover the sharp feature.
Intermediate anchor points, if available, should be used; they reduce rope
stretch, contour the rope toward the direction of travel, and are useful in
avoiding abrasion points. Leave enough slack in the rope when fixing it to
the lower anchor to allow for reversal of rope stretch after rappelling, but not
so much that loops of rope can blow around when unattended. Make a tidy
coil of any rope left on the ground.

Never ascend someone else’s fixed rope without knowledge of its rigging and
permission of the rope’s owner. Close calls have occurred in ascending
unknown “fixed ropes” not actually rigged for ascending.

RETREATING

Before a major aid climb, plan retreat lines in case of bad weather, an
accident, or another emergency. Locate other easily reached routes that offer
a speedier descent or fixed retreat lines.

If there is no retreat route, consider carrying a bolt kit for emergencies, to

allow placement of rappel anchors. Also, as each pitch is climbed, consider
how to descend it. On major walls, rescues may be slow and difficult, if they
are possible at all. It may be up to the climbing team to get back down in an
emergency. Rappelling the route for retreat with haul bags can be difficult,
so practice this skill.

LIVING IN THE VERTICAL WORLD

Living for days on a vertical wall of rock brings some intriguing problems.
Once gear is dropped, for instance, it is gone for good. All vital items must
have clip-in loops and should be clipped in when not in use or not in the
haul bag. Handoffs of gear between partners must be done with care, and
“Got it” is a phrase used frequently so that both partners are sure when gear
is secure during a handoff. Consider bringing duplicates of key items, such
as knives for opening canned food, communication devices, an extra aider or
two for the team, et cetera.

Learn about the gear so that it can be used confidently. Get acquainted with
unfamiliar items, such as portaledges or hammocks, beforehand, preferably
by testing them out in a hanging environment.

Big wall climbers must carry all their water with them. Each climber
generally needs a minimum of 1 gallon (almost 4 liters) per day. For hot
weather, especially if the route gets a lot of sun, carry even more. Often,
climbers choose to bring food, such as canned food, with high water content;
since water must be hauled anyway, the weight of this food is not a
consideration. Canned soups, stews, fish, and fruit are favorite big wall fare.
Bringing food that requires water to prepare demands accurate planning,
since running out of water is bad, but running out of water when it is needed
in order to eat is even worse. Some climbers boil water on the wall,
especially those who enjoy daily hot drinks. Stoves and cooking accessories
must be usable in a hanging environment, and they add weight to the haul
bag.

Waste disposal poses another challenge. Do not toss garbage down the wall.
Haul it up and off the climb. Keep all bivouac sites clean and sanitary, with
no sign of your passing. Use a waste container to pack out human waste.
Whenever feasible, pack out garbage left behind by others, to leave the wall
in better condition than you found it.

Generally, synthetic sleeping bags and clothing are the best choices for a big
wall climb because they retain their insulating properties when wet.
Inflatable pads are more compact and, thus, easier to pack in the haul bag,
and they are warmer to sleep on in the portaledge. Just as in camping on the
ground, consider backing up an inflatable pad with a closed-cell foam pad,
in case the inflatable pad fails. Some climbers use foam pads to help pad the
haul bag, but on the first days of a climb these are all but impossible to
remove from the haul bag and then repack. The best plan is to always bring
a bivy sack, no matter the weather forecast. Your sleeping bag can be stored
in its bivy sack, and neither needs to be stuffed into stuff sacks—they
provide great padding in the haul bag.
Consider that the air temperature, both day and night, may cool significantly
during the ascent of a big wall, so bring extra clothing. Some clothing can be
shared, such as a large insulated belay jacket (see Chapter 2, Clothing and
Equipment). When selecting layers, consider the chore of hauling and try to
wear clothing that will protect the skin from being rubbed by the harness.

Organization on the wall goes beyond climbing gear to include the items in
the haul bag. Knowing the location of every item and having it accessible
when needed will speed the climb and ensure that climbers can address their
needs and any emergencies in a timely manner. Stuff sacks, often of
different colors and sizes for identification, help greatly with organization
inside the haul bag. Break up critical items, such as food for a long wall, into
multiple bags to reduce the impact on the team if a bag is dropped. Use bags
strong enough to stand up to wear and tear on the wall, and consider using
bags with sewn-on full-strength webbing for clipping in to the wall. It is
smart to know where storm gear, the first-aid kit, and human waste kits are
located and to pack these items where they can be accessed quickly.

Fig. 15-32. Docking the haul bag: a, attach the haul bag’s docking cord to
the anchor with a munter-mule and an overhand backup; b, haul enough to
release the hauling device and lower the haul bag onto its docking cord; c,
remove the rope from the hauling device and back up the docking cord by
tying a figure eight on a bight into the haul rope.

DESCENDING

After completing a major wall, climbers need to get their gear back down.
Usually, they must hike or rappel off of the route with all their gear packed
in haul bags. Before packing the haul bag, consider whether ropes need to be
left accessible for rappelling; if rappelling, set aside all personal gear needed
on the rappels before packing the bags.

Haul bags can be tossed off of walls and packed in such a way that all gear
arrives intact, but this technique requires special training from an
experienced tosser, as well as an improvised parachute for the haul bag.
There are no guarantees that the bags will land where intended, and in some
places this practice is illegal. Furthermore, many climbers have discovered
that their gear has been stolen by the time they get back down. The safest,
least stressful bet is to do the hard work of humping out all the gear.

Before packing the haul bag, make sure that the backpack harness is
attached, or it will be necessary to unload the bag and pack it again to get the
harness system in place. Pack haul bags with the heaviest items on the
bottom for the hike out. Attempt to fill all the small spaces in the bag while
packing it from the bottom up so that the bag is packed compactly. Sleeping
bags, bivy sacks, and clothing make good space fillers. Consider loading
climbing gear into the haul bag loose, unclipping carabiners from protection
and unclipping all gear from gear slings, to allow the bag to be packed much
more compactly. A compact, tightly packed haul bag can be safely carried
off a difficult descent much easier than a tall, floppy, top-heavy haul bag. If
the team has to carry multiple bags, consider packing the smaller bag(s) with
the heavier items and making any larger haul bags a little lighter to
compensate for carrying a tall, bulky load.

As is true for all long climbs, the hike out can be a dangerous time, because
the climbers are exhausted from the effort expended on the climb. Take your
time, watch your step, and double-check your systems when rappelling or
performing other technical maneuvers.
THE SPIRIT OF AID CLIMBING

Aid climbing offers high adventure in exchange for perseverance and hard
work. The pioneers of rock climbing developed aid climbing to open up the
vertical world and its fabulous summits, including legendary walls such as
El Capitan and Half Dome in Yosemite National Park, California. In
following the path of aid climbing’s pioneers, you will reach locations
visited by relatively few climbers and can imagine the great vision and
dedication required by the first ascensionists to establish these routes.

Aid routes require technical skill in placing gear and boldness to climb thin
cracks and steep walls while relying on the proper use of equipment. Keep
aid climbing adventurous by resisting the temptation to alter established
routes by adding bolts, drilling holes of any kind, nailing pitons, and even
leaving behind excess fixed gear. Clean up routes when climbing them by
removing old and tired fixed slings, and in general try to leave the route in
better condition than you found it. Always practice Leave No Trace ethics
on the wall. The rewards of all alpine trips are great, but most likely, your
memories of long, multiday wall routes will stand out in a lifetime of
climbing as unique and special experiences.
 images

PART IV

SNOW, ICE, AND ALPINE CLIMBING

16 SNOW TRAVEL AND CLIMBING

17 AVALANCHE SAFETY

18 GLACIER TRAVEL AND CREVASSE RESCUE

19 ALPINE ICE CLIMBING

20 WATERFALL ICE AND MIXED CLIMBING

21 EXPEDITION CLIMBING
EQUIPMENT • BASIC TECHNIQUES OF SNOW CLIMBING • ROPED SNOW CLIMBING
TECHNIQUES • ROUTEFINDING ON SNOW • SAFE SNOW TRAVEL • GAINING FREEDOM
OF THE SNOWY HILLS

images

CHAPTER 16
SNOW TRAVEL AND
CLIMBING
Climbing in snow is fundamental to mountaineering. Snow is
magical stuff, cloaking the landscape in a sparkling mantle.
Gently falling snowflakes can be a balm to the human spirit, an
aesthetic delight. But technically, snow is rather dryly defined
as “a consolidated mass of water crystals.” It is the degree of
consolidation that is significant to the climber.

Snow falls in a variety of forms ranging from tiny crystals to coarse pellets.
Initially the snowpack can consist of up to 90 percent air by volume. Once
the snow is on the ground, a cyclic process of melting and freezing begins.
Even though a snow climber might be literally walking on air, climbing on
snow is not to be taken lightly. Snow becomes increasingly dense as the air
is displaced, and ultimately, it will become a glacier. The density of glacial
ice can be the same as that of ice formed directly from water. See Chapter
27, The Cycle of Snow, for more about snow.
Snow displays a broad spectrum of physical characteristics, and the
distinction between hard snow and ice is rather arbitrary. Snow climbing is
described in this chapter, whereas ice climbing techniques are discussed in
Chapters 19, Alpine Ice Climbing, and 20, Waterfall Ice and Mixed
Climbing, but note that the techniques overlap with no distinct separation.
Climbers travel in a world that is affected by snow on two very different
scales. On a rather grand scale, snow—in the form of glaciers—sculpts the
terrain. On a more human scale, snow often is the climbers’ landscape,
largely determining how and where they can travel.
Traveling on snow is trickier than hiking a trail or climbing a rock wall.
A rock face is essentially unchanging, whereas the snowpack undergoes
rapid changes. Depending on the degree of consolidation, snow can present
a widely variable surface: seemingly insubstantial and bottomless
unconsolidated powder, a consistently firm and resilient snow surface, or
rock-hard alpine ice. A snowpack that appears to be firm can under certain
conditions suddenly collapse and flow (avalanche) and then quickly set up
as hard as concrete. Safe snow travel requires judgment based on
experience.
During a single season, a snowfield may start as a dusting of snow over a
brushy slope, progress to a bowlful of powder ready to avalanche, then
change to a solid surface offering firm footing, and finally revert back to
scattered snow patches. In the course of a day, snow can change from a firm
surface in the morning to slush in the afternoon.
Snow can facilitate travel, making climbs easier by providing a pathway
over brush and other obstacles on the approach hike and reducing the
danger of loose rock on the ascent. But snow conditions also affect
decisions on routefinding and climbing technique. Should the climbing
party hike up the more easily traversed, snow-covered valley slopes or on
the ridge crest away from avalanche hazard? Should climbers go for easy
step-kicking up the sunny slope or the more labor-intensive climb on the
firmer, more stable snow of the shaded hillside? Is it safer to travel roped or
unroped? The changeable nature of snow requires climbers to be flexible in
choosing their mode of travel and to be ready to use snowshoes, skis, or
crampons.

EQUIPMENT
Ice axes and crampons are at the top of the list of basic snow climbing
equipment. Snowshoes, skis, ski poles, and shovels are other important
snow travel aids. Climbers must also sometimes construct anchors in snow
(snow protection equipment is discussed in “Snow Anchors” later in this
chapter).

ICE AXE
The ice axe, or piolet, and skill in its use allow climbers to venture onto all
forms of snow and ice, enjoying a greater variety of mountain terrain during
all seasons of the year. Selecting an ice axe means choosing between
features designed for specific uses. A long axe is suitable for cross-country
travel and scrambling, in which it is used as a cane and to provide security
in low-angle climbing. However, on steeper slopes, a shorter axe is better.
Axes designed for ice climbing (typically called ice tools) have even shorter
shafts and specialized features including the shape of pick and adze and the
placement of teeth. (Ice tools are discussed in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice
Climbing.)
Weight is another consideration. The adage “light is right” should not be
taken too far. Be sure to select an axe that is designed for the intended use.
Some very light axes are meant for only light use—that is, ski
mountaineering or trekking. Ice axes that meet the European Committee on
Standardization (CEN) standards for general mountaineering (see Chapter
9, Basic Safety System) are designated by a “B,” generally tamped on the
ice axe. At the other extreme, technical ice axes tend to be heavier (and
more expensive) than general mountaineering axes. Tools that meet the
CEN standards for technical mountaineering are designated by a “T.” Ice
axes designated with a “T” rating meet higher strength requirements than
“B”-rated axes.

Parts of the Ice Axe

The main parts of an ice axe include: the head, pick, adze, shaft, and spike.
Head. The head of an ice axe—the pick and the adze (fig. 16-1)—is
typically made of steel alloy or aluminum. The hole in the axe head, the
carabiner hole, is used by most climbers to attach the ice-axe leash.
Pick. The pick is curved or drooped (fig. 16-2a), a design that provides
better hooking action in snow or ice, enabling the axe to dig in when
climbers are seeking purchase or trying to stop themselves (self-arrest) after
a fall. A moderate hooking angle of 65 to 70 degrees relative to the shaft is
typical of general mountaineering axes (fig. 16-2b). A sharper angle of 55
to 60 degrees is better for technical ice climbing (fig. 16-2c); the more
acutely angled pick holds better in ice and snow and it coincides with the
arc of the tool head as it is swung.

images
Fig. 16-1. Parts of an ice axe.

The pick teeth provide grip in ice and hard snow. Ice axes designed for
general mountaineering typically have aggressive teeth only at the end of
the pick, as shown in Figure 16-2a and b. Picks of ice axes and tools
designed for technical climbing typically have aggressive teeth along the
entire length, as shown in Figure 16-2c.

images
Fig. 16-2. Ice-axe pick shapes and teeth patterns: a and b, for general mountaineering; c, for
technical ice climbing.

images
Fig. 16-3. Ice-axe clearance: a, positive; b, negative.

The end of the pick may have clearance that is termed positive (fig. 16-
3a), neutral, or negative (fig. 16-3b). The clearance is determined by
comparing the angle of the pick tip relative to the axis of the shaft; positive
clearance means the pick tip’s angle is greater than 90 degrees relative to
the shaft, and negative clearance means the pick tip’s angle is less than 90
degrees relative to the shaft. In theory, the degree of clearance affects how
the axe performs in self-arrest. A pick with positive clearance should
penetrate more readily; a pick with negative clearance would tend to skate
across and lose purchase on ice or hard snow. However, the clearance
actually makes little difference: self-arrest is almost impossible on ice, and
in softer snow the pick will dig in regardless of what type of clearance it
has. Positive clearance is important for technical use in ice climbing. (Ice
tools are discussed in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing.)
Adze. The adze is used mainly to cut steps in hard snow or ice. The flat
top of the adze also provides a firm, comfortable platform for a hand when
the climber is using the self-belay grasp (see “Basic Techniques of Snow
Climbing” later in this chapter). Most adzes for general mountaineering are
relatively flat and straight-edged with sharp corners (see Figure 16-2a). This
is the best all-around design for cutting steps.
Shaft. Ice-axe shafts (see Figure 16-1) are made of aluminum or a
composite material such as fiberglass, Kevlar, or carbon fiber—or a
combination of these. A typical ice-axe shaft for general mountaineering is
straight. Ice axes with a shaped shaft are designed for more technical use
such as swinging the ice axe for ice climbing.
Some shafts are covered at least partly by a rubber material, which gives
climbers a better grip and, hence, better control of the axe, and it also
dampens vibrations and increases a climber’s control in planting the pick. If
the axe shaft lacks a rubber grip, wrap the shaft with athletic grip tape (for
example, bicycle handlebar tape) or wear gloves with leather or rubberized
palms. However, the friction of any shaft covering may impede the axe
from readily penetrating the snow when it is being used for a boot-axe
belay, for probing, or for self-belay.
Spike. The spike—the metal tip of the axe (see Figure 16-1)—should be
sharp enough to readily penetrate snow and ice. Using the ice axe for
balance on rocky trails and talus slopes dulls the spike (see “Ice-Axe
Maintenance and Safety” below).

Ice-Axe Length
Ice axes are described only in metric units; they range in length from 40 to
90 centimeters (16 to 35 inches). The shortest axes are for technical ice
climbing; the longest ones are for tall mountaineers using the axe as a cane
on easy terrain.
The optimal length for an ice axe depends upon both the intended use and
the height of the climber. A common rule of thumb is for an ice-axe spike to
barely reach the ground when you hold the head loosely at your side. This
length offers the best compromise of balance and appropriate length for use
on steep snow slopes. For climbers who are mostly traveling across glaciers
and lower angle snow, a longer axe will give a nice length for balance and
safety. For climbers who are on steeper snow, a shorter axe, with a spike
that reaches the ankle when the axe is loosely held at your side, may be
easier to place for balance and protection.
Axes shorter than 50 centimeters are technical ice climbing tools,
excellent for placements on very steep slopes. However, these ice tools are
not as good for self-arrest; the shorter shafts offer less leverage, and many
of the technical pick designs do not lend themselves to the self-arrest
technique. A 70-centimeter axe is the longest that is generally useful for
technical ice climbing. Thus, a length of 50 to 70 centimeters works well in
most alpine situations, wherein climbing is on moderately steep snow
slopes and the axe is being used for self-belay and self-arrest. Longer axes
are better for cross-country travel and scrambling, for snow anchors, and for
probing for cornices and crevasses.

images
Fig. 16-4. Ice-axe leashes, attached through hole in head of axe: a, short; b, long.

Ice-Axe Leash
The ice-axe leash provides a sure way to attach the ice axe to the climber’s
wrist or harness. A leash is valuable insurance on crevassed glaciers or
long, steep slopes where losing an axe would leave a climber without a
principal safety tool and put climbers below in danger from the run-away
axe. A leash also allows climbers to let the ice axe hang free while they
make a move or two on the occasional rock they encounter during a snow
climb.
There are two schools of thought regarding the use of an ice-axe leash
during snow travel that requires using self-belay technique. Most climbers
use a leash to keep from losing the ice axe. Others, however, believe that a
flailing ice axe, hanging by the leash from the wrist of a climber who is no
longer gripping the shaft, poses danger during a fall. Ultimately, choosing
whether to use a leash is a personal judgment call.
The leash typically consists of a piece of accessory cord or webbing
attached to the carabiner hole in the ice-axe head. A vast array of
commercially manufactured leashes are available, or a leash can be made
using either 5- or 6-millimeter Perlon accessory cord or ½- to l-inch tubular
webbing. Tie the ends of the material together with a suitable knot to create
a sling, girth-hitch the sling through the carabiner hole, then tie an overhand
knot to form a wrist loop.
The length of a leash can vary. Short leashes (fig. 16-4a) are favored by
those using ice axes for basic snow and glacier travel. The short leash is
easy to use and allows climbers to regain control of the ice axe quickly
during a fall. During an uncontrolled fall in which a climber loses the grip
on the ice axe, an axe on a short leash will not flail around as much as one
on a longer leash.
However, the majority of climbers prefer a longer leash (fig. 16-4b).
When shifting the axe from one hand to the other while changing direction
up a snow slope, a climber with a long leash does not need to switch the
leash from wrist to wrist. A long leash can be chained to a runner clipped to
the harness, so that the axe can be used as a personal anchor. The long leash
also makes the axe more versatile for climbing steep snow or ice. A long
leash is usually about as long as the axe shaft, and if it is adjusted correctly,
it will reduce arm fatigue during step-cutting and ice climbing. The climber
should be able to grasp the end of the shaft near the spike when that hand is
placed through the wrist loop.

Ice-Axe Maintenance and Safety

Ice axes require very little special care. Before each use, inspect the shaft
for deep dents that might weaken it to the point of failure under load (but do
not worry about minor nicks and scratches). After each climb, clean mud
and dirt off the axe. Use a combination of solvents (such as a lubricating
and penetrating oil) and abrasives (scouring pads or a soft ski hone—a soft
synthetic block with embedded abrasive) to remove any rust.
Check the pick, adze, and spike regularly for sharpness. To sharpen, use a
hand file, not a power-driven grinding wheel. High-speed grinding can
overheat the metal and change the temper, diminishing the strength of the
metal.
Guards are available to cover the sharp edges and points of the pick,
adze, and spike if the ice axe is not in use. Some people leave the guards on
when carrying the ice axe on their pack. (See also “How to Carry an Ice
Axe,” later in this chapter.) For storage following a climb, dry the ice axe
and store without the guards on to protect the pick from rusting.

CRAMPONS
Crampons are a set of metal spikes that strap on over boots to penetrate
hard snow and ice where boot soles cannot gain sufficient traction (see the
“History of Crampons” sidebar). Crampons are useful for both ascending
and descending steep snow and ice. The choice to wear crampons depends
upon a variety of factors, including snow conditions and the confidence and
experience of the climber.

HISTORY OF CRAMPONS
Crampons are an ancient tool, invented more than 2,000 years ago.
Early inhabitants of the Caucasus region wore leather sandals soled
with spiked iron plates to travel on snow and ice. Celtic miners used
iron foot spikes as early as 2,700 years ago. Medieval alpine shepherds
wore three-point crampons—horseshoe-shaped frames bearing three
sharp spikes.
At the end of the 19th century, the four-point crampon was state of
the art. Then in 1908 Oscar Eckenstein created the 10-point crampon.
Many alpinists thought the gadgets were an unsporting advantage.
However, these crampons relieved climbers of the tremendous tedium
of cutting steps and opened up a vast array of unclimbed snow and ice
faces. In 1932 Laurent Grivel added two front points, creating the 12-
point crampon, which was specifically designed for climbing steep
hard snow and ice. This design has evolved into the crampons that are
essential for mountaineering today.

In harder, icy conditions where a dangerous fall is possible, crampons are

likely a good choice. For an inexperienced climber on softer snow with a
steep angle, crampons can provide an additional sense of confidence to
complete the climb. Make this decision based on individual skill and
experience, as well as personal assessment of conditions as described below
in “Basic Techniques of Snow Climbing.” Choosing among the different
crampon designs involves a trade-off between features that are essential for
general alpine use and those designed for technical ice climbing (see the
“Questions to Consider When Selecting Crampons” sidebar).

Crampon Points
The early-model 10-point crampon was eclipsed in the 1930s by the 12-
point crampon, with two forward-slanting or “front” points, which reduced
the need for step-cutting and permitted front-pointing up steep snow and ice
(see Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing). Currently, crampons designed for
general mountaineering include both 12-point and lighter 10-point models,
but all have front points.
Most crampons are made from chromium molybdenum steel, an
extremely strong, lightweight alloy. However, some models are fabricated
from aircraft-grade aluminum alloys, which are about 50 percent lighter
than steel but also much softer. Aluminum crampons are mainly used for
glacier travel or early-season climbs with snow but not hard ice. Snow and
ice routes often include short sections of rock that are climbed wearing
crampons. Most crampons are able to take the punishment, but extended
travel on rock will dull the points.
The relative angles and orientation of the first two rows of points
determine the best use for a set of crampons. When the first row (front
points) is drooped and the second row (secondary points) is angled toward
the front of the crampon (fig. 16-5a), the crampons are better suited for ice
climbing than for general mountaineering. This configuration allows easier
engagement of the secondary points when front-pointing, which greatly
reduces calf strain (see Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing). In contrast,
downward-angled secondary points (fig. 16-5b) facilitate a more ergonomic
walking motion on moderate terrain.
Front points can be either horizontally (the point is wide side to side but
thin, fig. 16-5c) or vertically (the point is narrow side to side but “tall” top
to bottom, fig. 16-5d) oriented. Vertically oriented front points, with height
that is greater than their width, are designed for technical ice climbing.
Their shape mimics that of an ice-axe pick. They are well suited for
penetration into hard water ice, but in softer alpine ice and snow, they are
prone to shearing through unless they are deeply set. In contrast,
horizontally oriented front points, with width that is greater than their
height, are designed for the alpine ice and snow conditions encountered in
most general mountaineering situations. They provide a larger surface area
and, therefore, are more stable in softer snow.

Hinged and Semirigid Crampons

Mountaineering crampons are generally categorized into two types—hinged
and semirigid—based on the connection between the forward and rear units.
 QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING
CRAMPONS
When shopping for crampons, ask the following questions:
images What type of crampon is appropriate for your intended
activity?
images What terrain is the crampon designed for?
images How will you know when the crampons fit your boots?
images Which attachment system is best for your needs?

images
Fig. 16-5. Angle of first two rows of points: a, out from toe of boot suited for front-pointing; b,
downward-angled secondary points best suited for general mountaineering; c, horizontal front points
best suited for general mountaineering; d, vertical front points best suited for technical ice climbing.

Hinged. Crampons designed for general mountaineering can be hinged

(fig. 16-6a), with forward and rear units connected by a flexible bar. They
fit a wide variety of mountaineering boots, are light, and flex with the
natural rocking action of walking. Hinged crampons work well on low-
angle snowfields and glaciers.
Semirigid. Crampons designed for both general mountaineering and
technical ice climbing (fig. 16-6b) have forward and rear units connected by
a more rigid bar. They have some flex, which creates some give with a
fairly stiff-soled boot. Semirigid crampons are designed with either
horizontally or vertically oriented front points. This type of crampon works
well on a variety of alpine snow and ice routes.

Crampon Attachment
There are three main crampon attachment systems: strap, clip-on, and
hybrid. In general, hinged crampons work best with strap systems and
flexible boots. Semirigid crampons work best with hybrid attachment
systems—a combination of a rear clip and straps over the front of the boot
—and fairly stiff boots. Ultimately, the choice of crampon attachment
system is largely dictated by the attachment platform that the boot provides
as well as the intended use.
 Straps. Modern strap, or universal, bindings (fig. 16-7a) are much easier
and faster to use than earlier strap systems. If climbers plan to do a wide
variety of climbing and scrambling over a range of terrain (trail, rock, and
snow), this binding type will provide secure and fast attachment with the
widest selection of footwear. These are excellent bindings for use with a
mountaineering boot covered by an insulating overboot.

images
Fig. 16-6. Types of crampons: a, hinged; b, semirigid.

Clip-ons. With clip-on bindings, the crampons attach to the boot with a
wire toe bail and a heel clip or lever (fig. 16-7b). These systems are fast and
easy to use. With clip-on bindings, the fit of the crampon to the boot is
much more critical than with crampons that strap on. In order to fit securely,
the boot must have pronounced grooves at both the heel and toe. When the
crampon is sized correctly, the heel clip should decisively “snap” into place,
forcing the wire toe bail firmly into the boot toe groove. Clip-on bindings
typically include a safety strap wrapped around the ankle to secure the
crampon if it pops off the boot. Some clip-on bindings also include a metal
strap attached to the toe bail; the ankle safety strap is threaded through the
metal toe-bail strap to prevent the crampon from popping off the boot.

images
Fig. 16-7. Systems for attaching crampons to boots: a, strap or universal; b, clip-on; c, hybrid.

Hybrid. Hybrid bindings feature toe straps combined with a heel clip
(fig. 16-7c). These bindings are popular because they work well on boots
that have a pronounced heel groove but may lack a toe groove. As with
clip-on bindings, the hybrid’s heel clip should decisively “snap” into place,
forcing the boot into the front posts attached to the toe strap. Hybrid
bindings also include a safety strap connecting the heel bail to the toe strap.

TIPS FOR FITTING CRAMPONS

images Clip-on bindings grip the boot at toe and heel, so the boot’s
welt is especially important. Clip-on bindings require well-defined
grooves at the toe and heel on plastic and very stiff leather boots.
 images The front crampon points should protrude 3?4 to 1 inch (2 to
2.5 centimeters) beyond the toe of the boot.
images Crampons must be fitted to overboots or expedition gaiters if
either will be worn to help insulate feet from the cold and snow in
very cold conditions. Make sure any attachment straps are long
enough.

Crampon Fit
It is critical that crampons fit boots perfectly. When purchasing crampons,
bring the boots to the shop for a proper crampon fitting (see the “Tips for
Fitting Crampons” sidebar). If the crampons will be used on more than one
pair of boots, check the fit on all pairs. Be sure to purchase crampons that
match the intended usage.
Practice putting on the crampons while in the comfort of home. There
will be plenty of opportunity to put them on under less-ideal conditions: by
feel in dim light or in the limited illumination of a headlamp, fumbling with
cold, numbed fingers.

Crampon Maintenance and Safety

Regular simple maintenance keeps crampons safe and dependable (see the
“Crampon Safety Rules” sidebar). After every climb, clean and dry the
crampons and inspect them for wear. Repair or replace worn straps, nuts,
bolts, and screws. Check the points: For ice climbing, maintaining sharp
points is essential, but for most snow climbing and classic mountaineering,
it is best not to have sharp points. New crampons frequently come with
razor-sharp points (fig. 16-8a) and will almost always require a bit of
maintenance or tuning before use (fig. 16-8b); file down burrs, rough edges,
and very sharp points with a small file. If crampon points are overly dull, a
file can also be used to sharpen them. Also check alignment of the points:
splayed points make the crampons less efficient at penetrating snow and ice
and more likely to slash pants, gaiters, and legs. It is probably best to retire
a pair of crampons when points have been badly bent or overly filed.
In soft, sticky snow, crampons can accumulate a growing buildup of
snow. This ball of snow can interfere with the crampon points’ penetration
and be dangerous, particularly where sticky snow overlays an icy base. To
minimize this hazard, climbers can use manufactured antiballing plates:
plastic, rubber, or vinyl sheets that can be slid into rubber-fitted metal stays
on the bottom of the disassembled crampon (fig. 16-9). Alternatively,
climbers can wrap the bottom of the crampon with duct tape. When soft,
sticky snow is encountered, consider whether crampons are really needed. It
may be safer to proceed without them.

images
Fig. 16-8. How to finish crampon points: a, very sharp (new); b, rounded off (after filing).

images
Fig. 16-9. Crampons with antiballing plates.

Instep and Approach Crampons

Small instep crampons with four or six points are designed for crossing an
occasional short snowfield. Because these crampons have no points at the
heel or toe, they are not suitable for mountaineering and can be dangerous
on steep snow or ice. Approach crampons are flexible, full-length plates
that typically have eight points. Approach crampons are designed for use on
moderate terrain, and they also are not suitable for mountaineering. Instep
and approach crampons are not a substitute for 10- or 12-point
mountaineering crampons.

CRAMPON SAFETY RULES

In the mountains, climbers can follow a few rules to protect
themselves, their gear, and their climbing companions from sharp
crampon points:
images Use a crampon pouch or a set of rubber point protectors when
carrying crampons.
images Always bring the tools needed to adjust the crampons, as well
as any necessary spare parts.
images While climbing with crampons on, step deliberately to avoid
snagging pants or gaiters, gashing a leg, or stepping on the rope.
images Be careful not to snag gear that is hanging low from gear loops
on the climbing harness; avoid letting slings hang below the thigh.
SKI POLES
Ski poles are used not only for skiing; ski or trekking poles can be used
whether climbers are traveling on foot, snowshoes, or skis. Poles are better
than an ice axe for balance when climbers are carrying heavy packs over
level or low-angle snow, slippery ground, or scree or when they are
crossing a stream or boulder field. Poles also can take some of the weight
off the lower body, and the basket at the bottom of the poles keeps them
from penetrating too deeply into soft snow.
Some ski and trekking poles have features helpful to the mountaineer.
Adjustable poles enable climbers to set the length to suit the conditions or
the terrain; on a traverse, the uphill pole can be set to a length shorter than
the downhill pole. These poles can be fully compressed for easy packing.
Adjustable poles require more maintenance; after each trip, disassemble,
clean, and dry them.
Poles with removable baskets can serve as probes for crevasses when
their baskets are removed. Some poles are made so that a pair can be
fastened together to form a serviceable avalanche probe. However, they are
a poor substitute for a commercial avalanche probe.
Some ski poles can be fitted with a special self-arrest grip that has a
plastic or metal-tipped pick, but on technical terrain this option is not a
substitute for an ice axe.

images
Fig. 16-10. Snowshoes for winter mountaineering.

SNOWSHOES
Snowshoes, a traditional aid for snow travel, have been updated recently to
be smaller and lighter. Modern designs include models consisting of tubular
metal frames with lightweight, durable decking materials (fig. 16-10), as
well as plastic-composite models. Modern bindings are easy to use and
more stable than older models. Snowshoes include crampon-like, toothed
metal plates designed to improve traction on hard snow; many models also
include serrated heel and/or side plates that decrease side-to-side slippage.
Snowshoes permit efficient travel in soft snow, where hikers otherwise
laboriously posthole, sinking deeply with each step. Snowshoes can be used
to kick steps uphill. Although travel on snowshoes may be slower than
travel on skis, snowshoes can be used in brushy or rocky terrain where skis
would be awkward, and snowshoes are often more practical than skis when
climbers are carrying heavy packs. If the climbing party includes some
people who are not very good on skis, it is much less frustrating and more
efficient for the group to travel on snowshoes. Snowshoe bindings can be
used with almost any footwear, whereas most ski bindings require
specialized boots.

SKIS
Mountaineering skis fitted with climbing skins provide a convenient mode
of travel in the mountains. The two styles of mountaineering skiing,
telemark and alpine touring (AT or randonée), require specialized boots
(some bindings can accommodate mountaineering boots, but there is a
significant loss of skiing performance). Telemark and AT or randonée
bindings allow the skier’s boot heel to hinge upward for easy uphill touring
as if cross-country skiing. But whereas the traditional telemark ski binding
(fig. 16-11a) has a “free heel” for telemark turns down the slope, the
randonée or AT binding locks the boot down for parallel turns and standard
downhill technique (fig. 16-11b).
The past two decades have seen a marked evolution and rapid
development of both AT and telemark ski gear for ski mountaineering in
terms of weight, shape, and size. In fact, skis used for AT and telemark are
now often the same make and model, differing only in the types of bindings
used. Both modern types of skis are quite wide compared to the older alpine
gear. And both modern types are highly shaped, often with modified tips
and tails for ease and stability of turning during the descent. Telemark and
randonée skis permit climbers to travel the backcountry through the use of
climbing skins attached temporarily to ski bottoms to provide traction for
uphill travel (fig. 16-11c). Climbing skins, originally made of seal fur and
now of a napped synthetic material, allow skis to slide forward over snow
while gripping and holding the skis from sliding backward.
Climbers who are not accomplished skiers may find that the
disadvantages of using skis in the backcountry outweigh the advantages.
When the skis must be carried, they can be awkward in some terrain—
catching on rocks and trees—and add weight to a pack already laden with
technical gear. Wearing skis complicates self-arrest, and skiing can be
difficult when climbers are carrying heavy packs. Every party member must
have similar skiing ability for the group to keep a steady pace. This is
especially true for roped glacier travel.
Skis can be faster for basic snow travel, and they can provide a way to
reach areas that are otherwise inaccessible. Skis offer a bonus for glacier
travel: they distribute the climber’s weight over a larger area and may
decrease the chance of breaking through snow bridges. Skis can also come
in handy for rescue work, because they can be converted into a makeshift
stretcher or sled.
Backcountry skiing is a complex activity, utilizing special techniques and
equipment. For detailed information, see Resources.

SHOVEL
A broad-bladed shovel is both a tool and a safety device for the snow
traveler. A shovel is a necessity for uncovering an avalanche victim.
Shovels are also used for constructing snow shelters and tent platforms, and
they have even been used as climbing tools to ascend particularly snowy
routes.
A good shovel (see Figure 3-11a, b, and c in Chapter 3, Camping, Food,
and Water) has a blade large enough to move snow efficiently and a handle
long enough for good leverage but short enough for use in a confined area:
2 to 3 feet (60 to 90 centimeters) long. Some shovels have extendable
and/or detachable handles. Another desirable feature is a blade that can be
rotated perpendicular to the handle and locked so that the shovel can be
used as a trenching tool. A D-shaped grip on the handle can make shoveling
more comfortable. Some models have a hollow handle, inside which
climbers can carry a snow saw or avalanche probe.

images
Fig. 16-11. Ski equipment for mountaineering: a, traditional telemark boot and binding; b, randonée
or alpine touring (AT) boot and binding; c, climbing skins for skis.

In dry, powdery snow, a plastic-bladed shovel provides a good

compromise of weight to strength. However, metalbladed shovels are much
stiffer and therefore better for chopping through hard snow or avalanche
debris. The edge of a shovel blade (whether metal or plastic) can be
sharpened with a file for better cutting of hard snow. Shovels are also used
in various snow stability tests (see Chapter 17, Avalanche Safety).
BASIC TECHNIQUES OF SNOW CLIMBING
The first priority of snow travel is to avoid a slip or fall, but if climbers do
slip on snow, they must know how to regain control as quickly as possible.
Travel on steep alpine snow slopes is dangerous unless climbers have an ice
axe and crampons—and the skill to use them.
To determine the route, terrain, and equipment choices for traveling on
steep alpine snow safely, ask the following questions: Is the snow good for
self-belay, or is it too hard for the ice-axe shaft to be placed securely? If
someone were to fall, what does the runout look like? Will crampons be
helpful or a hindrance? What are the climbers’ levels of experience and
skill? Is everyone comfortable with the particular situation? Are climbers
wearing heavy overnight packs?
Relying on self-belay or self-arrest (see “Stopping a Fall” later in this
section) should be considered adequate only for very experienced climbers.
Understanding the limits of self-belay and self-arrest, combined with
assessing the runout, are crucial considerations.

ASSESSING RUNOUT
Because a falling climber’s acceleration rate on a 30-degree snow slope can
approach that of free-falling, it is important to always be aware of a snow
slope’s runout. Are there rocks, crevasses, a moat, a bergschrund, or cliffs
below you (fig. 16-12)? Constantly assessing and being aware of runout is
the first thing to consider when deciding what techniques and equipment to
use for travel on snow slopes.

images
Fig. 16-12. Assessing runout: rocks below a snow slope make for a dangerous runout.

If the runout is dangerous or unknown, always carefully consider how to

proceed. Is a belay with anchor and rope required? If a belay is deemed
necessary and there is not time, skill, or equipment for a solid belay, the
climbing party will probably be safer turning around.

USING THE ICE AXE

The ice axe, an inherently simple tool, has many uses. Below the snow line,
it can serve as a walking cane or be used to help climbers brake when they
are going downhill. But its main role is in snow and ice travel, wherein it is
a balance aid, a tool to prevent a fall, and a tool to stop a fall. The ice axe is
also used in a variety of ways to make a snow anchor.

How to Carry an Ice Axe

Always carry an ice axe carefully. Be aware of what its sharp points and
edges can do to you and others in the climbing party.
When the axe is not needed, carry it on your pack. Slip it down through
the pack ice-axe loop, flip the shaft up, and strap it to the pack (fig. 16-13a).
Keep guards on the pick, adze, and spike. To carry the axe in one hand,
grasp the shaft with the spike forward and the pick down to avoid jabbing
the person behind you (fig. 16-13b).
When travel on snow alternates briefly with areas of rocks or steep brush,
where both hands need to be free, slide the axe diagonally between your
back and the pack (fig. 16-13c). Place the spike down and the pick between
the pack’s two shoulder straps, so the axe head is clear of your neck and
pointing in the same general direction as the angle of the shaft. In this
position, the axe can be stowed and retrieved quickly.

How to Grasp an Ice Axe

There are two ways to grasp an ice axe. Conditions determine which grasp
is best at any moment.
Self-arrest grasp. Place your thumb under the adze and your palm and
fingers over the pick, near the top of the shaft (fig. 16-14a). While climbing,
point the adze forward. The self-arrest grasp puts climbers in position to go
directly into arrest in case of a fall (see “Self-Arrest” later in this section).
Self-belay grasp. Rest your palm on top of the adze and wrap your
thumb and index finger under the pick (fig. 16-14b). While climbing, point
the pick forward. The self-belay grasp can be more comfortable and is
appropriate when the consequences of an unchecked slide are not a concern
(see “Self-Belay” later in this section).

images
Fig. 16-13. Carrying an ice axe, when not in use: a, attached to pack by ice-axe loop and straps; b,
in hand while walking, with spike forward and pick down; c, temporarily between back and pack.
 It is generally easier to start out holding the axe in the self-arrest grasp
when practicing with an ice axe. Most climbers simply choose to use the
self-arrest grasp at all times. Some prefer the comfort of the self-belay grasp
but shift to the self-arrest grasp whenever they feel the runout is a concern
or there is a significant danger of slipping.

images
Fig. 16-14. Grasping an ice axe: a, self-arrest grasp; b, self-belay grasp.

USING CRAMPONS
Crampons are generally considered essential when conditions are icy, but
they can also be useful on snow, even soft snow. For ice, a bit of crampon
technique is usually necessary (see “Climbing with Crampons” in Chapter
19, Alpine Ice Climbing). For snow, simply use the same techniques you
would without crampons: step-kicking, combined with balance and use of
an ice axe (all described in this section); the crampon points will improve
traction and security.
Learn how and when to use crampons. Ask these questions: Are
crampons helpful? Do they make walking on snow easier and more
efficient? Does the slope have a dangerous or unknown runout? (If yes, then
crampons should always be considered.) What footwear is being worn?
(Rigid-soled boots kick steps much better than softer, more flexible boots;
crampons should be considered more often with softer, more flexible
footwear because many crampon designs will add stiffness to the boots.)
One reason for not wearing crampons is the increased potential for
tripping in them or even being injured by their sharp points. Learning to
walk in crampons without tripping takes practice, and injury from sharp
points can be reduced with proper crampon maintenance (see “Crampon
Maintenance and Safety” above).
Another reason not to use crampons is if snow is balling up underfoot.
Snow can stick to the underside of the metal crampon frame, packing into a
ball that interferes with the effectiveness of the crampon points. Fresh snow
combined with warm temperatures can create conditions that even
antiballing plates cannot overcome. Such conditions can be particularly
challenging. Sometimes the snow may be hard under the softer fresh snow,
requiring crampon use even when the snow sticks to them. These conditions
with or without crampons require great care, and they will certainly slow
progress. If the decision is made to wear crampons, then knocking the stuck
snow free with an ice axe may be necessary, sometimes with every step.

ASCENDING SNOW
Climbing up snow slopes takes a set of special skills. Different techniques
come into play, depending on the slope’s hardness or steepness. The
direction of ascent can be either direct or diagonal.

Climbing in Balance
Although climbers need to be proficient at ice-axe self-arrest, this skill is a
last resort and every effort should be made to avoid arresting. Climb in
balance to avoid falling. Climbing in balance means moving from one
position of balance to another, avoiding any prolonged stance in an out-of-
balance position.
On a diagonal uphill route, a climber is in a position of balance when the
inside (uphill side) foot is in front of and above the outside (downhill side)
foot, because body weight is evenly distributed between both feet (see
Figure 16-15a). When the outside foot is forward, the climber is out of
balance because the trailing inside leg, which is not fully extended and
therefore cannot make use of the skeletal structure to minimize muscular
effort, is nonetheless bearing most of the body’s weight (see Figure 16-
15b).
The diagonal ascent is a two-step sequence: from a position of balance
through an out-of-balance position and back to a position of balance. From
the position of balance, place the axe above and ahead of you into the snow
in the self-belay position (fig. 16-15a). Move up one step, bringing your
outside (downhill) foot in front of your inside (uphill) foot, which puts you
out of balance (fig. 16-15b). Then move up another step, putting your inside
foot in front of your outside foot, which puts you back in a position of
balance (fig. 16-15c). Then reposition the ice axe. Keep your weight over
your feet and avoid leaning into the slope. Keep the axe on your uphill side.
If a climber is heading straight up the fall line, there is no longer an
uphill or downhill reference for positioning arms and legs. Just carry the
axe in whichever hand feels comfortable, and climb in a steady, controlled
manner. Regardless of the direction of travel, firmly place the axe before
each move to provide self-belay protection.
 images
Fig. 16-15. Ascending a snow slope, diagonally, in balance: a, placing the ice axe from a position of
balance; b, advancing one step into an out-of-balance position; c, advancing another step back into
a position of balance.

Using the Rest Step

Climbing a long, featureless snow slope can give a frustrating sensation of
getting nowhere. Few landmarks help measure progress. Novice climbers
try a dash-and-gasp pace in an attempt to rush the objective. But the only
way to the top of the slope is to find a pace that can be maintained—and
then maintain it. The solution is the rest step, a technique that conserves
energy as it moves the climber methodically forward. Use the rest step
whenever legs or lungs need a bit of recuperation between steps. At lower
elevations, it is usually leg muscles that require a break; at higher
elevations, lungs need the pause. See “The Rest Step” in Chapter 6,
Wilderness Travel.

Step-Kicking
Step-kicking creates a path of upward steps with the best possible footing
and the least expenditure of energy. Climbers move in single file up the
steps, improving them as they go. The head of the line has the hardest job:
kicking fresh steps and looking for the safest route up the slope.
The most efficient kick to use for creating snow steps is to swing your leg
and allow its own weight and momentum to provide the impact, with little
muscular effort. This works well in soft snow. Harder snow requires more
effort, and the steps may be smaller and less secure.
An average climber needs steps deep enough to place the ball of the foot
when going straight up and at least half of the boot on a diagonal ascent.
Steps that are kicked level or tilted slightly into the slope are more secure.
The less space there is on a step, the more important it is that the step be
angled into the slope.
When kicking steps, keep other climbers in the party in mind. They can
follow up your staircase if the steps are spaced evenly and somewhat close
together. Make allowance for climbers with shorter legs.
Followers improve the steps as they climb. The follower must kick into
the step, because simply walking onto the existing platform is not secure. In
compact snow, drive your toe in and deepen the step. In soft snow, bring
your boot down onto the step, compacting the snow and making the step
stronger.
Switch leads occasionally to share the heavy work. The leader can step
aside and fall in at the end of the line. (The related skills of step-cutting and
cramponing are discussed in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing.)

images
Fig. 16-16. Direct ascent with ice axe in cane position.

images
Fig. 16-17. Direct ascent with ice axe in stake position.

Making a Direct Ascent

Speed is a consideration on a long snow climb, and a direct ascent is a good
choice if climbers face bad weather, avalanche or rockfall danger, poor
bivouac conditions, or a difficult descent. Ice-axe technique varies
according to snow conditions and steepness.
Cane position. On a slope of a low or moderate angle, climb with the
axe in the cane position: holding it in one hand by the head and using it for
balance (fig. 16-16). Continue in the cane position as the snow gets steeper,
as long as it feels secure. Setting the axe firmly before each move provides
a self-belay.
Stake position. As the snow gets steeper, climbers may choose to switch
to the two-handed stake position (fig. 16-17). Before moving upward, use
both hands to plant the axe as far as it will go into the snow. Then continue
to grasp it with both hands on the head or with one hand on the head and
one on the shaft. This position is useful on steeper soft snow.
Horizontal position. On steep, hard snow covered with a soft layer,
climb with the axe in the horizontal position. Hold the axe with both hands,
one in the self-arrest grasp on the head and the other near the spike end of
the shaft. Jab the axe horizontally into the snow above you, the pick down
and the shaft at a right angle to your body (fig. 16-18). This jabs the pick
into the harder base while the shaft gets some purchase in the softer surface
snow.

images
Fig. 16-18. Direct ascent with ice axe in horizontal position.
Making a Diagonal Ascent
When time and weather conditions permit, climbers may prefer a longer
diagonal ascent, switchbacking up moderately angled slopes. In marginal
conditions, a diagonal route may be more difficult because of the work of
kicking numerous edged, traversing steps in hard snow. Again, ice-axe
technique varies according to snow conditions and steepness.
Cane position. The axe works fine in the cane position on moderate
slopes (see Figure 16-16). As the slope gets steeper, this position becomes
awkward.
Cross-body position. Hold the axe perpendicular to the angle of the
slope, one hand grasping the head and the other holding the spike end of the
shaft, and jab the spike into the snow (fig. 16-19). The axe crosses
diagonally in front of you, the pick pointing away from your body. The
shaft should bear your weight, while the hand on the head of the axe
stabilizes the axe.

images
Fig. 16-19. Diagonal ascent with ice axe in cross-body position.

images
Fig. 16-20. Changing direction on a diagonal ascent: a, jab ice-axe shaft straight down and step
forward with outside (downhill) foot; b, move into a stance facing uphill with feet splayed; c, turn in
new direction of travel and step forward with new inside (uphill) foot.

Changing directions. Diagonal ascents often mean changing direction,

or switchbacking. The sequence of steps to change direction safely on a
diagonal route, whether the axe is in the cane position or the cross-body
position, is this:
1. Start from a position of balance, with your inside (uphill) foot in front
of and above your outside (downhill) foot. Jab the axe shaft straight
down into the snow at a spot directly above your location.
2. Move your outside (downhill) foot forward, bringing you into an out-
of-balance position (fig. 16-20a).
3. Grasp the head of the axe with both hands. Continue holding onto the
head with both hands while moving into a stance facing uphill, turning
your inside foot toward the new direction of travel and ending with
your feet in a splayed position (fig. 16-20b). Kick steps into the slope
if your splayed feet feel unstable.
 4. Turn your body toward the new direction of travel, returning to a
position of balance by placing your new uphill foot in front of and
above your new outside (downhill) foot (fig. 16-20c).
In the cane position, your new uphill hand now grasps the axe head (as in
Figure 16-20c). In the cross-body position, the hands holding the head and
the shaft are now reversed.

Traversing
Long horizontal traverses that neither gain nor lose elevation are best
avoided. This “sidehill gouging” is fine on soft snow at low and moderate
angles, although it is not as comfortable or as efficient as a diagonal route.
If it is necessary to traverse over hard or steep snow, face directly into the
slope and kick straight into it for the most secure steps.

DESCENDING SNOW
One mark of a skillful snow climber is the ability to go downhill efficiently
and confidently. Descending snow is frequently more challenging than
ascending the same slope. Due to gravity and momentum, it is easier to slip
while descending than while ascending. Many otherwise competent and
aggressive climbers blanch at the prospect of going forward down a steep,
exposed snow gully. To move down, place the axe down low, which
provides a less-comfortable stance and handhold than on the way up.
Master the following descent techniques to help conquer any uneasiness
about downhill travel.

Facing Out (Plunge-Stepping)

When descending, determine technique mainly by the same factors as when
ascending: the hardness and angle of the snow. In soft snow on a moderate
slope, simply face outward and walk down. With harder snow or a steeper
angle, use the plunge step.
The plunge step is a confident, aggressive move. Face outward, step
assertively away from the slope, and land solidly on your heel with your
straightened leg vertical, transferring weight solidly to the new position
(fig. 16-21a). Avoid leaning back into the slope, which can result in less
secure steps or perhaps an unplanned glissade. Keep knees slightly bent, not
locked, and lean forward to maintain balance. How much the knees are bent
depends on the angle of the slope (the steeper the slope, the greater the
bend) and the firmness of the surface (the harder the snow, the greater the
bend). Plunge-stepping can be secure with steps that hold only the heel of
the boot, but most climbers do not trust steps shallower than that.
When plunge-stepping, maintain a steady rhythm, almost like marching.
This helps maintain balance. Once a comfortable rhythm is found, do not
stop. Plunge-stepping in a stop-and-start fashion can cause climbers to lose
their balance.
When plunge-stepping, hold the ice axe in one hand in either the self-
arrest or self-belay grasp, with the spike close to the surface of the snow,
well forward and ready to be planted in the snow (see Figure 16-21a).
Spread out your other arm and move it for balance. Some climbers hold the
axe in both hands in the full self-arrest position—one hand on the head, the
other near the end of the shaft—but this allows less arm movement for
maintaining balance.
An aggressive stride creates a deep step. Take care in deep, soft snow not
to plunge so deeply that your legs get stuck and you fall forward, injuring
yourself. If the snow is too hard or steep for plunge-stepping, descend in a
crouched position, planting the axe as low as possible in a self-belay with
each step (fig. 16-21b). Typically it is easier to plunge-step by picking your
own line rather than following others’ footsteps down.

images
Fig. 16-21. Facing out (plunge-stepping): a, on moderate slope; b, with self-belay on steeper slope.

Facing In (Backing Down)

While generally slower than facing out, backing down is usually more
comfortable and secure. Try to plunge the shaft of the ice axe as low on the
slope as is comfortable before stepping down (fig. 16-22). If the snow is too
firm for a solid shaft placement, the pick of the axe (placed low) can be
used for support while the climber steps down. Remember that leaning into
the slope does not put your body in a good position of balance. Try to keep
your weight centered over your feet as much as possible.

images
Fig. 16-22. Facing in (backing down): place axe low on the slope and don’t lean in toward the slope.
Glissading
Glissading is the fastest, easiest, and most exhilarating way down many
snow slopes if climbers are on foot. On slopes where speed can be
controlled, it is an efficient alternative to walking or plunge-stepping.
Glissading can be hazardous. Do not glissade in crevassed terrain.
Glissade only when a safe runout is close enough that if a slide goes out of
control, the climber will not be injured before reaching it. Unless the
climbing party can see the entire descent route, the first person down must
use extreme caution and stop frequently to look ahead. The biggest risk is
losing control at such a high speed that self-arrest is impossible. This is
most likely to happen on the best glissading slope: one with firm snow.
Before glissading, remove crampons and stow them and other hardware
inside the pack; crampon points can catch in the snow and send climbers
tumbling. Wear waterproof breathable hardshell pants to keep dry (see
Chapter 2, Clothing and Equipment). Wear gloves to protect hands from the
abrasive snow.
Always maintain control of the ice axe. If an ice-axe leash is worn,
climbers risk injury from a flailing axe if it is knocked loose from their grip.
If a leash is not used, climbers risk losing their axe.
Effective glissading requires a smooth blend of several techniques.
Climbers who lack finesse in the standing glissade (see below) often use a
combination: breaking into a plunge step to control speed, stepping off in a
new direction rather than making a ski-style turn, and skating to maintain
momentum as the slope angle lessens.
Sometimes in soft snow, a glissader accidentally sets off a mass of
surface snow, which slides down the slope with the glissader aboard. These
are small avalanches, known as “avalanche cushions.” The trick is to decide
whether the avalanche cushion is safe to ride or is about to become a
serious avalanche. If the moving snow is more than a few inches deep, self-
arrest will not work because the ice-axe pick cannot penetrate to the stable
layer below. Sometimes climbers can drive the spike deep enough to slow
the glissade, although probably not deep enough to stop themselves. Unless
you are sure the cushion is safe and the glissade speed is under control, get
off. Roll sideways out of the path of the moving snow and then self-arrest.
Of the three methods of glissading—the sitting glissade, the standing
glissade, and the crouching glissade—the one to use depends on snow and
slope conditions, the appearance of the runout, and the climber’s mastery of
the techniques.
Sitting glissade. On soft snow on which climbers would bog down if
they tried a standing glissade, the sitting glissade works. Sit erect in the
snow, bend the knees, and plant boot soles flat along the snow surface (fig.
16-23a). Hold the ice axe in self-arrest position while glissading downhill.
To maintain control, run the spike of the axe like a rudder along the snow
on one side of you. Keep both hands on the axe. Put pressure on the spike to
reduce speed and to thwart any tendency of the ice-axe head to pivot
downward.

images
Fig. 16-23. Glissade positions: a, sitting; b, standing; c, crouching.

The standard posture, with knees bent and feet flat, also reduces speed.
This posture is good when the snow is crusted or firmly consolidated, pitted
with icy ruts or small suncups (hollows melted by the sun), or dotted with
rocks or shrubs. It provides more stability and control than having legs
straight out in front and helps minimize wear and tear on a climber’s
bottom.
To stop, use the spike to slow down, then dig in your heels—but not at
high speed, or a somersault may be the result. For an emergency stop, roll
over and self-arrest.
Turns are almost impossible to make in a sitting glissade. The best way to
get around an obstruction is to stop, walk sideways to a point that is not
directly above the obstacle, and glissade again.
Standing glissade. The most maneuverable technique is the standing
glissade, and it saves clothes from getting wet and abraded. This glissade is
similar to downhill skiing. Crouch slightly over your feet, bend the knees,
and spread out your arms (fig. 16-23b). Feet, which provide stability, can be
spread out or placed together, with one foot slightly forward to improve
stability and prevent nosedives. Bring the feet closer together and lean
forward over them to increase speed.
To slow down and stop, stand up and dig in your heels, turn feet
sideways and dig their edges into the slope, or crouch and drag the ice-axe
spike as in the crouching glissade (see below).
 It is also possible to perform a turn similar to skiing by rotating your
shoulders, upper body, and knees in the direction you want to turn and
rolling your knees and ankles in the same direction to rock your feet onto
boot edges.
The standing glissade is most effective on a firm base with a softer layer
on top. The softer the snow, the steeper the slope needs to be to maintain
speed. It is possible to do a standing glissade down slopes of harder snow,
but these are usually slopes of lower angles with a safe runout. It is possible
to skate slopes of very low angles if the snow is firm.
Responding to changes in the snow texture is tricky. If you hit softer,
slower snow, your head and torso will suddenly outpace your legs, so move
one boot forward for stability. If you hit harder, faster snow or ice below the
surface, lean well forward to prevent a slip. Keep the glissade speed under
control by regularly braking and traversing.
Crouching glissade. The crouching glissade is slower than a standing
glissade and easier to learn. From the standing glissade position, simply
lean back, hold the ice axe in the self-arrest position to one side of your
body, and drag the spike in the snow (fig. 16-23c). Because it uses three
points of contact, the crouching glissade is also more stable. However,
turning and controlling speed when crouching are more difficult.

images
Fig. 16-24. The self-belay: a, climbing; b, falling; c, recovering.

STOPPING A FALL
To prevent a fall, climbers need to know how to self-belay, and to stop a
fall, they must be prepared to self-arrest. Always wear gloves on snow
slopes; snow is quite abrasive, and sliding unprotected over its surface can
cause hands to lose their grip on the ice axe.

Self-Belay
Self-belay can keep a simple slip or misstep on a snow slope from turning
into a serious fall. To self-belay, be sure both feet are secure, then jam the
spike and shaft of the ice axe straight down into the snow (fig. 16-24a).
Continue to grip the head of the axe with your uphill hand while moving
forward. (Use either the self-belay grasp or the self-arrest grasp to perform
self-belay.) Take a step or two, pull out the axe, and replant it. For self-
belay to work, the shaft must be placed deep enough in firm snow to hold
your full weight.
If you slip, keep one hand on the head of the axe and grab the shaft at the
surface of the snow with your other hand (fig. 16-24b). The key to
successful self-belay is to grab the shaft right next to the surface, so that
you pull against the buried shaft. Your hand on the head of the axe
minimizes the risk of levering the axe out (fig. 16-24c).
If self-belay fails and you begin an uncontrolled slide down the slope,
you must immediately self-arrest.

Self-Arrest
Preventing a fall is a primary goal while climbing, but if climbers do fall,
their life may depend on self-arrest skills and stopping the fall as quickly as
possible. Self-arrest technique holds a climber’s fall or the fall of a rope
mate. During glacier travel, self-arrest stops the rest of the team from
sliding into a crevasse (discussed in Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and
Crevasse Rescue). For climbers who master self-arrest, steep snow slopes
become highways to the summit.
The primary goal of self-arrest is to stop a fall, ideally in a safe, secure,
and stable position. Figures 16-25c, 16-27e, and 16-28d illustrate the
completion of a successful self-arrest: lying facedown in the snow with the
ice axe beneath you. Here is how to do it:
images Hold the axe in a solid grip. Place one hand in the self-arrest
grasp, with your thumb under the adze and fingers over the pick (see
Figure 16-14a), and your other hand on the shaft just above the
spike.
images Press the pick into the snow above your shoulder. Place the
adze near the angle formed by your neck and shoulder. This is
crucial. Sufficient force cannot be exerted on the pick if the adze is
not in the proper position.
images Place the shaft across your chest diagonally. Hold the spike
end close to the hip that is opposite the axe head. Grip the shaft near
the spike end to prevent that hand from acting as a pivot point
around which the spike can swing to jab your thigh. (A short axe is
 held the same way, although the spike will not reach the opposite
hip.)
images Press your chest and shoulder down on the ice-axe shaft.
Successful self-arrest relies on your body weight falling and
pressing on the axe, rather than arm strength alone driving the axe
into the snow.
images Keep your head facedown. Place the brim of your helmet in
contact with the slope. This position prevents your shoulders and
chest from lifting up and keeps weight over the adze.
images Place your face in the snow. Your nose should be touching
the snow.
images Arch your spine slightly away from the snow. This places
the bulk of your weight on the axe head and on your toes or knees,
which are the points that dig into the snow to force a stop. Pull up on
the spike end of the shaft, which starts the arch and rolls your weight
toward your shoulder by the axe head.
images Bend your knees slightly. Place them against the surface to
slow the fall in soft snow. On harder surfaces, where knees have
little stopping power, they help stabilize your body position.
images Keep your legs stiff and spread apart, toes digging in. If
wearing crampons, dig in with knees and keep toes off the snow. If
it’s a life-or-death situation, dig in with whatever you can.
Self-arrest technique depends on the position the climber is in after a fall.
A fallen climber will be sliding in one of four positions: head uphill or head
downhill and, in either case, facedown or on the back.
If a climber is falling, the immediate goal is to get the body into the only
effective self-arrest position: head uphill, feet downhill, and face pressed
into the snow. The first move toward that goal is to grasp the axe with both
hands, one hand on the axe head in the self-arrest grasp and the other hand
at the base of the shaft. The next moves depend on what position the
climber is in while falling.
Head uphill, facedown. All the climber has to do is get the pick pressed
into the snow and body over the axe shaft, ending in a secure self-arrest.
Head uphill, on your back. Falling with your head uphill, on your back
(fig. 16-25a), is not much more difficult to self-arrest than falling with your
head uphill, facedown. Roll toward the head of the axe and aggressively
plant the pick into the snow at your side while rolling over onto your
stomach (fig. 16-25b). Roll in the direction of the axe head (fig. 16-25c).
When you fall (fig. 16-26a), beware of rolling toward the spike, which can
jam the spike in the snow before the pick (fig. 16-26b) and wrench the axe
from your hands (fig. 16-26c).

images
Fig. 16-25. Correct self-arrest technique, head uphill, on your back: a, falling; b, rolling onto your
stomach; c, the completed self-arrest.

images
Fig. 16-26. Incorrect self-arrest technique, head uphill, on your back: a, falling; b, rolling toward
spike; c, axe is wrenched out of your hands.

Head downhill, facedown. Self-arrest from a headfirst fall is more

difficult because you must first swing your feet downhill. In this facedown
predicament, reach downhill and off to the axe-head side (fig. 16-27a) and
get the pick into the snow (fig. 16-27b) to serve as a pivot to swing your
body around (fig. 16-27c). Work to swing your legs around (fig. 16-27d) so
they are pointing downhill (fig. 16-27e). Never jab the spike into the snow
and pivot on that end of the axe. That will bring the pick and adze of the
axe across your slide path and on a collision course with your chest and
face.
Head downhill, on your back. Again, self-arrest from a headfirst fall is
more difficult because you must first swing your feet downhill. In this
faceup predicament, hold the axe across your torso and aggressively jab the
pick into the snow (fig. 16-28a), then twist and roll toward it (fig. 16-28b).
Once again, the pick placed to the side serves as a pivot point. Planting the
pick will not bring you around to the final self-arrest position. Work at
rolling your chest toward the axe head (fig. 16-28c) while swinging your
legs around to point downhill (fig. 16-28d). A sitting-up motion using body
core strength helps the roll.
Practice self-arrest in all positions on increasingly steeper slopes and
hard snow above a safe runout. Practice with a full pack. The key to success
is to get quickly into the arrest position and dig in. During practice, leave
the ice-axe leash off your wrist so there is less chance of the axe striking
you if you lose control of it. Cover or pad the adze and spike to minimize
chances of injury. Although crampons are often worn on snow slopes where
self-arrest may be necessary, crampons should never be worn when
practicing self-arrest.
The effectiveness of the self-arrest depends on the climber’s reaction
time, the steepness and length of the slope, and snow conditions.
On steep or slippery slopes. When the slope is too steep or slippery,
even the best technique will not stop a slide. Acceleration on hard snow, on
even a modest snow slope, can be so rapid that the first instant of the fall is
the whole story: the climber rockets into the air and crashes back to the
unyielding surface with stunning impact, losing uphill-downhill orientation.
On hard or loose snow. Arresting on hard snow is difficult, if not
impossible, but always give it a try, even if on belay. In loose snow, the pick
may not be able to reach compact snow, making the usual self-arrest
useless. The best brakes in this case are feet and knees and elbows, widely
spaced and deeply pressed into the snow. If the initial efforts at self-arrest
are unsuccessful, do not give up. Keep fighting. Even if you do not stop, the
attempt itself may slow the fall and help prevent rolling, tumbling, and
bouncing. It may also help keep you sliding feetfirst, the best position if you
end up hitting rocks or trees. If a falling climber is roped to other climbers,
anything the falling climber can do to slow the fall increases the chance that
self-arrests or belays will hold.

images
Fig. 16-27. Self-arrest technique, head downhill, facedown:
a, reach downhill and to the same side as the ice axe’s head;
b, plant the pick into the snow;
c, pivot body around the pick;
d, swing legs downhill;
e, the completed self-arrest.

images
Fig. 16-28. Self-arrest technique, head downhill, on your back: a, plant the pick; b, twist and roll
toward pick; c, swing legs downhill and roll chest toward pick; d, the completed self-arrest.

Without an axe. If you lose your ice axe in a fall, use hands, elbows,
knees, and boots to dig into the snow slope, using positioning similar to
what you would use if you still had the axe. Try to clasp hands together
against the slope so that snow is accumulated in them and creates more
friction.
 Trekking poles provide minimal capability to arrest and are not advised.
Trekking pole tips are not sharp like that of an ice axe for penetrating harder
snow, nor do poles have the density and strength of an ice-axe shaft to aid
in arresting. Trekking poles may be an aid on lower-angle slopes, used for
balance, but they are ineffective in firmer snow or at steeper angles and
should not be used with dangerous runouts.
Times when self-arrest should not be trusted include when a slope seems
too fast or the runout too dangerous, or when members of the climbing
party doubt their strength or skill. If this is the case, back off, look for
another route, or rope up and put in protection. (See “Roped Snow
Climbing Techniques” below.)

Crampons and Self-Arrest

It has traditionally been taught that wearing crampons when trying to self-
arrest may not be a good idea, because they can catch and flip a climber
over backward or even break an ankle. This may be especially true if the
snow is hard or icy. Unfortunately, if climbers are on a slope where self-
arrest may be necessary, there is a good chance they will want to be wearing
crampons. This is also especially true if the snow is hard or icy.
The most important thing is to take action immediately and stop yourself.
Crampons may actually help in executing a self-arrest in many snow
conditions by providing more traction than boots alone, possibly stopping
the fall before a person has achieved any speed. On an icy slope with a
dangerous runout, a belay of some type is generally recommended instead
of relying on self-arrest, but climbing parties have to assess the terrain and
decide for themselves.

ROPED SNOW CLIMBING TECHNIQUES

On a glacier, teams rope up for protection from hidden crevasses. On a
nonglaciated snow slope, the decision is not so clear-cut, and climbers have
to weigh several options.
The party can climb unroped, relying on each individual to stop a
personal fall. They may decide to travel roped together but unbelayed,
which offers some security for a weaker climber and gets the rope set up in
case no convenient rope-up place exists later. Or they may decide to travel
roped together and to use belays, because route conditions or the climbers’
abilities dictate this level of protection.
The risks of roping up are not trivial. One climber can fall and pull the
entire rope team off the mountain. Risk of avalanche and rockfall exposure
is also higher, and the party will move more slowly.

OPTIONS FOR ROPED TEAM PROTECTION

If the climbing party decides it is safer overall to rope up, several different
methods allow a party to match the type of rope protection to climbing
conditions and climbers’ strengths.

Team Arrest (Roped But Unbelayed)

Team arrest depends on individual climbers to stop their own falls and to
provide backup in case someone else falls. Relying on team arrest as the
ultimate team security makes sense only in certain situations, such as on a
low- or moderate-angle glacier or snow slope. The proficient members of
the rope team can save a less skilled climber from a dangerous slide.
On steeper, harder slopes, the party has to decide which option is safest:
continuing to rely on team arrest, using anchors for protection, or unroping
and letting each climber go it alone. To increase the odds that team arrest
will work on a snow slope, use the following procedures:
Carry a few feet of slack rope coiled in your hand if any climbers are
below you. If a climber falls, drop the loose rope, which allows an extra
instant before the rope is loaded; use this moment to get the ice axe into
self-arrest position and to brace before the falling climber’s weight impacts
the rope. However, if too much slack is carried, the distance that your rope
mates will slide before you stop them is increased, heightening the danger
to your teammates and you due to momentum, dangerous runouts, or
objective hazards close by.
Put the weakest climber on the downhill end of the rope. As a rule,
the least skilled climber should be last on the rope while ascending and first
on the rope while descending. This puts the climber most likely to fall in a
position where a fall will be less serious: below the other climbers, where
the impact will be felt quickly along the rope.
Climb on a shortened rope. This technique is best for a two-person rope
team. A climbing pair that uses only a portion of the rope reduces the
sliding distance and the tug from the fall if one partner falls. To shorten the
rope, wind as many coils as necessary until the desired length remains.
Then use a loop of the climbing rope to tie an overhand knot through the
coils, and clip the loop in to your harness with a locking carabiner. Carry
the coils over one shoulder and under the opposite arm. If more than two
climbers are on the rope, the middle climber or climbers should take coils in
the direction of the leader. (See “Special Rescue Situations” in Chapter 18,
Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue, for a description and illustration,
Figure 18-24, of a similar technique, called “climbing in coils.”)
Climb in separate parallel tracks. This is another option that is best for
a two-person rope team. The climbers are abreast of each other, separated
by the rope. A falling climber will pendulum down, putting force on the
rope to the side of and below the partner. The tug on the rope will be less
than if the climber fell from high above. Also, the friction of the rope as it
pendulums across the snow will absorb some of the force. On ascents where
kicking two sets of steps would be a waste of time and energy, this style
may be impractical, but on ascents of harder snow and on descents, it can
be good.
Handle the rope properly. Keep the rope on the downhill side of the
team so that there is less chance of stepping on it. Hold the rope in your
downhill hand, in a short loop. You can then take in or let out the rope,
adjusting to the pace of the person ahead of you or the person behind you,
rather than getting into a tug-of-war.
Observe your rope mates’ pace and position and adjust and prepare
accordingly. When the rope goes taut, it may be hung up on the snow, or
your rope mates may be in a delicate situation in which any additional tug
on the rope could yank them off their feet.
Yell “Falling!” whenever any climber falls. This alerts all rope partners
to self-arrest and avoid getting pulled off their feet.

images
Fig. 16-29. A running belay setup; detail shows anchor attachment.

Running Belays
Roped climbers can move together on snow with the help of running belays.
The running belay offers an intermediate level of protection, somewhere
between team arrest and fixed belays. This technique saves time over
regular belayed climbing but still allows for protection. Running belays,
which are also useful in rock climbing, ice climbing, and alpine climbing,
are discussed in Chapters 14, Leading on Rock, and 19, Alpine Ice
Climbing. The running belay helps when a successful team arrest is
improbable but fixed belays are impractical. For example, running
protection may do the job on long snow faces and couloirs.
To place running belays, the leader puts in pieces of snow protection
when necessary and uses carabiners and a runner to clip the rope in to each
one. (For more information on snow anchors, see the next section.) All
members of the rope team continue to climb at the same time, just as in
unbelayed travel, except that now there is protection in the snow that will
likely stop a fall (fig. 16-29). To pass each running belay point, when the
middle climbers reach an anchor, they unclip the rope that is in front of
them from the carabiner attached to the protection, then clip the rope that is
behind them to the carabiner. The last climber on the rope removes each
piece of protection.

Combination Protection Techniques

Long snow routes usually demand fast travel to reach the summit. Climbers
often use a combination of roped and unroped travel, mostly unbelayed.
They rely primarily on team arrest or running belays, and some sections of
the climb will warrant unroped travel. Belays are typically used on steeper,
harder snow or when climbers are tired or hurt. The option of turning
around is always worth considering (see the “Decision Making for Roped
Snow Travel” sidebar). The party can select a new route, choose another
destination, or just head home.

DECISION MAKING FOR ROPED SNOW TRAVEL

A team always ropes up on glaciers, but on snow or mixed terrain the
climbing team has a few considerations:
1. Is each member of the party able to use self-belay or self-arrest? If
the answer is yes, the party can continue unroped.
2. Can the team stop all falls by roping up and relying on team arrest?
If so, rope up and continue climbing unbelayed.
3. Can the team use some form of belay (running or fixed) that will
provide adequate protection? If so, begin belaying.
 4. Should the team turn around, or should the team either rope up or
proceed unroped?

SNOW ANCHORS
Snow anchors provide protection and secure rappels and belays. The
strength of a snow anchor placement depends on the strength of the snow.
The greater the area of snow the anchor pulls against and the firmer the
snow, the stronger the anchor. Ultimately, the strength of snow anchors
depends greatly on proper placement and snow conditions. Common snow
anchors are pickets, deadman anchors, and bollards.

Picket
A picket is a stake driven into the snow as an anchor. Aluminum pickets are
available in lengths ranging from 18 to 36 inches (46 to 91 centimeters) and
in different styles, including V- or T-profile stakes (Figure 16-30 shows a T-
profile stake), with carabiner attachment holes at the end and (in many
models) along the length of the picket.
The angle for placing a picket depends on the angle of the snow slope.
The picket should be placed so that it can withstand the direction of pull
while having the greatest possible area of snow to pull against. On a gentler
slope, the placement should be vertical or at an angle of a few degrees
toward the top of the slope. On a steeper slope, the placement should be at
an angle of about 45 degrees from the direction of pull (fig. 16-30a). Drive
the picket as far into the snow as possible with a rock, the side of an ice axe,
or an ice tool hammer. Attach a runner to the picket at the level of the snow
surface—not higher on the picket, or a pull may lever it out of the snow. A
fully sunk ice axe or ice tool can also serve as a makeshift picket.
A picket works best in firm, hard snow. If the snow is too soft for a
vertical top-clip attachment, place the picket with a vertical midclip
attachment (fig. 16-30b). Clip the webbing to the middle of the picket and
lean the picket upslope 45 degrees from perpendicular to the snow. Drive
the picket down in the snow as far as possible and clear a trench just wide
enough for long webbing and a carabiner to reach above the snow. The
runner should be twice the length of the picket. The picket should compact
the snow and dive down if stressed; but be aware that the angle could
flatten out if it hits a hard layer, which would weaken the anchor.

images
Fig. 16-30. The angle of picket placement varies with the steepness of the slope: a, in firm snow on a
steep slope; b, in softer snow with attachment clipped to middle of picket. Note: Runner is not to
scale—should be twice the length of the picket.

Another option is to use the picket as a deadman (see Figure 16-31a).

Make sure the picket is not pulling out of the snow and that there are no
visible cracks in the snow in the area against which the picket exerts force.
Every member of a rope team using a running belay should check the picket
as they pass it.

Deadman
A deadman anchor is any object buried in the snow as a point of attachment
for the rope. Ice axes, ice tools, and pickets can be used as deadman
anchors. Here are the steps to build a deadman:
1. Dig a trench as long as the item being used and perpendicular to the
load.
2. Girth-hitch a runner to the item at its midpoint and place the item in
the trench. To prevent the runner from sliding off the ends, use a
carabiner. For a picket, clip a carabiner to the picket’s midpoint and to
the runner (fig. 16-31a). For an ice axe or ice tool, clip a carabiner to
the hole at the spike end (fig. 16-31b).
3. Cut a slot in the snow that is as deep as the trench, to allow the runner
to lie in the direction of pull. If this slot is shallower than the trench,
there will be an upward pull on the anchor.

images
Fig. 16-31. Deadman anchors: a, picket; b, one ice axe, buried horizontally; c, the T-axe anchor,
with two ice axes, one horizontal and one vertical.

4. Cover everything with snow except the tail of the runner. Stamp down
on everything to compact and strengthen the snow.
5. Clip in to the end of the runner.
If the snow is soft, increase the strength of the deadman placement by
increasing the area of snow it pulls against; do this by using a larger object.
Try using a pack, a pair of skis, or a long, large stuff sack tightly filled with
snow. Do not use ski or trekking poles—they are not strong enough. In a
variation of the buried-axe deadman anchor, place a second axe vertically
behind the horizontal axe (fig. 16-31c). In this variation, called the T-axe
anchor, girth-hitch a runner to the vertical axe and run the shaft of the
horizontal axe through the runner’s loop.
As with all snow anchors, inspect a deadman after every use. Look for
cracks and bulges in the snow above the buried item.

Snow Bollard
A snow bollard is a mound carved out of snow. When rigged with rope or
webbing, bollards can provide strong, reliable snow anchors. However,
building bollards can be time consuming.

Fig. 16-32. Snow bollard: a, in a rappel setup; b, viewed from above; c, cross section.

Create the mound by making a horseshoe-shaped trench in the snow, with

the open end of the horseshoe pointing downhill (fig. 16-32a). In hard snow,
chop out the trench using the adze of an ice axe; in soft snow, stamp out a
trench or dig one. In hard snow, the mound should be at least 3 feet (1
meter) in diameter (fig. 16-32b), and in soft snow it should be up to 10 feet
(3 meters). The trench should be 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 centimeters) wide
and 12 to 18 inches (30 to 45 centimeters) deep (fig. 16-32c).
The bollard should not be in an oval teardrop shape in which the legs of
the trench come together. This configuration results in a weaker anchor by
not taking advantage of the entire snow slope in front of the mound.
During construction, assess the snow in the trench for changes in
consistency or weak layers that could allow the rope or webbing to cut
through the mound. Webbing is less likely than rope to saw into the mound.
Avoid pulling on the rope or webbing after it is placed. Ice axes planted
vertically at the shoulders of the trench prevent rope or webbing from
cutting in. Pad the rear and sides of the mound with packs, clothing, or
foam pads (as shown in Figure 16-32a). Inspect the bollard for damage after
each use.

Multiple Anchors
Multiple anchors are safest. They can be placed one behind the other to
provide backup and absorb any remaining force (fig. 16-33a), or they can
be placed independently and connected to share the load (fig. 16-33b). Keep
the anchors several feet apart so they do not share any localized weaknesses
in the snow. Inspect every anchor after each use. (More details and
illustrations on joining multiple anchors are found in “Equalizing the
Anchor” in Chapter 10, Belaying, and in “Equalizing Protection” in Chapter
13, Rock Protection.)

BELAYING ON SNOW
When ascending on snow, climbers give quicker and less formal belays
using an ice axe, or they set up belays using established snow anchors. No
matter what the belaying technique, every snow belay should be as secure
and dynamic as possible to help limit the force on the anchor. The hip belay
can provide a more gradual, dynamic belay than a belay using a belay
device, but it takes more practice to execute correctly (see “Using the Hip
Belay” in Chapter 10, Belaying). Plan your stance so your body takes the
force, which is dissipated as much as possible by the belay. The dynamic,
shock-absorbing quality of climbing rope also helps to minimize chances of
an abrupt stop to a fall.
 images
Fig. 16-33. Two methods of connecting multiple snow anchors: a, two pickets linked serially, with top
anchor supporting lower anchor; b, two independent anchors with self-equalized connecting runner
(sliding X).

Set up a belay close to the climbing difficulties. To belay the lead

climber, get out of the line of fire by setting up the belay stance to one side
of the fall line. If the leader is heading up on a diagonal, get outside any
point where that climber’s route can cross directly above you. On a ridge
crest, it is not always possible to predict a fall line and plan a belay in
advance. If a rope mate slips off one side of the ridge, the best tactic may
actually be to jump off the opposite side, with the rope running over the
ridge and thus saving both climbers.
Carabiner–ice axe belay. The carabiner–ice axe belay provides better
security than a boot-axe belay (see below), with easier rope handling. One
good thing about the carabiner–ice axe belay is that the force of a fall pulls
the belayer more firmly into the stance.
To set it up, plant the axe as deeply as possible, the pick perpendicular to
the fall line. Girth-hitch a very short sling to the axe shaft at the surface of
the snow, and clip a carabiner to the sling (fig. 16-34a). Stand at a right
angle to the fall line, facing the same side as the climber’s route, with a
control carabiner on your harness. Brace the axe with your uphill boot,
standing atop the sling but leaving the carabiner exposed (fig. 16-34b).
Keep crampons off the sling. The rope runs from the potential direction of
pull up through the carabiner at snow level, through the control carabiner on
your harness, and then around the back of your waist and into your uphill
(braking) hand.

images
Fig. 16-34. Carabiner–ice axe belay:
a, girth-hitch a short runner to axe and clip carabiner to it; b, plant axe, stand on runner, and run
rope up through carabiner and around waist.

images
Fig. 16-35. Boot-axe belay: a, position of hands and feet; b, rope configuration.

Boot-axe belay. The boot-axe belay is a fast and easy way to provide
protection as a rope team moves up together. The boot-axe belay, a form of
dynamic belay, cannot hold the force of a high fall from above the belay,
and because of the belayer’s hunched-over stance, rope management is
difficult. The boot-axe belay may be used to protect a rope mate who is
probing a cornice or crevasse edge or to provide a top belay. With practice,
this belay can be set up in a matter of seconds with a jab of the ice axe into
the snow and a quick sweep of the rope around the shaft near the head, then
in front of your ankle (fig. 16-35a and b).
Belay devices and munter hitch. Belay devices and the munter hitch
used in conjunction with a snow anchor provide a very secure belay on
snow. The belayer may be standing, sitting, or belaying directly off of the
anchor, depending on a number of factors (see “Belay Position and Stance”
in Chapter 10, Belaying). Consider belaying directly off of the anchor only
when multiple anchor points are used. Standing and belaying from the
harness or belaying directly from the anchor permits the belayer to get into
a drier, more comfortable position. These belays are easy to set up and
operate even with wet or icy ropes.

images
Fig. 16-36. Sitting hip belay.

Sitting hip belay. Used with a snow anchor, the sitting hip belay is
dynamic and secure on snow. It does have its drawbacks. The sitting
belayer may face the prospect of a cold, wet assignment, and the belay can
be difficult to work if the rope is frozen.
To set up the belay, stamp or chop a seat in the snow as well as a platform
to brace each boot against. Put down a pack, foam pad, or other material as
insulation from the snow, and then settle into a standard hip belay, with legs
outstretched and stiffened (fig. 16-36). (See “Using the Hip Belay” in
Chapter 10, Belaying.)

ROUTEFINDING ON SNOW
Snow can provide passage over some frustrating obstacles, including
tundra, talus, brush, streams, and logging debris. At its best it provides a
smooth, uniform surface and a straight shot up the mountain.
At its worst, snow can be too soft to support your weight, or it can be
hard and dangerously slick. It can obscure trails, cairns, ridge crests, and
other guideposts to the route, especially above tree line. Dangers often lie
beneath the surface: moats, creeks, or glacier crevasses hidden by a thin
snow cover. Unstable snow slopes may avalanche.
Minimize the frustrations and dangers of snow travel by studying the
medium. See Chapter 27, The Cycle of Snow, for information on snow
formation, types of snow, and the creation of glaciers. Learn how seasonal
weather patterns affect snow accumulation and avalanche conditions. Hone
your navigation skills. Make the snow work for you: read the snow surface
and terrain features to determine a safe, efficient route. If the terrain
involves both snow and rock, leaving some tracks in the snow may help the
party on the return trip.

ROUTEFINDING AIDS
A good routefinder uses a variety of tools, including map, compass,
altimeter, GPS devices (see Chapter 5, Navigation), wands, the sun, and
other visual landmarks.

SURFACE CONSIDERATIONS
The best snow to travel on is snow that will support climbers’ weight and
provide easy step-kicking, as well as being stable enough not to avalanche.
The location of the best snow varies from day to day, even from hour to
hour. If the snow in one spot is slushy, too hard, or too crusty, look around:
there may be better snow a few feet away. Here are some tips for making
the best use of the snow surface:
images On a slushy slope, walk in shade or use suncups as stairs to
find patches of firmer snow.
images On a slope that is too firm for good step-kicking, try to find
patches of softer snow.
images When the going is difficult, detour toward any surface that
has a different appearance.
images To find the best snow on a descent, use a different route if
necessary.
images To find a firmer surface, look for dirty snow. It absorbs more
heat and therefore consolidates more quickly than clean snow does.
images South- and west-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere
catch the heat of afternoon sun and consolidate earlier in the season
 and more quickly after storms. They offer hard surfaces when east-
and north-facing slopes are still soft and unstable.
images Take advantage of strong crusts on open slopes before they
melt. Get an early start after a clear, cold night that follows a hot
day.
images Beware of hidden holes next to logs, trees, and rocks, where
the snow has melted away from these warmer surfaces.
images If the conditions are unfavorable on one side of a ridge,
gully, clump of trees, or large boulder, try the other side. The
difference may be considerable.

VISIBILITY CONSIDERATIONS
The creative use of several routefinding methods becomes especially
important when visibility is poor. In a whiteout, it is possible to lose all
orientation. Distinguishing between uphill and downhill is difficult, as is
distinguishing between solid snow and dense clouds. A whiteout can be
caused by temporary cloud cover or blowing snow that limits visibility and
makes navigation difficult and hazardous.
A GPS device can keep a party on track even when visibility is poor.
Without GPS, care must be taken to avoid going off route. If a whiteout
seems to be approaching, get out map, compass, and altimeter to navigate.
Other options include placing wands, waiting it out a while before
proceeding, or turning back.

TERRAIN CONSIDERATIONS AND FEATURES

Major terrain features present obstacles as well as opportunities (fig. 16-
37). Know which ones to use and which ones to avoid.

Ridges
A ridge (fig. 16-37b) may be the route of choice if it is not too steep or
craggy. Ridges are generally free of rockfall and avalanche hazard.
However, ridge routes take the full brunt of wind and bad weather, and
climbers must be alert to the hazard of cornices (see below), which form on
ridge crests.
Cornices
Cornices form when windblown snow accumulates horizontally on ridge
crests and the sides of gullies, hanging suspended out past the supporting
rock (fig. 16-37d). The shape of a ridge determines the extent of the cornice
that can develop. A ridge that slopes on one side and breaks into an abrupt
cliff on the other is a good candidate for a gigantic cornice. A knife-edge
ridge (where snow cannot accumulate) or a ridge that is gentle on both sides
(where snow can disperse) typically has only a small cornice, if any at all—
although exceptions do exist.
When the physical features are right for building cornices, wind direction
decides the exact location of the cornice. Because storm winds have definite
patterns in each mountain range, most cornices in the same area face the
same way. In the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, for
example, most snowstorms come from the west or southwest, so the
majority of cornices form on the north and east sides. These same northern
and eastern exposures were made steep by past glaciation, creating ridges
ideally shaped for cornice formation.
There are exceptions. Temporary or local wind deflection can contradict
the general pattern. In rare instances, cornices are even built one atop the
other, facing opposite directions, the lower one partially destroyed and
hidden by later formations.
Cornices are a hazard. If climbers are traveling on a cornice, it could
collapse spontaneously or under the added load of their weight, or the
climbers could break through the cornice. Collapsing cornices can trigger
avalanches. Cornices can fracture, falling into gullies or along the slopes
below, or they can separate slightly from their host ridge, forming a crack or
cornice crevasse. (See Figure 17-5 in Chapter 17, Avalanche Safety.)
The safest course along a corniced crest is well behind the probable
fracture line. Do not be misled by appearances. On a mature cornice, the
probable line of fracture could be 30 feet (9 meters) or more back from the
lip—farther back than might be expected upon examination. Usually the
fracture line is not visible. Look for any crack or indentation in the snow,
which might indicate a cornice that has partially collapsed and recently
been covered with new snow.
The colder the weather, the more secure the cornice. A late-season
cornice that is almost completely broken down also is not a problem. The
safest strategy with cornices is to avoid them. Do not travel on them, under
them, or through them.
Approaching from windward. The back side of a cornice appears to be
a smooth snow slope that runs out to meet the sky.
Look at nearby ridges for an idea of the frequency, size, and location of
cornices in the area. Try to view the lee side of the ridge from a safe
vantage point, such as a rock or tree jutting through the crest.
Although rocks and trees projecting from the snow are safe, they do not
indicate a stable route across the entire ridge. These can easily be on the
tops of buttresses that randomly jut out perpendicularly to the ridge. The
area directly in front of and behind these outcroppings may be all cornice.
Many climbers have had the enlightening experience of looking back along
a ridge only to discover that their tracks pass above a chasm.
When approaching from windward, stay well back from the crest if a
cornice is suspected. If the crest must be approached, consider belaying the
lead climber, who should probe carefully while advancing. The belayer also
assumes a risk. If the cornice collapses, the belayer may have to bear the
weight of the falling snow in addition to that of the climber.
Approaching from leeward. A cornice cannot be missed from the
leeward side. Resembling a wave frozen as it is breaking, a large cornice
close above a climber is an awesome sight. If a cornice’s stability is
doubtful, stay among trees or on the crest of a spur ridge while traveling
below it.
Occasionally it may be necessary to climb directly through a cornice to
force a way to a ridge crest or pass. Penetrate at an overhang, a rock spur, or
a point where the cornice has partially collapsed. The lead climber cuts
straight uphill at the point of least overhang, carefully tunneling and
upsetting as little of the mass as possible.

Couloirs
Couloirs—steeply angled gullies (fig. 16-37t)—can provide a main avenue
to the summit. Their overall angle is often less than that of the cliffs they
breach, offering technically easier climbing. Couloirs are also the deadly
debris chutes of mountains: snow, rocks, and ice blocks that are loosened by
the sun often pour down couloirs (fig. 16-37ee). Here are some tips for
using couloirs:
 images Try to be out of couloirs before the sun hits them. They can
be safer in early morning when the snow is solid and when rocks
and ice are frozen in place.

images
Fig. 16-37. Alpine terrain features.

images Keep to the sides, because most of the debris comes down
the center.
images Listen for suspicious sounds from above; keep an eye out
for quiet slides and silently falling rock.
images Examine a gully carefully before ascending it. Couloirs can
become increasingly nasty higher up, with extreme steepness, moats
(see below), rubble strewn loosely over smooth rock slabs, thin
layers of ice over rock, and cornices.
images Bring crampons. Deeply shaded couloirs may retain a layer
of ice year-round. Early in the season, they are covered by hard
snow and ice caused by freezing or avalanche scouring. Later in the
season, climbers encounter the remaining hard snow and ice,
sometimes with steep moats lining its edges.
images Observe snow and avalanche conditions above steep gullies
and on their floors. Avalanches scour deep ruts in the floors of
many steep couloirs. Cornices can hang above. Early in the year, the
floors of the ruts offer the soundest snow available, and in cold
weather they may be quite safe, particularly for a fast descent. If
these conditions do not exist, cross the ruts rapidly or avoid them
altogether.
During the ascent, look for alternative descent routes, just in case
time or changing snow conditions prevent descending the couloir on
the return.
Research the area beforehand. Finding the correct couloir on a
particular route can be challenging. They often look alike, and there
may be several in the area. Rely on route information and
knowledge of the terrain in order to choose the couloir that gives
access to the summit rather than leading to a dead end.
Beware of meltwater streams running above or underneath the
snow. Listen for water. Look for sagging or holes in the snow where
 the stream may be. Walk on the sides of the gully and avoid any
water; it may be slick with ice.

Bergschrunds
A bergschrund is the giant crevasse found at the upper limit of glacier
movement, formed where the moving glacier breaks away from the
permanent snow or ice cap above (fig. 16-37v). The downhill lip of the
bergschrund can be considerably lower than the uphill edge, which may be
overhanging. Sometimes the bergschrund is the final problem of the ascent.
(See Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue, for more
information.)

Moats
Moats occur when snow partially melts and settles away from warmer rocks
or trees. Moats are encountered on snowfields, around rock outcroppings
and trees on ridges and along slopes, and in couloirs. Crossing a moat at the
top of a snowfield where it separates from its rocky border can be as tough
as getting past a bergschrund, with the main difference being that the uphill
wall of a moat is rock, whereas the uphill wall of a bergschrund is ice.
Moats around trees and rocks may not be visible, appearing as merely an
unstable layer of snow but actually covering an unseen large hole
underneath. Stay away from treetops poking through the snow, and probe
uncertain areas with an ice axe before stepping onto them. If a wide moat
borders both sides of a slope along a steep couloir, it may indicate an
equally wide moat at the head of the gully. Climbers may have to cross it or,
worse yet, retreat and find an alternate ascent.

Rockfall
Snowfields and glaciers are subject to rockfall from bordering walls and
ridges. Wear helmets in hazardous areas. Try to schedule climbs for less-
dangerous periods. Early-season outings face less rockfall than summer
climbs because snow still cements loose rock in place. In the northern
hemisphere, southern and eastern slopes get the sun first, so climb these
slopes early. The shaded northern exposures offer less rockfall danger.
SAFE SNOW TRAVEL
Snow is a constantly changing medium. Safe snow travel requires alertness,
preparation, and a constant reassessment of conditions. Here are some
points to remember:
Continually assess the runout and snow conditions.
Do not rely on self-arrest if the runout is dangerous or unknown.
If climbers are uncomfortable using a self-belay, use a running belay
or an anchored belay, or turn back and find another route.
Bring crampons on snow climbs, even in warm weather. Crampons
are not just for glacier travel. Climbers may encounter a shady
couloir or slope with ice or hard snow.
Anchor the climbing party if it has to adjust equipment, such as
crampons, on an exposed slope.
Wear gloves whenever on snow, even when the weather is warm
and it would be more comfortable to take them off. A climber can
fall at any time.
Yell “Falling!” whenever anyone, including you, falls. Follow up
with “Arrest! Arrest!” until the fallen climber has safely come to a
stop.
Continually observe the party’s overall condition and climbing
ability. Late in the day, exhaustion may diminish reaction time in
the event of a fall.

GAINING FREEDOM OF THE SNOWY HILLS

Traveling across snow to reach a climbing objective is one of the most
rewarding experiences in the backcountry. In summer, the excitement of
encountering snow can be a delight, while winter snow creates a
wonderland-like experience during pursuit of an objective. The basic
techniques discussed here can help increase efficiency, safety, and
enjoyment while traveling over snow. One additional factor is taking care in
avalanche terrain. The next chapter provides some basic ideas on how to
avoid avalanches when traveling or climbing under snowy conditions and
on snowy terrain.
UNDERSTANDING AVALANCHES • EVALUATING AVALANCHE HAZARD • KNOW
BEFORE YOU GO: PLANNING A TRIP • USING THESE SKILLS IN THE FIELD • RESCUING
A COMPANION IN AN AVALANCHE • TRAVELING SAFELY IN AVALANCHE TERRAIN

images

CHAPTER 17
AVALANCHE SAFETY
Mountaineers seek the freedom of the hills, and no freedom is
harder to earn than that of the snowy hills. In North America,
according to the Colorado Avalanche Information Center,
avalanches kill more winter recreationists than any other
natural hazard: 34 in 2012, 24 in 2013, 35 in 2014, 11 in 2015,
and 29 in 2016. Nearly all avalanches that involve people are
triggered either by the victims themselves or by a member of
their party. According to avalanche expert Bruce Tremper,
about 90 percent of avalanche victims trigger their own slide.

Climbers, backcountry skiers, snowmobilers, and snowshoers are prime

victims of avalanches. Better mountain gear and changing trends in
backcountry recreation are leading more and more people to have fun where
there are avalanche-prone slopes. The high level of risk to climbers and
backcountry skiers can be explained by two factors:
1. Climbers’ and backcountry skiers’ destinations are often in avalanche
terrain; therefore they spend more time exposed to risk of involvement
in an avalanche.
2. Climbers’ and backcountry skiers’ routes to their destinations often
cross avalanche-prone areas where human triggering is possible or
 even likely.
Reaching a climbing objective often involves traveling on steep and
exposed avalanche start zones (see “Understanding Avalanches” below).
When choosing route options, climbers must contend with the challenges of
evaluating avalanche hazard. Early start times, really fast travel, and brute
ambition are not enough to evade all avalanches. Avalanche hazard, unlike
high-mountain exposure and severe weather, is not always obvious.
However, avalanches are not a mysterious phenomenon. Avalanche
education can help backcountry travelers make better decisions about safe
snow travel. This chapter introduces the subject of avalanches, reviews
some of the ways that snow travelers can evaluate hazards and minimize
risk, and explains methods of searching for avalanche victims. This material
is not intended to be comprehensive. For a more complete understanding of
the subject, consult specialized publications (see Resources) and take a
level 1 course offered by the American Institute for Avalanche Research
and Education (AIARE), or equivalent, to learn how to make informed
decisions in avalanche terrain. For an explanation of the formation of
avalanches and an assessment of dangers associated with various forms of
snow, see Chapter 27, The Cycle of Snow.

UNDERSTANDING AVALANCHES
Most avalanche victims are involved in small to medium-sized slides.
Imagine a snowfield the size of a couple of tennis courts; it is poised on a
slope, with weak layers hidden beneath the surface. A climber or skier
enters the scene, and the additional load causes a failure: crack! The slab is
off and away. The snow breaks and shears along the bed surface (the
ground, ice, or hard snow layer that forms the sliding surface) between the
weak layers, and across the top of the snowfield a fracture line marks the
point where the tension holding the snow failed. Below the avalanche start
zone (typically a 25- to 50-degree slope), the slab breaks up, and the
churning snow accelerates down the avalanche track and into the runout
zone, where a change in the terrain stops the moving snow and the dense
deposit accumulates and buries victims, on average, 3 to 4 feet (about 1 to
1.3 meters) deep. Because the motion is sudden, it has an unbalancing
effect; the suddenness, speed, and power of the avalanche typically sweep
victims off their feet or skis, sometimes hurtling them into bad terrain or
forcing them through confined tracks and burying them deeply in a cement-
like medium tightly packed in a terrain trap.
Many avalanches create a destructive force capable of breaking trees,
crushing a car, or wiping out a small cluster of buildings. Avalanche
movement is varied; imagine slow lava, flowing white water, or 220-mile-
per-hour (350- kilometer-per-hour) airborne turbulent masses.
When the following three elements coincide, an avalanche can occur:
1. Unstable snow. The snow is loose (for example, powder, which is part
of the allure of a climbing, snowshoeing, or skiing trip) or the snow
layers are poorly bonded.
2. Steep terrain. The slope angle is steep enough to produce a slide.
3. Trigger. Something initiates the failure of the bonds holding the
snowpack in place.
Natural avalanches may occur when new snow deposited by storms loads
the previous layers of snowpack, adding more stress and triggering an
avalanche. A skier or climber may add sufficient stress to trigger a slide, as
can falling chunks of snow, ice, or rock. The two principal types of
avalanches that climbers encounter in a typical spring and summer climbing
season are slab avalanches and loose-snow avalanches. (See “The
Formation of Snow Avalanches” in Chapter 27, The Cycle of Snow.)

SLAB AVALANCHES
Slab avalanches are very dangerous to skiers, snowshoers, and winter
climbers and scramblers. They are formed by a cohesive stronger snowpack
layer forming over a weaker layer (see “Terrain” in the next section). A slab
avalanche occurs when the slope fails first in compression (the whumph
sound that climbers sometimes hear) and then in tension (the breaking of
the slab that allows the slab to begin moving). A large area of snow (the
slab) begins to move simultaneously and often breaks up into large plates
and blocks of snow. Slab avalanches can strip snow all the way to the
ground or can involve only the top layer(s) of poorly bonded snow. Wet
springtime slab avalanches occur when the intense warming of long spring
days and higher sun angles softens layers in the existing snowpack that
formed during the winter; wet slab avalanche conditions are very sensitive
to the slope aspect, time of day, and temperature.
LOOSE-SNOW AVALANCHES
Loose-snow avalanches, which can consist of wet or dry snow, originate
from a single point of release. They often look like an inverted V as they
spread out and move downslope. They often move relatively slowly
compared with slab avalanches. Wet loose-snow avalanches (common in
spring) can overload a slope and cause failure in an underlying slab,
resulting in a large and dangerous slab avalanche.

EVALUATING AVALANCHE HAZARD

The interaction of three crucial variables—unstable snow, terrain, and a
trigger—determines whether or not an avalanche is possible (fig. 17-1).
What is the layering of the snow? Is the terrain capable of producing an
avalanche? Could I or one of my party be the trigger? Could a change in the
weather trigger an avalanche? (See “Avalanche Triggers” in Chapter 27,
The Cycle of Snow.)
Evaluating avalanche hazard is both an art and a science. It takes years of
experience to become good at evaluating hazard. Local knowledge and
experience reading the weather and snowpack typical of each of the world’s
mountain ranges is vital to achieving a high degree of competence at
predicting when and where avalanches are likely to occur. Many regions
offer detailed avalanche and mountain weather forecasts, explaining what
(if any) weak layers exist, what the current avalanche problems are, and
what terrain to avoid (see www.avalanche.org to find forecast websites near
your objective).
Forecasting is not an exact science and weather does not always unfold
as predicted, so it is vital to understand the logic behind the forecast and to
confirm that the conditions in the field match the conditions predicted by
the forecast. In addition, forecasts are often generalized to cover large
geographical areas, so it is also vital to confirm that local conditions on
your route match the forecast.

images
Fig. 17-1. Avalanche hazard triangle: terrain, snowpack, and weather—with the added variable of
backcountry travelers.
 The composition of the current snowpack can to a large extent be inferred
based on the weather history. Online spreadsheets that provide hourly
snapshots of data such as wind speed, wind direction, temperature, rates of
precipitation, and so on can give a very good idea of whether the snowpack
in a particular area is likely to be stable or not. If this data is no longer
available once climbers are out in the field, they need to observe and record
their observations in order to form their own accurate forecasts.
Climbers in an unfamiliar area need to make conservative decisions
about where to travel. When climbing in remote areas, where professional
forecasts are unavailable, climbers need to become their own forecasters,
which requires a high degree of competence at evaluating the snowpack and
analyzing the available weather data. Even when professional avalanche
forecasts are available and you are climbing in familiar mountains, it is
important to make these same weather observations, as well as to
continually study and test the snowpack, in order to confirm that the
forecast you are depending on really corresponds to the conditions you are
encountering.

TERRAIN
Understanding avalanche terrain is the key to safe travel in snowy
mountains. Of the three variables in Figure 17-1, the weather cannot be
controlled, and an unstable snowpack can persist over large areas for long
periods, but climbers can always choose to travel in terrain that will not
generate an avalanche. Choosing safe terrain based on an understanding of
the local conditions is the central concept of safe travel in avalanche
country.
Learning to recognize avalanche terrain is the first step in the process of
evaluating avalanche hazard. The steepness of a slope, its aspect (which
direction it faces), and the slope’s shape and natural features (its
configuration) are all important factors in determining whether a slide can
occur on a particular slope.

Slope Angle
Of all of the terrain factors, the steepness, or slope angle, is the most
important. Slab avalanches commonly occur on slopes with starting-zone
angles between about 30 and 45 degrees, but slab avalanches occasionally
occur on slopes of less than 30 and greater than 45 to 55 degrees (fig. 17-2).
Slopes steeper than about 50 to 60 degrees tend to sluff snow constantly,
and slopes of about 25 degrees or less are generally not steep enough or
require highly unstable snow before they can slide.
It is difficult to estimate the angle of a slope just by looking at it. Use a
clinometer to measure slope angles in the field. Simple plastic models are
available, and many compasses have clinometers built into them (see
Chapter 5, Navigation, for a discussion of clinometers and how to measure
slope angle). Learn to measure slope angle accurately on topographical
maps; special scales make it easy to measure slope angle directly from the
map based on the spacing of contour lines (fig. 17-3).
The angle of the slope the climbers are on is not the only concern,
because an avalanche could start from an adjacent slope. A party does not
have to be climbing or skiing on a slope for it to avalanche. This is a very
important concept: All of the snow is connected. Climbers can be traveling
on a gentle slope or a snow-covered road, and if the snowpack is unstable
enough, they can trigger a slide on the steeper slope above them, even
though they are not on a steep slope. All of the snow is connected,
remember? It is critical to know what is above you as you travel. Because
adjacent terrain is often out of view or obscured by the weather, study a
topographical map to identify sources of hazard that may lie above or below
your route.

Slope Aspect
The direction a slope faces—its slope aspect—determines how much sun
and wind the slope gets, which indicates a great deal about its avalanche
potential. Here is how it works in the northern hemisphere (it is the opposite
on mountains south of the equator).

images
Fig. 17-2. Steepness of the slope—slope angle—is the most important of all terrain factors affecting
avalanches. Most avalanches occur on slopes ranging from 30 to 45 degrees.

South-facing slopes. Snow settles and stabilizes faster on slopes that

receive more sun than it does on north-facing slopes. In general (with plenty
of local exceptions), this may make south-facing slopes somewhat safer in
winter. They tend to release avalanches sooner after a storm, so if they are
avalanching, it is an indication that slopes facing in other directions may
soon follow their lead. As warmer spring and summer days arrive, south
slopes become prone to wet-snow avalanches, and north-facing slopes may
be safer.

images
Fig. 17-3. Measuring slope angle based on contour lines using the 1:24,000 scale in the American
Institute for Avalanche Research and Education (AIARE) Field Book.

North-facing slopes. On slopes that receive little or no sun in the winter,

consolidation of the snowpack takes longer. Colder temperatures within the
snowpack create weak layers. Therefore, in general (again, with local
exceptions), north slopes are more likely to slide in midwinter. In spring
and summer, as south slopes become dangerously wet, look to the north
side for firmer, safer snow.
Windward slopes. Slopes that face into the wind tend to be safer than
leeward slopes. Windward slopes may be blown clear of snow, or the
remaining snow may be compacted by the force of the wind.
Leeward slopes. Slopes that face away from the wind are particularly
dangerous because of windloading, which happens when the wind
transports snow rapidly from a wind-exposed area of the slope to a less
wind-exposed leeward area of the slope. A slope can become “top-loaded”
by wind blowing snow over the top of a ridge crest and depositing it on the
lee side, or it can become “cross-loaded” by the wind blowing across the
slope and depositing the snow in gullies between ridges. Leeward slopes
collect snow rapidly when even moderate winds move snow from
windward slopes onto the leeward side. The results are the formation of
cornices on the lee side of ridges, snow that is deeper and less consolidated,
and the formation of wind slabs ready to avalanche.
Be especially aware that in some areas, such as the passes in Washington
State’s North Cascades, the wind very often shifts direction with the onset
of a storm, and what a climber thought was the windward slope may then
become the leeward slope. It is quite common to have the wind blow the
snow that was deposited by the last storm on the north and east aspects onto
the south and west aspects as a storm approaches these mountains from the
southwest. This makes the west and southwest aspects temporarily the
leeward slopes, and avalanche conditions become dangerous on those
slopes. As the storm moves onshore from the Pacific Ocean and into the
Cascades, the wind then shifts to blowing from the west and southwest and
begins to redeposit the snow on the now leeward north and northeast
aspects, the “traditional” dangerous leeward slopes.

Slope Configuration
Smooth slopes—those that, beneath the snow, are covered with grass or
smooth rock slabs—generally do not anchor the snow well, and thus
provide a good bed surface for a slide. Trees and rocks may serve as
anchors that tend to stabilize the snow—at least until the snow covers them.
But, in general, to act as effective anchors, the trees and rocks need to be so
close together that it can be difficult or impossible for a climbing party to
move through them. After these trees and rocks are buried by snowfall, they
can actually become a source of weakness in the snowpack: as foreign
bodies, the trees and rocks can inhibit or interfere with the bonding of the
snow layers. Slides are less likely to originate in a dense forest, but they can
run through dense forest from above. Forested slopes avalanche less often,
not because the trees hold the snow in place, but because snow falling from
treetops will often speed up the stabilization of fresh snow after a storm or
because tree cover may inhibit the formation of surface hoar (a potential
cause of weak layers in the snowpack). In addition, an established forest
provides historical evidence that very large slides do not often occur in the
forested terrain.
The shape of a slope also affects the hazard level. Snow on a slope that is
straight, open, and moderately steep presents the most obvious danger.
Snow on a convex slope, under tension as it stretches tightly over the bulge
in the terrain, is more prone to avalanche than snow on a concave slope (fig.
17-4). Fracture lines frequently occur at or just below a convex area. Ridges
are often the safest route up a mountain where avalanches may be a
problem, because they present a lower-angle path and keep climbers off
open slopes; however, on ridges be wary of overhanging cornices or
adjacent wind slabs.

images
Fig. 17-4. Convex and concave slope configurations.

Terrain Traps
The term “terrain trap” describes hazardous terrain that increases the
consequences of being buried or injured if a climber is caught in an
avalanche. These traps can be found in a wide variety of terrain, including
cliffs below the route that a snowslide might carry you over or a grove of
trees that might injure you if a slide sweeps you into them. It is particularly
important to be aware of terrain configurations that will concentrate or
funnel an avalanche into a smaller runout zone so that a person caught in
the slide is buried very deeply. Even a relatively small and shallow
snowslide that might be harmless on an open slope can bury and kill a
climber if it flows into a narrow gully. Many ice climbing routes follow
gullies that, though they may be too steep to be a source of avalanches, are
routinely swept by powerful avalanches generated higher on the mountain.
Other examples of deadly terrain traps include buried streams, glacier
crevasses, valleys, and flat roadways cutting across a slope.

SNOWPACK
The typical snowpack is composed of a series of distinct layers deposited
by each storm and characterized by relative strength, hardness, and
thickness. The depth and distribution of weak layers within the snowpack
are significant factors in determining the stability of the snowpack.
Climbers must determine the composition of the snowpack—its
configuration.

Bonding Ability
Throughout the winter, the snowpack accumulates layer by layer with each
new precipitation, temperature, and wind event. A snowpack has both
strong and weak layers. Strong layers tend to be cohesive—denser layers
composed of small, round snow grains packed closely together and well
bonded to each other. Weak layers tend to be less dense, composed of
poorly bonded grains. These weak layers often appear loose or “sugary.”
Because weak layers prevent strong layers from bonding with one another,
it is important for the backcountry traveler to know the relationship of these
layers. Remember, the snow slab that becomes a slab avalanche is a
stronger layer of snow on top of a weaker layer of snow; where slab
avalanches are suspected, the backcountry traveler may dig snow pits and
probe the snow looking for strong-over-weak layers in the snowpack.
Sensitivity to Stress
The snowpack exists in a balance between its strength and the stresses
placed upon it. When the snow’s strength is greater than the stresses, the
snow is stable. Fortunately, this is most often the case; otherwise, snow
would never stay on a hillside. But sometimes the balance between strength
and stress is almost equal, and then the snowpack is unstable. Avalanches
occur only when and if the snowpack is unstable. For an avalanche to occur,
something must disturb the balance so that the stress on or within the
snowpack exceeds its strength. The snowpack can adjust to only a limited
amount of stress and only at a certain rate of speed. Add another stress such
as a rapid load of precipitation, a sudden increase in temperature,
windblown snow, or the weight of a climber or skier, and an avalanche
could be triggered.

WEATHER
Before and during any backcountry trip, study the weather closely. Heavy
precipitation, high winds, or extreme temperatures mean changes in the
snowpack. Be prepared to look critically at the snow to see how the
snowpack has been affected by recent weather. The snowpack adapts poorly
to sudden changes, so rapid turns in the weather contribute to instability of
the snowpack. The snowpack can bend and adapt when forces are applied
slowly, but sudden stress can cause it to break (see “The Formation of Snow
Avalanches” in Chapter 27, The Cycle of Snow).
In some climates, such as maritime areas, the storm snow typically
stabilizes within 72 hours, so climbers may need to look at weather data for
a week or two prior to their trip, in order to determine how the snowpack
has evolved since the last time it was stable. Even in a maritime mountain
range, persistent weak layers do sometimes occur, however, requiring
climbers to consider a hazard caused by weather events from much earlier
in the season. In colder mountain climates with shallower snowpacks,
persistent weak layers are the norm and climbers almost always need to
consider the weather history and snowpack evolution through the entire
avalanche season. It is especially important when climbers are in an
unfamiliar part of the world to study the ways that weather and snowpack
interact; the typical avalanche problems can be very different from place to
place. Weather and snow pack formation is covered in greater depth in
Chapter 28, Mountain Weather.

Precipitation
Both forms of precipitation—either solid (snow and hail) or liquid (rain)—
add to stress on the snowpack. Avalanche danger increases rapidly with
snowfall of 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) or more per hour. The threshold of 12
inches (30 centimeters) or more in a day is critical. If a heavy load of new
snow accumulates too quickly for the strength of the existing snowpack, an
avalanche may result.
Rain can percolate into the snow, weakening bonds between layers. Rain
tends to lubricate the layers, making it easier for a slide to start. Rain adds
significant weight, and it may also rapidly warm the snowpack. Avalanches
can be triggered very quickly after rainfall begins.
With either rain or new snow, consider these questions: How well does
new snow bond with the snowpack? How big a load does it represent? The
weight of the water in rain or new snow is the primary contributor of stress
on the snowpack.

Wind
The high winds that transport snow from windward slopes and deposit it on
leeward slopes break the interlocking bonds between snow crystals. These
particles, once they are made smaller, pack closely together, forming firm
cohesive slabs that fracture efficiently, resulting in avalanches. A wind slab
is a typical strong layer, ready to slide as a unit when it breaks free of a
weaker underlying layer. High winds also shape the cornices that overhang
lee slopes (fig. 17-5a and b). Cornices can break and fall, sometimes
triggering an avalanche (fig. 17-5c). Be aware that when winds blow from
one direction and then later from another direction, it is sometimes possible
for wind slabs to form on both sides of a ridge. Local terrain features can
force prevailing winds to blow in atypical directions as well. Always study
weather over a sufficient span of time and make observations in the field
rather than going by simple assumptions.
 images
Fig. 17-5. How cornices form: a, wind blows snow beyond the edge of a ridge; b, successive storms
build up layers and extend snow farther away from ridge; c, original cornice becomes fully enclosed
and a new cornice begins on top of it.

Temperature
Significant differences in temperature between the ground and the snow
surface promote growth of highly faceted snow crystals (depth hoar, or
“sugar snow”) that cannot support much load. This temperature differential
and the resulting sugar snow are especially common early in the season,
notably in interior, snowy climates such as that of the Rocky Mountains or
in the drier and colder parts of the North Cascades like the Washington Pass
area. Less severe temperature gradients and a deeper snowpack act as
insulation that may allow this snow to stabilize. But highly faceted snow
can persist as a dangerous underlying layer well into the snow season or
until avalanches release it.
Another persistent weak layer, similar to dew, is surface hoar. It is found
in all mountain ranges. The conditions that encourage its growth are cold,
clear nights with little to no wind at the snow surface and a source of
moisture nearby such as a stream or lake. When the thin, feathered crystals
of surface hoar are covered by subsequent snowfall, they can form weak
layers that—like sugar snow—increase avalanche hazard.
Melt-freeze crusts form from sun or rain on snow followed by rapid
cooling, resulting in a dense icy layer with poor bonding characteristics.
These crusts may persist for a long time before they break down, leaving a
smooth, hard bed surface ready to be reloaded by the next storm.
Temperature affects snow stability, especially that of new snow, in
complicated ways. Warm temperatures accelerate settling, causing the
snowpack to become denser and stronger and, thus, over the long term,
more stable. But rapid, prolonged warming, particularly after a cold spell,
initially weakens the snow cover, making it less stable and more susceptible
to human-triggered failure. The snowpack remains unstable until
temperatures cool down. Cold temperatures make dense snow layers
stronger but are unlikely to strengthen weak layers of new, low-density
snow. Cold temperatures also tend to preserve such weak layers, extending
the time that they may remain a hazard.
KNOW BEFORE YOU GO: PLANNING A TRIP
It is up to all climbers to gather important data before they head into
avalanche terrain. There are many ways to minimize the risk of avalanches
and to increase the chances of survival if one hits. In addition to evaluating
avalanche hazard during a trip, climbers can also reduce avalanche risk by
the things they do before they head into the mountains. See “Organizing
and Leading a Climb” in Chapter 22, Leadership.
Take a class: a level 1 avalanche course is critical to climbers’ learning
how to make good decisions about safe travel in avalanche terrain. Reading
this chapter provides an introduction to decision making in avalanche
terrain. After taking an avalanche course, climbers should be able to
identify avalanche terrain; identify basic snow grain types, weak layers, and
strong layers; perform field tests to look for instability in the snowpack;
recognize weather and terrain factors contributing to instability; perform
rescue through fast and efficient transceiver use; and apply safe travel
techniques. There is no such thing as too much avalanche education.

CHECK WEATHER AND AVALANCHE FORECASTS

It is obvious advice, but check the weather and avalanche forecasts before a
trip. Most local avalanche centers, such as the Northwest Avalanche Center
(see Resources), issue avalanche warnings throughout the winter. Before
heading out, check the avalanche bulletin for the area the party plans to
visit, and use this forecast to make decisions about where it might be safe to
travel. If possible, study the weather trends and snowfall history of the area,
which provide information about the snowpack. Talk to people with local
knowledge of the intended route, including any ranger who may be
responsible for that area. Often, detailed trip reports can be found on
websites that post beta gathered by climbers, skiers, and others. Do not be
afraid to rethink well-laid plans if crucial new pretrip information is
uncovered.

TIPS FOR SELECTING A SAFE ROUTE

Travel safely in the backcountry by seeking routes that limit the party’s
exposure to danger. The following guidelines are based on some of the
important considerations discussed in this chapter:
 images Favor windward slopes, which tend to be more stable.
images Avoid leeward slopes where winds have deposited snow
slabs.
images Choose the lowest-angle slopes that avoid 30 to 45 degrees
and will get the party to its objective.
images Favor the edges of slopes, where avalanches are less likely
and safer terrain is closer in case one does occur.
images Be particularly cautious of slopes of 30 to 45 degrees; use a
clinometer to identify them. The majority of avalanches occur on
slopes close to 38 degrees.
images Be suspicious of convex rollovers; they are likely trigger
points for avalanches.
images Be careful of shaded slopes in winter and the very warm,
sunny slopes of spring.
images Avoid gullies and other terrain traps, which can be chutes
for large quantities of snow that can deeply bury climbers or sweep
them away.
images Keep aware of the runout zone below snow slopes and
gullies, especially avoiding areas with cliffs below.
images Avoid camping in valleys or any other place that can be
exposed to avalanche danger from above (fig. 17-6).
images Develop “avalanche eyeballs” by continually evaluating
avalanche danger and its potential consequences.

Climbers can also improve their safety margin by taking the normal
precautions called for on any climbing trip or ski tour: studying maps,
Google Earth, and photos of the area; researching alternative routes;
preparing for an emergency bivouac; and identifying possible retreat routes.
Determine the route—including its slope aspects, elevations, slope sizes and
shapes, and exposure—and identify the probable locations of hazards. See
the “Tips for Selecting a Safe Route” sidebar.
It is an excellent idea to include a safe alternate destination in every trip
plan. Having a safe option already picked out and planned for helps defeat
the momentum that so often leads people to plunge ahead in dangerous
conditions, instead of making a rational decision to go elsewhere.
 Trip planning is much more effective if all climbers in a party use a small
field book to note weather and snowpack data and forecasts, route plans,
emergency contact information, and so forth. The same book can be used to
note snowpack and weather observations in the field, which is a huge help
in tracking how well the conditions encountered support the avalanche
forecast upon which the initial trip plan was based. The AIARE Field Book
provides a standardized format for this purpose, with a “Trip Plan” form on
one page and a “Field Observations” form on the adjacent facing page (fig.
17-7). This useful little book also provides basic reference tables and
checklists for travel in avalanche terrain. (For more information or to
contact AIARE, see Resources.)

images
Fig. 17-6. Calculation to arrive at a safe camping zone: the formula requires that the climber
accurately determine the full extent of the applicable avalanche slope, but it gives a good idea of
where safe terrain can be found below avalanche-prone slopes. Narrow valleys may not have a safe
zone.

images
Fig. 17-7. “Trip Plan” and “Field Observations” forms, reproduced from the AIARE Field Book.

In areas where professional avalanche forecasting is available, climbers

should take forecast warnings very seriously. It is never a good idea to enter
terrain the forecast declares to be unsafe. In addition, it is important that
climbers keep a sharp eye out for unsafe conditions even in areas the
forecast has not singled out for extra caution.
The trend in avalanche forecasting is to present the forecast hazards in
terms of one or more “avalanche problems,” as shown in Table 17-1,
excerpted from the AIARE Field Book.
For each of the typical “avalanche problems” listed in Table 17-1, there
are lists of red-flag observations as well as specific tests and other practical
considerations that can help in choosing safe terrain. Note that several of
these avalanche problems may exist in the same area and/or at the same
time. It is also possible for changing conditions to cause one avalanche
problem to morph into another, as when a wind slab warms up and becomes
a wet wind slab.

AVALANCHE EDUCATION
The American Institute for Avalanche Research and Education
(AIARE) is a nationally recognized curriculum for avalanche
educators in the United States, South America, and Europe. The
mission is to “save lives through avalanche education” with avalanche
training courses reflecting the latest knowledge, research, and ideas in
avalanche safety for backcountry travelers. AIARE’s goals include
increasing public awareness of avalanches and avalanche safety;
providing high-quality avalanche education to enhance public
awareness and safety; and developing an international network of
professional avalanche educators.

TABLE 17-1. AVALANCHES AND OBSERVATIONS

REFERENCE

CRITICAL (RED- FIELD TESTS & IMPORTANT

FLAG) RELEVANT CONSIDERATIONS
OBSERVATIONS OBSERVATIONS

THE PROBLEM:
LOOSE DRY SNOW
images Fan-shaped images Boots or images Loose-snow
avalanches: fine skis penetrate avalanche can be
debris 12 inches (30 triggered by
images Loose cm). falling snow,
surface snow 12 images Slope cornice fall,
inches (30 cm) tests and cuts rockfall, brief
deep result in sluffs. periods of sun,
images Snow wind, or a rider.
surface texture images Sluffs can
is loose (as run fast and far.
opposed to images Small slides
wind-affected, are dangerous
refrozen, or with terrain traps
other stiff and/or cliffs.
 snow images Sluffs can
textures). trigger slabs in
certain conditions.
THE PROBLEM:
LOOSE WET SNOW
images Rain and/or images images Timing is
rapid warming Compare critical: danger
images Air observed and can increase
temperature >32°F forecasted quickly (minutes
(>0°C) for longer temperature to hours).
than 24 hours trend. images No freeze
(cloud cover may images for multiple nights
prevent nighttime Temperatures worsens
cooling) (air, surface, conditions;
images Pinwheels 20 cm deep) however,
or roller balls and freezing nighttime freeze
images Fan-shaped level indicate can stabilize
avalanches: debris near-surface conditions.
lumpy and chunky snow images Gullies and
temperatures cirques receive
at 32°F (0°C). more radiation
images Note and retain more
slopes heat than open
receiving or slopes.
that will images Shallow
receive intense snow areas
radiation. become unstable
images Snow first—may slide to
surface is wet: ground in terrain
water visible with shallower,
between the less-dense
grains with a snowpack.
loupe; may be images Loose-snow
able to avalanche may
squeeze water
 out with initiate from rocks
hands. or vegetation.
images Loose-snow
avalanche can
occur on all
aspects on cloudy
days and nights.
images Conditions
may also include
cornice fall,
rockfall, or
increased icefall
hazards.
THE PROBLEM:
WET SLAB
images Rain on images Consider images Snow
snow, especially loose wet temperature of
dry snow snow slab is at or near
images Current or observations. 32°F (0°C).
recent wet slab images Melting images Loose wet
avalanches: debris snow surface snow slides can
has channels (rain or strong occur just prior to
and/or ridges, high radiation) of a wet slab activity.
water content; slab is images Possible lag
may entrain rocks observed over can occur between
and vegetation weak layer. melt event and
images Prolonged images Tests wet slab activity.
warming trend, show change
especially the first in strength of
melt on dry snow weak layer
due to water
and/or water
lubrication
above crust or
ground layer.
 images Identify
depth at which
snow is 32°F
(0°C).
images Monitor
liquid water
content and
deteriorating
snow strength
using hardness
and
penetration
tests.
images Nearby
glide cracks
may be
widening
during rapid
warming.
THE PROBLEM:
STORM SLAB
images Natural images Observe images Rapid
avalanches in storm snow settlement may
steep terrain with depth, strengthen the
little or no wind accumulation snowpack or form
images At least 12 rate, and water a slab over weak
inches (30 cm) equivalent. snow.
snowfall in last 24 images Observe images When storm
hours or less with settlement slabs exist in
warmer, heavier trend: sheltered areas,
snow settlement wind slabs may
images Poor bond cones, boot or also be present in
to old snow: slab ski exposed terrain.
cracks or penetration, images Storm slab
measured may strengthen
change in
 avalanches under storm snow and stabilize in
a rider’s weight (more than hours or days
25% in 24 depending on
hours is rapid). weak layer
images Tests character.
show poor images Potential for
bond with slab fracturing
underlying across terrain can
layer (tilt and be
ski tests). underestimated.
images Identify
weak layer
character.
images Denser
storm snow is
observed over
less-dense
snow (boot or
ski
penetration,
hand
hardness).
THE PROBLEM:
WIND SLAB
images Recent slab images images Often it is
avalanches below Evidence of hard to determine
ridgetop and/or on wind- where the slab lies
cross-loaded transported and how unstable
features snow (drifts, and dangerous the
images Blowing plumes, situation remains.
snow at ridgetop cornice images Slope-
combined with growth, specific
significant snow variable snow observations,
available for surface including
transport penetration watching wind
images Blowing with cracking) slabs form, are
snow combined is observed. often the best tool.
with snowfall: images images Strong
deposition zones Evidence of winds may result
may accumulate recent wind in deposition
three to five times (dense surface lower on slopes.
more than snow or crust; images Avalanches
sheltered areas snow blown are commonly
off trees) is triggered from
observed. thin areas (edges)
images of the slab.
Moderate (or images Wind
stronger) wind transport and
speeds for subsequent
significant avalanching can
duration are occur days after
observed last snowfall.
(reports,
weather
stations, field
observations).
THE PROBLEM:
PERSISTENT SLAB
images Bulletins or images Profiles images Instability
experts warn of reveal a slab may be localized
persistent weak over a to specific slopes
layer: surface persistent (often more
hoar, facet and weak layer. common on cooler
crust, depth hoar. images Use north and
images Cracking multiple tests northeast aspects)
and/or whumping that will verify and hard to
location of this forecast.
condition in images Despite no
terrain. natural
images Small occurrences,
column tests slopes may trigger
 (compression with small loads
test) indicate —more likely
sudden results; when weak layer
large column is 8–36 inches
tests (extended (20–85 cm) deep.
column test, images Human-
propagation triggered
saw test, avalanches are
Rutschblock still possible long
test) show after slab formed.
tendency for
propagating
cracks.
THE PROBLEM:
DEEP SLAB
images Remotely images Profiles images Avalanches
triggered slabs indicate well may be aspect or
images Recent and preserved but elevation specific:
possibly large deep (≧3 feet it is very
isolated [1 m]), important to track
avalanches with persistent a weak layer over
deep, clean crown weak layer. terrain.
face images Column images Slight
tests may not changes, including
indicate moderate snowfall
propagating and warming, can
cracks; reactivate deeper
propagation layers.
saw test can images Terrain may
provide more- be dangerous after
consistent nearby activity
results. has ceased.
images Heavy images Tests with
loads (cornice no results are not
drops or conclusive.
explosives
 test) may be images Avalanches
needed to may be remotely
release the triggered from
slope—large shallower, weaker
and areas; it is difficult
destructive to forecast and
avalanches manage terrain
result. choices.
THE PROBLEM:
CORNICES
images Recent images Note images Cornices
cornice growth rate, extent, often break farther
images Recent location, and back onto ridgetop
cornice fall pattern of than expected.
images Warming: cornice growth images Sun’s effect
solar, rain at and erosion. on back of cornice
ridgetops images Observe can be
photos underestimated
tracking during travel on
change over cool, shaded
time. aspects.

Source: AIARE.

Focusing on the relevant avalanche problems makes it easier for a team

to concentrate on avoiding the most dangerous terrain, as well as on making
more relevant observations; however, the potential for discovering
additional avalanche problems should never be ignored. Choosing safe
terrain based on an understanding of specific avalanche problems can also
help prevent a tendency to rely too much on the generalized “Danger
Level” categories used by forecasters. In North America the North
American Public Avalanche Danger Scale (fig. 17-8) provides an overall
rating of avalanche danger levels; similar danger scales are used in other
parts of the world. It is crucial to realize that even when the overall danger
is moderate or even low, potentially deadly avalanches can occur in specific
terrain and conditions. Studying the relevant avalanche problems is one way
to stay focused on avoiding these specific danger areas.

images
Fig. 17-8. North American Public Avalanche Danger Scale.

CONSIDER HUMAN FACTORS

In evaluating avalanche hazard, a prime component is the human factor.
The judgments that mountaineers make affect the level of risk they face. In
terms of avalanche safety, the term “human factors” has come to represent
the whole constellation of psychological foibles and mental shortcuts that
lead people to make poor decisions when they encounter hazardous
conditions. In hindsight, most avalanche survivors can point to various
human factors that were the pivotal causes in the chain of events leading up
to the mishap. It is worth studying troublesome human factors in more
detail than is covered here (see Chapters 22, Leadership, and 23, Safety). A
few of the more common human factors include these:
images Peer pressure: Feeling that you must do the same things as
others so that they will like you.
images Overconfidence: Having too much confidence in your ability
or assessment of a situation.
images Familiarity: The tendency to assume that familiar places are
safe places.
images Rule-following: Using rules of thumb instead of careful
thought.
images Momentum: The tendency to just keep going rather than
considering alternatives.
images Euphoria or hypoxia: The heightened state of physical
excitement that comes with strenuous exercise in a thrilling
environment, which can have an insidious negative impact on clear
thinking.
images Large group size: The tendency for large groups to inhibit
communication and thus replace good decision-making processes
with the herd mentality.
images “Expert halo”: The tendency for people to blindly follow a
leader or, even worse, to blindly follow tracks left in the snow by a
 group of strangers.

Communication
Good communication—and participation by all members in the group—is
the most effective way to promote good decision making and to reduce the
bad effects of those unavoidable human factors. Before setting off into the
backcountry, a party should agree on a process for making decisions as a
group. The party should agree on its goals, acceptable level of risk, and
understanding of the hazard data each member has been collecting.
Consider and discuss the party’s tolerance for risk and its degree of
commitment to a climbing objective even in the face of hazard. Determine
how willing the group is to look objectively at information on terrain, the
snowpack, and weather.

images
Fig. 17-9: Good communication keeps the group focused on important observations and evaluations
of avalanche hazards, terrain, snowpack, and weather.

Many parties allow their desires to cloud the hard facts. Most avalanche
victims were aware of the hazard but chose to interpret the information in
such a way that an accident occurred. An unsafe attitude can be fatal. Good
communication defeats human-factor trouble by keeping the group focused
on important observations and evaluations, by providing a valve to release
social pressures and by recruiting all the eyes and minds in a group instead
of depending on one person to think of everything. For instance, sharing the
tasks of making observations can allow a group to gather more data while
also moving faster.
Parties make the best decisions when they work together to make a travel
plan and gather data, then reevaluate the plan as a group once they are in
the field (fig. 17-9). Groups that take each person’s thinking into account
usually make better decisions than individuals. All climbers in the party
have an obligation to express their concerns clearly and freely, even in the
face of differing opinions. When the party faces the risk of fatalities, it is
essential that every climber be ready and able to communicate prudent
reservations with the rest of the group.
It is particularly important to avoid the powder fever that so often takes
over on the first blue-sky day after several days of storm and a couple of
feet of new snow. Each person must understand the possible consequences
of decisions and any alternatives. Everyone should understand any
assumptions underlying the decision to enter avalanche terrain, including
assessments of the party’s risk tolerance and its ability to deal with an
avalanche.
The decision-making process should be based on group discussion and
should cover these areas:
1. Identify potential hazards.
2. Collect, evaluate, and integrate information continuously during trip.
3. Consciously explore assumptions, the consequences of a particular
decision, and all alternatives to that decision.
4. Make a decision—but be willing to reevaluate based on new
information.
It can be very useful to formalize this decision-making process by
identifying one or more places along a route where decisions may need to
be made and marking these down in the trip plan or on a map, to ensure that
the group takes time to reevaluate conditions and discuss options as a team.

Technical Skill Level

How skilled are members of the party at snow travel and at evaluating
avalanche hazard? Are the party’s overall mountaineering skills high? Just
average? Low? In theory, a balanced party of able, experienced
mountaineers can be expected to do well at avoiding avalanches and at
responding efficiently if one strikes. In fact, experienced and
knowledgeable climbers are caught by avalanches every year, and this is
nearly always largely due to errors of judgment because of human factors
and not because the party was unaware of the hazard. A relatively untested
party, or one whose members have a great difference in experience and skill
levels, must be extra conservative in its decisions.

Strength and Equipment

What shape is the party in? Decide whether members of the group are
strong and healthy enough to go on a demanding and possibly hazardous
trip. How well equipped is the party to deal with an avalanche? Determine
whether the party is adequately prepared, with shovels, rescue transceivers,
avalanche probes, first-aid supplies, and other gear that would be needed in
case all precautions fail and the party is involved in an avalanche.

USING THESE SKILLS IN THE FIELD

Once climbers have learned (and practiced) the fundamentals of avalanche
safety, they must use these skills in the backcountry. Identifying avalanche
terrain or suspect weather patterns is not enough; climbers must know how
to put it all together. This section helps prepare climbers for making
decisions and taking action in the backcountry. As with other aspects of
avalanche safety, practice the techniques before you end up in hazardous
terrain or are involved in an avalanche rescue.

OBSERVING SNOW CONDITIONS

Climbers should understand the terrain they are heading into before they get
there and include in the trip plan where and when the most relevant
observations might be made. Look at conditions on similar terrain as soon
and as often as possible. Observe the big picture first: on the road, up the
trail, at camp, out on the terrain. Then fit the party’s plans and situation into
that picture. Use this perspective to decide where the party might test the
snow for its stability and what tests will be used, and also use this
perspective to aid the party in avoiding avalanche hazard.
There is often tremendous variability in the snowpack from place to
place. This means that testing the snow in one place does not mean the
snow is stable anywhere else. For this reason, snow stability tests should be
used to gain a general understanding of local conditions and to look for any
unexpected signs of danger—but snow stability tests should not be used to
predict the stability of adjacent slopes. In other words, if the overall
conditions lead a party to conclude that a slope may be dangerous, then the
climbers should never change that forecast based on field tests that happen
to show a stable result. On the other hand, if the party’s forecast was for
good stability and a local test of the snowpack uncovers unstable
conditions, the climbers should assume that other unstable areas may exist
on similar slopes.
To travel safely in the backcountry, climbers must be able to recognize
unstable conditions. Generally, when unstable snow conditions exist, the
majority of results from observations and tests will confirm that conditions
are unstable on certain slope aspects, at certain elevations, and within a
certain range of slope angles. Because there will be some uncertainty,
particularly when the weather is changing, an extra margin of safety is
required. Always make observations, looking for obvious signs of
instability. Use the major clues shown in Table 17-1 in the preceding
section.

Snowpack Observation Techniques

It is often more practical to make many quick tests and observations of the
snowpack as a climbing party maintains steady forward progress than it is
to stop and carry out scientific snow stability tests or dig full-scale snow
pits (fig. 17-10) to gather detailed observations from a single location.
Nevertheless, it is a very good idea for those who travel in avalanche terrain
to familiarize themselves with the range of stability tests and snow
observation techniques that professional forecasters use to understand the
snowpack.
Full descriptions of these tests are beyond the scope of this text, and they
are much better learned in the snow by taking an avalanche course.
Learning how to carry out these tests provides the backcountry traveler with
tools for looking deeper into the snowpack and understanding how weather
affects the snow. Knowing how to conduct these tests will also help
climbers understand the basis for avalanche forecasting. It is a very good
idea to practice these tests and dig snow study pits, when time allows, for
the knowledge you can gain. Comparing what you actually find in the snow
to the data and discussion gleaned from avalanche forecast reports can yield
a much deeper understanding of avalanche hazard. Stability tests can also
be a useful way to look for unexpected danger in the snowpack, but they
have limited value in decision making since one or more tests that indicate a
stable snowpack can never be used as a basis for entering avalanche terrain
in questionable conditions.

images
Fig. 17-10. Evaluating layers in a correctly constructed snow pit.

A well-equipped climbing party may carry tools to evaluate the

snowpack. A snow study kit with a snow crystal card, a clinometer, and a
snow saw help in analysis of slopes and the snowpack. Climbers well-
educated in avalanche safety should understand the procedures and
terminology used in the extended column test (ECT; fig. 17-11),
Rutschblock test (RB), compression test (CT), propagation saw test (PST),
and any other tests commonly performed by professional forecasters in their
part of the world. It also pays to learn the correct methods used in making
snowpack observations, as well as the standardized ways of noting the data
from these tests and observations. Full profiles are dug in the snow to allow
a close inspection of the layers in the upper 3 feet (1 meter) of the snow.
They allow a detailed look at the snowpack, but they are time-consuming to
do properly and represent only a single sample in a vast landscape. In the
United States, level 2 avalanche courses cover this material and introduce
people to the basics of snow science and forecasting.

images
Fig. 17-11. Isolating the snowpack column for an extended column test: a, using a probe and cord to
cut a column; b, a snow saw on a ski pole to cut a column.

Test profiles, quickly scooped in the snow by hand or shovel, can give an
idea of what is going on in the near-surface layers of the snowpack. It is a
good idea to regularly push your ski pole or ice-axe spike into the snow as
you travel along to feel for weaker and stronger layers. If the snow is very
soft, push the basket end of a ski pole smoothly into the snow; then pull it
slowly out, trying to feel any hard or soft layers. It may be possible to reach
down into the ski-pole hole and feel the snow layers with your fingers. In
most other snow, remove the basket or use the handle end of the ski pole to
penetrate the snow. Usually only the top 39 to 48 inches (100 to 120
centimeters) of snow needs to be observed in assessing snowpack stability
because the stresses generated by a climber or skier generally will not
penetrate more than about 33 or 34 inches (85 centimeters) into the snow.
Regularly making these test-profile observations and discussing them
with party members reinforces an awareness of avalanche hazard and
preparedness. These informal tests will not give information on the bonding
of snow layers and they will miss thin shear planes, but they can reveal
gross discontinuities in the snowpack structure that suggest instability.

MAKING DECISIONS IN THE FIELD

Making a decision about whether or not to enter avalanche terrain can be a
vexing problem. The variables that go into the decision can be complex and
often seem contradictory. Add to this that social and time pressures can
make it hard to think calmly, and it is easy to see how people often make
the wrong decision and enter unsafe terrain when they shouldn’t.
It is often best to think in terms of the party’s levels of certainty, instead
of agonizing over the particulars in an attempt to come up with a simple
decision of “go” or “no go.” Take a hard look at the information available
and then determine whether or not there is enough information to make a
safe decision based on the available data and the skill and experience of the
party. If you look at the information available to you and cannot decide
whether the terrain is safe, then there is simply too much uncertainty to
proceed safely. In this situation, it is best to choose to travel on alternative
terrain that you are certain will be safe for your party in the conditions. Be
sure that every trip plan includes a safe alternate destination.
When a party encounters potential hazard along the way, ask these
questions:
1. Do current observations still support the assumptions behind the trip
plan?
2. Is the snow unstable?
3. Could I be a trigger?
4. Is the weather contributing to instability?
5. What are the alternatives and their possible consequences?
To respond effectively to these overall questions, the party should come
up with answers to a series of secondary queries about the big picture—
terrain, snowpack, weather, the climbing party itself—thinking holistically
and applying concrete observations and information.

USING SAFE TRAVEL TECHNIQUES

Even after a party has made every effort to choose terrain that is safe in the
existing conditions, it can be a good idea to use travel techniques designed
to add a layer of safety when crossing a potential avalanche slope. The task
is to travel with the least danger of disturbing the slope and to minimize the
consequences of a possible avalanche.

Prepare Clothing and Gear

Just as during travel on a crevassed glacier, it may make sense to put on a
hat, mittens, and warm clothing and to zip up clothing. Undo ski-pole
straps. Use releasable bindings on skis or snowshoes, and remove the safety
straps that connect boots to the bindings. (Skis and snowshoes spread a
person’s weight over a relatively large area, putting less strain on the slope
than boots do.) Stow all essential gear securely inside packs, including vital
avalanche rescue tools such as shovel and probe; if these are strapped to the
outside of the pack, they will likely be torn away and lost in an avalanche,
just when they are needed most. If you are using an airbag, such as an
AvaLung, make sure it’s ready to deploy.

Choose a Safe Line of Travel

When the route lies up a slope (and the party is walking, not skiing), head
straight up the fall line instead of switchbacking, which can undercut the
snow. However, a straight line up the mountainside may not be as safe as a
more meandering route that seeks out lower-angle terrain and avoids
convex rollovers and exposure to terrain traps. Always look ahead and
make use of topographical maps to avoid routes that dead-end in unsafe
terrain. The route should follow a line as high on the slope as practical. It
may be possible to hug cliff bands at the top of the slope. Choosing the
most efficient and safe line up a mountainside while setting a skin track is
an advanced skill in which experienced ski mountaineers take great pride.
The fastest line is never the steepest one.

Stay Together
On a tricky traverse, only one person moves at a time, and everyone else
watches from safe places, ready to shout if a slide starts. (Alternatively, the
group may spread out and travel far apart simultaneously, but within view
of each other.) Cross with long, smooth strides, being careful not to cut a
trench across the slope. Each climber follows in turn, stepping in the
leader’s footprints or skiing in the same track. Everyone listens and watches
for an avalanche. It is not always best practice to spread out or travel one at
a time: in very low visibility it is often safer to stay close together. Never let
any member of a group out of sight of others. The best way to ensure this is
to pair people up to look after each other; using the buddy system can
prevent an individual from getting separated from the group, or buried,
without anyone noticing. Move from one position of safety to another,
minimizing the potential exposure period. Do not fall; falling puts a sudden
load on the snowpack. On an avalanche-ready slope, the impact of a falling
body can be like the detonation of a little bomb. Be aware of other parties;
try not to travel or ski above others moving up the slope.

Rope Up or Not?
Think twice before roping up on questionable slopes. Decide whether the
risk of the slope avalanching is greater than the risk of a climber falling,
because roping up can risk the belayer being pulled into an avalanche. If the
party chooses to use a rope, belay directly off the anchor; the belayer should
not tie in to the rope, to avoid being pulled into an avalanche. If there are no
solid anchors from which to belay, it may be better to go unroped.

SURVIVING AN AVALANCHE
Climbers must think ahead about what they would do in the event of an
avalanche, because after one starts, there is no time. While traveling, keep
an eye out for escape paths.
If you are caught in an avalanche, do not give up. Fight to survive. Try to
get off the moving snow. Yell to your climbing partners. Jettison any gear
you want to get rid of, including skis and ski poles. It is a good idea to keep
your pack on to protect your back and neck. Larger objects tend to be
transported to the surface of avalanche debris; the pack may help keep you
near the surface, and it may help protect you from trauma. If you survive
the traumatic forces of the avalanche, you will need the clothing and
equipment in the pack.
At the start of an avalanche, try to stop before being swept away. Grab a
rock or tree, or dig your ice axe or a ski pole into the snow, and hold on. If
that does not work, try to stay on the surface by using swimming motions,
flailing your arms and legs, or by rolling. Try to move to the side of the
slide.
If your head goes below the surface, close your mouth to avoid being
suffocated by snow. As the avalanche slows, thrust upward. If you are
buried, try to make a breathing space by putting an elbow or hand in front
of your face. Inhale deeply before the snow stops, in order to expand your
ribs; as the snow closes around you, you won’t be able to move. Do not
shout or struggle. Relax. Try to conserve oxygen and energy. Your climbing
partners should know what to do, and they will begin rescue efforts
immediately.

RESCUING A COMPANION IN AN
AVALANCHE
The mountaineer’s primary emphasis should be on avalanche evaluation
and safe travel. Rescue skills are very important, but it is vital to keep in
mind that they cannot keep you safe; self-rescue is the last resort, to be used
when you have failed to stay safe. Every party needs avalanche rescue skills
and equipment, but these are no substitute for the ability to make sound
judgments that promote safe travel in avalanche terrain. If an avalanche
does occur, this section covers what to do. Also, Resources, at the back of
the book, lists several widely available books about avalanche rescue, as
well as online resources such as www.avalanche.org, a comprehensive
website run by several avalanche research organizations that provides
international statistics, links to avalanche courses, and links to avalanche
information centers.
When buried in a snow avalanche, people very seldom live long enough
to be rescued by people who are not close by when the accident occurs. It
can often take hours, or even days, to bring in rescuers from outside to the
scene of an avalanche. A victim who survives the physical trauma of an
avalanche almost always depends on companions to dig him or her up
quickly, before the victim suffocates or dies of hypothermia.

THE WELL-PREPARED PARTY

A climbing party’s level of preparedness is an important factor in
minimizing avalanche hazard. A well-prepared party has the training and
practice, conditioning, equipment, and critical judgment to evaluate
avalanche hazard and to respond effectively to an avalanche if one occurs.
Each climber should carry a digital triple-antenna avalanche rescue
transceiver, shovel, and commercial avalanche probe 104 inches (265
centimeters) or longer to perform a rescue, and they must have developed
the skills to use them. They know that seconds—not minutes—count should
an avalanche occur.
 The well-equipped party may carry new products to help avalanche
victims survive, including the Black Diamond AvaLung II and avalanche
air bags. Research and try out any avalanche safety item before relying on it
in the backcountry.

AVALANCHE RESCUE TRANSCEIVERS

The digital avalanche rescue transceiver, often called an avalanche beacon,
is the principal tool for finding buried victims. Rescue depends on each
member of the party carrying a transceiver. A rescue transceiver can be
switched to either transmit or receive signals. Digital transceivers convert
the analog signal to a digital readout, and they typically provide both
audible and visible signals in the receive (search) mode. The international
standard frequency for avalanche transceivers is 457 kilohertz; transceivers
that work at 2,275 hertz are obsolete and should not be used.
Continued progress in the avalanche safety field has produced
transceivers with increasingly sophisticated digital processor capabilities.
Older analog and newer digital transceivers are compatible, and both types
use the 457-kilohertz standard frequency. But modern digital transceivers
are much more effective than the old analog versions. Use a modern digital
transceiver with three or four antennas. The recommended transceivers for
backcountry travelers and climbers operate exclusively at 457 kilohertz and
use three or more antennas for the most accurate readings and fastest
search. It is not necessarily an advantage to use the models with the most
features, which can be confusing in an emergency; the current simple
transceiver models can be excellent.
A valuable feature of newer digital transceivers is their ability to quickly
separate and isolate signals in a multiple-burial scenario in which two or
more victims have been buried. Some people argue that multiple-burial
scenarios are rare; however, they do occur, and even in a single-victim
burial if a searcher inadvertently reverts to transmit, it is very useful to have
a transceiver that can let searchers know whether multiple transceivers are
in transmit mode.
The various models do not have consistent features or controls, so it is
important to study the instructions that come with the receiver, and it is not
a bad idea to learn something about how your companions’ transceivers
work in case you need to use one in an emergency. All members of a party
must know how to use the transceivers correctly. This skill requires regular
practice, so practice before and during every season. The same thinking
applies to phones or other communication devices: all team members
should know how to turn on all devices and call for help.

Preparing to Travel
At the trailhead and at the beginning of each day, the group should verify
that all transceivers can transmit and receive signals properly. Fresh
batteries usually last for about 300 hours (a lot less time when used in
search mode), but carry extras in case the signal from any transceiver
weakens. Test the battery life of your transceiver while practicing search
methods. Always check the charge level before you head out and try to
determine where on the battery-level-indicator scale you need to change the
batteries in order to ensure that there will always be enough power left to
carry out a search in an emergency.
Strap the transceiver around your neck and torso. Carry it under clothing,
just outside your innermost garment, to keep it from being lost in an
avalanche. Do not carry it in your pack. Carrying the transceiver inside a
secure zipped front pants pocket has also been determined to be safe, but
use a leash to secure the device to you as well. During the climb, leave
transceivers on, set to the transmit mode. When you are staying overnight in
a snow cave or in an avalanche-prone area, consider leaving the transceiver
on, set to transmit, even at night.
Cellular phones, radios, GPS devices, MP3 players, and other electronics
have been shown to interfere with the function of avalanche transceivers.
Consider turning such devices off (or putting them in “airplane mode”) if
they are not needed for travel or communication; if they are turned on, keep
them 12 to 20 inches (30 to 50 centimeters) away from where the
transceiver is stowed on your body. For instance, you might carry a radio in
the top pocket of your pack if the transceiver is low on your torso.

FIRST STEPS IN A RESCUE

Climbers may need to consciously control their feelings of shock and
anxiety in order to be effective at trying to find the missing person(s).

Identify the Area Where the Victim Was Seen Last

The rescue effort starts even before the avalanche has stopped. In the shock
of the moment, the first step in a successful rescue is a tough one: pay
attention to the point where a victim is last seen. Identify the area to be
searched based on this last seen area. Do a head count to make sure you
know how many are missing.

Select a Search Leader

Choose a search leader to direct a thorough and methodical rescue effort.
Before entering the search area, the leader considers the safety of the search
party: evaluate the potential for other slides in the area, choose a safe
approach to the search area, and designate an escape path in case of another
avalanche. It is usually easier to move downhill while searching. The leader
assigns tasks to make the best use of the available people. If the search
party is large enough, the leader should stand back and avoid hands-on
participation in the rescue process, which can narrow the leader’s focus and
prevent effective leadership. Only enough people to cover the search area
are needed to proceed with the initial transceiver search.
If someone is available, it is often a good idea to have that person make
an initial call to alert outside rescuers to the situation, even to simply report
the ongoing search and the party’s location and arrange to call back. It can
take a long time to mount a search by outside search and rescue
organizations, and in the event that a trauma victim needs evacuation, the
leader should start this process right away. Sometimes, with a long downhill
search zone, there may not be a signal at the bottom of the slope, so it might
be a long time before the call can be made if it is postponed too long. On
the other hand, if everyone is needed to carry out an effective companion
rescue, it may be best to postpone the call for help until after the victim is
recovered.

Do Not Go for Help

A critical principle of avalanche rescue is this: Do not send anyone for help.
Stay and search. Survival depends on locating the victim quickly. A person
located in the first 15 minutes has an approximately 90 percent chance of
survival if he or she survived the avalanche and did not hit rocks or trees or
suffer trauma. The probability of survival drops off rapidly after that time.
After 90 minutes, the probability of survival is approximately 25 percent.
Wait until after the victim is unburied or after search efforts turn out to be
futile to send someone for help.

Prepare to Search
Once a search begins, unstrap the transceiver and bring it out for rescue
work; all rescuers must switch their transceivers to the receive mode to
locate the transmission from a victim. It is critically important that every
searcher switch to receive; if a searcher’s transceiver is left in the transmit
mode, searchers will waste valuable time receiving this signal rather than
the victim’s signal.
Each searcher listens for beeps and watches an optical display to detect
the buried victim. A rescuer should be able to locate the buried victim in
less than 5 minutes once a signal has been acquired. It is essential to
practice using rescue transceivers to ensure that searchers have the best
chance of locating victims before they suffocate.

Commence Searching
Work rapidly but efficiently. Don’t forget to search with your eyes. Try to
determine if anyone can point out the last place the victim was seen, then
move quickly into the transceiver search. Searchers should remember to
look for items of clothing or other clues and consider the location of terrain
traps where a person might be lodged. Searchers not needed for the
transceiver search should quickly follow the transceiver searchers while
deploying their probes in readiness. All searchers should keep their packs
and all emergency gear with them if they can.

THREE PHASES OF A SEARCH WITH A MODERN

DIGITAL TRANSCEIVER
The digital transceiver search for an avalanche victim or victims occurs in
three phases: coarse, fine, and pinpoint.

Phase 1: Coarse Search

In the coarse search phase, a signal has not yet been detected. The searchers
start from the victim’s last-seen point and fan out no more than 65 feet (20
meters) apart—about the effective range of a modern digital transceiver
(with an overlap for an extra margin of safety)—across the slope, each
moving straight down the fall line with their transceivers in receive mode
until a signal is picked up (fig. 17-12a). If there is no clear last-seen point,
then the searchers much check the entire slope. Note: A lone searcher must
switchback down the slope with no more than 65 feet (20 meters), the
effective range of the transceiver, between switchbacks (fig. 17-12b).
Once a signal is detected, some searchers can move to the fine search
while other rescuers prepare to dig out the victim. If there is more than one
victim, the rest of the rescuers continue the coarse search until all are found.
Modern transceivers should allow a continued search without any need to
turn off the recovered victim’s transceiver. Try to avoid turning anyone’s
transceiver off if at all possible, in case another avalanche comes along.

images
Fig. 17-12. Paths taken during a coarse search phase: a, multiple searchers; b, single searcher.
Space the search paths closely enough to stay in range of the victim’s transceiver.

Phase 2: Fine Search

The fine search phase begins when the searchers detect a signal. Use the
directional lights and distance meter on the transceiver to follow the signal
to roughly where the victim is buried. This will often be a curved path, as
the transceiver is following the induction line. The induction line follows a
curved path because the radio signal transmissions from the victim’s
transceiver are propagated outward in a curved shape.
Move as quickly as is practical during this phase. The digital distance
readout on a transceiver is not ultraprecise, but it gives a good idea of the
distance to the victim’s transceiver beneath the snow. After practicing
searches with your transceiver, you will begin to get a good idea what the
distance readings mean and you will become familiar with the range of
curves that search lines may follow. This experience will greatly improve
your search times, and such practice can teach you how best to pace
yourself to get through the search quickly but without moving so fast that
you outpace the transceiver’s processor or make mistakes that waste time.

Phase 3: Pinpoint Search

Once a searcher is within roughly 10 feet (3 meters) of the victim, the
pinpoint search begins, and the searcher slows down even more, and moves
the transceiver as close as practical to the surface of the snow. At this point
it is usually best to remove skis to make it easier to get right down on the
snow and move with precision. You will need to take skis off in order to
dig, in any case.
Search along a straight line to try to pinpoint the victim more closely (fig.
17-13a). Ignore the transceiver’s directional arrows and audible signals
from this point on (some beacons switch them off automatically at this
stage) and use only the distance indicator numbers to find the point along
this straight line that is closest to the victim. As you move along the line,
maintain a steady speed, not too fast, and keep the transceiver oriented
exactly the same way—do not swing it back and forth or orient it at
different angles, which will reduce the precision of the distance readout. It
is critically important to practice with your transceiver, since there are
subtle differences in operation and sensitivity between the various models.
At some point along the line, you will see the distance numbers dip to a
low point and then start to climb again. Make a mark in the snow at the first
point where the distance number went up again and then move back along
the line (without changing the transceiver orientation) at the same steady
pace until the number dips low and rises to the same higher number again,
then mark this point. Now you have two marks along your straight line.
Precisely mark the midpoint of the span between the marks. This is the
point along your first line where you are closest to the victim, but you may
not yet be directly above the victim.
Now strike a line exactly perpendicular to your original line that crosses
it at this close-to-the-victim point (fig. 17-13b). Follow along this second
line in either direction (again, with the transceiver in the same orientation it
has been in all along) until you again find the lowest distance reading by
marking the two points where the reading first rises above the low and then
marking their midpoint. The victim should be below this mark.
Probe at this point and be sure to probe perpendicular to the snow
surface instead of straight up and down (fig. 17-14). The shortest distance
from the closest point detected by a transceiver will be along a line
perpendicular to the snow surface; probing on a plumb line from this point
can easily miss a buried person.
Commercial avalanche probes work far better than any other alternative.
However, to find a buried victim, use whatever is at hand as a probe,
including commercial avalanche probes, ski poles, ice axes, or wands.
Carry a real avalanche probe and a sturdy metal shovel. Ski-pole probes and
plastic shovels have a reputation for failing.
If you have done a good job, you will often strike the victim with this
first probe, even with a deep burial. Less-proficient searchers may have to
continue probing in a spiral pattern outward from this point, moving in 10-
inch (25-centimeter) increments out from the closest point found in the
transceiver search. Take care to keep the angle of your probe very
consistently parallel to previous probes so as not to miss the victim due to
sloppy probing. Probe down to a depth of 61/2 feet (2 meters). People are
sometimes buried more deeply but in these cases they are less likely to
survive long enough to be dug out. As soon as the person is located, leave
the probe in place, touching the victim, and begin digging.

images
Fig. 17-13. Steps of a pinpoint search: a, When beacon reads 33 feet (10 meters), slow down.
Continue until the beacon displays a higher distance reading. Mark this point, then return along the
line past the lowest reading and back until the reading rises again, and mark this point; b, Now strike
a new line perpendicular to the approach line at the midpoint between these marks. Repeat the
process to find the closest point to the victim along this second line, and probe for the victim here.

images
Fig. 17-14. After locating victim with a beacon, insert probe perpendicular to the slope. Inserting
probe on a plumb line may easily miss the victim.

PROBE SEARCHES
Probing is a slow and uncertain mechanical process, but it may be the only
alternative if rescue transceivers fail to locate a victim or if the party is
traveling without transceivers. Probe first at likely areas: near pieces of the
victim’s equipment, at the points of disappearance, and around trees and
rocks. Probing in a group is a skill that must be practiced before it is
needed. It is hard work involving discipline and concentration. In the
backcountry, there may not be enough people to carry out formal probe
procedures. Systematic probing involves a group of people working in a
line, with probes always held plumb and probing in unison in a grid pattern
so as not to miss the victim.

EFFICIENT SHOVELING AND RECOVERY

After locating the victim using the pinpoint search, take care to avoid
injuring the victim with probes or shovels or otherwise endangering the
person being rescued. Some victims report that the most terrifying part of
their avalanche experience was having their air space trampled on as they
were being rescued. Nevertheless, don’t hold back: dig as fast as you can
while following a systematic and efficient process and working as an
organized team. Practicing efficient shoveling methods with your climbing
team is a very valuable exercise that has certainly saved lives.
Expect to work very hard: snow in an avalanche undergoes a transition as
it slides, and it sets up like concrete when it finally comes to a stop and
settles. Digging out the victim is the hardest and most time-consuming part
of companion rescue. The goal in any recovery effort is to first uncover the
victim’s face and chest to get an airway established.
Start shoveling on the downhill side, away from the victim at a distance
of approximately one and a half times the estimated depth of the probe to
the victim. Move snow downhill. Excavate either in steps or at an angle to
the victim, rather than straight down (fig. 17-15). The search leader should
organize the shovelers so that one person at a time spearheads the
shoveling; the others should hang back and extend the digging area while
also sweeping the lead digger’s snow piles and chunks out of the way.
Diggers should take turns in the lead position, rotating very frequently to
avoid slowing due to fatigue. The goal is to keep a wide area open behind
the lead digger where snow can rapidly be cleared away. This method is
much faster than tunneling straight down, even though it moves more snow,
plus an open and relatively level area may be very important if the rescuers
need to extract and treat a trauma victim.
As the victim is uncovered, check to see that the person’s mouth is not
filled with snow and that there are no other obvious obstructions to
breathing. Clear snow away from the victim’s chest to allow room for it to
expand and take in air. Be prepared to start cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR); the person need not be fully extracted from the snow before CPR
begins. Be aware that suddenly moving a burial victim may cause cardiac
failure as cold blood from the extremities moves to the heart (read more
about “afterdrop” in “Hypothermia” in Chapter 24, First Aid). Make the
person as warm and comfortable as possible, and be prepared to treat for
hypothermia and injuries (see Chapter 24, First Aid).
 Once it is determined that the rescued individual does not need urgent
care, continue to search for any other buried victims.

images
Fig. 17-15. Digging out a fully buried avalanche victim, shoveling at an angle on the downhill side
from victim’s estimated location.

TRAVELING SAFELY IN AVALANCHE

TERRAIN
Snow is a constantly changing medium. Safe travel in avalanche terrain
requires preparation, constant reassessment of conditions, and alertness.
Here are some points to remember:
images Continually assess the stability of the snow. What is the
relative level of avalanche hazard? Start with pretrip research and
continually reassess throughout the climb.
images Practice safe travel techniques in avalanche-prone areas.
Always choose the safest path of travel and consider crossing
avalanche-prone slopes one person at a time.
images Carry the necessary rescue gear in avalanche terrain.
Carry avalanche transceivers, probes, shovels, and a first-aid kit, and
be trained in their proper use.
Unfortunately, many climbers consider avalanche safety an abstruse
specialty of more concern to skiers and winter mountaineers than to the
average climber, so they may not bother to make a thorough study of the
subject. Yet avalanches can and do occur year-round in many mountain
ranges. There is no question that anyone who travels on steep snow, at any
time of year, will benefit greatly from avalanche safety training. The study
of snow and avalanches is fascinating, as well as useful; the more you learn
the more interesting the topic becomes. The knowledge gained turns out to
overlap with many other topics in mountaineering. In particular, the
emphasis modern avalanche training puts on planning and decision making
is valuable and directly applicable to all backcountry travel. The cycle of
snow is both an art and a science that you can study for a lifetime. Avoiding
avalanches is only one of many benefits of such study. Understanding snow
and mountain weather is vital—even outside avalanche terrain—to truly
gaining the freedom of the hills.
GLACIERS AND CREVASSES • EQUIPMENT FOR GLACIER TRAVEL • FUNDAMENTALS OF
GLACIER TRAVEL • CREVASSE RESCUE RESPONSE • INSIDE THE CREVASSE • RESCUE
METHODS • SPECIAL RESCUE SITUATIONS • PATHS TO THE SUMMIT

CHAPTER 18
GLACIER TRAVEL AND
CREVASSE RESCUE
Glaciers can offer a convenient route to alpine summits, but
they hold many hazards—namely crevasses, the chasms that
split a glacier as its great mass of consolidated snow flows slowly
downhill. Although glacier travel is a specialized skill, it is very
necessary to mountaineering; therefore, climbers must learn
how to contend with crevasses.

To travel safely on a glacier, climbers first need all the basic snow travel
skills outlined in Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing. To that must be
added the ability to detect and avoid crevasses and other glacier hazards. If
climbers regard crevasses with a healthy respect, they may never fall into
one. If a fall does occur, it is imperative that climbers know the techniques
that provide the best chance of safe recovery and escape from a crevasse.
Before stepping onto a glacier, climbers must have a clear appreciation of
the dangers as well as confidence in their ability to deal with those dangers.

GLACIERS AND CREVASSES

Glaciers constantly change as snow supply and temperature influence their
advance and retreat. In classic form, glaciers are like a frozen river creeping
down a mountain (as shown in Figure 18-1), yet they differ from a river in
many ways. Some glaciers are small, relatively stagnant pockets of frozen
snow. Others are icefields of immense proportions, full of teetering forms
and dramatic releases of ice. (See Chapter 27, The Cycle of Snow, for
information on the formation of glaciers.)
Glacial flow patterns can be very complex, but a typical mountain glacier
may flow between 150 and 1,300 feet (roughly 45 to 400 meters) per year.
Most glaciers flow faster in the warmth of summer than in winter because
they are lubricated by increased meltwater. Glacial flow breaks the surface
of the ice into those elemental mountaineering obstacles known as crevasses.
Crevasses often form where the angle of the slope increases significantly,
putting tension on the snow and ice, which then split open (fig. 18-1e).
Crevasses also commonly form where a glacier makes a turn, with the
outside edge usually crevassing more (fig. 18-1f); where the distance
between valley walls either narrows or expands; or where two glaciers meet.
Crevasses may also develop around a bedrock feature that obstructs the
glacial flow, such as a rock formation protruding through the ice—a nunatak
(fig. 18-1d). At the point where a moving glacier breaks away from the
permanent snowcap or ice cap above, the large crevasse called a bergschrund
is formed (fig. 18-1b). The middle of a glacier tends to have fewer crevasses
than the sides, and a gently sloping glacier usually has fewer crevasses than
a steep, fast-moving one.
Crevasses are most dangerous in the accumulation zone (fig. 18-1h), that
portion of a glacier that receives more snow every year than it loses to
melting. Here, crevasses (fig. 18-2a and b) are frequently covered with snow
bridges that may be too weak to support a climber. Below the accumulation
zone is the area of the glacier where annual melting matches or exceeds the
yearly snowfall. Between the two zones is the firn line, also known as the
névé line (fig. 18-1c), both words for “old snow.”
Fig. 18-1. Aerial view of a glacier showing principal features.
Fig. 18-2. Crevasse formation: a and b, crevasses open up in the upper snow and ice layers as glacier
angle increases; c, denser lower area moves without splitting; d, bedrock.

The deeper layers of a glacier, denser and more plastic than the upper
section, can move and deform without cracking (fig. 18-2c). If this deeper,
older ice becomes exposed, the glacier takes on a folded, seamless
appearance, often without any true open crevasses. Travel on such a glacier
can be relatively simple and safe. These glaciers are usually fairly flat, with
narrow, shallow crevasses that are not difficult to cross. Below it all is
bedrock (fig. 18-2d).

OTHER COMMON GLACIER HAZARDS

Common hazards on glaciers beyond crevasses include: ice avalanches,
moats, glacial moraines, meltwater, whiteouts, and rockfall.
Ice avalanches. Ice avalanches can pour from the steep, jumbled glacial
sections known as icefalls (see Figure 16-37h in Chapter 16, Snow Travel
and Climbing) when seracs (towers of ice) come crashing down (see Figure
16-37f and g). The inexorable movement of a glacier means that ice
avalanches can occur anytime; their activity is only partly related to season,
temperature, or snowfall. Serac collapse does seem to happen frequently
during the day when the temperature rises above freezing and at night when
it drops below freezing. Travel through these areas should be prudently swift
if it cannot be avoided.
Moats. Big gaps that appear when winter snows melt back from a rock
face, called moats (fig. 18-1a), can present major barriers to glacier travelers
who need to regain the rock in order to stay on route. Belayed mountaineers
may be able to cross a snow bridge over a moat or climb into the moat and
back up onto the rock on the other side.
Glacial moraines. Mounds of rocky debris carried and then deposited by
the glacier, called glacial moraines (fig. 18-1i, j, k, n, and o), make rugged
venues indeed for mountain travel, impeding efficient movement by a
climbing party. Moraines are typically steep-sided, narrow ridges with partly
buried boulders ready to dislodge at the slightest touch. The moraine surface
is often as hard as cement. As climbers approach the fringe where the glacier
begins, there may be a soupy mix of ice and moraine gravel, or rocks skating
around like ball bearings on hard ice.
Meltwater. The runoff flowing from a glacier (fig. 18-1m) can be a
chilling challenge to cross. During warm weather, consider waiting to cross
until the cooler hours of the next morning, when flow should be at its lowest.
(See “Rivers and Streams” in Chapter 6, Wilderness Travel, for more advice
on crossing rivers.)
Whiteouts. In a whiteout on a glacier, sky and snow merge into a
seamless blend of white—with no apparent up or down, east or west—taxing
routefinding skills to the utmost. Climbers can defend against a whiteout by
taking such precautions as placing route-marking wands, noting compass
bearings and altimeter readings, or recording GPS waypoints during the
ascent—even when it looks as though clear weather will prevail. If snow or
clouds close in and leave the climbing party in a whiteout, these simple
precautions will pay off on the descent.
 Rockfall. Glaciers are subject to rockfall from bordering walls and ridges.
For glacier climbs, whatever the season, the general rule is “early on and
early off.” The nighttime cold freezes rock in place and prevents most
rockfall, whereas direct sun melts the bonds. The greatest hazard comes in
the late morning, when sun melts the ice, and in the evening, when
meltwater expands as it refreezes, breaking rocks loose.

EQUIPMENT FOR GLACIER TRAVEL

Take a look at climbing gear with glaciers and crevasses in mind. Here are
some considerations in getting ready for glacier travel.

ROPES
Ropes with “dry” treatment, although more expensive, absorb much less
water from melting snow and pick up less grit from a glacier. This makes
them lighter and easier to work with following an overnight freeze. The type
of rope needed depends on the glacier.
Shorter 30- to 50-meter (121- to 164-foot) half and twin ropes are
generally adequate for most glacier travel. The lighter, thinner rope is more
than adequate for general glacier use, because crevasse falls put a relatively
gradual impact on the rope due to rope friction on the snow and over the lip
of the crevasse. An added advantage is the lighter pack weight.
Steep technical climbing, however, which has the possibility of severe
leader falls, requires a 50- to 60-meter (164- to 196-foot) single climbing
rope or two half or twin ropes used in the double-rope or twin-rope
technique (see Chapter 14, Leading on Rock).

HARNESSES
For glacier travel, be sure the waist belt and leg loops of the harness can
adjust to fit over several layers of cold-weather clothing. Glacier travelers
also wear a chest harness, which can be made from a piece of webbing. (See
“Harnesses” in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System.)

ICE AXE AND CRAMPONS

An ice axe and crampons are as important for safe glacier travel as they are
for travel on any firm, sloped surface of snow or ice. The ice axe aids with
balance and provides a means for self-belay and self-arrest. If a rope mate
drops into a crevasse, other climbers on the rope use their ice axes to go into
self-arrest, controlling and stopping the fall. Choose an ice axe with a
uniform taper from the spike to the shaft, because a blunt spike, curved shaft,
and grip enhancements make it hard to sink the axe into the snow when
probing for crevasses.
When walking roped on a glacier, climbers may consider tethering their
ice axe to the harness. The benefit is that in the event climbers lose their grip
on the ice axe, it will not get lost. The downside is that in case of a fall,
climbers may get injured by the ice axe. (See “Ice-Axe Leash” in Chapter
16, Snow Travel and Climbing.)

TABLE 18-1. SIZING PRUSIK SLINGS

CLIMBER’S FOOT SLING WAIST SLING

HEIGHT LENGTH LENGTH

5 feet (1.5 meters) 11 feet (3.4 meters) 5 feet (1.5 meters)

5 feet 6 inches (1.7 11 feet 6 inches 5 feet 6 inches (1.7 meters)

meters) (3.5 meters)

6 feet (1.8 meters) 12 feet (3.6 meters) 6 feet (1.8 meters)

6 feet 6 inches (2 13 feet (3.9 meters) 6 feet 6 inches (2 meters)

meters)

Crampons provide secure footing and enable efficient travel on refrozen

snow, which is typically very hard in the early morning. A word of warning
about using crampons for descending steep glacial terrain: A number of
accidents and falls have resulted from crampon points getting caught on
climbers’ clothing or gear hanging low from gear loops. It is important to
develop good habits of foot placement and gear management (see the
“Crampon Safety Rules” sidebar in Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing).
Wearing crampons in soft snow—often encountered on descent later in the
day during warmer months—can also be dangerous, so weigh the benefits
and risks of keeping crampons on as you travel.

ASCENDERS
Climbers traveling on glaciers also carry prusik slings and/or ascenders,
depending on the route.

Prusik System
For personal safety, one of the most important pieces of gear a glacier
traveler can carry is a set of prusik slings for ascending the rope after a
crevasse fall. The slings are two loops of 5- to 7-millimeter Perlon accessory
cord attached to the climbing rope with friction hitches. When a climber puts
weight on a prusik sling, the hitch grips the rope firmly; when the climber’s
weight is removed, the hitch can be loosened and moved up or down the
rope.
Though there are many ways to configure a prusik setup for glacier travel,
the Texas prusik system is the focus here. Figure 18-3 shows details on how
to make Texas prusik slings for the feet (fig. 18-3a) and waist (fig. 18-3b)
using 6-millimeter accessory cord. As with all prusik systems, it is critical to
size the slings correctly for each individual’s height (see Table 18-1). Figure
18-4 shows a way to approximately gauge the correct sizing. When a
climber is standing in the sling (as shown in Figure 18-20c), the top of the
foot sling (fig. 18-4a) should be at about waist level and the top of the waist
sling (fig. 18-4b) should be at about eye level.
Before taking the slings out onto a glacier, check their sizing at home.
Dangle in the slings from a rope thrown over a garage rafter or a tree limb to
find out if or whether they need to be adjusted.
The two slings are commonly attached to the rope with prusik hitches.
Some climbers prefer the bachmann friction hitch because it incorporates a
carabiner, which makes a good handle to use while loosening and sliding the
slings because it can be gripped easily with a gloved hand. If webbing must
be used rather than accessory cord, the klemheist is the best friction hitch to
use. (See “Knots, Bends, and Hitches” in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System.)

Mechanical Ascenders
Some glacier travelers carry mechanical ascenders, which attach to the rope
more easily than friction knots do. On icy ropes, the ascenders work better
and can be operated more readily with gloved hands. A disadvantage is that
ascenders traditionally have been heavy and expensive, though a number of
cheaper, lightweight devices are now available. Some models have smooth,
rather than toothed, cams. These ascenders grip the rope by pure camming
action, so they may be safer to use in situations where high fall forces may
occur, such as in a crevasse fall. (See “Mechanical Ascenders” in Chapter
15, Aid and Big Wall Climbing.)

OTHER STANDARD GLACIER GEAR

Often each climbing party carries a shovel, which is useful in flattening
campsites and in rescue situations. Each party member should also carry the
following gear:
Rescue pulley. Many models of pulley have been designed for use in
climbing. Pulleys for use in rescue hauling systems should be compatible
with a friction hitch (that is, the pulley should not get jammed when used
with a prusik or bachmann hitch). If no pulley is available, a carabiner can
be used in the rescue hauling system, but it adds considerable friction.
Fig. 18-3. How to make Texas prusik slings using accessory cord: a, the foot slings; b, the waist sling.
Fig. 18-4. Texas prusik dimensions: a, foot sling should extend from boots to belly button; b, waist
sling should extend from belly button to eyebrows.

Anchor. If conditions warrant, carry a snow or ice anchor such as a snow

picket or an ice screw. (See “Snow Anchors” in Chapter 16, Snow Travel
and Climbing, and “Ice Screws” in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing.)
Runners. Bring at least one double-length and two single-length runners
for attaching to anchors. Tied runners, rather than sewn runners, work better
for crevasse rescue, because their length can be more easily adjusted.
Belay device. See “Using Belay Devices” in Chapter 10, Belaying.
Carabiners. Carry at least two locking carabiners and three regular
carabiners.

CLOTHING
To be ready for a fall into a crevasse, climbers need to dress for the frigid
interior of the glacier even when it is a hot day on top. Priorities collide here,
because climbers are preparing for the cold but at the same time trying to
minimize sweating.
Select outer garments that can easily be ventilated, such as pants with side
zippers and a jacket with armpit zippers. Zip these closed if you end up in a
crevasse. Consider strapping an insulated jacket, if you are not wearing it, to
the outside of the pack, where it can easily be reached. Stash a warm hat and
gloves in the jacket pockets.
For the base layer, wear a long-sleeved light-colored top that reflects the
sun’s heat but still provides warmth if you end up inside a crevasse. A
lightweight wind jacket can take the edge off breezy conditions and serve as
a valuable midlayer without taking up much space or weight in the pack.
Another useful item is a lightweight neck gaiter that can be pulled up over
the face or converted to a head covering for sun and wind protection. Wear
liner gloves, at a minimum, to protect hands in the event of self-arrest.

SKIS AND SNOWSHOES

Skis or snowshoes are essential for winter or arctic mountaineering because
they distribute climbers’ weight over a larger area, thus keeping them from
sinking too deeply into the snow. Skis or snowshoes also reduce the chance
of a climber breaking through snow bridges over hidden crevasses, which is
helpful on some glacier climbs. Snowshoes are usually more practical than
skis for roped glacier travel unless all members of the rope team are highly
skilled skiers (for further information on ski mountaineering, see Resources).

WANDS
Wands can be used to mark the location of crevasses, identify turning points,
and show the climbing route in case a whiteout occurs on the return and the
climbing team is not using a GPS device. Space between wands should be a
distance equal to the total length of the climbing party when roped and
moving in single file. For example, a party of nine (three rope teams on 50-
or 60-meter ropes) will use 10 to 12 wands for each mile (1.6 kilometers) of
glacier walking; smaller teams or climbers on shorter ropes will need more.
Wands can also be used to indicate potential danger. Two wands forming
an X indicate a known danger, such as a weak snow bridge over a crevasse.
Wands can also be used when setting up camp on a glacier to mark the
boundaries of the safe areas for unroped walking and the location of buried
supplies (caches).
Climbers usually make their own wands using 30- to 48-inch (76- to 122-
centimeter) green-stained bamboo garden stakes topped with a colored duct
tape flag. Write the party’s initials on the flags (and consider numbering
them) to be certain the team is retracing the correct route. On ascent, insert
the wands so they indicate the direction of travel, deeply enough to
compensate for melting snow or high winds. Make sure to remove your
wands on descent, but do not remove other parties’ wands.

FUNDAMENTALS OF GLACIER TRAVEL

Climbers should be moving well before the sun rises and begins weakening
snow bridges and loosening avalanche slopes. On glacier climbs, parties
grow to appreciate alpine starts: the brilliance of stars at higher altitudes,
perhaps the glow of moonlight on snow, the distinctive sounds of crampons
on ice, the tinkling of carabiners in the still night. Sometimes the climbing
party is alone on the glacier; other times, distant trains of lights show that
other parties are also on the route. The magic of watching a sunrise from
high on a mountain above a sea of clouds remains with a climber long after
memories of the trip’s exertion have faded.
Climbers should head out on the glacier with prevention in mind,
practicing effective risk management strategies to avoid a crevasse rescue
scenario. See the “Crevasse Risk Management” sidebar.

USING THE ROPE

When and where to rope up for glacier travel is a major decision that
requires considerable experience and expertise. However, the general rule of
safe glacier travel is to rope up. This holds whether or not climbers are
familiar with the glacier and whether or not they believe they can see and
avoid all of its crevasses. Roping up is especially important in areas above
the firn line, where snow accumulates and conceals some crevasses.
It is tempting to walk unroped onto a glacier that looks like a benign
snowfield, especially if climbers have gone up similar routes time after time
without mishap. Avoid the temptation. Taking the extra time to deal with the
rope, like wearing a seat belt in a car, greatly increases a climber’s chances
of surviving the most likely accident on a glacier: falling into a crevasse.
Some climbers travel unroped on certain glaciers in the area below the firn
line if crevasses are stable and easily seen, but this kind of unroped travel is
best left to climbers with a great deal of glacier travel experience.

CREVASSE RISK MANAGEMENT

Defending against a crevasse fall
First line of defense: reliable footwork, good routefinding, vigilance
Second line of defense: good rope management and glacier travel
skills
Third line of defense: adequate power to stop a fall

Rescuing after a crevasse fall

Preclimb assignment of a crevasse rescue incident commander and
backup commander
Formulation of a simple, effective rescue plan tailored to the
circumstances
Timely, accurate assessment of a fall and its consequences
Quick appraisal of available rescue personnel and gear resources
Competent deployment of the rescue plan

On bare ice, which is often encountered in the late season, it is dangerous

to rope up, because crevasse falls are almost impossible to arrest on hard ice.
Under these circumstances, consider the conditions and determine if using a
running belay would be prudent (see “Running Belays” in Chapter 16, Snow
Travel and Climbing).

Rope Teams
Rope team size is a complex decision that must take into account the need
for speed and efficiency, the experience of the team members, and the
conditions. Generally, smaller teams are better coordinated, more efficient,
and faster than larger teams. On the other hand, larger teams are better able
to arrest a fall and have more haulers available for crevasse rescue. Like
many climbing decisions, there are unavoidable trade-offs that are best made
on the basis of skill and experience.
Rope teams of three or four climbers each are ideal for travel on glaciers
where no technical climbing will be encountered. With a rope team of three
or four, more people are available to arrest a rope mate’s fall or aid a climber
who has fallen into a crevasse. A minimum party size of two rope teams is
recommended so a team involved in an accident will have backup help.
Glacier travelers usually put three people on a 37-meter (121-foot) rope
and three or four people on a 50- or 60-meter (164- or 196-foot) rope. These
configurations space the climbers far enough apart so that as the rope team
crosses a typical crevasse, only one person at a time is at risk. Where there
are truly humongous crevasses—in the Himalaya or the Alaska Range, for
example—climbers may need to space themselves farther apart. Keep in
mind that under more typical glacier travel conditions, closer spacing allows
for better communication and more rapid response to falls.
On technical glacier terrain—with slopes steeper than 40 degrees or with
severe crevassing—belaying may be necessary, making it more efficient to
travel in two-person rope teams. In this situation, having a second rope team
as rescue backup becomes even more important. While the person who is on
the same rope as the fallen climber holds the rope fast, the second team can
set up a snow anchor and initiate the rescue (see “Crevasse Rescue
Response,” later in this chapter).

Tying In
It is best to tie the rope directly in to the tie-in loops on the harness—rather
than tying a butterfly knot or a figure eight on a bight in the rope and
clipping the loop in to two locking carabiners at the harness—because the
direct tie-in does not require a carabiner (a potential weak link) to connect
climber and rope. Of course, a clip-in connection makes it easy to disconnect
and reconnect to the rope, but this is not normally done repeatedly over the
course of a day on a glacier. Following are some general glacier tie-in
procedures, depending on the size of the rope team.
Two-person rope. The most convenient procedure is to have only a
portion of the rope stretched between the climbers, because a full rope length
can have too much slack as the climbers weave through a maze of crevasses.
Using only part of the rope also leaves some rope free for rescue use.
Shortening the rope with coils is the preferred method for tying in to a
shortened rope, although the remaining rope may also be stored in the
climber’s pack. This is illustrated and explained in “Special Rescue
Situations” later in this chapter.
 Three-person rope. Two of the climbers tie in at the very ends of the
rope, usually with a rewoven figure eight through the tie-in loops of their
harnesses (fig. 18-5). The middle climber ties in to the center of the rope,
most commonly with a butterfly knot (fig. 18-6). It has the advantage of
being easier to untie after having been weighted, but as noted above, it adds
two carabiners to the tie-in. Use two dedicated locking carabiners opposite
and opposed to clip it to the harness belay loop, separate from the carabiner
for the waist prusik sling. If the waist prusik sling is on the same carabiner, it
could be difficult to remove the sling should it need to be moved to the other
strand of rope because the butterfly knot would be loaded with the fallen
climber’s weight.

Fig. 18-5. Rigged and ready end climber. Note prusik slings attached to rope—the other ends of the
foot prusik sling can be clipped to the harness or stuffed in a pocket.

Four-person rope. Divide the rope into thirds. Two climbers tie in at the
ends, as just described above; the other two tie in at the one-third points, as
described above.

Chest Harness
The purpose of the chest harness is to keep the climber upright in case of a
crevasse fall. A chest harness can easily be created from a length of tied
webbing (see “Chest Harness” in Chapter 9, Basic Safety System). Put the
chest harness on over your base layer, or any layers you will not be
removing, before heading out onto the glacier. Adjust the size of the harness
to fit snugly yet comfortably.
In most cases on nontechnical glacier climbs with lighter packs, the chest
harness is not clipped in to the rope during travel. In expedition travel or
when climbers are carrying heavy packs, clipping the chest harness will help
them stay upright in case of a fall; not clipping the chest harness may make
it very difficult to regain an upright stance inside a crevasse. Traveling with
the chest harness clipped to the rope hampers the ability to perform self-
arrest in case of a teammate’s fall, though, because the tension on the rope
comes high on a climber’s body. A good compromise is to unzip outer layers
enough to clip the climbing rope in to the chest-harness carabiner when
crossing a snow bridge or otherwise facing immediate danger of a crevasse
fall; otherwise, travel with the chest harness unclipped.

Fig. 18-6. Rigged and ready middle climber: butterfly knot and three locking carabiners (two for the
butterfly knot, the other for the waist prusik sling).
Prusik Slings
Attach prusik slings to the climbing rope immediately after roping up to
begin glacier travel, so that the slings are ready for use in an emergency (see
Figure 18-5). The middle person on the rope will not know which end of the
rope might have to be climbed after a fall; therefore, the middle climber
should attach one prusik to the section of rope that goes to the climber in
front and the other prusik to the section that goes to the climber behind (see
Figure 18-6). After any fall, only one of the prusik slings will have to be
moved to the side of the rope that must be climbed. Regardless of how the
prusik slings are attached, stuff both foot loops into pockets, so they are
ready to be pulled out and slipped onto the feet when needed, or clip them to
the harness.
Rigging for glacier travel with a cordelette in place of the Texas foot
prusik may be preferable. A single foot loop system allows the other foot
freedom to balance against the crevasse wall, which can aid ascent if the
unhindered crampon can make adequate purchase on the wall. This may be
especially useful at the crevasse lip.
If using mechanical ascenders, do not attach them to the rope until after a
crevasse fall; if an ascender receives a shock load, it can damage the rope.
Some climbers girth-hitch a sling to their pack haul loop and clip it to a
shoulder strap with a carabiner, so that if they fall into a crevasse, the pack is
easier to secure and take off. This also makes it easier to anchor a pack on
steep sections of the glacier.

Rope Management
Following a couple of rules will help keep a roped party safe on a glacier.
No slack. The first rule of rope management on a glacier is to keep the
rope extended—not taut, but without undue slack. A rope that is fully
extended between climbers is insurance against a long plunge into a hidden
crevasse. Increasing slack in the climbing rope puts additional force on the
next climber in case of a fall (because the first climber is falling deeper into
the crevasse), making it more and more difficult to arrest promptly. The
falling climber therefore drops farther, increasing the chance of hitting
something or becoming wedged if the crevasse narrows. For the climbers
holding the fall, a slack rope can also pose the danger of causing them to be
dragged into the hole too.
 The rope leader should set a pace the others can follow for a long time.
Consider the type of terrain the team is moving through and adjust the pace
accordingly. The second, third, or fourth climbers must try to closely match
the pace of the leader so the rope stays extended. Followers should be alert
going downhill, when it becomes easy to walk too fast and create slack.
At sharp turns, the rope tends to go slack when the climber in front of you
heads in the new direction and then tightens when you near the turn yourself.
Throughout the turn, adjust your pace to keep the slack out of the rope. At
sharp turns, it is usually necessary to make new tracks, outside the leader’s
footsteps, in order to keep the rope fully extended—though at other times,
following climbers would normally stay in the leader’s path for safety and
ease of travel.
To keep the right amount of tension in the rope, travel with a small loop of
the climbing rope, 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 centimeters) long, held in the
downhill hand. Gripping this makes it easier to feel the progress of rope
mates and adjust your pace as needed. Keeping the rope on the downhill side
of a glacier keeps the rope out from under your feet and helps avoid
entangling the rope in crampons.
Do not forget safety when the party reaches a rest stop or campsite.
Always belay climbers into and out of a gathering place. The rope must stay
extended and slack-free until the area has been thoroughly probed for
crevasses. Once a safe area for the team has been established, the climber in
front belays the next climber into the safe area by pulling the rope through
his or her prusik, with ice axe in hand. In case of a fall, the belayer releases
the rope and drops into the arrest position; the prusik hitch will hold the
rope. When leaving the safe area to resume climbing, belay the climbers out
using the prusik as well.
Right angle to crevasses. The second important rule of rope management
on a glacier is to run the rope at right angles to a crevasse whenever possible.
A rope team that travels more or less parallel to a crevasse is risking a
lengthy pendulum fall for a climber who falls in (fig. 18-7). Although it is
not always possible to keep the rope at right angles to a crevasse, keeping
this goal in mind helps climbers choose the best possible route (fig. 18-8).
Fig. 18-7. Where the rope runs more or less parallel to a crevasse, a fall would be made worse by a
pendulum.

Fig. 18-8. Be aware of your rope partner’s position in order to keep the rope as perpendicular to
crevasses as possible.

DETECTING CREVASSES
Figuring out where the crevasses are and picking a route through them is
fundamental to safe glacier travel. On many glaciers, routefinding is part
planning, part experience, and part luck. See the “Tips for Detecting
Crevasses” sidebar below.
Sometimes climbers can get a head start on planning by studying
photographs of the glacier before the trip, because some crevasse patterns
remain fairly constant from year to year. Online mapping resources provide
overhead views of the glacier that can be helpful in identifying these
patterns. Seek out recent reports from parties who have visited the area,
though in summer, reports older than a week are generally not too helpful,
due to melting. On the approach hike, try to get a good up-valley or cross-
valley look at the glacier before reaching it. Climbers may see an obvious
route that would be impossible to discover once they are on the glacier. Take
photos and make notes to help remember major crevasses, landmarks, and
route options.
Though looking at guidebook photographs and getting distant views of a
glacier are useful, prepare to be surprised when you actually get there. What
appeared to be small cracks may be gaping chasms. Also, just because a
crevasse cannot be seen does not mean it is not there; it may be covered by a
thin layer of snow or may not be visible from your angle of view. Stay alert
and be prepared to backtrack and take an alternate route.

TIPS FOR DETECTING CREVASSES

Keep an eye out for sagging trenches in the snow that mark where
gravity has pulled down on snow over a crevasse’s opening. This is a
prime characteristic of a hidden crevasse. The sags are visible by
their slight difference in sheen, texture, or color. The low-angle light
of early morning and late afternoon tends to accentuate this feature.
(The sags may be impossible to detect in the flat light of a fog or in
the glare of the midafternoon sun, and it takes additional information
to distinguish them from certain wind-created forms.)
Be wary after storms. New snow can fill a sagging trench and make
it blend into the surrounding surface. (At other times, however, the
new snow can actually make the sagging trench more apparent by
creating a hollow of new snow that contrasts with surrounding areas
of old snow.)
 Be especially alert in areas where crevasses are known to form—
for example, where a glacier makes an outside turn or where slope
angle increases.
Regularly sweep your eyes to the sides of the route to check for
open cracks to the left or right. Cracks could hint at crevasses that
extend beneath your path.
Remember that where there is one crevasse, there are often many.

After setting up base camp, have an advance party scout out the first
portion of the route in daylight; this can sometimes save many hours of
predawn routefinding, resulting in a more efficient and safer climb.

Snow Probing
Snow probing is the technique to use if a suspicious-looking area has been
found and the party wants to search it for crevasses. If a probe locates a
crevasse, continue probing in all directions around this area to find the
crevasse’s true lip. Probe with the ice axe, thrusting the shaft into the snow a
couple of feet ahead. Keep the axe perpendicular to the slope and thrust it in
with a smooth motion. If resistance to the thrust is uniform, the snow is
consistent to at least the depth of the axe. If resistance lessens abruptly, you
have probably found a hole. If the route must continue in the direction of this
hole, use further axe thrusts to establish the extent of the hole. The leader
should open up the hole so it is obvious to followers.
The value of probing depends on climbers’ skill and experience at
interpreting the changes they feel in the snow layers. An inexperienced
prober may think the shaft has broken through into a hole when all it has
done is hit a softer layer of snow. The ice axe is a limited probe because it is
relatively short. The lead climber can also use a ski pole (with the basket
removed), which is lighter, longer, and thinner than an axe, for easier, deeper
probes.

CROSSING A CREVASSE FIELD

Climbers have a number of ways to safely cross a field of crevasses. The
techniques described below are typical, but they will have to be adapted as
needed in the field. Routefinding on a glacier involves finding a path around
or over all the visible crevasses, guarding all the time against hidden
crevasses. The crossing is seldom without its detours as climbers carefully
pick their way over the glacier.

Make an End Run

Crossing directly over a crevasse is rarely a preferred choice. Where a
crevasse narrows in width, often near its end, the safest and most dependable
technique is to go around it, in an end run. A 0.25-mile (400-meter) detour
may gain the rope team only 20 or 30 feet (7 to 10 meters) of forward
progress, but it is often better than a direct confrontation with the crevasse.
In late summer, when the winter snow has melted down to the ice, it may be
possible to see the true end of the crevasse, but if seasonal snows still
blanket the glacier, the visible end of the crack may not be its true end. Make
a wide swing around the corner, probing carefully (fig. 18-9). Look closely
at adjacent crevasses to judge whether one of them could be an extension of
your crevasse; you might actually be crossing a snow bridge.

Use a Snow Bridge

If an end run is impractical, the next choice is to cross a crevasse on a snow
bridge. Deep winter snow hardened by wind can create a crevasse bridge
that lasts into the summer climbing season. Other, sturdier bridges are
actually thin isthmuses between two crevasses, with foundations that extend
deep into the body of the glacier.
Study a snow bridge carefully—try for a side view—before putting any
faith in it. If in doubt, the leader can approach it to probe and get a close-up
look while the second climber stays braced against the taut rope, prepared in
case the leader possibly breaks through and ready to drop into self-arrest if
needed (fig. 18-10). After the leader gets across, the rest of the party follows
exactly in the leader’s steps, also receiving a degree of protection from a taut
rope held by a braced climber.
Fig. 18-9. End run around a crevasse, keeping the rope fully extended by not following in the leader’s
footsteps.

A snow bridge’s strength varies tremendously with temperature. A bridge

that might support a truck in the cold of winter or early morning may
collapse under its own weight during an afternoon thaw. Use caution every
time you cross a snow bridge. Do not assume that a bridge that held in the
morning during the ascent will still be safe during the descent in the
afternoon. In cases of dubious snow bridges, setting up a belay may save the
party from having to execute a time-consuming crevasse rescue.
Fig. 18-10. Crossing a snow bridge with caution.

Jump
Jumping is one of the least common tactics for crossing a crevasse (fig. 18-
11). Most jumps across crevasses are short, simple leaps. Before planning a
desperate lunge, be sure you have ruled out all the alternatives and see that
you are well belayed.
While well supported by a taut rope or by a belay, probe to find the true
edge of the crevasse. If a running start is needed for the jump, tramp down
the snow for better footing. Put on a jacket and gloves (you should already
be wearing a helmet); check prusiks and harness; and spool out the amount
of rope slack needed from the belayer. Then jump with your ice axe in the
self-arrest position, ready to help you claw over the lip if you fall shy of a
clean landing on the other side.
Once the leader is safely on the other side, the rope is now linked to the
landing side, so the other climbers have a less-dangerous jump ahead: the
belay rope can help pull up any jumper who falls just short of the target.
 Use caution and common sense if the leap is from the high lip of a
crevasse over to a lower side. (Bergschrunds, for example, often have an
overhanging high wall on the uphill side.) Injuries are possible in a long,
hard leap. If such a leap must be made, keep feet slightly apart for balance,
knees bent to absorb shock, and ice axe held ready for a quick self-arrest.
Beware of getting crampons caught on clothing.

Go into the Crevasse

On rare occasions, it may be practical to get to the other side of a shallow
crevasse by climbing down into the crevasse, crossing it at the bottom or at a
narrow point, and climbing up on the other side. This tactic should be
attempted only by a strong, highly trained, well-equipped party that is ready
to provide a good belay. One further caution: often what appears to be a
solid bottom is not; if the crevasse bottom collapses and leaves a climber
hanging, the party must be able to provide assistance.

Fig. 18-11. Jumping a crevasse (tie-in knot and belayer not shown).

Use the Echelon Formation

Certain crevasse patterns preclude the rule of keeping the rope at right angles
to crevasses. If the route demands travel that is parallel to crevasses, it
sometimes helps to use the echelon formation: climbers somewhat to the
side of and behind the leader, as in a series of stair steps (fig. 18-12). This
formation is safest on stable, heavily crevassed glaciers on which the
location of crevasses is known and the risk of hidden holes is small. The
formation offers an alternative to following in the leader’s footsteps through
a maze of crevasses where single-file travel is impractical. Avoid moving in
echelon formation where hidden crevasses are likely.

CREVASSE RESCUE RESPONSE

The depths of a great crevasse are awe-inspiring. On a fine day, the walls are
a sheen of soft blue ice in the filtered light from high above, and the cavern
is cool, still, and quiet. It is a place every climber should visit occasionally—
for crevasse rescue practice. But if you end up in a crevasse at another time,
you may be relying on your climbing teammates to get you out safely (see
the “Crevasse Rescue Safety Precautions” sidebar).
Fig. 18-12. Echelon formation, with a rope team in a stair-step-like position.

It is typically the first person on the rope—often one of the more

experienced members of the team—who falls in when a rope team crosses a
hidden crevasse. Here is the scenario: You are the middle person on a three-
person rope team traveling up a moderately angled glacier. The leader
walking 50 feet (15 meters) in front of you suddenly disappears beneath the
snow. What do you do? (A middle-climber fall is discussed in “Special
Rescue Situations,” later in this chapter.)
Stop the fall immediately! Drop into self-arrest (facing away from the
direction of pull) and hold the fall. The other rope partner (the end climber)
will do the same thing. (Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing, has details
on ice-axe self-arrest.)
Once the fall is stopped (fig. 18-13), the critical steps in crevasse rescue
begin. Learning these procedures well requires training in the field,
augmented with annual practice. The principal steps in a successful crevasse
rescue, beginning the instant the fall is stopped, are listed briefly here and
discussed in detail in the sections that follow. (The more involved seven
steps in accident response are discussed in Chapters 24, First Aid, and 25,
Alpine Rescue.)

Fig. 18-13. Stop and hold a fall into a crevasse.

Step 1. Set up a secure anchor system.

Step 2. Communicate with the fallen climber.
Step 3. Devise a rescue plan. There are two basic choices: Option 1. Self-
rescue—the fallen climber ascends the rope with prusik slings. Option
2. Team rescue—team members use a hauling system to pull the
climber out.
Step 4. Carry out the plan: Option 1. For a self-rescue, assist the fallen
climber as needed. Option 2. For a team rescue, set up the chosen
hauling system, then haul the climber out.

STEP 1. SET UP A SECURE ANCHOR SYSTEM

The goal in the first step of crevasse rescue is to anchor the climber in the
crevasse and allow the rescuers safe access to communicate with the fallen
climber. There are many ways to build a bomber crevasse rescue anchor.
Glacier travelers should learn several ways to build anchors that can be
adapted to changing conditions, variations in gear, and number of climbers.
Following is one approach to building a secure anchor system.

Build the Initial Anchor

If another trained rope team is available, they can begin setting up a rescue
anchor—this is a distinct advantage of traveling with more than one rope
team. Otherwise, the end climber on the rope generally has responsibility for
setting up the initial anchor. To free up the end climber, the middle climber
on the three-person team stays in self-arrest to support the weight of the
fallen climber, usually an easy task because rope friction across the snow
does much of the work.
The end climber slowly gets out of self-arrest, making sure the middle
climber can hold the weight alone, and then sets to work establishing an
anchor (fig. 18-14). In snow, a picket is often a good choice for the initial
anchor because it can be placed quickly in a vertical position, with either a
top-clip or midclip attachment, depending on the consolidation of the snow.
An ice axe may also be used (see “Snow Anchors” in Chapter 16, Snow
Travel and Climbing). If there is ice present, an ice-screw anchor will be
needed (see “Ice Screws” and “Setting Up Ice Anchors” in Chapter 19,
Alpine Ice Climbing). Place the anchor 5 to 10 feet (1.5 to 3 meters) down-
rope from the middle climber, toward the lip of the crevasse.

CREVASSE RESCUE SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

While working to rescue a fallen climber, observe these primary safety
considerations:
All anchor systems must be absolutely reliable, with backup anchors
to guard against failure.
All rescuers must be connected to anchors at all times.
The rescue must proceed as quickly as possible using efficient,
thorough execution of every essential step.
Fig. 18-14. End climber sets up the initial anchor, while middle climber holds fallen climber.

Attach the Rope to the Anchor

The person who has set up the anchor now attaches a short sling to the
climbing rope with a prusik hitch; a bachmann or klemheist friction hitch
may also be used (see “Knots, Bends, and Hitches” in Chapter 9, Basic
Safety System). This person then attaches a runner to the sling with a
carabiner and then clips the other end of the runner to the anchor with a
locking carabiner (as shown in Figure 18-14).
The next move is to slide the friction hitch down the rope, toward the
crevasse, until the sling assembly is tight, ready to take a load. Now anyone
who is still in self-arrest can ease the load onto the anchor (but still remains
in self-arrest, to back up the initial anchor). Confirm that the anchor is solid
and that the hitch is gripping the climbing rope tightly. (Keep in mind that if
a prusik hitch is used, one rescuer will have to tend the hitch later, whenever
the fallen climber is being pulled up. The bachmann friction hitch, on the
other hand, usually requires less tending.)
 As soon as the load is transferred to the initial anchor, back up the friction
hitch. Tie a figure eight on a bight in the climbing rope 12 inches or so
(about 30 centimeters) up-rope from the friction hitch. At the same time, use
a locking carabiner to clip a rescue pulley to the carabiner already on the
sling, running the climbing rope through the pulley. Clip the figure-eight
loop in to this new carabiner (fig. 18-15). With the pulley in place, the
beginnings of a 3:1 (Z) pulley hauling system are now created (see “Step 3.
Devise a Rescue Plan” below), saving time later if such a system needs to be
set up to haul the climber from the crevasse.

Build the Second Anchor

Never trust a single anchor that is certain to be fully weighted. Back it up
with a second anchor. While the end climber is building the second anchor,
the middle climber remains in the self-arrest position as a temporary backup
to the initial anchor.
The second anchor makes the system as fail-safe as possible. This anchor
needs to be bomber, so take the time to do it right. As with the initial anchor,
use a picket or a deadman for snow or an ice screw for ice. In snow, a good
combination is a picket for the first anchor and a deadman (such as a buried
picket) for the second anchor (fig. 18-16).

Fig. 18-15. Pulley and figure eight on a bight installed in the initial anchor.
Fig. 18-16. Install a second anchor to make a tight and well-aligned connection.

Link the second anchor to the sling that is tied to the climbing rope with a
prusik hitch in the same way that the initial anchor was linked to the sling.
Attach a runner to the sling with a carabiner (also clipping through the
pulley carabiner at the same time), and then clip the other end of the runner
to the second anchor with a carabiner. Try to make a taut connection from
anchor to sling, and remember the principles of equalization: keep the angle
between the two anchor slings small (see “Equalizing the Anchor” in
Chapter 10, Belaying).
With a secure anchor system in place, the team members are free to
proceed to the next steps in the crevasse rescue response. It is important for
climbers to remain attached to the main anchor at all times during the rescue,
using a personal anchor clipped directly in to the main anchor, using a waist
prusik or other sling friction-hitched to the climbing rope, or by staying tied
in to the climbing rope and requesting a belay.

STEP 2. COMMUNICATE WITH THE FALLEN CLIMBER

To develop a complete understanding of the fallen climber’s situation so the
party can devise a rescue plan, someone now needs to assess the fallen
climber’s situation.
A rescuer can be belayed from the anchor by a teammate or, better yet, a
rescuer can move to the lip of the crevasse with a self-belay. Use a prusik
hitch to connect a sling to a rope that is attached to the anchor (this can be
the climbing rope or a separate rope that is anchored), then clip the sling to
the harness with a locking carabiner. By sliding this prusik hitch along the
rope, a rescuer can move toward the crevasse edge on an anchored self-belay
(fig. 18-17).
Probe with the ice axe when approaching the crevasse lip to discover
where the snow surface may be undercut. Approach the lip to the side of
where the fall occurred so you do not knock snow and ice down onto the
fallen climber.
Try to talk with the fallen climber. If there is no answer, the fallen climber
may simply be out of earshot, or noisy wind on the glacier may be masking
the response. If further attempts still bring no response, the rescuer needs to
rappel or be lowered on belay into the crevasse to further assess the situation
and perform urgent first aid if needed. If the climber is seriously injured or
unconscious, the rescue method must take into account that the climber
cannot actively participate in the rescue. Some crevasse rescue systems are
better for dealing with this situation than others. (See the information on an
unconscious fallen climber in “Special Rescue Situations” later in this
chapter.)
If there is voice contact with the fallen climber, ask questions to find out
the full situation. Is the climber wedged in? Injured? In need of more
clothing? Is the climber now standing in prusik slings? Most importantly,
assure the climber that things are progressing topside but that the rescuers
need more information to determine the best way to carry out the rescue.
The fallen climber should be able to tell the rescuer whether self-rescue—
by climbing up the side of the crevasse or by prusiking out—is a possibility
or whether a hoist from above will be needed. There may even be the option
of lowering the climber farther down, to a ramp or ledge from where self-
rescue or hauling might be easier. The rescuer appointed to make
assessments at the lip of the crevasse has a great deal of responsibility, so
this person should be skilled in rescue techniques and first aid and be
prepared to provide important input on the rescue plan.

Fig. 18-17. Anchor system complete; self-belayed rescuer communicating with fallen climber. Note
anchored ice axe protecting rope from entrenchment at lip of crevasse.

Minimize Entrenching of the Rope

Regardless of the rescue method, it is essential to pad the lip of the crevasse
to minimize further entrenching of the rope. The entrenched rope adds a lot
of friction to the raising system, which exerts tremendous force on the
anchors if enough mechanical advantage or pulling power is used. An
entrenched rope will also hinder the rescuers’ efforts to hoist the climber up
over the lip and will confound a fallen climber’s own attempts to prusik over
it. Properly prepping the lip may take some careful excavation.
For padding, slide the shaft of an ice axe, a ski, a foam pad, or even a pack
under the rescue rope as close to the edge of the crevasse as can safely be
reached. Be careful when working with sharp objects (ice-axe picks, ski
edges) around the entrenched rope since a tensioned line is more easily cut.
Anchor the padding items so they cannot fall into the crevasse (see Figure
18-17).

STEP 3. DEVISE A RESCUE PLAN

Now it is time to choose a method for getting the fallen climber safely out of
the crevasse. Will the climber attempt self-rescue? Or will the team members
topside set up a hauling system to pull the climber out? After choosing
between self-rescue or team rescue, the party must choose among the various
methods of either self-rescue or team rescue. Factors that affect these
decisions include the condition of the climber, the number of rescuers, the
equipment available (ice climbing tools, additional ropes, pulleys, and so
forth), weather conditions, topography of the crevasse area, and any other
variables that will affect the safety of victim and rescuers.

Option 1. Self-Rescue
Self-rescue is often the easiest and fastest form of crevasse rescue, regardless
of party size. It has the added advantage of keeping the fallen climber active
and warm. Of course, it requires that the fallen climber be basically
uninjured and able to maneuver in the crevasse. For small parties that lack
the muscle power to hoist the fallen climber or that are pinned down holding
the rope, self-rescue may be the only practical option. This is especially true
for a two-person party traveling alone. A good self-rescue method for
ascending the rope is the Texas prusik (see “Rescue Methods” later in this
chapter).

Option 2. Team Rescue

Climbers have several choices among team-rescue methods, each with its
own particular advantages. Described and illustrated in “Rescue Methods”
later in this chapter, they are summarized here as part of the decision-making
process.
Direct haul. For a large party with an unentrenched rope, direct pull using
brute force works very well. It is fast and uncomplicated, uses minimal
equipment, and requires little or no help from the fallen climber. It works
best when perhaps a half dozen strong rescuers can haul on the rope and
when the pullers are on flat ground or downhill from the fallen climber.
2:1 (single) pulley method. When the rope is badly entrenched or when
there are sufficient haulers, the 2:1 pulley method may be best. An
entrenched rope will not matter because this method requires a separate
length of rope—either the unused end of the accident rope or another rope
entirely. The length of available rope must be at least twice as long as the
distance from the initial anchor to the fallen climber. The mechanical
advantage of the pulley makes hoisting this way a lot easier than by using
brute force alone, though it still usually takes a minimum of three or four
people to do the pulling. The fallen climber must be able to contribute to the
rescue, with at least one good hand for clipping in to the rescue pulley and
for maintaining balance.
3:1 (Z) pulley method. When a fallen climber is unable to help in the
rescue or when few haulers are available, the 3:1 pulley may be the best
method. The pull force is on the accident rope, which may be partially
entrenched in the snow, but the high mechanical advantage of the system
gives haulers the power to overcome some entrenchment.
Other rescue methods. Though the crevasse rescue systems mentioned
above are among the most common, there are other team-rescue methods
worth considering. Piggybacking two systems together, such as a single-
pulley setup hauling on a 3:1 pulley system, creates a higher mechanical
advantage and, thus, even more hauling power. Other notable options
include the Double Mariner 5:1 haul, the 6:1 drop loop method, and the
Spanish Burton 5:1 system—all worth exploring further.

Alternatives
A climber who falls into a crevasse does not necessarily have to come back
out at the same spot. Check the possibility of lowering or swinging the fallen
climber to a ledge. It might be a good spot for the victim to rest, as well as
perhaps a gateway to a different part of the crevasse where rescue will be
easier. Consider whether the bottom of the crevasse looks solid. This could
offer another resting spot and a possible path to a climbing route or a snow
ramp back to the surface.

STEP 4. CARRY OUT THE PLAN

Now the fallen climber must be safely removed from the crevasse. If self-
rescue is the chosen plan, the climbers topside assist as needed. If it will be a
team rescue, the climbers topside set up the selected hauling system and pull
the fallen climber out. See “Rescue Methods” later in this chapter.
A party with enough people or a second rope team should assign one
climber as the communicator at the lip of the crevasse throughout the rescue.
Be careful near unstable crevasse edges so as not to dislodge debris onto the
climber below. Good communication is especially important as the fallen
climber approaches the lip to ensure that the climber is not getting pulled
into the crevasse wall.
In cases where the fallen climber has trouble climbing out over the
crevasse lip due to an entrenched rope, consider lowering gear (ideally,
linked to a different anchor) such as slings tied together, carabiner chains, et
cetera, to provide additional support points or an alternate exit.

INSIDE THE CREVASSE

While the climbers on top are preparing for rescue, the fallen climber has
work to do down in the crevasse, beginning with the moment of recovery
from the fall. The fallen climber should do the following.

Get Pack and Ice Axe Out of the Way

If possible, send your pack and ice axe up on a rope lowered by the rescuers.
If this is not possible, clip the axe to your harness, letting it hang so it does
not interfere with your movement (see Figures 18-14 and 18-17). If at the
beginning of the climb you did not rig a runner to the pack’s haul loop (see
“Using the Rope” earlier in this chapter), do this now: Girth-hitch a short
sling through the pack’s haul loop, then clip the sling with a carabiner in to
the climbing rope between your harness and prusik attachments. The pack
will then hang below you; as you prusik up the rope, the hanging pack will
slide freely along the bottom of the loop of climbing rope and weight the
rope, making it easier for you to climb (fig. 18-18).
Attain an Upright Position
If you did not land upright or already shift your body, work yourself into an
upright position. Normally you do this by clipping the climbing rope through
the carabiner at your chest harness. (This may be difficult or impossible to
do until you have hung your pack, as described above.)

Get into Prusik Slings

Remove the prusik slings’ foot loops from your pocket and slip one of the
two adjustable loops over each boot (see “Using the Rope” earlier in this
chapter). If you are wearing crampons, it will not be easy. Cinch the slipknot
to tighten the slings around your boots. Getting into your prusik slings that
are attached to the climbing rope permits you to alternate between standing
in the foot sling and sitting from the waist sling as you dangle (fig. 18-19).
You will be a lot more comfortable and will be ready to climb up the rope
using the slings.
Fig. 18-18. Self-rescue using the Texas prusik system with the pack out of the way.

As soon as you have clipped in to your chest harness, moved your pack
and ice axe out of the way, and caught your breath, it is usually advisable to
begin prusiking partway to the top if you are just dangling free in the
crevasse (see “Rescue Methods” below for a description of the Texas
prusik). If possible, let the other climbers know what you are doing. Move
carefully and deliberately so that you do not put sharp or sudden tugs on the
rope that could interfere with their work holding your weight and setting up
an anchor. Normally, though, the snow provides enough friction to help hold
the rope, especially if it is entrenched at the lip of the crevasse, so your
prusiking will not hamper your rescuers.

Fig. 18-19. Resting while using the Texas prusik system.

This preliminary prusiking gets you closer to the glacier surface, where it
is easier to communicate with rescuers. You and the other climbers can then
decide together on the best rescue plan. If the final plan is to use a hauling
system, your initial prusiking will have helped by making the haul shorter.
Even if the final plan is self-rescue by prusiking, you will probably need
their help in getting over the crevasse lip.
If the fall did not leave you dangling free but, instead, dropped you onto a
ledge, where most of your weight is off the rope, a different approach to
prusiking is required. In this case, go ahead and get into the prusik slings,
but wait to begin prusiking until you have talked it over with your rescuers.
If you were to start prusiking without an OK from topside, your full weight
coming suddenly onto the rope could unbalance and endanger the whole
team.

Keep Warm
Zip up your jacket, put on the hat and gloves you stuffed in its pockets
earlier, and try to put on additional layers of outerwear if possible.

RESCUE METHODS
This section describes the principal prusiking method for self-rescue and the
hauling methods for team rescue.

OPTION 1. SELF-RESCUE
The Texas prusik is a simple system that permits more progress per cycle
and more comfortable rests than other methods such as the stair-step prusik.
A climber with an injured leg can still ascend the rope with the Texas prusik
by using just one of the foot loops. Unlike the stair-step prusik, the Texas
prusik is easy to learn and execute. It will keep the climber upright without
having to be connected to a chest harness. In fact, it may be easier to move
the upper prusik when the climber is unclipped from the chest harness.

The Texas Prusik

This method of ascending the rope, developed by spelunkers (cavers), uses
one prusik sling for the feet and a separate sling for the waist (which is
clipped with a locking carabiner to your harness). The foot sling has two
loops, one for each foot, tied so that they will adjust and cinch down on the
boots. These are the steps for using the Texas prusik after recovering from a
fall into a crevasse:
1. Stand up in the foot loops. You are now ready to move upward.
2. Unclip from the chest harness.
3. Loosen the friction hitch attached to the waist sling and slide it up the
rope until it is taut.
4. Sit down in the harness, putting all your weight on the waist sling,
which releases your weight from the foot sling.
Fig. 18-20. Ascending a rope using the Texas prusik system (pack and ice axe omitted for clarity): a,
sitting or resting and moving foot prusik sling up; b, sitting on heels, ready to stand; c, standing and
moving waist sling up.

5. Loosen the friction hitch attached to the foot sling and slide it up the
rope—18 to 24 inches (50 to 75 centimeters), if the sling is properly
adjusted. Raise your feet with it (fig. 18-20a).
6. Stand up again in the foot loops (fig. 18-20b and c).
7. Keep repeating steps 3 through 6.

OPTION 2. TEAM RESCUE

All rescues are team rescues to some degree, because even in a self-rescue,
the fallen climber usually needs some help getting over the crevasse lip. A
full team rescue usually involves hauling the fallen climber to safety. The
principal hauling methods—direct haul, 2:1 (single) pulley, 3:1 (Z) pulley,
and piggyback systems—are described in the sections that follow. In any
rescue system calling for pulleys, carabiners can be substituted if necessary.
However, carabiners create far more friction and make the rope harder to
pull, and the load on the anchor system is correspondingly increased.

Direct Haul
A half dozen or so strong haulers line up along the accident rope and grasp
it. They position themselves up-rope beyond the point where the initial
anchor is attached to the climbing rope with a prusik hitch or bachmann
friction hitch. The hitch is then in the right place to hold the rope if the
haulers slip or need a rest. Before hauling begins, unclip the backup figure-
eight loop (shown in Figures 18-15, 18-16, and 18-17) from the anchor
system. Then the haulers go to work, pulling hand over hand on the rope or
moving step by step away from the crevasse.
One rescuer tends the hitch, making sure the rope moves smoothly
through it, and also keeps an eye on the anchor system. If there are enough
people, another person can be stationed at the lip of the crevasse to stay in
communication with the fallen climber.
The haulers should pull the rope at a slow, steady pace, especially when
the fallen climber reaches the crevasse lip. If the rope has cut into the lip, the
fallen climber could be injured by being pulled into the crevasse wall. At this
point, rescuers may ask the fallen climber to scramble over the lip (with the
help of an ice axe) while they hoist.

2:1 (Single) Pulley System

The 2:1 pulley system theoretically doubles the amount of weight that each
hauler could raise without a pulley, though friction lowers this ratio
somewhat. Because this method uses a length of rope that is separate from
the rope going to the fallen climber, this is the method of choice if the
accident rope is entrenched into the edge of the crevasse. However, it also
requires the assistance of the fallen climber, so it cannot be performed when
the fallen climber is unconscious. To carry out a rescue using the 2:1 pulley
system, follow these steps:
1. Use a rescue rope (the unused end of the accident rope or a separate
rope altogether) that is at least twice as long as the distance from the
initial anchor down to the fallen climber. Attach the rope to either the
existing anchor system or a new rescue anchor.
2. At the point where the rescue rope will go over the lip of the crevasse,
prepare the lip with padding, such as an ice axe or pack, to prevent the
 rescue rope from entrenching itself in the snow.
3. Double the rescue rope into a big loop. Affix a pulley to the loop and
attach a locking carabiner to the pulley. Leave the carabiner unlocked.
4. Lower the pulley and carabiner dangling from the loop down to the
fallen climber (fig. 18-21a). Have the climber clip and lock the
carabiner in to the belay loop on the harness. Confirm that this has been
done. Check that all the climber’s equipment is secure and ready for
hauling to begin. Have the climber clip the rescue rope—the portion
that is between the pulley and the pulling rescuers above (not the
portion that is between the pulley and the anchors above)—in to the
chest harness, to help the climber stay upright.
5. Assign a rescuer to attend to the slack that will develop in the original
accident rope as the fallen climber is raised. It is critically important
that this person pull slack through the friction hitch so that the rope is
always ready to accept the fallen climber’s weight, in case the pullers
slip or need a rest. If the fallen climber’s pack is clipped to the accident
rope, there will be considerable weight on the rope, and it may require
two people to take in the slack. Keep the existing backup figure eight
on a bight tied to the initial anchor in the system while the slack is
taken in; do not remove the knot.
6. With everything ready, the haulers start pulling on the unanchored end
of the rescue rope (fig. 18-21b). To ease their task somewhat, the fallen
climber can pull up on the anchored side of the rescue rope while the
hauling proceeds; this unweights the unanchored end of the rescue rope
somewhat.
Fig. 18-21. Setting up and raising a climber with the 2:1 (single) pulley system on a new rope
(rescuers’ personal anchors omitted for clarity): a, lowering the pulley to the fallen climber; b, raising
the fallen climber.

3:1 (Z) Pulley System

The 3:1 pulley system magnifies the muscle power of small climbing parties
by offering a three-to-one theoretical mechanical advantage through the use
of two pulleys. It can be set up and operated with no help from the fallen
climber, making it valuable for rescuing an unconscious person. The 3:1
pulley system normally uses the accident rope. It requires more equipment
and is more complicated than the other hauling methods described above.
First, confirm the solidity of the initial anchor system, because the 3:1
pulley system puts considerable stress on it. Take the loose end of the
climbing rope attached to the fallen climber—the end that extends
unweighted beyond the anchor—and lay out a long loop on the snow. This
loop and the rest of the rope going from the anchor to the fallen climber
should form a giant flat S in the snow, somewhat like a Z or a backward Z
with the sharp edges worn off.
At the first bend in the Z (by the initial anchor system), the first pulley for
hauling is already in place; this is the pulley attached to the initial anchor
system with a locking carabiner when the system was first set up. Also
clipped in to the locking carabiner are the prusik sling (also called the
ratchet prusik) and the backup figure-eight loop (see Figures 18-15, 18-16,
and 18-17).
Fig. 18-22. Raising a climber with the 3:1 (Z) pulley system.

At the second bend in the Z (the slack bend, closer to the crevasse lip),
install a second pulley on the rope. Use a friction hitch to attach a short sling
to the taut section of rope going from the anchor’s first pulley to the fallen
climber, and clip this sling with a carabiner in to the second pulley (this is
called the traveling sling or traveling prusik). Drag the friction hitch
(traveling prusik) and traveling pulley as far down the taut rope as possible
toward the crevasse (fig. 18-22). It may have to be seen to be believed, but
this is now a 3:1 pulley system, ready for use. Here’s how to haul using the
3:1 pulley system:
1. Unclip the backup figure-eight loop from the initial anchor system and
untie the knot as soon as the haulers and fallen climber are ready for
pulling.
2. If the ratchet or keeper sling used a prusik hitch to attach the accident
rope to the initial anchor system, assign a rescuer to tend the hitch so
that the rope slips freely through it as the rope is pulled in. If a
bachmann friction hitch was used instead, the attachment should tend
itself, and the front hauler can simply keep an eye on it to see that all is
well.
3. Start pulling at a steady rate, either hand over hand or by holding tight
and walking backward.
4. The hauling will soon bring the second (traveling) pulley in close to the
first (stationary or ratchet) pulley at the initial anchor. Stop hauling
when the pulleys are about 2 feet (0.5 meter) apart. If they are pulled
too close, the figure Z is collapsed and the mechanical advantage is
lost.
5. Once hauling has stopped, relax the pull on the rope enough to transfer
the fallen climber’s weight back onto the ratchet or keeper sling at the
initial anchor.
6. Reset the traveling pulley by loosening the traveling sling that is linked
to the traveling pulley and sliding it back down the taut accident rope
toward the crevasse lip once again.
7. Keep repeating steps 3 through 6.
Beware of the pulling power of the 3:1 (Z) pulley system. If care is not
used, the climber can be injured by being pulled forcefully up into the lip. As
the fallen climber nears the lip of the crevasse, use a friction hitch (for
example, a prusik hitch) to attach a webbing chain to the taut accident rope
and lower the webbing chain to the fallen climber (fig. 18-23a), who can use
it like an aider (etrier) to step up and pull up over the lip of the crevasse (fig.
18-23b). See “Aiders (Etriers)” in Chapter 15, Aid and Big Wall Climbing.
Fig. 18-23. Helping fallen climber over the lip of a crevasse (foot prusiks omitted for clarity): a,
rescuer lowers webbing chain attached to taut accident line so climber can put right foot into it; b, as
climber steps up in webbing, rescuer helps the fallen climber scramble over the lip.

Piggyback Pulleys
To get even more mechanical advantage out of a rescue hauling setup,
combine or “piggyback” two systems. For example, establish a separate 2:1
pulley setup to haul on the rope coming from a 3:1 pulley system. This gives
a six-to-one theoretical mechanical advantage. One note of caution: beware
of using piggyback systems to overcome the resistance of pulling the victim
over the crevasse lip; serious injuries have resulted.
A 5:1 pulley system can be constructed in different ways. One method is
to clip a carabiner and a triple runner or cordelette 15 to 25 feet (5 to 8
meters) long to the traveling prusik. Another method is to add a second
traveling prusik and pulley (or carabiner) to a 3:1 pulley system (see Figure
25-6c in Chapter 25, Alpine Rescue). For a 4:1 advantage, set up a 2:1
single-pulley system to haul on another 2:1 pulley system.

SPECIAL RESCUE SITUATIONS

A crevasse rescue can be complicated by any number of unusual twists. This
section describes some special situations that could be encountered and ideas
on how to deal with them. The situations can become complicated, and the
rescuers’ response will have to be adapted to the conditions of the moment.
Anything that works safely is fine. (See Chapter 25, Alpine Rescue, for more
details on accident response and additional rescue techniques.)

WHEN THE MIDDLE PERSON FALLS IN

It is awkward at best when the middle person on a three-person rope team
falls into a crevasse, especially if no other climbers are around to set up the
rescue anchor. With no second team, the only two people who can help are
separated by a crevasse, each in self-arrest. Here is a general procedure for
getting out of this fix.
The climbers begin by deciding which side of the crevasse will be the
rescue side—that is, which side the fallen climber should come out on.
Usually, one of the two rescuers in self-arrest is holding more weight than
the other. The one holding the least weight usually has the best chance to get
up and establish an anchor—this climber’s side will be the rescue side—
while the rescuer on the other side stays in self-arrest to hold the fall.
After the climber on the rescue side sets up the rescue anchor (see “Step 1.
Set Up a Secure Anchor System” above), the climber in self-arrest on the
other side of the crevasse can slowly release tension on the climbing rope
and ease the fallen climber’s weight onto the anchor.
If the climber who was in self-arrest is needed to help in the rescue
operation, the climber on the rescue side now tries to belay the climber on
the self-arrest side over to the rescue side. The rope on the rescue side can be
used for belaying, if it is long enough, or a second rope—carrying a second
rope is a good precaution for a rope team traveling alone—can provide the
belay. If no belay or safe route across the crevasse is available, however, the
climber on the self-arrest side could be stuck there. This climber would then
set up an anchor and stay put.
The most advantageous rescue plan now is for the fallen climber to self-
rescue by ascending the rope on prusik slings, coming out on the rescue side,
where the anchor has been placed. If a self-rescue by prusiking is not
possible, then a 3:1 pulley or a piggyback system could be tried. This all
takes plenty of time, competence, equipment, and resourcefulness. Learn to
use the bachmann friction hitch (see “Friction Hitches” in Chapter 9, Basic
Safety System) for times when you might have to haul alone, because the
hitch requires less tending than a standard prusik hitch in a hauling system.
In the case of a four-person rope team, the situation is a little simpler in
the event that one of the two middle members falls into a crevasse. Conduct
the rescue in a routine manner from the side that has two climbers topside.

WHEN A TWO-PERSON TEAM IS ALONE

For a party of two people with no other rope team nearby, glacier travel is
risky and discouraged. Both climbers absolutely need to know their rescue
techniques, period. The climber who stops a fall must set up an anchor alone
while in self-arrest and then create a hauling system appropriate for a single
person (such as a 6:1 drop loop system) if one is needed. Therefore, each
climber must carry at least two pieces of snow or ice protection for an
anchor appropriate to the conditions, plus the equipment (pulleys, carabiners,
slings) to set up a hauling system. And all of this must be readily at hand on
harnesses or pack straps.
Rope teams of two should shorten their rope by taking in coils (see
below), which automatically makes available an extra length of rope for
rescue use. Packing along a second rope is also a good precaution. The
climbers should not have the rope clipped in to their chest harnesses,
because this makes rescue very difficult. And with only two people, it is
even more important than usual to travel with a personal prusik system ready
for use.
If you end up as the sole rescuer in a two-person rope team, holding your
partner’s fall with your self-arrest, begin your rescue efforts by augmenting
the security of your arrest position by digging in your feet and pressing the
ice axe more firmly into the snow. Imagine that you are establishing a belay
stance while lying down.
Try to free one hand by rotating the upper half of your body—but keep
leaning on the axe and bracing yourself with at least one stiff leg. If the rope
is clipped in to your chest harness, unclip it now. At this point, you will see
the value of keeping the appropriate anchors easily accessible.
When you get one hand free, place a picket, ice screw, or second ice tool
—anything secure enough to hold the fallen climber and allow you to get up
and create a main anchor. Once the initial protection is in place, clip the
loose end of your foot prusiks to this protection with a carabiner. Slowly
transfer the weight of the fallen climber to the initial protection. Now follow
the steps described in “Crevasse Rescue Response” earlier in this chapter,
though you will probably experience more difficulty than would a larger
rope team or group of teams: set up a secure main anchor, communicate with
your fallen partner, settle on a rescue plan, and carry it out. Ideally, your
partner will be able to handle self-rescue, prusiking out. If not, try a 3:1
pulley or piggyback hauling system. Of course, if you are unable to make an
initial placement of protection in the first place, the climber in the crevasse
has no choice but to try self-rescue while you remain in self-arrest.
Traveling on a glacier alone as a party of two requires a high degree of
competency with crevasse rescue systems. Study and practice plenty before
attempting it.

Shortening the Rope with Coils

Shortening the rope by coiling it over the shoulder—“climbing in coils”—is
the preferred method of travel for two-person glacier teams. The technique
results in closer spacing between rope partners for more efficient,
comfortable travel, and it provides some free rope for a hauling system or
other rescue use.

images
Fig. 18-24. Shortening the rope with a coil: a, tying in and creating the coil; b, draping the coil out of
the way (prusik slings omitted for clarity).

The coil also provides a means of quick transition between the closer
spacing of roped glacier travel and the full rope-length requirements of
belayed climbing. This transition is important on an alpine climb where a
glacier approach is followed by belayed rock or ice climbing. To create the
coil, take these steps:
1. Tie in to the rope at your harness, as you would normally.
2. Take a series of coils of rope into your hand (usually five, but no more
than nine) until you have the desired spacing between you and your
rope partner. Secure the coils together by tying an overhand knot
around them, using a loop of the rope (fig. 18-24a).
3. Get the coils out of the way for travel, stowing them securely
anywhere, such as in the top of your pack or over one shoulder and
under the opposite arm, where they are easily accessible (fig. 18-24b).
4. Attach the shortened length of climbing rope to your harness with a
figure eight on a bight clipped to the belay loop with a locking
 carabiner so that any force coming onto the rope will be taken by this
knot.
A variation of the coil is often used in Europe; climbers put six butterfly
knots on a bight in the rope, three at each end near each of the two climbers.
Research by Ecole Nationale de Ski et d’Alpinisme (ENSA) Chamonix
recommends an initial 10-foot (3-meter) space between the climber and the
first knot, a second knot 6 feet (2 meters) beyond the first knot, and a third
knot 6 feet (2 meters) beyond the second knot (fig. 18-25). This method
works on the principle that in the event of a fall into a crevasse, the rope will
entrench and the knots will catch in the crevasse lip. This takes most of the
weight off the arresting climber, which makes it considerably easier to set up
the initial rescue anchor.
To use this rope to extract the fallen climber from the crevasse, the other
climber must untie the knots in the rope before hauling. This may be
possible because most of the load should be taken by the knot wedged in the
lip of the crevasse. If the rescuer cannot do this, then rescue may be
performed using a 2:1 pulley system with the loose end of the rope or using
another rope if there are sufficient people to haul and the fallen climber is
uninjured. For a single hauler, the best approach is a 6:1 drop loop on the
accident rope. Since more complex systems are beyond the scope of this
book, take time to research this method online or through information listed
in Resources.
When self-rescuing, one disadvantage of tying knots in the rope is that the
fallen climber must pass them when ascending out of the crevasse. This is a
bit awkward and slow but doable: the fallen climber ties their prusik onto the
rope above the loaded knot, transfers weight to the prusik to unweight the
loaded knot, unties the butterfly knot in the rope below, and continues
prusiking, repeating this process for each knot that needs to be passed.

images
Fig. 18-25. Two-person glacier travel team with knots in rope, which aid in arresting a fall into a
crevasse by catching in crevasse lip.

WHEN THE FALLEN CLIMBER IS UNCONSCIOUS

To help an unconscious climber, a rescuer must descend immediately by
rappelling or being lowered on belay. This rescuer must descend with
enough clothing and equipment to avoid hypothermia, ascend independently
if needed, and provide proper first aid. Major crevasse falls are likely to
cause injuries. The rescuer can administer urgent first aid and also get the
fallen climber right-side up if necessary. Time is critical because there may
also be an increased risk of suspension trauma, asphyxiation, and/or
hypothermia—and possibly cardiac arrest when moving a hypothermic
crevasse rescue victim. The rescuers must then consider which of the hauling
methods they will use, keeping in mind that the fallen climber is unable to
participate in the rescue. Helping an unconscious climber over the lip of the
crevasse will require a rescuer to work right at the edge of or from inside the
crevasse. Monitor the condition of the unconscious person, taking care to
cause no further injury.

WHEN THERE IS MORE THAN ONE VICTIM

If more than one person has fallen into a crevasse, assess each person’s
condition and the best method for getting each one out, and then decide the
order of rescue. Practicality usually determines the order of rescue, unless
there is ample backup for rescuers and equipment. Be sure that each fallen
climber is given warm clothing, if needed, and keep everyone informed of
rescue plans as they develop.

WHEN THE WORKING SPACE IS CRAMPED

The climber who drops into self-arrest position to stop a rope mate’s fall
could be lying so close to the lip of the crevasse that there is very little room
to place an anchor or pulley system. A solution to this situation is to set up
the main anchor where there is enough room—on the up-rope side of the
climber in self-arrest (instead of the usual place, between the rescuer and the
crevasse). Leave 24 inches or so (60 centimeters) of slack between the main
anchor and this rescuer, so that this person is not trapped in the system by
tension on the rope.
Then set up a temporary anchor, between the rescuer in self-arrest and the
crevasse, that will take the weight of the fallen climber long enough to
enable the rescuer to get up from self-arrest position and untie from the rope.
Once hauling begins, untie the prusik sling attached to the temporary anchor.

WHEN THE WORKING SPACE IS BETWEEN TWO

CREVASSES
Rescuers trying to work in a very narrow area between two crevasses can
consider moving the operation. The rescue might proceed better if it is run
from the opposite side of the crevasse that holds the fallen climber.
Another option is to change the direction of pull on a 3:1 pulley system.
Hook a third pulley to the anchor and run the hauling end of the rope
through it (fig. 18-26). Now the rescuers can pull in a direction more parallel
to the crevasses.

images
Fig. 18-26. Adding another pulley to the 3:1 (Z) pulley system for a change of direction in a tight
space, such as between two crevasses.

WHEN THE ROPES ARE ENTRENCHED

The upward progress of a person climbing out or being pulled out of a
crevasse can be stopped cold by a rope that has dug itself into the lip. This
situation calls for some improvisation. For instance, a rescuer can attach
prusik slings or aiders (etriers) above the entrenched portion of the rope and
drop them down for the climber to step into. See “Aiders (Etriers)” in
Chapter 15, Aid and Big Wall Climbing.
Another option is to switch to a new rescue rope. A rescuer can lower a
new rope to the fallen climber (as shown in Figure 18-21). Or the fallen
climber can, in effect, provide a new rope by tossing the loose end of the
climbing rope up to the rescuers. This is done by prusiking up to the lip,
tying in higher up on the climbing rope, untying from the loose end of the
climbing rope, and throwing the loose end up to the rescuers.
A new rescue rope, carefully padded at the lip of the crevasse so it does
not also get entrenched, opens up several rescue possibilities. The fallen
climber can switch prusik slings from the original climbing rope to the new
free rope. Or the rescuers can haul the fallen climber up and out on the new
rope. Or the fallen climber can merely transfer all weight to the new rope to
give rescuers a much better chance of freeing the entrenched line.

PATHS TO THE SUMMIT

Glaciers can appear to be obvious, rather convenient routes to alpine
summits, but in reality they are massive, dynamic systems that hold many
hazards—especially with climate change reshaping the glacial landscape.
Climbers who seek the freedom of the glaciated peaks must learn how to
safely negotiate crevasses and other dangers. Clearly, the best strategy for
travel on a glacier is to minimize risk by defending against a crevasse fall.
Even when precautions are taken, however, falls and other accidents can
occur. Anyone planning to travel on a glacier must master the techniques for
dealing with the hazards and effecting a successful rescue if necessary. With
these skills, climbers can safely take advantage of these glacial paths up to
alpine summits.
EQUIPMENT • TECHNIQUES OF ALPINE ICE CLIMBING • ROPED CLIMBING TECHNIQUES
• PRACTICING FOR THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS

CHAPTER 19
ALPINE ICE CLIMBING
Ice is found on or around the summits of many alpine peaks,
and developing ice climbing skills increases climbers’
opportunities for safe exploration of those summits. With
proper skills, they will be able to use ice as yet another avenue
to the alpine realm.

To climb ice, mountaineers use much of what they have learned about rock
and snow climbing, adding the special tools and techniques needed for
climbing ice. Ice climbers experience the same joys as snow climbers do and
face the same perils: avalanches, hazardous couloirs and unstable cornices,
ice blocks, and icefalls. Ice climbing opportunities can be found year-round,
from climbing waterfall ice on the short, dark days of winter to ascending
alpine ice on long, warm summer days.
Ice can appear in a variety of forms. Under the combined effects of
pressure, heat, and time, snow and other forms of frozen precipitation
metamorphose into the alpine ice of glaciers, icefields, and couloirs. There is
no clear distinction between alpine ice and hard snow. Alpine ice sometimes
appears as blue ice; this hue means that the ice is relatively pure. Black
alpine ice—old, hard ice mixed with dirt, pebbles, or other debris—is
another common variation. Liquid water freezes to form water ice. Water-ice
formations can be as dramatic as a frozen waterfall or as common as verglas,
the thin, clear coating of ice that forms when rainfall or melting snow freezes
on a surface, such as rock. Verglas is difficult to climb because the thin,
weak layer provides scant purchase for crampons and ice tools. Old alpine
hard water ice is usually the most compact and difficult-to-penetrate form of
ice when compared with alpine névé or more recently frozen alpine ice.
The next chapter, Chapter 20, Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing, hones in
on very steep ice and mixed ice and rock. This chapter covers the rest.
Ice is as changeable and ephemeral as snow. A rock route is likely to be
there unchanged for years or decades, but what was a water-ice route in the
morning may be, by afternoon, nothing but a jumbled pile of ice blocks or a
wet spot on the rock. Similarly, with glacial alpine ice a single route may
morph throughout the year: in early season the climb may be a
straightforward jaunt up perfect névé, but by August or September (in the
northern hemisphere) it becomes a jumble of crevasses and seracs requiring
as much routefinding ability as it does technical climbing skills.
Climbers must learn to anticipate the changeability of ice. Ice can exhibit
a wide range of characteristics. At one extreme, it can seem as hard as steel;
ice tools bounce off it, barely scratching the surface. Hard ice can also be as
brittle as glass, requiring climbers to expend time and energy chopping away
at the surface until they can plant an ice tool without the placement
shattering. At other times, ice can be soft and plastic, allowing climbers to
make secure placements effortlessly with a single swing—an ice climber’s
dream. Ice can also be too soft and weak to provide good protection
placements or to support a climber’s weight. It takes experience to assess the
relative condition of ice.

TABLE 19-1. STEEPNESS OF SLOPES

DESCRIPTION APPROXIMATE ANGLE OF

STEEPNESS

Gentle 0° to 30°

Moderate 30° to 45°

Steep 45° to 60°

 Extremely steep 60° to 80°

Vertical 80° to 90°

Overhanging Greater than 90°

As is true of all types of climbing, the steepness of the slope greatly

affects which ice climbing technique is appropriate. On flat névé—or on
relatively level areas of rock-impregnated ice such as a glacier below the firn
line—it is usually possible to walk without crampons. But on flat ice that is
hard and smooth, crampons might be needed to avoid falling. Modern
crampons are relatively quick and easy to put on and take off, but this can
use up precious time. Occasionally, for one or two moves on a short slope
where there is limited exposure, an ice axe can be used to chop steps.
However, in almost every instance where the snow or ice is too firm to kick
a trustworthy step, especially if it is exposed, crampons should be used.
As the slope angle increases, climbers can use French technique, also
called flat-footing, but only up to a point. The steepest routes require front-
pointing, also called German technique. Chapter 20, Waterfall Ice and Mixed
Climbing, covers steep ice techniques in more depth.
This chapter uses the descriptive terms in Table 19-1 in referring to the
approximate steepness of slopes.

EQUIPMENT
Continuing refinements in equipment have helped ice climbers improve and
expand their techniques and use them to undertake greater climbing
challenges. Manufacturers are producing a steady stream of specialized and
innovative clothing, boots, crampons, ice tools, and ice protection. (See
Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing, for a general description of gear
such as crampons and ice axes.) This section describes the equipment that is
specific to alpine ice climbing.

CLOTHING
Clothes for ice climbing should offer a combination of comfort and function.
Employ a layered system, with layers appropriate to the conditions.
Whatever system you choose, ensure the components work together and use
either specialized fabrics or openings to regulate your body temperature.
Clothing manufacturers are constantly bringing forward new fabrics that
dissipate excess heat while still providing warmth, water repellency, and
wind protection. Pants with side zippers ventilate the lower body without
exposing your boot tops. Jackets with armpit zippers also allow you to
regulate your temperature. It is important to choose unrestrictive clothing
that stretches as you move and is designed to stay put when you lift up your
arms. See Chapter 2, Clothing and Equipment, to learn more about technical
climbing clothes for various conditions.

Handwear
Ice climbers’ hands need protection from dampness, cold, and abrasion. The
type of handwear you choose and use depends on the difficulty, steepness,
and conditions of the ice or snow. Your choices always strike a balance
between dexterity, strength, and warmth. Walking or climbing low-angle
alpine snow or ice on a summer day with an ice axe in hand may require
nothing more than a pair of lightweight gloves. Climbing steep, deep snow
on a cold day and plunging your ice tools and hands well under the surface
calls for a well-insulated pair of bulky gloves or mitts with waterproof taped
shells. When ascending steep to overhanging snow and ice, the best choice is
gloves with a snug fit and enough friction on the palms to allow a good grip
on your tools. Thin gloves provide dexterity to place screws or manipulate
gear.
Some climbs may demand several different pairs of gloves or mitts. For
example, on long, cold technical routes you may want to use a lightweight
pair of gloves or liners for the nontechnical approach, a pair of thin, snug
gloves for climbing—plus a spare in case they get wet or lost—along with a
thick, warm pair of gloves or mittens to keep your hands warm at belays or
rests.

BOOTS
When you select boots, it is essential to get a precise fit: room for the toes to
wiggle a little but snug in the instep and heel. There should be minimal lift at
the heel to prevent stress on the calves when front-pointing or walking, yet
not so snug over the top of the foot that circulation to the toes is impeded. Be
sure to fit boots to accommodate the sock system you will wear. Most
modern mountaineering boots have molded toe and heel grooves to
accommodate clip-on crampons.
Leather and synthetic. For alpine ice climbing in moderate to cold
conditions, modern leather or high-performance synthetic mountaineering
boots are the best choice. Boots used for extensive front-pointing must have
very stiff soles to prevent overstressing the crampon frame or letting the foot
twist out of a clip-on crampon binding. In French technique (flat-footing),
ankle rotation is critical; boots must permit good range of motion, and
leather boots are better in this regard. For extreme cold, or at high altitude,
double boots, with a removable insulated liner, provide extra warmth. The
outer and inner boot materials on modern double boots are an ever-changing
combination of fabrics and foam materials and even carbon fiber insoles.
Boots keep getting lighter and better.

GAITERS
Today, few alpine and waterfall ice climbers use full-length gaiters. Some
alpine ice climbing boots now come with built-in gaiters to repel snow, ice,
and moisture. Modern climbing pants feature either an integrated gaiter,
hooks or straps that go under the boot (so the pant leg acts as a gaiter), or
pant cuffs fit close enough to the boot that gaiters are not needed. Hardshell
pants are another common alternative. Sometimes a climber opts for short
gaiters that cover only the boot top and are worn underneath pants. However,
there are conditions in which full-length gaiters may be useful, such as deep
snow or very cold temperatures. When using full-length gaiters, make sure
they fit your boots securely, can accommodate any additional layers of
insulation you wear on your legs, and can accommodate your specific
crampon attachment method. Gaiters or pants with reinforced leg bottoms
can help prevent abrasions and snags from crampon points.

CRAMPONS
A variety of modern crampons are available for different types of snow and
ice climbing, including technical crampons designed for better performance
on steep ice and for mixed climbing. (See “Crampons” in Chapter 16, Snow
Travel and Climbing.) Regardless of the type of crampons selected, points
must be sharp; the harder the ice, the sharper the points need to be. Check
the points before each climb and sharpen them if necessary before setting
out.
Front and Secondary Points
The front points on nearly all crampons, whether intended for use on alpine
climbing or waterfall ice, are angled downward. The front points on
crampons designed for snow and alpine ice are often oriented horizontally to
give them more purchase in snow. Waterfall ice crampons, on the other hand,
often have front points oriented vertically to give better penetration in hard
ice (fig. 19-1). The secondary points immediately behind the front points are
angled forward on most modern crampons to provide added stability.

Fig. 19-1. Side view showing how front points and secondary points on crampons engage in near
vertical ice.

ICE TOOLS
Ice tools come in three basic styles. For steep ice (greater than 45 degrees), it
is advantageous to have a hybrid ice axe similar to a general mountaineering
axe but with a slightly bent shaft. Hybrid ice axes come in various lengths.
They generally have an integrated pick and adze or hammer, but they are
also available with a modular head to accommodate replacement picks.
For extremely steep terrain (greater than 60 degrees) it is better to have a
bent-grip shaft ice tool with teeth with a grip rest at the base of the shaft. For
extremely steep and vertical ice and mixed climbing, many climbers prefer
an ice tool with an ergonomic handle and bent shaft. These tools come in
fixed lengths (commonly 50 centimeters) and have a modular head to
accommodate different types of picks, with a choice of hammerhead or adze
(see Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing, for a description of ice axes
versus ice tools). Some ice tools have removable head weights that allow
climbers to fine-tune the tool’s “swing weight.”

Fig. 19-2. Typical ice tools: a, technical ice axe, with hammer; b, semimodular tool; c, modular tool.

Ice tools are usually equipped with a hammer opposite the pick rather than
an adze (fig. 19-2a). However, for alpine routes where excavating snow or
digging a tent platform in dirt or gravel might be required, some climbers
prefer to equip one ice tool with an adze. Having a sharp adze when ice
climbing deserves caution. If a tool with an adze suddenly pops out of the
ice or slips off a hold, it can cause a nasty gash on a climber’s face.
Modern ice tools feature modular and semimodular designs. With
semimodular tools, only the pick is interchangeable (fig. 19-2b). Fully
modular tools provide the option of interchangeable picks and adzes or
hammers (fig. 19-2c). Being able to replace picks, adzes, and hammers as
the need arises provides added flexibility because the tool can be assembled
to accommodate prevailing conditions, or a broken pick can be replaced in
the field.
 There is no standard fastening system for interchangeable parts on
modular ice tools. Components of one manufacturer’s system are not
compatible with those from another company, and some systems are easier
to use than others. The trend has been to design fastening systems that
require a minimum of tools. The components of some ice tools are designed
to be changed by using a simple wrench, or the pick or spike of another ice
tool made by the same manufacturer.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING ICE

TOOLS
When selecting ice tools, ask the following questions:
Are the tools designed for the kind of climbing I intend to do?
Do the tools swing and penetrate the ice well?
If I’m going to use them for mixed climbing or dry tooling, do the
tools work well on both ice and rock?
Can I comfortably grip the tools with the type of gloves I will be
using?

What is the “perfect” ice tool? It is whatever works best for you. Try to
demo a variety of tools on ice to determine which work best for you in terms
of weight, technical features, and how they handle. See the “Questions to
Consider When Selecting Ice Tools” sidebar.
The styles of ice tools vary greatly. The following sections describe the
principal design variations of the parts of the ice tool: shaft, pick, adze or
hammer, spike/teeth, and tether.

Shafts
Ice-tool shafts are mostly manufactured from aluminum alloy, carbon fiber
composites, and steel. Only general mountaineering ice axes now come with
straight shafts. Ice tools intended for steep terrain (greater than 45 degrees)
all come with bent shafts that enable the tool to reach around bulges in the
ice and keep the climber’s fingers from hitting the ice when swinging. The
angles of bent shafts can vary (figs. 19-3a, b, and c) depending on the
purpose of the tool. The sharper the bend, the steeper the terrain it is
intended for. Check to see that the curve of the bend and the swing weight
complement your natural swing.
Shafts on modern ice tools to facilitate grip are usually covered partially
in rubber. Although modern bent-grip tools make it easier to climb steep ice
and mixed terrain, the ergonomic handle and the grip rest may impede
plunging the shaft into snow. Some technical ice tools come without a grip
rest, which might be a better choice for situations where there will be a lot of
steep snow. The bent shaft also makes hammering pitons awkward; if a lot of
piton work is anticipated, some climbers carry a light piton hammer to make
that job easier.
The circumference and cross-sectional shape of the shaft affect your grip.
A particular shaft might be too large or too small for your hand. A shaft that
is too large in circumference is fatiguing to grip. A shaft that is too small in
circumference is hard to control. A climber’s choice of handwear also affects
the grip (see “Handwear” above).

Fig. 19-3. Ice tools with various shaft designs: a, slight high-bend shaft; b, bent-grip shaft; c,
compound-curve shaft.

Picks
The ice tool’s pick must penetrate the ice, hold against a downward pull, and
release easily when its grip is no longer needed. The holding and releasing
characteristics of a pick are determined by its geometry, thickness, and tooth
configuration. The teeth should be shaped to bite into the ice when pulling
down on the shaft of the ice tool. In most cases, only the first few teeth
provide any useful bite into the ice.
Ice-tool picks are made for the type of tool that you purchase and often
come in multiple thicknesses. The thinner pick is meant primarily for pure
ice with penetration. The thicker pick is a bit more likely to shatter the ice,
but it is stronger and meant to be used for mixed climbing and dry tooling
where torquing it in cracks and other abuse might break a thinner pick.
Technically curved. The pick of a general mountaineering ice axe curves
slightly downward, whereas the technically curved pick of an ice tool (fig.
19-4a) curves down more sharply and thus holds better in ice. It is most
often used on alpine ice and glacial ice climbs. It is the most effective
technical pick for self-arrest.

Fig. 19-4. Picks: a, technically curved; b, reverse curved.

Reverse curved. The reverse-curved pick (fig. 19-4b) is both secure and
easy to remove from the ice, making it the most popular choice for
extremely steep ice routes. During self-arrest, this pick grabs so well that
climbers may not be able to hold on to the tool.
Picks are easily dulled when swinging into thin ice and hitting the rock
underneath. Picks also get worn from climbing on rock while used when
mixed climbing and dry tooling. A dull pick can be sharpened with a good
file; but after being filed multiple times, the pick can get filed back to the
first tooth. Once this has happened, it is time to replace the pick. A pick will
last longer if it is sharpened only enough to reestablish its original shape and
edge (fig. 19-5). Using a grinder may remove more metal than is necessary;
take care not to weaken the pick by overheating it.

Adzes and Hammers

As with picks, ice-tool adzes come in an array of shapes and sizes. The most
common adze is straight, extending more or less perpendicular to the shaft or
drooping slightly downward (see Figure 19-4a). Modular ice tools provide
the option of installing either an adze or a hammer.

Fig. 19-5. Detail of a reverse-curved pick: note that the tip and top edge are sharp, and the sides of
the teeth are beveled.

Spikes or Teeth
To penetrate ice, the spike or teeth on the bottom of an ice tool’s shaft must
be reasonably sharp. Most spikes have carabiner holes (see Figures 19-2 and
19-3), to which a climber can clip a tether to keep from losing the tool if
dropped.

Tethers
For the most part, leashes attaching the wrist to the ice tool are no longer
used when alpine ice climbing, waterfall ice climbing, and mixed climbing.
To prevent the loss of a dropped tool, tethers (also called umbilicals) are
often used. A tether is usually made of an elastic cord with a clip on one end
(for attaching to the spike of the ice tool) and a loop on the other (for girth-
hitching to the harness; fig. 19-6). Tethers made for two tools feature two
cords and clips coming together in a single loop. Some manufacturers still
provide a removable wrist leash for climbers who prefer them, but the
flexibility of climbing leashless has made the use of wrist leashes almost
obsolete.
Fig. 19-6. Tethers, or umbilical leashes, attached to harness.

Maintenance
Inspect ice tools before each outing, checking for rust, cracks, and other
signs of wear or damage. Be sure that adzes, picks, and spikes are sharp. If
the tools are a modular design, also check to see that all fastening systems
are secure.

ICE SCREWS
Modern ice screws are made from steel, aluminum, or titanium alloy. Ice
screws come in a variety of lengths ranging from 10 to 22 centimeters (ice
screws are commonly measured in metric units). The length of an ice screw
has a great bearing on its strength. A longer screw is stronger but only when
the ice is thicker than the length of the screw. Modern screws include
hangers with knobs (fig. 19-7), which make placement, clipping, and
removal almost effortless compared with older screws (see the “History of
Ice Screws” sidebar).
Fig. 19-7. Contemporary ice screws with various knobs and hangers.

OTHER GEAR
Ice climbers use other gear adapted specifically for ice, including racking
devices, eye protection, and V-thread tools.

Racking Devices
Personal preference and compatibility with a particular harness influence
how a climber chooses to rack ice screws. Most commonly, climbers use a
specialized plastic carabiner that attaches directly to the harness waist belt
(fig. 19-8). These devices allow ice screws to be racked conveniently and
provide easy, one-handed unclipping when the gear is needed. These clips
can also be used for temporarily securing ice tools. The downside of a plastic
device is that it can break if pressed against a hard surface: for example, in a
rock chimney on a mixed climb.

HISTORY OF ICE SCREWS

Until the mid-twentieth century, ice pitons were extra long, blade-type
rock pitons with holes, notches, or bulges to increase their grip in ice.
After World War II, climbers experimented with new designs that
featured a greater surface area (to decrease the load per square inch on
the ice) and more holes (to help the shaft freeze into the slope). In the
early 1960s, when ice pitons evolved into ice screws, enthusiasts
claimed that they would revolutionize ice climbing, bringing security to
the slopes. Critics countered that the screws were not much better than
 the older ice pitons. This was true of the lightweight, relatively weak
“coat hanger” ice screws, which are no longer in use. Ice screws have
continued to improve and now provide reliable protection when placed
in good ice.

Ropes
Standard 60- or 70-meter double ropes (see “Double- and Twin-Rope
Techinques” in Chapter 14, Leading on Rock) are most commonly used for
alpine ice climbing, though this depends on the type of climb and the
climbers’ preferences (see also Table 9-1 in Chapter 9, Basic Safety
System). Double ropes are each individually lighter than a single rope.
Double ropes are safe to use on ice (on rock a larger-diameter rope may
provide greater resistance to abrasion and cuts from sharp edges), and they
allow for full-length rappels on the descent.

Fig. 19-8. Ice screw on a specialized racking device.

Manufacturers of all ropes, both single and double, are continuing to

develop ropes of increasingly smaller diameter that satisfy international
testing standards. These smaller-diameter ropes are an advantage to alpinists
because they are much lighter. The trade-off is the smallest-diameter ropes
may not be as durable as a larger-diameter rope.
 Because ice climbing can be wet, water-repellent (“dry”) ropes are worth
the extra cost. In comparison with untreated ropes, dry ropes retain more
strength and are less likely to freeze—though a dry rope can still become
coated in ice, and the water repellency may not last the lifetime of the rope.

Head and Eye Protection

All ice climbers should wear helmets. Most helmets have an adjustable band
around the head that accommodates a lightweight hat or balaclava. Safety
glasses or sunglasses are recommended to keep eyes safe from flying debris.

V-Thread Tools
The V-thread tool is a hooking or snaring device used to pull cord or
webbing through the drilled tunnel of V-thread anchors (see “Setting Up Ice
Anchors” later in this chapter). Several styles of V-thread tools are available
commercially. They can consist of a piece of wire cable with a hook swaged
to one end (fig. 19-9a), a piece of stamped metal or plastic with a hook on
one end (fig. 19-9b), or a simple snare to capture the end of a rope without
damaging it (fig. 19-9c). Some budget-conscious climbers make V-thread
tools from a piece of wire hanger. For tools with hooks, remember to keep
the hook sharp, and protect it from catching on clothing or gear.
Fig. 19-9. V-thread tools. a, fish-hook cable with hook guard; b, pick-type multipurpose tool; c, snare,
no hook.

TECHNIQUES OF ALPINE ICE CLIMBING

Climbing the perennially shaded side of a mountain can be an exhilarating
passage over an ever-changing medium in a steep and cold environment, all
of which challenges both mind and body. An alpine ice climber must move
quickly and efficiently up long and sometimes sparsely protected faces to
reach the summit, then safely descend within the allotted time.
On alpine ice, climbers use surface features, seeking out depressions,
pockets, and ledges for tool placements, crampon purchase, and belay points.
Unlike rock climbers, and unless they are climbing mixed rock and ice (see
Chapter 20, Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing), ice climbers are not in
direct contact with the surface of the mountain. The ice climber must rely on
ice tools, axes, and crampons. They make do with anchors and protection
placements that can be uncertain. Note that many of the techniques described
here are also used to climb waterfall ice.

CLIMBING WITHOUT CRAMPONS

Alpine climbers often encounter short sections of ice or frozen snow.
Sometimes they are not carrying crampons, or they may face short ice
problems that do not merit taking the time to put on crampons. Negotiating
these sections without crampons requires climbing in balance with caution
and skill, moving up from one position of balance to the next. At each
position of balance, the inside (uphill) foot is in front of and above the
trailing outside (downhill) foot. The axe, in the uphill hand, moves only after
body and feet are in balance, and the feet move only after the axe has been
moved forward. Shift weight from one foot to the other smoothly as though
friction climbing on rock. While climbing, look for irregularities in the
surface of the ice such as suncups (small hollows that have been melted by
the sun) or embedded rocks to use as footholds.
If the slope is too steep for secure balance, consider taking another route,
or returning with crampons.

Step-Cutting
For the earliest alpinists, chopping or cutting steps was the only technique
available for climbing steep ice and hard snow. While the invention of
crampons reduced the need for step-cutting, there are some good reasons for
understanding the technique of cutting steps with the ice axe. A lost or
broken crampon, or an injured or inexperienced climber, may be reason
enough to cut steps. Climbers should also be able to chop out a comfortable
belay platform.
The adze of the ice axe can be used for cutting steps in two ways. It can be
used to slash the ice by swinging the tool in a motion nearly parallel to the
surface of the ice to create a slash step (fig. 19-10), or it can be swung
perpendicular to the ice to chop out a pigeonhole step (see below).
Slash steps. The most frequently used step-cutting technique is cutting
slash steps, for traversing up or down gentle to moderate slopes. To cut
ascending slash steps, stand in a position of balance, holding the axe in the
inside (uphill) hand (fig. 19-11a). To cut two steps in sequence, swing the
adze parallel to the uphill foot and away from the body. Swing the axe from
the shoulder, cutting with the adze and letting the weight of the axe do most
of the work. With successive swings, slice ice out of the step, starting at the
heel end of the new step and working toward the toe. Scoop out chunks of
ice with the adze, and use the adze and pick to finish the step. The climber
proceeds up the slope, moving in and out of a position of balance on the
steps (fig. 19-11b).

Fig. 19-10. The motion of the ice axe in cutting a slash step.

Fig. 19-11. Cutting slash steps on a diagonal ascent: a, working from a position of balance, with the
axe in the inside (uphill) hand; b, working from an out-of-balance position.

Pigeonhole steps. For negotiating steeper slopes, cut pigeonhole steps.

This is done by swinging the axe perpendicular to the ice and chopping out a
hole with the adze. Each step should slope slightly inward to help keep boots
from slipping out of the step. On gentler slopes, it is acceptable if the step
holds only a small part of a boot, but the steps on steeper slopes should be
large enough for the front half of a boot. Space the steps so they are
convenient for all members of the party to use. Pigeonhole steps for the
direct ascent of steep ice are placed about shoulder width apart and within
easy stepping distance of each other. Each step functions as both a handhold
and foothold, so each should have a small lip to serve as a handhold.
Ladder steps. To chop steps down an ice slope, the easiest method is to
cut a “ladder” of pigeonhole steps that descend almost straight down the hill.
To cut two steps in sequence, start in a position of balance, facing down the
slope. Chop two pigeonhole steps directly below. When the new steps are
ready, step down with the outside (downhill) foot and then the inside (uphill)
foot. To cut just one step at a time, again start in a position of balance. Cut
the step for the outside (downhill) foot and move that foot down into the
step. Then cut the step for the inside (uphill) foot and move that foot down
into it. Some climbers may opt to rappel rather than cut steps down an icy
incline. Note that climbers usually rope up on ice; see “Roped Ice Climbing
Techniques” later in this chapter.

CLIMBING WITH CRAMPONS

Ice climbers usually employ two basic techniques, depending on steepness
of the slope, conditions of the ice, and their ability and confidence level:
French technique and German technique. Although each technique has its
own distinct benefits, modern ice climbing melds the two. Mastery of both
French and German techniques is essential for climbing in the changeable
alpine environment. Below are brief descriptions of these methods, followed
by sections that apply them to specific types of terrain.

French Technique (Flat-Footing)

French technique, also called flat-footing, is the easiest and most efficient
method of climbing on gentle to steep ice and hard snow (see Figure 19-13).
Good French technique demands balance, rhythm, joint flexibility, and the
confident use of crampons and ice axe. Specifics of this technique are
described in the sections that follow.

Front-Pointing (German Technique)

Developed by Germans and Austrians for climbing the harder snow and ice
of the eastern Alps, German technique, better known as front-pointing,
allows an experienced ice climber to go up the steepest and most difficult ice
slopes. With this technique, even average climbers can quickly overcome
sections that would be difficult or impossible with French technique. The
German technique is much like kicking steps straight up a snow slope, but
instead of kicking a boot into the snow, kick that boot’s front crampon points
into the ice; then step up with the other foot, directly supported by the placed
boot’s front points. Just as in French technique, good front-pointing is
efficient, rhythmic, and balanced, with the weight of the body balanced over
the crampons.

TABLE 19-2. TECHNIQUES FOR CRAMPONS, ICE AXES,

AND ICE TOOLS

TECHNIQUE APPROXIMATE STEEPNESS

OF SLOPE

CRAMPONS

Walking (French technique; pied Gentle, 0° to 15°

marche)

Duckwalk (French technique; pied Gentle, 15° to 30°

en canard)

Flat-footing (French technique; Moderate to steep, 30° to 60°

pied à plat)

Rest position (French technique; Extremely steep, 60° and higher

pied assis)

Three o’clock position (American Extremely steep, 60° and higher

technique; pied troisième)

Front-pointing (German technique) Steep through vertical and

 overhanging, 45° and higher

ICE AXES AND ICE TOOLS (FRENCH AND GERMAN

TECHNIQUE)

Cane position (piolet canne) Gentle to moderate, 0° to 45°

Cross-body position (piolet Moderate, 30° to 45°

ramasse)

Anchor position (piolet ancre) Steep to extremely steep, 45° and

higher

Low-dagger position (piolet Steep, 45° to 55°

panne)

High-dagger position (piolet Steep, 50° to 60°

poignard)

Traction position (piolet traction) Extremely steep through vertical

and overhanging, 60° and higher

Combination Technique (American Technique)

Modern crampon technique evolved from the French and German styles. As
on rock, climbing on ice involves the efficient and confident use of footwork
to maintain balance and minimize fatigue. Flat-footing is generally used on
lower-angle slopes and where crampon point penetration is easy. Front-
pointing is most commonly used on slopes steeper than 45 degrees and on
very hard ice. In practice, most climbers blend these two techniques into a
combination approach, sometimes called American technique.
In any technique, the most important element is confident use of the
crampons. Practice on gentle and moderate slopes (see Chapter 16, Snow
Travel and Climbing) to develop the skill, confidence, and the aggressive
approach needed at steeper angles. On alpine ice, a skilled ice climber,
whether flat-footing or front-pointing, displays the same deliberate
movement as a skilled rock climber. The crampon points must be carefully
and deliberately placed into the ice and the climber’s weight smoothly and
decisively transferred from one foot to the other. Boldness is essential to
skillful crampon technique. Exposure must be disregarded and concentration
focused solely on the climbing. But boldness is not blind bravado. It is
confidence and skill born of experience and enthusiasm, nurtured in many
practice sessions on glacial seracs and on ice bulges in frozen gullies, then
matured through ascents of increasing length and difficulty.

ICE CLIMBING TERMS

Table 19-2 lists ice climbing techniques for crampons, ice axe, and ice tools,
along with the approximate steepness of the slope on which each technique
is used. (A clinometer helps determine slope angle if you are unsure; see
“Slope Angle” in Chapter 17, Avalanche Safety.) French terms are
sometimes used, given in parentheses. The French word pied (pronounced
“pee-EY”) means “foot”; the French word piolet (pronounced “pee-oh-
LAY”) means “ice axe.” Terms including the word pied refer to footwork;
terms including the word piolet refer to ice-axe positions.
None of these techniques are restricted to any particular set of conditions,
and all can be useful in a wide range of snow and ice situations. When
practicing these techniques, keep in mind that a “sharp crampon is a happy
crampon,” requiring only body weight to set it securely in place.

CLIMBING ON GENTLE TO MODERATE SLOPES

On gently to moderately sloped ice, French technique (flat-footing)
dominates. An essential alpine ice climbing technique, flat-footing means
firmly setting all bottom points of the crampon into the ice. Keep boot soles
parallel to the ice surface and feet slightly farther apart than normal to avoid
snagging a crampon point on clothing or on a crampon strap on the other
foot. Use the ice axe in the cane position (see Figures 19-12 and 19-13),
holding the axe in the self-belay grasp (for ice axe positions and grasps, see
Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing).
On gentle slopes, begin by simply walking. Flexible ankles are sometimes
necessary in order to keep boot soles parallel to the surface. Boots that are
flexible at the ankle facilitate flat-footing. Climbers with rigid boots can
loosen their bootlaces at the cuff for more comfortable flat-footing. As the
gentle slope steepens slightly, splay feet outward in duckwalk fashion (fig.
19-12), easing ankle strain. Keep knees bent and weight balanced over the
feet. Continue to use the axe as a cane.
As the slope gets steeper still, no longer gentle but moderate, duckwalking
straight upward causes severe ankle strain. Instead, turn sideways to the
slope and ascend diagonally for a more relaxed, comfortable step. Be sure to
use flat-footing, with all crampon points weighted into the ice (fig. 19-13).
When using this technique for the first time, people have a tendency to edge
with their crampons. The crampon points can skate off the ice, throwing the
climber off balance. Fight this tendency, and keep the crampon points flat
against the ice at all times. Start with feet pointed in the direction of travel.
As the slope steepens, rotate both feet more and more downward in order to
keep them flat. As the slope angle increases, ease ankle strain by pointing
both boots downhill more and more, so that the flex needed to keep both feet
flat comes from the more normal forward flex of the ankle and from the
knees, which are bent away from the slope and spread well apart (see Figure
19-14). On the steepest slopes, both knees may be pointing straight downhill.

Fig. 19-12. French technique on an ascent of a gentle slope: duckwalk combined with ice axe in cane
position.
Fig. 19-13. French technique on a diagonal ascent of a moderate slope: flat-footing combined with ice
axe in cane position.

Fig. 19-14. French technique on a diagonal ascent of a moderate slope—flat-footing combined with
ice axe in cross-body position (pick forward): a, in-balance position; b, out-of-balance position; c,
back to in-balance position.
 As the slope angle changes from gentle to moderate, using the axe in the
cane position becomes awkward. Greater security can now be achieved by
holding the axe in the cross-body position. Grip the shaft just above the
spike with the inside (uphill) hand and hold the head of the axe in the self-
belay grasp, pick pointing forward, with the outside (downhill) hand. Drive
the spike into the ice, the shaft perpendicular to the slope. In the cross-body
position, most of the force on the axe should be from the hand on the shaft.
The hand on the head stabilizes the axe and is a reminder not to lean into the
slope. To keep from leaning into the ice, a full-length ice axe is needed,
rather than a shorter ice tool. Even experienced ice climbers have difficulty
maintaining proper French technique with a short axe.
Move diagonally upward in a two-step sequence, much the same as
ascending a snow slope without crampons. Remember to keep feet flat at all
times. Start from a position of balance, with the inside (uphill) foot in front
of and above the trailing outside (downhill) leg (fig. 19-14a). From this in-
balance position, bring the outside foot in front of and above the inside foot,
into the out-of-balance position (fig. 19-14b). Cross the outside leg over the
knee of the inside leg; crossing at the ankle compromises stability and makes
the next step difficult to accomplish. To return to a position of balance, bring
the inside foot up from behind and place it again in front of the outside foot
(fig. 19-14c). Keep the body centered over the crampons. Avoid leaning into
the slope and creating the danger of crampon points twisting out of the ice.
Step on lower-angle spots and natural irregularities in the ice to ease ankle
strain and conserve energy.
During this diagonal ascent, plant the axe about an arm’s length ahead (as
shown in Figure 19-14a) each time before moving another two steps.
Whether using the axe in the cane or the cross-body position, plant it far
enough forward so that it will be near the hip after you move up to the next
in-balance position (as shown in Figure 19-14c).
To change direction (switchback) on a diagonal ascent of a moderate ice
slope, use the same technique as on a snow slope where crampons would not
be used, but keep both feet flat. From a position of balance, place the axe
directly above this location. Move the outside (downhill) foot forward, into
the out-of-balance position, to about the same elevation as the other foot and
pointing slightly uphill (fig. 19-15a). Grasping the axe with both hands, turn
into the slope, moving the inside (uphill) foot to point in the new direction
and slightly uphill. You are now facing into the slope, standing with feet
splayed outward in opposite directions (fig. 19-15b). If the splayed-foot
position feels unstable, front-point. Return to the in-balance position by
moving the foot that is still pointing in the original direction to above and in
front of the other foot. Reposition your grasp on the ice axe, for either the
cane or cross-body position. You are now back in balance and facing the
new direction of travel (fig. 19-15c).

Fig. 19-15. French technique while changing direction on a diagonal ascent of a moderate slope—
flat-footing combined with ice axe in cross-body position: a, out-of-balance position; b, turning; c, in-
balance position in new direction.

CLIMBING ON MODERATE TO STEEP SLOPES

Steeper ice calls for other variations of flat-footing. At some point, the
German technique of front-pointing comes into play.

Using French Technique

For more security on moderate to steep slopes, switch the ice axe from the
cross-body position to what is known as the anchor position. Your feet
remain flat, with all bottom crampon points weighted into the ice at each
step.
To place the axe in the anchor position, begin in a position of balance.
Grip the ice axe shaft just above the spike with the outside (downhill) hand
(fig. 19-16a). Swing the axe so that the pick sticks into the ice in front of and
above your head, with the shaft parallel to the slope; with the other hand,
take hold of the axe head in the self-arrest grasp (fig. 19-16b). Now pull out
on the spike end of the axe with the outside (downhill) hand while moving
two steps forward, as described for Figure 19-14 to a new position of
balance (fig. 19-16c). Use a gentle and constant outward pull on the ice axe
to set its teeth and keep it locked into the ice. When it is time to release it,
push the bottom of the shaft toward the ice and lift the pick up and out.
To keep feet flat at these angles, you must lean your body farther away
from the slope, with knees and ankles flexed and the toes of your boots
increasingly pointing downhill. Try to continue advancing upward in the
standard sequence, moving two steps at a time. At the steepest angles,
however, your feet point downhill and you must take increasingly smaller
steps, essentially moving backward up the slope. But continue to plant and
remove the pick from a position of balance. The foot that is on the same side
as the direction of travel should be at least slightly higher than the other foot,
allowing your upper body to rotate for a smooth, strong swing of the axe.
To change diagonal direction when the ice axe is in the anchor position,
use the same sequence as with the cane or cross-body position, as in Figure
19-15. However, on the steepest slopes, where you are stepping backward,
change direction simply by switching hands on the axe and planting it on the
other side. There is not much diagonal movement at this point, because you
are mainly moving backward straight up the slope.
Fig. 19-16. French technique on a diagonal ascent of a steep slope—flat-footing combined with ice
axe in anchor position: a, in-balance position; b, out-of-balance position; c, in-balance position.

Fig. 19-17. French technique of pied assis for a balanced rest while climbing a steep slope.
 The French also devised a rest position—called pied assis—that gives leg
muscles a rest and provides more security for replanting the axe. From a
position of balance, bring the outside (downhill) foot up and beneath your
buttocks, with the boot—flat, as always—pointing straight downhill. Then
sit down on the heel of that foot (fig. 19-17). This is a balanced position, and
a relatively comfortable one.
The invaluable technique of flat-footing, used with the ice axe in the cane
or cross-body position, will serve an experienced climber for many alpine
routes. For short stretches of steeper ice, flat-footing combined with the ice
axe in anchor position will often work, but this marks the upper limit of
French technique.

Using German Technique (Front-Pointing)

On steep ice slopes, use of French technique and front-pointing begins to
overlap. They both have a place on these slopes. Most people pick up front-
pointing quickly because it feels natural and secure. Unfortunately, this
encourages its use on moderate slopes where flat-footing would be just as
secure and more efficient. In flat-footing, most of the strain is on the large,
powerful thigh muscles. Front-pointing, however, depends almost solely on
the smaller calf muscles, which burn out much faster. Even climbers who
strongly prefer front-pointing would benefit from alternating the techniques
to give their calf muscles a rest.

Fig. 19-18. Soft-soled boots flex too much for front-pointing with crampons.
Fig. 19-19. To front-point effectively, toes should be straight in with heels slightly down.

Well-fitting, very stiff-soled boots provide a firm base for crampons and
make front-pointing easiest. Less-stiff-soled boots can be used in some cases
but require more muscular effort. However, flexible-soled boots just do not
provide the necessary support for front-pointing (fig. 19-18). Pioneer ice
climber Yvon Chouinard said it well in Climbing Ice: “You can’t dance on
hard ice with soft-soled shoes” (see Resources).
Front-pointing uses not only the primary points of the crampons but also
the secondary points immediately behind them. These points, attached to a
rigid boot and properly placed in the ice, provide a stable platform that can
be stood upon. The most stable placement of the boot is straight into the ice,
perpendicular to the surface. Avoid splayed feet, which tend to rotate the
outside front points out of the ice; the boot soles should be perpendicular to
the ice surface, with heels slightly down in order to engage the secondary
points in the ice and complete the four-point platform for standing (fig. 19-
19). Slightly bend at the knee to reduce the strain on calf muscles.
Resist the temptation to raise your heels. This pulls the secondary points
from the ice, endangering placement of the front points, and accelerates calf
muscle fatigue. Your heels will normally feel lower than they really are, so if
it feels as though your heels are too low, the odds are that they are in the
correct position: slightly lower than horizontal. This is especially important
when a climber is coming over the top of steep ice onto a gentler slope,
where the natural tendency is to raise the heels, relax the level of
concentration, and hurry. This is a formula for trouble because it could cause
the crampon points to shear from the ice. A good way to become
comfortable with the essential skills of crampon placement and foot
positioning is to practice on a top rope with an experienced ice climber who
can critique your style.
 In the initial crampon placements on a route, concentrate on determining
the amount of force required to secure a foothold. After that, a single
confident leg swing should be all you need. Watch out for two common
mistakes: kicking too hard (which is fatiguing) and kicking too often in one
place (which fractures the ice and makes it harder to get a good foothold).
As with climbing rock, make your foot placement and keep to it. After
making a crampon placement, avoid foot movement because it can make the
points rotate out of the ice.
Front-pointing uses a variety of ice-axe positions. Dagger positions (see
below) are useful in hard snow and relatively soft ice. They do not work well
in hard ice. The jabbing and stabbing motions of placing the pick are not
very powerful, and poor pick penetration into the hard ice could mean an
insecure placement. Attempts to force a deeper placement may result in
nothing more than a bruised hand. For harder ice or a steeper slope, abandon
the dagger positions for the anchor and traction positions.
Low-dagger position. Hold the axe by the adze in the self-belay grasp
and push the pick into the ice near waist level, to aid balance (fig. 19-20).
This position is helpful in tackling a short, relatively steep section that
requires only a few quick front-pointing moves. It tends to hold you away
from the slope and out over your feet, the correct stance for front-pointing.
Fig. 19-20. Front-pointing with axe in low-dagger position.

Fig. 19-21. Front-pointing with axe in high-dagger position, above shoulder height.
Fig. 19-22. Front-pointing using axe in anchor position: a, placing the axe high without overreaching;
b, adding a self-arrest grasp on the axe while moving up; c, holding the axe in the low-dagger position
before moving it up again.
Fig. 19-23. Front-pointing with axe overhead in piolet traction, pulling straight down on axe without
moving the hand on the shaft.

Fig. 19-24. Front-pointing using two tools, both in low-dagger position.

 High-dagger position. Hold the axe head in the self-arrest grasp and jab
the pick into the ice above shoulder height (fig. 19-21). Use this position if
the slope is a bit too steep to insert the pick effectively into the ice at waist
level in the low-dagger position.
Anchor position. While standing on front points, hold the axe shaft near
the spike and swing the pick in as high as possible without overreaching (fig.
19-22a). Front-point upward, moving your hand higher and higher on the
shaft while you progress, adding a self-arrest grasp on the adze with your
other hand when you are high enough (fig. 19-22b). Finally, switch hands on
the adze, converting the anchor position to the low-dagger position (fig. 19-
22c); when the adze is at waist level, remove it from the ice and replant it
higher, again in the anchor position. Use the anchor position on harder ice or
a steeper slope.
Piolet traction. Hold the axe near the spike and plant it high; then climb
the ice by pulling straight down on the axe while front-pointing up (fig. 19-
23). Do not move your hand on the shaft. Use piolet traction on the steepest
and hardest ice.
On very hard or extremely steep ice, when it becomes too difficult to
balance on front points while replanting the axe, it is necessary to use a
second ice tool. You can use two tools at the same time because, except for
the anchor position, all ice-axe techniques used with front-pointing require
only one hand.
Using two tools provides three points of support—for example, two
crampons and one ice tool while you replant the second tool. The placements
must be secure enough so that if one point of support fails, the other two will
hold you until you replace the third point. Your legs carry most of the
weight, but your arms help with both weight bearing and balance.
In double-tool technique, you can use the same ice-axe method for both
hands or a different method for each. For instance, climb with both tools in
low-dagger position (fig. 19-24), or place one tool in high-dagger position
and the other in piolet traction (fig. 19-25). (See “Climbing on Vertical Ice”
later in this chapter for details of double-tool technique using piolet traction
with both tools.)

Using Combination Technique

One fast and powerful technique combines flat-footing and front-pointing.
This is called the three o’clock position, pied troisième (fig. 19-26), because
as one foot is front-pointing, the other is flat and points to the side (to three
o’clock if it is the right foot or to nine o’clock if it is the left). This
combination is an example of American technique.
The three o’clock position is a potent resource for a direct line of ascent,
much less tiring than front-pointing alone. The position lets climbers
distribute the work over more muscle groups by alternating techniques with
each leg. When climbing, seek out irregular flatter spots and any pockets or
ledges for flat-footing, allowing calf muscles to rest. Use whatever ice-tool
positions are appropriate for the situation.

Fig. 19-25. Front-pointing using two tools, with the tool in the left hand in piolet traction and the tool
in the right hand in high-dagger position.
Fig. 19-26. Three o’clock position for the feet, combining flat-footing (right foot) and front-pointing
(left foot).

Climbers alternate crampon techniques depending on ice conditions. Flat-

footing is usually more secure on frozen snow, ice crust over snow, and soft
or rotten ice, because more crampon points dig into the surface than the four
points of front-pointing. When soft snow covers ice or hard snow, using
front-pointing technique (or the three o’clock position) lets the four front
points blast through the surface to get into the firmer layer beneath. Front-
pointing is often the most secure technique for the average climber to use on
very hard ice on all but gentle slopes. If you are having serious problems on
a climb with flat-footing—perhaps due to fatigue, winds, high altitude, or
fear—switch to front-pointing or the three o’clock position.

ICE-TOOL PLACEMENTS
The objective of placing any ice tool is to establish a solid placement with
one swing. Each swing saved during a pitch means that much less fatigue at
the top. It takes a lot of practice to learn pinpoint placement, especially when
swinging the tool with the nondominant arm. But with a combination of
proper technique and equipment, it should be possible to place a tool swiftly
and precisely so that it is both secure and easy to remove.
 At the base of the route, try a few tool placements to get a feel for the
plasticity of the ice. Plasticity—which determines the ability of the ice to
hold and release a tool—varies tremendously with temperature and age of
the ice. Study the ice for good placements. Ice holds the pick better in
depressions than in bulges, which shatter or break off under the impact of an
ice tool due to radiating fracture lines. Try to make placements in opaque
ice, which is less brittle than clear ice because it has more air trapped inside.
Minimize the number of placements needed by planting the pick as high as
possible and by moving upward as far as possible with each placement.
Placement techniques vary, depending on the type of pick.
Technically curved. Also known as alpine picks, technically curved picks
are most like the pick of a standard ice axe (see Figure 19-4a). However, the
picks are more acutely curved than that of a regular axe, so they hold better
in ice. A tool with a technically curved pick is placed with a natural swing
from the shoulder. This pick is used in conditions ranging from soft serac ice
to hard water ice, though a harder swing is needed for good penetration in
hard ice.

Fig. 19-27. How to remove an ice tool: a and b, rock the shaft back and forth in the same plane as the
pick; c and d, push up with the shaft and then pull the shaft out; e, strike up on the adze (or
hammerhead).

Reverse curved. The more acute angles of reverse-curved picks (see

Figure 19-4b) require a somewhat different swing, with a definite wrist snap
just prior to connecting. To plant the pick, bring your arm back, with your
elbow bent about 90 degrees, then swing at the desired spot. At the end of
the swing, snap your wrist toward the ice. The steeper the droop of the pick,
the more wrist action is needed to set the pick. The reverse-curved pick also
works well for hooking holes in the ice. Large icicles often form in clusters
on vertical sections, creating slots or gaps that are ideal for secure hooking
placements.

Removing the Tool

In addition to learning the proper force to use in placing a tool, climbers
must also learn the best way to remove it. Unless it is done correctly,
removing a tool can be more tiring than placing it. Try to remove the tool in
reverse of the motion used to set it. First, loosen the placement by rocking
the spike end of the shaft of the tool up and down in the same plane as the
pick (fig. 19-27a and b): away from and back toward the ice. Then try to
remove the tool by pushing the shaft up toward the pick and then pulling the
shaft out from up near the pick (fig. 19-27c and d). If this fails, release your
grip on the tool and try to knock it loose by hitting up against the adze with
the palm of your hand (fig. 19-27e). Then grab the head and pull up and out.
Never remove a tool by torquing it from side to side because the pick may
break.

CLIMBING ON VERTICAL ICE

The most efficient and secure method of climbing vertical ice is front-
pointing combined with use of two ice tools, vertically staggered, in piolet
traction. This method of climbing ice is called tracking. The standard
position for the feet is about shoulder width apart and level with each other,
a stable and relatively comfortable stance. One tool is planted above your
head so that your arm is straight. The other tool is planted and weighted, at
shoulder height. At this point your feet and upper tool form a triangle against
the ice. Pull down and slightly outward on the spike ends of the tools’ shafts
to keep the picks’ teeth set in the ice, and apply inward pressure on the
crampon points.
Fig. 19-28. Staying in balance on vertical ice: a, center body weight on the right-hand tool and
remove the left-hand tool for higher placement; b, after moving the feet up, center body weight on the
replanted left-hand tool and remove the right-hand tool for the higher placement.

To ascend, grasp the tools, walk both feet up taking small steps, then
remove the lower tool (fig. 19-28a) and replant it above your head. Maintain
three points of contact at all times. Let your legs do most of the work; do not
burn out your arms by doing pull-ups while climbing. Now repeat the
sequence: place one tool, move both feet, place the other tool (fig. 19-28b),
move both feet, and so on. Be careful not to overreach for a tool placement
because that motion may cause your front points to dislodge from the ice.
Concentrate on efficient, methodical placement of crampon points and ice
tools. Rhythm is as important as balance.
Climbers sometimes find themselves “barn-dooring”—their body
swinging sideways away from ice, out of balance—as they remove one tool
in order to place it higher. Avoid this by shifting your center of balance
toward the tool that will remain in the ice, as shown in Figure 19-28a. Once
that new, higher placement is made, shift your center of balance to the higher
tool (as shown in Figure 19-28b) and then remove the lower tool.
 Tracking, also referred to as the “tripod” or the “A-frame,” is a good
technique to use for ascending ice bulges, small overhangs, and longer
vertical sections (see Chapter 20, Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing).

From Vertical to a Horizontal Stretch

Oddly enough, one of the most challenging sequences involves climbing
from a vertical face up onto a horizontal step or ledge. With a secure
horizontal section of ice ahead, climbers may relax concentration and forget
about good foot placement. At the same time, they face the problem that it is
virtually impossible to obtain a confident tool placement by blindly swinging
over a ledge. They must move high enough to see onto the ledge.
To do this, make shorter tool and foot placements when approaching the
lip of the ledge, then step up to a high-dagger position so you can see onto
the ledge and look for a good spot to place an ice tool. You may need to
remove snow or rotten ice, which often accumulates on ledges and moderate
ice slopes. Place an ice tool securely into the ledge, well back from the lip,
and then place the second ice tool (fig. 19-29a); move your feet up until they
are safely over the lip (fig. 19-29b). Remember that it is especially important
to keep the heels low.

TRAVERSING STEEP TO VERTICAL ICE

The principles for traversing are much the same as for front-pointing up
steep ice. However, because the climber is moving to the side instead of
straight up, it is more difficult to keep one foot perpendicular to the ice while
replacing the front points of the other foot. If your heel rotates, the front
points will also rotate and come out of the ice. Ice tools also tend to rotate
out during sideways travel.
Fig. 19-29. Pulling onto a ledge: a, plant tools on ledge; b, move feet up and over the lip.

Fig. 19-30. Traversing to the right on vertical ice: a, planting the leading tool to the side to begin the
traverse; b, shifting the right foot under it; c, shifting the left foot closer to the right; d, shifting
trailing tool closer to leading tool.

Start from a secure position with both feet at the same level. Lean in the
direction of travel and plant the leading tool in the ice (fig. 19-30a). This
places the leading tool lower than it would be if you were ascending, but not
so far to the side that it causes your body to rotate out from the wall (barn-
door) when the trailing tool is removed. This also puts the trailing tool in a
position so that it can be pulled on in a modified lieback while you are
traversing, without twisting the tool out of the ice.
Now shuffle sideways on front points (fig. 19-30b and c). Move the
trailing tool closer to the lead tool (fig. 19-30d). It is also possible to make a
two-step move, crossing the trailing foot over the leading foot and then
bringing the other foot back into the lead. Most climbers prefer the shuffle,
which is less awkward and feels more secure. After moving your feet,
replant the trailing tool closer to your body at a 45-degree angle (as in Figure
19-30a), lean in the direction of travel and replant the leading tool, and
repeat the process.

DESCENDING ON ICE
Depending on the angle of the ice, a climber may use French, German, or
American technique while descending.

Using French Technique

Once mastered, French technique is the most efficient means of descending
gentle to moderate icy terrain.
Cane position. To descend gently sloping ice, simply face directly
downhill, bend your knees slightly, and walk firmly downward. Plant all
bottom crampon points into the ice with each step. Hold the axe in the cane
position. As the descent angle steepens, bend your knees more and spread
them apart, with your body weight over your feet so that all crampon points
bite securely (fig. 19-31). Thigh muscles do the bulk of the work.
Cross-body position. For greater security, plant the axe perpendicular to
the slope in the cross-body position (fig. 19-32).
Support position. For the next level of security, use the axe in the support
position (fig. 19-33). Grasp the axe near the middle of the shaft and hold it
beside you while descending, with the axe head pointing uphill, pick down,
and the spike pointing downhill. This position is more secure because the
pick and axe are in contact with the surface and the axe is set up for self-
arresting.
Banister position. As the slope steepens, use the axe in the banister
position. Grasp the axe near the spike and plant the pick as far below you as
possible (fig. 19-34a). Walk downward, sliding your hand along the shaft
toward the head of the axe (fig. 19-34b). Maintain a slight outward pull
(away from the ice) on the end of the shaft to keep the pick locked in the ice
(fig. 19-34c). With a reverse-curved pick, this is less secure; you must pull
parallel to the ice. Keep moving down until you are below the axe head (fig.
19-34d), then release the pick (fig. 19-34e) and replant the axe farther down.

Fig. 19-31. Flat-footing on descent with ice axe in cane position.

Fig. 19-32. Flat-footing on descent with ice axe in cross-body position.

Fig. 19-33. Flat-footing on descent with ice axe in support position.

Fig. 19-34. Flat-footing on descent with ice axe in banister position: a, plant the axe; b, slide hand
along the shaft like you would a banister; c, pull outward slightly to keep axe locked in ice; (continued
on facing page)
Fig. 19-34. (continued from facing page) d, ready to replant the axe; e, remove to replant it.

Fig. 19-35. Flat-footing on descent with ice axe in the anchor position.
 Anchor position. On a slope too steep to safely descend facing outward,
turn sideways and descend diagonally. Your footwork changes to the same
flat-footing technique used to ascend diagonally. Use the axe in the anchor
position (fig. 19-35). With your outside arm, swing the axe out in front and
plant the pick in the ice; take hold of the head with the other hand in the self-
arrest grasp; and then flatfoot diagonally down below the axe. The shaft
rotates as you pass below it.

Using Front-Point Technique

On steeper slopes, front-point and ice-tool techniques are generally the same
for going down as they are for going up. But, just as on rock, down-climbing
is more difficult. The tendency is to step too low, which keeps your heels too
high, so front points may fail to penetrate in the first place or may shear out.
A good view of the route is not possible on a descent (although descending
on a slight diagonal helps). It is awkward to plant the ice tools because they
must be placed closer to your body, so the power of a good full swing is lost.
On a descent, the only feasible way to get secure placements may be to plant
the tools back in the holes that were made on the ascent.
Climbers do not often front-point to descend, but it is still a valuable skill
for some occasions, such as retreating from a route. Down-climbing ability
also builds confidence in ascending. Ice climbers usually rappel down
steeper routes (see “Rappelling on Ice” later in this chapter).

ROPED ICE CLIMBING TECHNIQUES

Climbers usually rope up on ice. Ice pitches can be climbed using a standard
single rope or by using two ropes (see “Double- and Twin-Rope Techniques”
in Chapter 14, Leading on Rock). The principal exception comes when
overall team safety is served best by climbing unroped. Late on a stormy day
or while ascending a couloir threatened by rockfall, a climbing party might
find that unroped travel offers relatively more safety with its greater speed
than would continuing on the rope. It may be sensible to travel unroped
through a section so difficult to protect that a fall by one roped climber
would sweep away the whole team. However, make no mistake: unroped ice
climbing is serious business.

PLACING PROTECTION ON ICE

Modern ice screws offer reliable protection in good ice. However, some
safety is sacrificed because of the time and energy it takes to place them.
Therefore leaders commonly place fewer points of protection on an ice pitch
than they typically would on a rock pitch of the same length. Ice climbers
also make some use of natural protection. Practice so that you are able to use
either hand to place protection.

Natural Protection
Natural protection is often hard to come by on an alpine ice route. Good
natural protection may be available not on the ice itself but in rock bordering
the route or protruding through the ice. Shrubs and trees may provide
protection opportunities as well.

Protection with Ice Screws

For any given ice-screw placement, there are dozens of variations. And
climbers must ask some very serious questions: What is the quality of the
ice? What is the depth of the ice? What is the projected amount of force on
the piece? What is the projected direction of force? Which screws are still
left on the rack? Which will be needed later? Observations, calculations,
estimates, and experience will help climbers answer these questions and
place gear accordingly.
Each screw placement is different, which is one of the great things about
climbing ice. It is an ever-changing medium. In solid ice and under ideal
conditions, ice screw placements are actually stronger if the screw is placed
in the projected direction of force. In other cases, placements are stronger if
the screws are oriented away from the direction of force. But the decision
must be made at the time the placement is made.
A favorable location for an ice-screw placement is the same as that for an
ice tool. A good choice is a natural depression, where fracture lines caused
by the screw are not as likely to reach the surface. A screw placed in a bulge
in the ice, on the other hand, can cause serious fracturing that weakens the
placement or makes it useless. In general, keep screw placements at least 2
feet (60 centimeters) apart to reduce danger that fracture lines from one
placement will reach the other, weakening both. Avoid the temptation to
reuse a previous screw placement, unless it has refrozen.
The procedures for placing a screw vary somewhat with ice conditions,
but the basic routine is much the same in any case:
 1. For maximum leverage during placement, keep the screw placement at
about waist level. If the ice screw doesn’t “bite” into the ice right away,
the climber can punch out a small starting hole with the pick or spike of
the ice tool, to give the starting threads or teeth of the screw a good
grip. Make the hole gently, with light taps, to avoid fracturing the ice.
The starting hole can also be an old pick hole.
2. Start the screw in the hole by setting it at the selected angle; in solid
ice, for example, place the screw at a right angle to the ice surface, with
the screw head angled downward about 5 to 15 degrees off
perpendicular. This takes advantage of the holding power of the screw
threads in the ice in the event of a downward load (see Figure 20-6 in
Chapter 20, Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing). Press the screw firmly
with one hand and twist it into the ice at the same time. Drive the screw
in until the hanger is flush with the ice surface and pointed in the
direction of load. In poor-quality or rapidly deteriorating ice (rotten,
slushy, sun-exposed, et cetera) where there is no better protection
option, place the screw at a right angle to the ice surface with the screw
head angled uphill 15 degrees to take advantage of the levering action
of the screw.
3. Clip a quickdraw or runner in to the eye of the screw hanger, with the
carabiner gate down and out. Clip the rope.

Fig. 19-36. Ice-screw placements: a, with soft or rotten surface layer; b, in extremely rotten ice.
 On ice topped with a layer of soft snow or rotten ice, use the adze or pick
to scrape down to a hard, trustworthy surface before you make the starting
hole (fig. 19-36a). In extremely rotten ice, make a large horizontal step with
an ice tool and place the screw vertically at the back of the step (fig. 19-
36b). If the ice fractures and shatters at the surface, you may still get a
secure placement by continuing to drive the screw and gently chopping out
the shattered ice with sideways strokes of the pick.
Climbing extremely steep ice is fatiguing, both physically and mentally,
so minimize the number of screw placements when it is safe to do so. Unless
the ice is rotten, only one screw is placed at each protection point. Relying
mainly on your tool and crampon placements and skills for safety (a concept
known as “self-belayed” climbing) also affects the number of ice screws that
need to be placed.
With practice, it should be possible to place an ice screw with either hand.
On a moderate to steep slope, it may help to chop a step to stand in while
placing the screw. On extremely steep ice, however, chopping steps is too
difficult, so save your energy. Try to place screws from natural resting spots
on the route. Maintain your body weight on your feet, using a tool placement
for balance only. Do not wear yourself out by overgripping the tool while
placing screws. On extremely steep ice, placing ice screws is exacting
business. When it is time to place an ice screw, do it efficiently and
confidently from your front points, and then continue climbing.
After you remove a screw, ice inside its core must be cleaned out
immediately or it may freeze in place, rendering the screw useless until it is
cleared. The interiors of some screws are slightly tapered, facilitating ice
removal. Shake the screw to remove the ice core; if this does not work, then
tap the hanger end of the screw against the ice or the shaft of an ice tool. Do
not bang the teeth or threads of the screw against anything hard. This will
only pit the teeth and screw threads and make the screw harder to place,
especially in cold conditions. If ice does freeze to the inside of the screw, try
to melt it with your breath, with the warmth of your hand, or inside a jacket
pocket. Be careful about cleaning out a screw with your pick or a metal V-
thread tool; this can damage the inner surface of the screw, making ice more
likely to stick in the future. If this continues to be a problem, try squirting a
lubricating and penetrating oil inside the screw before climbs.

SETTING UP ICE ANCHORS

For belaying or rappelling, ice climbers have several options for anchors,
including the V-thread, an ice bollard, and ice screws. This section discusses
the V-thread and ice bollard, which are used mainly in rappelling. The next
section, “Belaying on Ice,” explains the standard anchor setup using two ice
screws.

The V-Thread
The V-thread anchor (see Figure 19-37) is popular because it is simple and
easy to construct. Devised by Vitaly Abalakov, a premier Soviet alpinist in
the 1930s, the V-thread anchor (also known as the Abalakov) is nothing
more than a V-shaped tunnel bored into the ice, with accessory cord or
webbing threaded through the tunnel and tied to form a sling. The V-thread
anchor has held up well in testing and in use, but remember that it is only as
strong as the ice in which it is constructed. Multiple V-thread placements can
be constructed and rigged together to create an equalized anchor point. Here
are the steps to construct a V-thread anchor:
1. Screw a 22-centimeter ice screw into the slope. Angle the screw uphill
10 degrees against the anticipated direction of pull; also tilt it about 60
degrees to one side of perpendicular to the slope (fig. 19-37a).
2. Back this screw out about halfway, but keep it there as a guide. Insert a
second screw into the slope 6 to 8 inches (about 20 centimeters) from
the first, angling it about 60 degrees to the other side of perpendicular
so it will intersect the first hole at its bottom (fig. 19-37b). In other
words, the angle between the two screws is about 120 degrees, with an
imaginary line perpendicular to the slope being at the midpoint (60
degrees from either screw). Remove both screws.
3. Thread a length of 6- to 8-millimeter accessory cord into one side of
the V-shaped tunnel. Use a V-thread tool to fish the end of the cord out
through the other side of the tunnel (fig. 19-37c).
4. Holding both ends of the cord, saw it back and forth in the tunnel in
order to smooth the sharp edge of the ice where the two screw holes
intersect. Otherwise, the edge might cut the cord in a fall. Tie the cord
so that it forms a sling (fig. 19-37d).
5. Place an ice screw 2 to 3 feet (0.6 to 1 meter) above the V-thread
anchor. Clip this screw to the V-thread sling as a backup. The anchor is
now complete.
 For a rappel, the rope is threaded directly through the loop of cord or
webbing and then pulled free when the rappel is completed. Alternatively, if
no accessory cord is available, the rappel rope itself can be threaded through
the tunnel (sometimes referred to as a “zero-thread”). But be aware that
ropes have been known to freeze in the V-thread tunnel.
Many abandoned V-threads are found on popular ice climbs at rappel
and/or belay stations. As with any other fixed anchor, check it carefully
before committing your life to it. Inspect the sling material for burn marks,
wear, or other damage, and check that the knot is secure. Sometimes the free
tails of the knot may be frozen in place, resembling a secure portion of the
sling. Take care! Be sure that the rope is rigged through the sling and not
through these frozen tails. Do not make that fatal error. Inspect the integrity
of the V-shaped tunnel. See if it has melted out to an extent that it is too
shallow for safety. If you have any doubt about the anchor, back it up or
replace it.

images
Fig. 19-37. The Abalakov, or V-thread anchor: a, bore first hole with ice screw tilted up 10 degrees
and tilted out to the side 60 degrees; b, bore an intersecting hole with another ice screw; c, thread a
piece of accessory cord through the V-shaped tunnel, using a V-thread tool; d, tie cord to form a sling
and complete the anchor.

Ice Bollard
A bollard can be among an ice climber’s most useful natural anchors. While
they take time to create, it is a technique worth knowing. The strength of a
bollard is proportional to its size and the quality of the ice. Made in hard,
solid ice, a bollard can be stronger than the rope. The single largest
disadvantage to a bollard is the long time it takes to construct one. A
completed ice bollard is teardrop-shaped when viewed from above (as in
Figure 19-38a and c) and mushroom-shaped when viewed from the side (as
in Figure 19-38b). All that is needed for an ice bollard is an ice axe and good
ice, uniform and without cracks or holes.
Cut the outline of the bollard with the axe pick. In hard ice, give it a
diameter of 12 to 18 inches (30 to 45 centimeters) across the wide end of the
teardrop, and make it 24 inches (61 centimeters) long (fig. 19-38a). Cut a
trench around the bollard at least 6 inches (15 centimeters) deep (fig. 19-
38b), working outward from the outline with both the pick and the adze.
Undercut the sides and top half of the bollard to form a horn that prevents
the rope from popping off over the top (fig. 19-38c). This is the most
sensitive part of the construction because the bollard is easily fractured or
broken if you do not take care. Bollards are also used as anchors in snow
(see Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing).

images
Fig. 19-38. Ice bollard: a, top view, showing width and length; b, side view, showing depth; c, top
view, with rope in place.

BELAYING ON ICE
Ice climbers have the options of using running belays or fixed belays, as in
other types of roped climbing.

Running Belays
By setting up a running belay, ice climbers can get a measure of protection
that is somewhere between climbing on belay and climbing unroped. A
running belay is another way for a team to move faster when storms or
avalanches threaten—circumstances under which, more than ever, speed
means safety. It can also be useful on gentle to moderate terrain where
danger of falling is minimal and fixed belays would be too time-consuming.
A running belay on ice is created in very much the same way as a running
belay on rock (see Chapter 14, Leading on Rock) or snow (see Chapter 16,
Snow Travel and Climbing). The team members, usually just two climbers,
move simultaneously. The leader places protection as they climb and clips
the rope through it; the follower removes the protection. The idea is to keep
at least two points of protection between them at all times to hold the rope in
case of a fall. The protection is usually spaced so that as the leader makes
each new placement, the follower is removing the bottom one.
Because the technique of running belays sacrifices much of the safety of
true belaying, the decision to use it takes fine judgment, based on extensive
experience. As the difficulty of the route changes, the team can easily shift
between running belays and pitched climbing.

Fixed Belays
Fixed belays (pitches) on ice require a belayer, a belay anchor, and
intermediate points of protection, just as they do on rock or snow. A belay
anchor is set up; the leader climbs the pitch on belay, sets up another anchor,
and then belays the follower (also called the second) up the route. The
climbers can either swing leads, or one climber can continue as the leader.
The leader should, when near the end of a pitch, keep an eye out for a
good belay spot, perhaps at a slight depression, at a place where the ice is
not so steep, or in an area where a platform can be chopped out quickly. If
you choose to chop out a stance, place an ice tool off to one side for balance
while chopping a step large enough for you to stand facing the ice with both
feet flat and splayed. On steep ice, it may be possible to chop only a simple
ledge the width of your foot.

Belay Anchor
A standard anchor setup for an ice belay must meet the same SERENE
(Solid, Efficient, Redundant, Equalized, and No Extension; see Chapter 10,
Belaying) standards as a rock anchor; it takes two ice screws (a third can be
added if conditions are less than optimal), preferably screws with either two
clipping eyes or a single oversized eye that will accommodate two
carabiners. (Ice bollards and V-threads also can serve as belay anchors, but
they are more time-consuming to set up and are used primarily for
rappelling.)
Place the first screw in the ice directly in front of you at about waist to
chest level. Clip in a locking carabiner, then clip yourself in independently
using a personal anchor or the rope. Now place the second ice screw, 18 to
24 inches (46 to 61 centimeters) to the side of and slightly above the first
screw, so the small fractures created by any screw placement don’t intersect,
which would weaken the entire section of ice. Clip a runner or cordelette to
each screw and create an equalized anchor (see “Equalizing the Anchor” in
Chapter 10, Belaying). This completes the anchor setup (shaded rope and the
runner in fig. 19-39).

images
Fig. 19-39. Anchor setup for belaying the second directly off the ice anchor, using two ice screws 18 to
24 inches apart. Second climber is on belay using a munter hitch.

Belay Methods
Choose between belaying off the anchor using a belay device or a munter
hitch, or belaying using a hip belay. The anchor setup is the same in any
case. The choice probably depends on what the climbers are accustomed to
and on the degree of their confidence in the anchor. The hip belay (see
below) tends to be somewhat dynamic, with a bit of movement at the belay
—resulting in a slower stop to a fall but less force on the anchor and
intermediate protection points—yet may be the only option if the rope is iced
up and will not work in a belay device. Belay devices and the munter hitch,
on the other hand, tend to be less dynamic, stopping a fall faster but putting
more force on the anchor and intermediate protection points. For a detailed
description of belaying indirectly off the harness, see Chapter 10, Belaying;
the mechanics for belaying on ice are essentially the same. For more, see
“Choosing a Belay Method” in Chapter 10, Belaying.
Regardless of the belay method employed, rope management remains the
same. As the belayer brings rope in while the second ascends, “butterfly” it
in coils draped across the rope tethering the belayer to the master point of the
anchor. Do not let it fall loosely below, as the dangling loops of rope can
impede the second’s ascent and subsequently get hooked on small ice
features as the next climber leads out above.
Belaying directly off the anchor. Belaying with an auto-locking belay
device or a munter hitch directly off the anchor is easy and efficient (as
shown in Figure 19-39), and many ice climbers use this method as standard
procedure. Attach the belay device or a munter-capable (pear-shaped)
locking carabiner to the shelf of the equalized anchor just above the figure-
eight knot of the master point (see Figure 10-20 and “Static Equalization” in
Chapter 10, Belaying) or to a second locking carabiner attached to the
master point, then rig the device (per manufacturer’s instructions) or munter
hitch properly (see “Belaying a Follower” in Chapter 10, Belaying) and
announce to the second that he or she is on belay.
Fig. 19-40. Ice belay setup for a hip belay.

Hip belay. The hip belay is favored when the rope is stiff and frozen and
could jam in belay devices. To establish a hip belay, stand facing the ice
belay anchor, run the belay rope through an extra carabiner or quickdraw on
the second screw, then through a control carabiner at your waist, around your
back, through an extra carabiner on the first screw, and into your braking
hand (fig. 19-40).

Swapping Leads on Ice

Once the following climber has reached the anchor, both climbers should
secure themselves to the anchor using a personal anchor or the rope attached
to either screw or to the shelf of the equalized runner, then exchange gear as
needed. If the belayer has been belaying directly off the anchor, move the
device and its carabiner from the anchor to the belay loop on the belayer’s
harness and clip the rope leading from the device to the second climber
through the quickdraw attached to the upper screw.
The leader now becomes the second, placing the second climber—the new
leader—on belay; the new leader detaches his or her personal anchor and
begins climbing. The quickdraw attached to the upper anchor screw
temporarily becomes the new leader’s first piece of protection. Once the new
leader has placed the first piece of protection above the anchor, the belayer
detaches the quickdraw on the upper anchor screw from the lead rope.
Repeat this changeover sequence at the top of each pitch to the end of the
climb.

RAPPELLING ON ICE
For descending steep ice, rappelling is usually the method of choice. The
principal considerations for rappelling on ice are the same as for rappelling
on rock (see Chapter 11, Rappelling), but there is a big difference in anchor
options. On rock, a natural anchor such as a rock horn or a tree can often be
used. On ice, climbers frequently have to make their own anchors. The most
popular rappel anchor for ice is the V-thread, with the ice bollard as an
alternative if conditions and available equipment dictate (see “Setting Up Ice
Anchors” above). An ice screw is commonly used to back up an ice anchor
until the last member of the party descends. The last person removes the
screw and rappels on the anchor with no backup.

PRACTICING FOR THE FREEDOM OF THE

HILLS
Skill and confidence in alpine ice climbing come with long practice. The
ability to assess or read the ice comes with years of experience. Link up with
a steady ice climbing partner if possible. Practice together often. Work on
pinpoint ice-tool and crampon placement, which conserves energy. Also
work to increase the speed and efficiency of your climbing, gearing it to the
conditions of the ice and your body’s strength. It is up to each climber to
decide when to rope up for protection—and when it is safer not to.
Experienced ice climbers learn these skills, continue to hone them, and apply
them with confidence and good judgment so they can meet the rigors of their
chosen routes.
EQUIPMENT • WATERFALL ICE CLIMBING • MIXED CLIMBING • CLIMBING IN THE
WINTER ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 20
WATERFALL ICE AND MIXED
CLIMBING
As the temperature falls below the freezing point, liquid water
changes to a solid. Even raging torrents can become spectacular,
massive hanging waterfall ice formations. Water ice is formed
by gradual buildup. The usual formation is not a single
monolithic crystalline structure. Typically, ice formations are
the result of a series of freezes, and they have a laminated, or
layered, structure. Water ice can take many forms: smooth,
broad slabs; flat runnels; cauliflower-textured walls; latticed
sheets; chandeliered curtains; massive ice pillars; fantastic, free-
hanging icicles.

Compared with the life cycle of glacial ice, the life spans of winter waterfall
ice formations are all too brief. During a single winter season’s freeze-thaw
cycles, waterfall ice can form, collapse, then re-form, only to collapse again
when the spring thaw arrives. When climbers visit the sites of winter ice
climbs in warmer seasons, they may not be able to picture what is there in
winter. Summer tourists traveling in Alberta, Canada, along the Icefields
Parkway in Jasper National Park can easily miss the wet spot that marks the
location that attracts waterfall ice climbers from around the world in winter:
the Weeping Wall’s spectacular ice curtain, an acre of vertical ice.
The technical difficulty of waterfall ice climbing continues to rise. The
sport has transcended the traditional style—simple ascension of ice
formations—and now includes dry tooling (climbing on technical rock with
ice tools and crampons to link formations of ice separated by rock).
Climbing on mixed terrain (rock, thin ice, and ice) is not a new concept: it
has long been part of ascending Scottish gullies in winter and climbing
technical routes in the Alps. In the classic sense, mixed climbing meant
having one foot on rock and the other on ice—usually thin ice. However, the
focus of the sport has shifted. On a modern mixed route, climbers may spend
as much or more time on rock as on ice. Often the crux of a route consists of
making an athletic transition from rock to an overhanging curtain or spear of
ice.
Waterfall ice and mixed-route climbers must exercise caution on terrain
that changes abruptly from ice to rock and back, but they must also act with
concern for the environment. The hard steel of ice tools and crampons does
scratch and can break the rock surface and harm lichens or plants. When dry
tooling, exercise care to minimize damage. When establishing mixed routes,
give major consideration to the local ethics: avoid climbing in culturally
sensitive areas (for example, cliffs with pictographs) and popular rock
climbing areas.
Since much waterfall ice climbing occurs during the winter months and
requires travel up steep slopes, in gullies, or below basins, snow conditions
are a big concern. It is important to assess avalanche risk and exercise
prudence any time you are venturing into the backcountry; see Chapter 17,
Avalanche Safety.

EQUIPMENT
This section includes a few considerations specific to waterfall ice and
mixed climbing. For discussions of snow and alpine ice climbing equipment,
see Chapters 16, Snow Travel and Climbing, and 19, Alpine Ice Climbing.
Fig. 20-1. Semirigid crampons with interchangeable front points: a, dual; b, mono.

CRAMPONS
For waterfall ice, the front points are more aggressively curved or angled
downward than those used in general alpine ice climbing; the secondary
points are angled more forward. On extremely steep to overhanging
waterfall ice or mixed terrain, the crampons of choice are semirigid or rigid
with vertical dual (fig. 20-1a) or mono (fig. 20-1b) front points. Monopoints
are better for dry tooling and delicate ice. Some crampon front points are
interchangeable, allowing worn front points to be replaced (rather than
replacing the entire crampon) or to be switched from mono to dual front
points or vice versa.

ICE TOOLS
While a straighter-shafted tool is a more versatile option for alpine ice
climbing, a curved technical tool with ergonomic grip and reverse-curved
pick (see Figure 19-4b in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing) is the standard
choice for waterfall ice and mixed climbing. There are a variety of technical
ice tools on the market (fig. 20-2). Each type has different characteristics
(including grip, weight, and balance), so demo several models and choose
the one that best fits your needs.
Fig. 20-2. Modern technical ice tools.

WATERFALL ICE CLIMBING

Using crampons and ice tools, ice climbers move vertically on the varied ice
found in frozen waterfalls.

CRAMPON TECHNIQUES
Footwork is the foundation of climbing techniques for steep waterfall ice.
Good footwork allows climbers to keep most of their weight on their feet
and the strong musculature of their legs, rather than on their arms, saving
precious arm strength. See figures in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing, for
examples of good footwork. Good footwork ensures smooth weight changes
and greater efficiency. Poor footwork causes climbers to flail, burn out
rapidly, and fall.

Fig. 20-3. A pigeon-toed stance is sometimes needed to plant front points squarely.

Front-pointing is the mainstay of footwork on vertical ice (see Chapter 19,

Alpine Ice Climbing, for details on front-pointing). A good ice climber not
only looks up for good tool-placement opportunities but also continually
looks down for front-point placements that ease the strain on the calves. As
is true for tool placements, slight depressions make for ideal front-point
placements. Similarly, a spot just above a small bulge can also be a nice
placement.
 After finding a likely spot, use a firm kick to set the front points in place.
Except in rotten, chandelier, or extremely brittle ice (see “Unusual
Conditions” later in this chapter), no more than one or two kicks should be
necessary. Make sure that your feet are perpendicular to the ice surface in
both planes: keep heels low so that the secondary points engage the surface,
making for a more stable placement, and make sure the toe of each boot is
squarely facing the surface at that particular spot. A pigeon-toed stance (or
its opposite, a duck-footed stance) may be necessary to plant the front points
squarely (fig. 20-3). Monopoints can be slotted in old pick placements. Once
your feet are placed, try to keep them steady until you are ready to move
again. Nervous feet weaken the placement.
Keep feet shoulder width, or slightly less, apart to reduce the tendency to
“barn-door” to one side. Use several short steps, rather than high-stepping, to
reduce the stress on your quadriceps—although high-stepping can be
necessary occasionally to get past bulges.
Beyond straight-in front-pointing, footwork that is much more akin to
rock climbing techniques is very useful for the variety of features found on
many waterfall ice climbs. Stemming and flagging for counterbalance,
matching feet (see Chapter 12, Alpine Rock Climbing Technique), and heel
hooking (see Figure 20-10) are very useful on waterfall ice.

ICE-TOOL TECHNIQUES
Just as the mainstay of footwork on waterfall ice is front-pointing, the most
frequent tool placement is piolet traction or “tracking” (see Figure 19-23 in
Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing). Because it becomes very tiring to swing
tools overhead, do everything possible to reduce the number of swings and
placements you make.
When tracking, think of it as climbing on self-belay. Before trusting the
integrity of each placement, test it by loading it with partial body weight. Do
this test from the relative safety of a stable stance on the ice. This is a key
concept: the goal is to create a position of strength and then to climb from
that position. If each position is stable, you will climb with comfort and
confidence. Do not fall into the trap of relying on a shaky placement,
because this robs you of confidence and can lead to increasingly weak and
unstable stances.
Selecting a placement and making the placement accurately are the keys
to placing ice tools securely and quickly; strive to gain a solid placement
with just one swing. One technique for hitting a precise spot is to tap the
desired spot with the pick, then swing at that spot with force. The swing is
more akin to a racquetball swing, with its wrist snap just prior to connecting
with the ball, than to a straight-wristed tennis swing. The steeper the droop
of the pick, the more wrist action is needed to set the pick at the proper
angle. (See “Ice-Tool Placements” in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing.)
Many beginning waterfall ice climbers tend to drive their tools in too hard;
take care to avoid this, because sinking a tool makes it much more difficult
and tiring to remove it as you continue on. (See “Removing the Tool” in
Chapter 19.)
While climbing, conserve energy by looking for secure placements that do
not require you to swing the ice tool. Some old tool or monopoint
placements may be deep enough that you can simply slot the pick in.
Hooking opportunities abound on water ice. Large icicles often form in
clusters on vertical sections, creating slots or gaps that are ideal for hooking
placements. Larger columns can be hooked horizontally. Reverse-curved
picks (see “Ice-Tool Placements” in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing) are
best for hooking placements. Many ice-tool picks have teeth where the pick
attaches to the shaft, which provide more secure hooking.
In good ice, vertically stagger the tool placements using the tracking
technique (see “Climbing on Vertical Ice” in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice
Climbing). By staggering the tools (rather than planting them side by side)
and by relying on a single tool at a time, climbers reduce the number of tool
placements, thus decreasing the workload on the swinging and gripping
muscles of their arms and hands. If the ice is suspect (meaning the placement
is too), plant both tools side by side, about 2 feet (0.6 meter) apart, before
moving your feet up. This decreases the load on each placement and reduces
the chance that a tool will shear out under the load.

Leashed Versus Leashless Tools

Leashes are generally no longer used on water ice tools. They have been
replaced in recent years by a variety of grip-aiding devices on the shafts of
the tools (see Figure 20-2). Freedom from leashes unexpectedly led to the
development of a variety of new techniques and helped to raise standards of
both ice and mixed climbing. Leashless tools make it easy for climbers to
change tools from hand to hand, regrip the tool at the midshaft grip (which
allows for upward movement without a new placement), and release the tool
for a shake-out rest or to place a screw.
Climbing leashless requires the climber to adapt techniques to maintain
arm and hand strength. Avoid overgripping the tool, which is a waste of
energy. When standing in place, relax your grip slightly, taking advantage of
the grips and rests inherent in the tool.
Climbers who wish to use leashes to keep from dropping tools may
choose to use “umbilicals.” Umbilicals are tethers, usually of an elastic
material, that connect the tool (usually by being clipped to a hole in the
tool’s spike) to the climber’s harness (see Figure 19-6). Note that neither the
umbilical nor its attachment point are belay strength and should never be
used as part of a belay or personal anchor. They are solely to prevent the loss
of a tool. Another consideration: if a climber is leading with gear racked to
the harness, the umbilicals can become entangled in the hanging gear.

VERTICAL PROGRESSION
Just as in climbing on rock, climbing on waterfall ice involves a coordinated
combination of climbing techniques used by a leader and a belayer, who are
connected by the rope, anchors, and protection points.

Tracking
Follow these steps to combine crampon and ice-tool techniques to “track”
your way upward:
1. While standing on front points and with one ice tool in piolet traction,
place the other ice tool high, at full arm’s length; immediately relax,
weighting that tool (fig. 20-4a).
2. With the upper tool still weighted (your arm fully extended), move
your feet up, using small steps, to stances between ankle and knee
height. Ideally, your body position should form a triangle with the apex
at the high tool placement (fig. 20-4b). If your feet are too far to one
side or the other, you will tend to “barn-door,” swinging out of balance
to that side.
3. Loosen, but do not yet remove, the lower of the two tools, and look
above for the next placement for it.
4. In one motion, stand upright by pushing with your feet and pulling on
the upper tool, remove the lower tool, and place it in the chosen spot,
again preferably at full arm’s length (fig. 20-4c).
 5. Relax, weight that tool, then loosen your grip on it, and move your feet
up. Once you are certain this new placement is secure, you can remove
the lower tool (fig. 20-4d).
6. Repeat these steps. As you repeatedly move through the sequence, you
will be “tracking” the tool placements with your feet, moving a little
laterally with each move to maintain that triangular position and
keeping your feet centered on the tools.

Fig. 20-4. Proper tracking technique: a, place one tool at arm’s length and weight it; b, move feet up
in small steps; c, stand up and place the other tool at arm’s length; d, weight the tool and move the
feet up.

Belaying
Setting up belay anchors and belaying on waterfall ice uses the same
procedures as those discussed in “Belaying on Ice” in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice
Climbing. Take extra care in locating belays away from the fall line to avoid
being showered with debris from the leader. In gullies, site the belay to one
side of the route, seeking protection from the sidewall. On pillars or curtains,
try placing the belay behind or to the side of the formation, but be aware that
although this position provides greater protection from falling ice, it will
make communication more difficult and rope drag a possibility. Look for a
compromise between protection and convenience in belay stances.

Leading
Most waterfall ice climbs are led and followed in pitches, though many long
climbs offer sections suitable for running belays. Ice pitches may be climbed
with a single rope or with two ropes using either double-rope or twin-rope
technique (see “Double- and Twin-Rope Techniques” in Chapter 14, Leading
on Rock).

PROTECTION
Waterfall ice routes can be protected using both rock and ice gear, which
affects racking and placements.

Rock Gear
Some waterfall ice climbs have options for using rock gear. On gully climbs,
the rock sidewalls can provide protection opportunities. On freestanding
columns or curtains, look behind the ice for placements in the back wall;
these most likely will need to be extended by slings to prevent rope drag. In
the winter, cracks tend to be filled by ice; as a result, pitons are used more
frequently than on summer climbs, though the full variety of clean protection
can be used as well.

Natural Protection
Waterfall ice offers more opportunities for natural protection than do the
flows and steps of alpine ice, and many natural placements are quicker to set
up than ice screws. Runners can be placed around small ice columns (fig.
20-5). A long ice screw tied off with webbing can be inserted between two
columns or through a slot in an ice curtain, then rotated sideways and used
as a sort of deadman for temporary protection (for a description of deadman
anchors in snow, see Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing). In thin
curtains, two holes can be punched in the curtain and then threaded with
webbing or accessory cord as for a V-thread anchor. (See “Setting Up Ice
Anchors” in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing.)
Fig. 20-5. Runner threaded around an ice pillar.

images
Fig. 20-6. Ice-screw placement is strongest angled 5 to 15 degrees downward in cold, solid ice.

Ice Screws and Ice Pitons

Ice screws remain the most common type of protection used on waterfall ice
(see Figures 19-7 and 19-8), but ice pitons, pound-in protection designed for
thin ice and mixed climbing, may also be part of the rack.
Ice screws. Placing ice screws is described in “Protection with Ice
Screws” in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing. Significant testing has been
done to determine the strength of ice-screw placements in solid water ice at
cold temperatures. Surprisingly, under those conditions the strongest screw
placements are those with the screw head angled downward 5 to 15 degrees
off perpendicular, pointing toward the direction of pull (fig. 20-6). This
configuration can reduce fracturing of the ice when loaded by a leader fall.

images
Fig. 20-7. Ice-screw placement in thin ice over rock: a, screw protrudes 2 inches (5 centimeters) or
less, clip hanger as normal; b, screw extends more than 2 inches (5 centimeters), tie screw off close to
the ice. Note that this second, highly suspect placement is not recommended and should be followed by
a stronger placement as soon as possible.
 It is best to use a screw of a length that can be sunk to the hilt. If the ice is
too shallow for a screw to be placed all the way in to its hanger, remove that
screw and use a shorter one in a new spot; never reuse an existing screw hole
unless it has had a chance to melt and refreeze—much of the strength of the
placement is due to the frozen core of ice inside the screw. Carry a variety of
screw lengths to decrease the chances of needing to tie off a screw. If the
screw protrudes no more than 2 inches (5 centimeters) from the surface of
the ice, clip the hanger as you normally would (fig. 20-7a). If the screw
protrudes more than 2 inches from the surface, the placement is highly
suspect. Tie off the protruding screw with a runner next to the ice (fig. 20-
7b). Tie off a screw only as a last resort. When screws fail under loading,
they do so by fracturing the ice below them and bending toward the direction
of load. In the case of a tied-off screw, the webbing then slides to the hanger
and is cut by its sharp edges.
Ice pitons. Another type of protection is the ice piton. Ice pitons are
removable protection used to hook features in either ice or rock (fig. 20-8).
They can be slotted into holes in ice curtains or between the laced-together
icicles in chandelier ice and then set with a light tap. Ice pitons can also be
driven into iced-up cracks, hence their name.

Protecting the Leader

Many more options for protecting the leader can be found on waterfall ice
than on alpine ice. Alpine ice is limited to using ice screws, with occasional
rock protection to the side or in rock “islands.” On waterfall ice, rock gear
can often be placed to the side of or even behind an ice column, or natural
protection can be creatively used in the ice itself, in addition to ice-screw
and ice-piton placements.

images
Fig. 20-8. Ice piton.

THE RACK FOR WATERFALL ICE CLIMBING

A typical ice climbing rack for a multipitch, pure ice climb might
contain some or all of the following gear:
images Four long (19- or 22-centimeter) screws for anchors and/or
constructing V-thread anchors
 images Six to 12 ice screws of varying lengths appropriate for the
thickness of the ice
images Eight to 14 quickdraws and/or alpine draws (see Figure 14-7 in
Chapter 14, Leading on Rock)
images Two long runners or cordelettes for equalizing belay anchors
images An ice piton (as shown in Figure 20-8) for quick pound-in
protection
images A V-thread tool (as shown in Figure 19-9 in Chapter 19, Alpine
Ice Climbing)
images A few pieces of 6- to 8-millimeter accessory cord for
constructing V-thread anchors
images A knife for cutting webbing and cord

Racking
Most ice climbers rack ice screws and other ice gear on their harness (see
Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing). Here is one suggested harness
arrangement for racked gear (see also “The Rack for Waterfall Ice Climbing”
sidebar):
images Rack most of the gear needed on lead on the same side as
your dominant hand. Place ice screws in front, arranged front to
back by length, short to long, with teeth pointed to the rear. Next,
rack quickdraws behind the screws. Rack a few screws and
quickdraws on your nondominant side in the event you need to place
a screw with that hand.
images Use the rear gear loops on both sides to rack gear that will
not be needed immediately. This includes longer screws for belay
anchors or for creating V-threads, a belay device, free carabiners, a
pulley, a V-thread tool, and a cordelette.

Placing Gear on Lead

Placing ice screws while leading on steep ice can be very physically
demanding. To conserve energy, minimize the number of screw placements;
typically, on a waterfall ice pitch, far fewer protection placements are made
than would be placed on a rock pitch of similar length. Similarly, climbers
develop techniques for placing screws that minimize the effort expended.
 For example, avoid the temptation to place a screw high (above shoulder
height) to gain that momentary top-rope protection (having the rope above
you). In this position, it is very difficult to put enough pressure on the screw
so that its threads will bite into the ice. The most efficient placement is right
at waist level. You have better leverage and can use your whole body weight
to push the screw into the ice. Also, your arm remains below the level of
your heart so blood flow remains constant.

images
Fig. 20-9. Placing an ice screw on lead.

Here is one technique for placing screws on lead:

1. Get a good stance for both feet and (if you are right-handed) plant the
left tool high (at arm’s length); weight the tool, hanging straight-armed.
Use the tool placement for balance only; maintain your weight on your
feet, as shown in Figure 20-9.
2. At waist level, use the right tool to chip away any rotten or soft ice at
the desired placement and make a starter hole for the screw if needed.
Secure that tool—clip it to your harness, or place it solidly in the ice
out of the way.
3. Place the screw with your right hand (fig. 20-9); attach a quickdraw or
runner to the screw hanger; clip in the rope.
4. Retrieve the right tool; place the tool high and weight it; shake the left
arm out as needed and continue climbing.
Occasionally body position, ice quality, or solid tool placements may
dictate that a screw be placed with your nondominant hand. Practice placing
screws with that hand and always rack a few screws on the nondominant
side of your harness.

UNUSUAL CONDITIONS
Unlike the more homogeneous ice of most alpine ice climbs, waterfall ice
comes in an amazing and beautiful (and, many times, terrifying) array of
formations, shapes, textures, features, and quality. These characteristics can
make for difficult climbing with little opportunity for protection.
Pillars. Pillars are formed when meltwater drips off a free-hanging icicle
until the resulting ice stalactite and stalagmite join. Climbable pillars can
range in size from less than a body’s width to many feet across. Although
big pillars are climbed using the tracking technique (see “Tracking” earlier
in this chapter), small pillars require much more varied techniques. The tools
must be vertically staggered so as not to weaken the pillar by having the two
tools too close together. If placing screws in the pillar might weaken it, place
protection in the adjacent rock. Both the tools and the front points might
need to be placed in a pigeon-toed angle to keep the points and picks going
straight into the ice, perpendicular to the ice in both planes. On really narrow
pillars, a combination of front-pointing with one foot and flagging or heel
hooking is effective (fig. 20-10). Assess pillars carefully before climbing
them. Abnormally warm or cold temperatures can weaken them, as can
sudden temperature swings, especially from warm to cold.
Free-hanging ice. Free-hanging ice is formed when a pillar or curtain has
not touched down onto ice or the ground or has broken off. Most of the
techniques for climbing free-hanging ice are the same as for climbing pillars,
as are the stability concerns. Use delicate tool and crampon placements.
Place protection in the adjacent rock walls. Place screws in the ice only
above its point of attachment to the rock. If screws are placed low in the
formation and the formation fails, the climber, connected to the falling
block, will be dragged down.

images
Fig. 20-10. Combination footwork: front-pointing and heel hooking.

Chandelier ice. When thousands of small icicles melt and become laced
together into a dense latticework, it is called chandelier ice. This ice
formation is fairly common, beautiful to see, hard to climb, and difficult to
protect. Belays must be situated to avoid the constant rain of debris from the
leader. Most of the time, there is little delicacy to climbing a chandelier.
Kick your feet deep into the ice structure in hopes of finding secure
purchase. Place the tools similarly, although you can be more creative with
them. You might hook the slots between two larger icicles, stab the entire
head of the tool directly into the ice and then rotate the tool 90 degrees so the
hammer or adze and pick straddle the newly created slot, or thrust the entire
tool (and your arm) through the lattice and grasp the tool midshaft, using it
as a deadman-style placement. You may not be able to place a solid screw,
but natural protection may exist.
Cauliflower ice. Cauliflower ice forms at the “drip zone” of ice climbs,
usually near the ground or above large ledges where spraying or splashing
water has frozen into unusual shapes resembling everything from
cauliflowers to open artichokes. The formations can range in size from
several inches to several feet wide and deep. Cauliflower ice offers many
opportunities for hooking tools. Formations with solid domes can often be
flat-footed (see Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing), but use caution climbing
the “petals” of ice that resemble more of an open artichoke; they can break
easily. Cauliflower ice is best protected by screws set in larger bulges or in
the solid center ice of these formations.
Onion skin ice. Another type of spray ice, onion skin ice forms when
water sprays onto a layer of fresh snow and freezes, forming a crust of ice
over the snow, sometimes several inches thick. These are notoriously
unstable formations, however, since the ice is not attached to a solid surface.
When climbing through onion skin ice, make sure to place a screw before
moving onto it: but do not place a screw in an onion skin.
Brittle ice. The result of very cold temperatures, brittle ice usually
appears only on the surface layers of ice formations. Work through the hard,
brittle layers to get to the more plastic ice below, and in the process a
cascade of falling ice will result, ranging in size from small chips to very
large dinner plates. Be sure to stagger the placements of the tools far enough
apart that the fracturing created by one tool does not reach the other, causing
both placements to fail. Also, beware of falling dinner plates, which can
dislodge front points. Place ice screws in the better ice found beneath the
brittle layers.
Rotten ice. Often the result of being baked by the sun or weakened by
percolating water, rotten ice can run much deeper than brittle ice, even
through an entire formation. Rotten ice is difficult to climb and harder to
protect; a lengthy section of rotten ice may be all but unclimbable.
Thin ice. Thin ice ranges from just a glaze of ice over the rock to ice a
few inches thick. Thin ice can be very exciting and fun to climb. The
thinnest ice is verglas: thick enough to obscure the underlying rock but not
thick enough to gain purchase in with picks or points. Thicker ice is easier to
climb, as long as temperatures are cold enough for cohesion to be
maintained between the ice and the underlying rock. Make both tool and
crampon placements with the gentlest of taps, swinging tools just from the
wrist; sometimes placements must be scratched into place by chipping and
hooking. Protection is usually found in the rock surrounding the ice.
Extremely short screws may offer only psychological protection at best.
 Bulges and ledges. These formations (discussed fully in Chapter 19,
Alpine Ice Climbing) in water ice entail the same concerns that exist in
climbing alpine ice.

DESCENDING
Some waterfall ice climbs, especially gully routes, allow walk-off descents
to one side or the other. Most, however, are descended by a combination of
down-climbing and rappelling. The techniques of down-climbing ice are
discussed fully in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing; please review them
there.

Rappelling
The principal techniques for rappelling on ice are the same as for rappelling
on rock. Many rappels on popular waterfall ice climbs are done from fixed
anchors, usually a combination of bolts and/or chains, slings on trees, or
abandoned V-thread anchors. As with any fixed anchor, inspect these
thoroughly before trusting them. Make sure the bolts are secure. Check the
slings or accessory cord on the tree or the V-thread anchor for damage, wear,
or burn marks, and check all knots. When in doubt, remove and replace the
material. Check found V-threads to ensure that they are still solid. If any
found anchor is suspect in any way, or if there are none, place your own. The
technique for building a V-thread is fully discussed in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice
Climbing. Any V-thread should be backed up with a screw until the last
climber removes the backup screw, then rappels. Before the last climber
rappels, ensure that the rappel lines are not frozen into place or jammed, so
they can be pulled free from below.

MIXED CLIMBING
Mixed climbing combines climbing on rock, snow, and ice—and sometimes
on frozen mud and moss as well. Mixed climbing might mean climbing a
rock route in the winter, with ice-filled cracks and snow-covered ledges. Or
it may involve making an alpine ascent up an icy face broken by a rock
band. Or it may be climbing with one crampon on rock and the other on ice,
one hand inserted into a crack and one ice tool placed in a frozen smear.
Modern “sport” mixed climbing has come to mean climbing sections of rock
between discontinuous sections of ice, often with preplaced bolted rock
protection.

EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES

The equipment used for mixed climbing most likely is whatever the climber
was using right before the ice ran out. On a glacier climb, this means
mountaineering crampons and a mountaineering ice axe. On a harder alpine
ice climb, it most likely means a mountaineering ice axe with a technically
curved pick used in combination with a shorter ice tool, likely a hammer,
and semirigid crampons. On a frozen waterfall with a mixed section, it is
likely to be technical ice climbing tools and crampons.

Crampons
When climbing a mixed route, climbers are usually wearing crampons.
Although considerable rock may be showing, it may be impractical to
remove crampons only to put them back on when the route returns to the ice.
Whichever crampons you choose, be sure that they are fully compatible with
your boots. They must fit well to enable the delicate and precise movements
required to climb rock while in crampons.
Vertical front points. Many mixed climbers prefer technical crampons
with vertical front points (see Figure 20-1a). Monopoint crampons (see
Figure 20-1b) are particularly handy for precision accuracy on minuscule
ledges, vertical seams, and other subtle features. Monopoints are also
advantageous because the point mimics the pick of an ice tool. On ice a
monopoint can be placed in the pick hole made just a few moves previously.
Horizontal front points. Some mixed climbers prefer crampons with
horizontal front points (see Figure 16-5c in Chapter 16, Snow Travel and
Climbing). Such crampons have greater stability because their horizontal
alignment matches the features found in the sedimentary strata of many
mountain ranges. They also are less prone to shearing away because of their
greater surface area.

Crampon Technique
Ultimately, crampon choice is secondary to proper technique. A good mixed
climber selects a foothold and delicately places a crampon point or points in
the spot. Smooth weight transfer is critical while gradually testing the
foothold until it is completely weighted. Once that foot is weighted, it is
important to keep it still, to prevent the points from rotating out of a crack or
off a ledge. Careful footwork is the key to mixed climbing. With proper
technique, climbers will not scratch the rock and their crampon points will
remain sharp for any difficult ice climbing lying ahead.

Hands on Rock
Although it may be impractical to remove crampons for a rock section, it
often makes sense to secure ice tools and grasp the rock directly with your
hands. It may be next to impossible to find a pick placement on a
downsloping rock ledge or fist-sized crack, but that same ledge or crack may
easily yield a workable handhold.
For extensive climbing using your hands on rock, it may be necessary to
clip the tool to your harness or otherwise secure it. This can be accomplished
either by using a specialized carabiner designed for this purpose (see
“Racking Devices” in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing) or by sliding the
shaft of the ice tool into a spare carabiner. Be sure there is no possibility of
the ice tool coming out accidentally. Dropping a tool on a one-pitch sport-
style mixed route may be annoying and embarrassing, but dropping a tool on
a committing alpine route could have devastating consequences.
The surest method of securing an ice tool is to clip the axe-head hole in to
a spare carabiner or gear racking device on the harness. To remove the tool,
grasp the head of the tool and open the carabiner gate with a thumb.
Once one or both hands are free, use them as on any rock climb. Fist jams,
handholds, liebacks, and down-pressure can all be used to give your body
the proper balance and positioning to support delicate footwork. Chapter 12,
“Alpine Rock Climbing Technique,” covers the variety of rock climbing
holds and techniques.
Keep in mind that while climbing with your hands on rock, you most
likely will be wearing gloves. Technical mixed climbing, like technical rock
climbing, requires dexterity. Handholds, carabiners, and protection must all
be manipulated efficiently. It is therefore impractical to climb mixed terrain
with a bulky glove system. Most mixed climbers wear one pair of low-
profile, close-fitting gloves while climbing; keep a second pair warming in a
jacket pocket; and stash a third, warmer pair in the top lid of their pack for
belays.
Ice Tools on Rock
When the holds become too small for your hands or the cracks are filled with
too much ice, it is time to use ice tools. When using an ice axe or ice tools on
rock, consider how to employ every part of the tool creatively.
Hooking. The straightforward technique of hooking is the most common
method for using the pick of the ice tool to climb rock. However, it is critical
that, while pulling through the move, you hold the shaft of the tool steady
against the rock (fig. 20-11a). If you pull outward on the spike end of the
shaft, the pick will skate off the hold (fig. 20-11b). You can also use the
hammer or adze of the ice tool to hook rock holds, although you must
exercise caution, because the pick will be pointing toward you. To find a
hook placement in a crack, look for constrictions just as you would look for
a small stopper placement.

images
Fig. 20-11. Hooking technique: a, with downward force (good); b, with outward force (poor).

images
Fig. 20-12. Turning a hooked hold into a mantel move: a, hook the ledge; b, work your hand up the
shaft; c, climb up, grasping the head of the tool; d, work your feet higher and mantel.

While moving up, it is sometimes advantageous to turn a hook placement

(fig. 20-12a) into a mantel by sliding your hand up the shaft (fig. 20-12b)
and grasping the head of the tool (fig. 20-12c and d). This technique is
especially handy if the next tool placement is far above you.
Torquing. Slide the pick into a crack that is a little too wide to be secure,
and twist the shaft of the tool until the pick is securely wedged (fig. 20-13).
As long as you maintain adequate pressure, the placement will be secure. Or
torque by using the hammer, adze, or even the shaft of the tool.
The stein puller. A very stable technique, the stein puller is most often
performed by inserting the pick upsidedown into a downward-facing seam or
flake (fig. 20-14). Then, just as a bartender would pull down on a bar tap
handle, pull down on the shaft of the tool, engaging the pick into the hold
and forcing the head of the tool against the rock, creating opposing force.
The harder you pull down, the stronger the tool placement becomes.
A great advantage of the stein puller is that a hold above your head can be
hooked (fig. 20-15a); then you can climb up (fig. 20-15b), turning the stein
puller into a mantel without removing the tool from the rock (fig. 20-15c and
d).

images
Fig. 20-13. Torquing a tool in a crack.

images
Fig. 20-14. Stein puller.

images
Fig. 20-15. Using a stein puller to mantel:
a, place the stein puller;
b, pull on it to work your feet higher;
c, mantel on the tool;
d, reach up and place the other tool.

images
Fig. 20-16. Stacking.

Matching. Another technique that is particularly useful while dry tooling

is called matching. Just as on a rock climb when you place both hands on
one hold, one hand on top of the other, one hold is used for both ice tools.
One of the great things about the pick of the ice tool is that it is so narrow.
Both tool picks can easily fit side by side on the same hold, as long as the
hold is wider than about ¼ inch (6 to 7 millimeters). When matching, be sure
that the hold is strong enough to withstand the force that can be generated by
the two ice tools.
Stacking. Another technique used frequently in dry tooling is stacking. If
there is one very good tool placement surrounded by bad ones, try hooking
the pick of the well-placed tool with the other tool (fig. 20-16). When
stacking, make sure once again that the hold is strong enough to withstand
the force of two ice tools.

Body Positioning
In order to ascend mixed terrain well, climbers must combine precision
crampon and tool placements with calculated body positioning. Rarely do
they simply pull down on hooked placements and walk their feet up the wall.
For instance, picture a ledge that slopes down to the right. In order to hook
this ledge and keep the tool placements stable through a series of foot
placements, pull down and to the left (fig. 20-17). Conversely, a right-
leaning lieback is futile unless your crampons are in a position to allow you
to push your body sideways to the right (fig. 20-18).
With a lot of practice on mixed terrain, climbers gain confidence in their
crampon and tool technique. Climb as many mixed routes on top-rope as
possible, no matter how hard the routes may look. If a certain move is
elusive, examine your body positioning. A slight change in the way you are
leaning may be the difference between frustration and exuberance.

Protection
Previous chapters contain detailed discussions of various types of protection
used on rock (Chapter 13, Rock Protection), snow (Chapter 16, Snow Travel
and Climbing), and ice (Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing). Also see
“Protection” under “Waterfall Ice Climbing” earlier in this chapter and “The
Rack for Mixed Climbing” sidebar. Here is an additional consideration when
climbers are combining the various types of protection for mixed climbing.

images
Fig. 20-17. Lieback to the left.

If there is a choice between a rock anchor and a snow or ice anchor, use
the rock anchor. It is relatively easy to evaluate the soundness of rock
anchors, but this is not so with most snow or ice anchors. It might be
necessary to do some digging and grooming to clear away snow, ice, and
debris in order to place a piece of protection in the rock. Powdery snow can
be knocked off with your hands, but an ice tool will probably be needed to
clear hard snow or ice. If a crack is filled with ice, a piton or ice piton may
be useful. Wired nuts can be pounded into cracks with the pick of the ice
tool to create solid placements.

images
Fig. 20-18. Lieback to the right, pushing with feet.

Belaying and Reducing Forces on the Climbing System

Because of the possibly dubious nature of mixed protection, a dynamic belay
is required. As always, use a strong multipoint multidirectional belay anchor
with well-placed screws or pitons. (See Chapter 10, Belaying, and “Belaying
on Ice” in Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing.)
A dynamic belay may be partially obtained by using a rope that has a
relatively low impact force (4 to 7 kilonewtons), which means it is stretchier
and provides a softer catch. (See Chapter 9, Basic Safety System, for more
on dynamic ropes and their specifications.) Most half-rope systems offer
lower impact forces. Keep in mind that because low-impact-force ropes are
stretchier than larger-diameter climbing ropes, a climber will fall a greater
distance and so must watch out for ledges.
Minimizing rope drag is also important (see more in Chapter 14, Leading
on Rock) when leading on shaky protection. If the rope zigzags up the route
between points of protection and a fall occurs, the friction generated at the
bends in the rope will prevent the rope from elongating as it should by
design. If this occurs, a disproportionate amount of force will be applied to
the protection nearest to the fallen climber. Keep the rope running as straight
as possible, using double-rope technique and long runners for protection
located off to the side.

THE RACK FOR MIXED CLIMBING

A mixed climbing rack contains gear that is appropri- ate for the climb.
Some modern, sport mixed climbs are fully bolted, requiring only a set
of quickdraws for protection. Longer classic mixed climbs require a full
rock rack combined with a full ice rack. A typical mixed climbing rack
might contain some or all of the following gear:
images Six to 12 ice screws of varying lengths appropriate for the
thickness of the ice
images An assortment of nuts and Tricams that can be slotted or
pounded into cracks
images Spring-loaded camming devices (SLCDs)
images An assortment of pitons for ice-filled cracks
images Several runners, alpine draws, or quickdraws
images A few long runners or cordelettes for threading gaps between
the rock and the ice or ice columns
images An ice piton for quick protection, icy seams, and frozen moss
images A V-thread tool
 images A few pieces of 6- to 8-millimeter accessory cord for
constructing rappel anchors
images A knife for cutting webbing and accessory cord

Leading
Leading on mixed terrain can be an exhilarating experience, but it is not for
everyone. By its very nature, mixed leads tend to be bold and committing.
Taking a leader fall while wearing crampons and holding ice tools is serious
business. Before you decide to lead a mixed pitch on ice gear, be honest
about your ability to climb it responsibly. If you decide that you can indeed
climb and protect the pitch safely, here are a few tips to keep in mind:
images Examine the crux(es) carefully. Figure out the moves before
you get there. Devise a plan and a backup plan for protecting and
climbing through the crux.
images Once on route, place gear at rests, before the hard parts,
instead of halfway through a crux sequence.
images Calculate your moves and climb with confidence.
images Relax and breathe deeply; this will calm stressed nerves.
images If you are stumped by a sequence of moves, down-climb to
the last rest spot, reevaluate, and try again, perhaps using a
slightly different technique. If the sequence remains elusive, down-
climb or lower off.
images Be prepared to leave some gear behind.
images If a fall is imminent, check the landing zone. Be sure that
you will fall away from the trailing rope, which your crampons or
tools could damage. Disengage your tools, then your crampons, and
push away from the wall. Aim picks on ice tools away from you and
to the sides. Direct crampons toward the wall and keep your knees
slightly bent to absorb the impact.

CLIMBING IN THE WINTER ENVIRONMENT

The extreme conditions of winter can create fantastic, almost surreal
landscapes. On clear winter days, the bright blue sky is a perfect backdrop
for the vivid blues of water ice formations. The ice glistening in the sunlight
leads skyward.
Waterfall ice and mixed climbing build on the skills of alpine
mountaineering and can involve severe conditions that require specialized
equipment, a high level of skill, and a tremendous will to succeed. Equipped
for the winter environment, the waterfall ice and mixed climber combines
the disciplines of rock climbing and ice climbing with snow travel and
backcountry risk management. But more importantly, waterfall ice and
mixed climbers have an excellent understanding of their own abilities; they
climb not for glory or recognition, but to fully experience the freedom of the
hills.
PLANNING AND PREPARATION • EXPEDITIONARY AND MULTIWEEK CLIMBING
TECHNIQUES • EXPEDITION WEATHER • HIGH-ALTITUDE HEALTH HAZARDS •
UPHOLDING AN EXPEDITION PHILOSOPHY

CHAPTER 21
EXPEDITION CLIMBING
Expeditions give climbers the opportunity to dream big as they
explore the highest and most remote peaks in the world. When
climbers immerse themselves in the mountain experience, they
test themselves both physically and mentally. In the words of
expedition climber Mike Libecki, “The time is now. Why ration
passion? Dream big . . . and climb those dreams.”

What makes a climb an expedition? Expedition climbing requires significant

time, commitment, planning, and preparation. An expedition may involve
two or three days of air travel, followed by a day or two of land travel, and
then a 10-day trek just to get to base camp. On an expedition, rest breaks
may take several days as climbers acclimatize. Some expeditions can
involve significant differences in climbing techniques such as ascending
fixed lines, hauling sleds, performing crevasse rescues while tied to a sled,
and preparing caches. Add to this the challenge of dealing with local
languages and customs, climbing etiquette, and the red tape that larger
objectives often entail. Successfully executing an expedition will teach you a
great deal about your destination, your climbing partners, and yourself.
PLANNING AND PREPARATION
Planning an expedition involves selecting a destination, choosing the
climbing party, making sure the team members are prepared, determining a
climbing schedule, considering emergency preparedness and guiding
services, and preparing supplies. Sometimes the objective is based around a
particular team, and sometimes the team is chosen based on the objective.
Larger objectives around the world, including in the United States, often
entail permits and applications that may take months or years of advance
notice and a significant fee to obtain.

CHOOSING AN OBJECTIVE
In deciding what peak to try and which route to climb, choose a destination
that excites you. Ask yourself whether you are committed to the substantial
effort involved in planning and preparing for an expedition.

Difficulty of the Route

Whatever route is chosen must be well within the climbing ability of the
party because the added challenges of remoteness, altitude, changeable
weather, and routefinding will compound the route’s difficulties. Climbers
who are considering an objective for their first few expeditions should think
of those trips as opportunities to apply well-practiced climbing skills in a
new environment rather than to push the limits of their technical ability.

Choosing a Climbing Style

Most modern expeditions involve a mix of alpine and expedition styles. The
choice of which style of climbing to do during what part of the trip greatly
influences planning and, thus, is an important decision to be made early in
the planning process. The choice will affect the length of trip, amount of
risk, equipment and technical gear needed, and physical training goals and
conditioning for the trip.
Expedition style. Expedition-style climbing involves multiple trips
between camps, during which loads (food, fuel, and supplies needed later in
the expedition) are carried to higher camps and buried in clearly marked,
animal-proof locations. Technically difficult sections of the route are often
protected with fixed lines—ropes anchored in place to minimize danger
during repeated trips up and down the route. For these reasons, expedition-
style climbing takes longer. This can be an advantage because climbers have
more time to acclimatize to high altitude when they are ascending slowly in
stages. Expedition-style climbing is often employed in the approach portion
of the climb as the party slowly makes its way to a base camp.
Alpine style. Alpine-style climbing means moving up the mountain in a
continuous push, so that the party ascends the route only once. The team
carries all equipment and supplies needed for the summit with them. There is
less margin of safety on alpine-style trips because climbers cannot bring as
much equipment and supplies on the alpine-style portion of the climb.
However, because the team moves faster, there is also less exposure to
objective hazards such as storms, avalanches, or other longer-term changes
in conditions. Climbers must climb “fast and light.” This is often employed
in the technical summit portion of an expedition as climbers climb above a
base camp.

Duration of the Climb

In the world’s higher regions, the duration of the climb may need to be
longer than mileage and elevation gain might suggest. Climbers should not
underestimate the time constraints that acclimatization requires (see the
“Suggested Acclimatization Schedule” sidebar). The length of the climb may
be determined more by how many “rest” days are needed at each camp to
safely ascend to higher elevations.

Time of Year
Study information on seasonal temperatures, winds, storms, precipitation,
and amount of daylight in the area the party is considering for its expedition.
These will affect the expedition’s duration and needed gear.

Costs
Expeditions can be costly because of the large amounts of time, equipment,
and food required. Major costs include purchased and/or rented specialty
equipment for the climb, transportation to the peak, permits and fees related
to the climb, and hired porters, support staff, or pack animals. It is best not to
scrimp on gear, guide services, or support services: in the big scheme of
things, a slightly higher fee or slightly more expensive sleeping bag could
make or break your only chance at a trip of a lifetime.
 SUGGESTED ACCLIMATIZATION SCHEDULE
If the objective is at 8,000 feet or below, the party can follow a normal
ascent time; if the objective is at 8,000 feet or above, they should plan
on a slow ascent: 1,000 feet of daily altitude gain above 8,000 feet, with
a rest day after every 3,000 feet of eleva- tion gained or at 2- to 4-day
intervals. Here are some suggested ascent times, according to the US
Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine:

10,000 feet: 3 days

14,000 feet: 8 days
20,000 feet: 16 days

Be sure to budget adequate compensation for porters and other support

staff, as well as supplies they will need for their own safety and comfort. The
climbing party should be prepared to provide essential equipment, such as
sunglasses and extra stove fuel, which many porters may not have. Know the
going rates for support staff services, and be sure to pay and tip them
accordingly. It is always best to set rates for their services before you head
out on the expedition.

Location
There are so many choices for an expedition. Africa, Alaska, China, Europe,
India, Kyrgyzstan, Greenland, Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan,
Russia, and South America all boast difficult, remote peaks. After you
choose a peak, research the mountain and its routes, as well as objective
hazards on the mountain. Talk to climbers who have been there; look for
descriptions in the journals of the Alpine Club (UK), American Alpine Club,
the Alpine Club of Canada, and other climbing organizations. Seek out
guidebooks, videos, and articles in climbing magazines, and research online
sources. Note that in some countries, maps are considered restricted military
information and may be available only once you are in the country and, even
then, may not label significant mountain peaks. Select and research a backup
route in case the original objective must be scratched because of avalanche
hazard, bad weather, inability of some party members to continue, or any
other reason. If a highly technical route up the mountain has been chosen,
consider acclimatizing by climbing the standard route first and then taking
on the tougher challenge.
Find out what travel visas and communication-device and climbing
permits are necessary, and determine how long in advance an application
must be made. Research vaccines and potential health problems for your
specific travel location well in advance so that preparations can be made and
vaccine series can be completed. It helps to have copies of itineraries,
climbing résumés of party members, equipment lists, and medical
information prepared ahead of time and available while traveling to the peak.
Evidence of good organization impresses bureaucrats around the world.
Consider whether anyone in the party speaks the local language. Get all
possible details on logistics, monetary customs, potential problems, what
types of fuel are available and where to buy it, what foods are available,
whether the water is safe or if bottled water or purification is necessary, and
so forth.

CHOOSING THE TEAM

Choosing a compatible climbing team is the most essential step toward an
enjoyable experience. Expedition climbing is full of stress, and climbers can
be taxed to their physical and mental limits. Make it a goal to head out as
friends and return as even better friends.
The skill of the team must be equal to the demands of the climb,
personalities need to be compatible, and team members must be able to live
harmoniously with others in close quarters under stressful conditions. The
climbers should agree on the philosophy of the trip in terms of climbing
style, communication style, climbing goals, environmental impact, and
degree of acceptable risk.
It is important to agree on how decisions will be made before the trip gets
under way. Leadership should be parsed out to various members of the team
to distribute the workload and to keep everyone involved. Team members
can take the lead on areas such as finances, food, medicine, and equipment.
A primary team leader who will step in when necessary, especially in urgent
situations, should be designated.
The number of climbers in the expedition depends on the chosen route and
climbing style. There are trade-offs that should be considered. A party of
two or four climbers may be best in some circumstances because of the
speed and efficiency of smaller rope teams and the limited space at bivouac
sites. However, climbing with a very small team means that if one person
becomes ill or cannot continue, the entire team may have to abandon the
climb. Climbing parties of six or eight have the advantage of strength and
reserve capacity: if one climber is unable to continue, some of the rest of the
party still has a chance to go on with the expedition. Larger parties are also
better able to carry out self-rescue than smaller teams. As the number of
climbers increases, issues of transportation, food, lodging, equipment, and
environmental impact can become more complicated.

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CONDITIONING

Because expedition climbing requires significant commitment, it is
important for each climber to start physical, mental, and technical
conditioning many months before the trip. Remember that this may be the
trip of a lifetime. You don’t want to travel to the peak only to have your
ability to reach the top cut short because you didn’t prepare well enough for
your climb.
Be in the best physical shape of your life. Emphasize both cardiovascular
and strength training (see “Mountaineering Fitness Components” in Chapter
4, Physical Conditioning). Plans can be found online, and many guide
companies will provide guidelines for physical conditioning. Work with an
individualized training plan or personal trainer to complement your
preparation for the climb. Conditioning for a major climb can be time
consuming, requiring months of daily or twice daily sessions. Train for what
the planned climb will require. Will you be hauling a sled? Will you be
carrying heavy loads? Will you need excellent endurance as you move to
high altitude? Make sure your conditioning plan prepares you for the type
and style of climbing you will be doing. Climbers on a typical high-altitude
expedition, for example, may need to be able to carry 40 to 100 pounds (18
to 45 kilograms)—sometimes in addition to pulling a sled—for an elevation
gain of 2,000 to 3,000 feet (600 to 900 meters) every day, day after day.
“Soft skills” such as your ability to handle decision making under stress,
your comfort with uncertainty, and your ability to communicate risk to
climbing partners are also essential, and they need to be practiced and
mastered. Have you met with and worked with your teammates? Have you
learned to communicate effectively and work together as a team? It takes
more than physical strength to deal with extreme cold, sickness, cramped
quarters, poor food, conflict with teammates, the stress of technical
climbing, and the lethargy brought on by high altitude. Preparing your
attitude by practicing your flexibility and sense of humor is important. Do
not underestimate the mental component of conditioning.
Additionally, dialing in your technical skills is essential to a successful
climb. Are there techniques such as crevasse rescue with a sled that you need
to master or practice more? Do you need to develop skills with fixed lines or
technical ice?
Work on physical, mental, and technical conditioning by seeking out
experiences that come as close as possible to what can be expected on the
expedition. Prepare for the expedition by going on longer trips. If possible,
do these as a team so you can learn to work together under physically and
mentally stressful situations.

THE CLIMBING ITINERARY

Once climbers have researched their mountain, assembled a team, and begun
their conditioning and training program, they must set up an itinerary that
includes a good estimate of the number of days needed for the journey.
Allow for the approach to the peak, carrying loads up the mountain,
climbing, sitting out storms, and resting. An average elevation gain of 1,000
feet (300 meters) per day allows for acclimatization to high altitude, and this
figure should be correlated, where possible, with good campsites. Rest days
built into the schedule provide time for mental and physical recuperation,
equipment sorting, and a time buffer for unplanned delays caused by storms,
illness, or other problems. If a storm hits, try to adjust the itinerary to allow a
rest period for the same time, making the best of a bad day. Many teams plan
an estimated window for arriving at each camp, showing the first possible
date of arrival at each camp and a last possible date of arrival at each camp.
This allows for a flexible itinerary.

EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS FOR EXPEDITIONS AND

MULTIWEEK CLIMBS
Because expedition and multiweek climbs are more committing and often
more remote, the team should consider taking additional measures to prepare
themselves for emergencies. They should make a comprehensive emergency
response plan that includes a list of emergency contacts for each team
member, each team member’s medical and insurance plan information, and
relevant phone numbers for local contacts, rescue services, embassies, et
cetera. The emergency response plan should be detailed, with clear
objectives and information for each team member, as well as agency and
contact information for the location.
Will the team carry a personal locator beacon (PLB) or other device to
contact emergency help as recommended by the Ten Essentials? What will
happen if the device is deployed? (For more about these devices and self-
reliance, see Chapter 5, Navigation.) Do team members have insurance that
covers travel abroad, helicopter evacuation, body recovery, and
mountaineering and/or climbing accidents? In some countries, climbers must
carry proof of insurance coverage or ability to pay before rescue services are
deployed. Research the rescue services available and rescue protocol in the
region or country you will be visiting.
A photocopy or scanned electronic copy of the team’s emergency
response plan should be left with a trusted individual at home. This person
should understand the nature of the climb and have a clear directive from the
team on when and how to engage in organizing rescue efforts. That
individual will then have the information for all individuals on the team and
be able to coordinate communication for the entire team.

GUIDED EXPEDITIONS
Guided climbs to just about any expedition destination are available.
Climbers should consider hiring a guide if this is their first expedition, if
they lack capable partners, or if the prospect of organizing such a major
adventure is overwhelming. Using a guide on an expedition allows climbers
to spend more time enjoying the experience and less time organizing it. They
will be able to concentrate on mental and physical preparation. See the
“Questions to Consider When Selecting a Guide Service” sidebar.
Conversely, a guided climb costs more than a privately organized venture.
Climbers lose control over the selection of party members and other
decisions that may affect individual safety or prospects for the summit. Also,
there may not be the same unity of purpose and team spirit that characterize
the best expedition experiences.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A GUIDE

SERVICE
 Is the guide service permitted, licensed, and insured as required by
the governing authority of the destination?
What is the safety record of the guide service?
What are the qualifications of the guide and the other party members?
What reputation does the guide service have among climbers?
Personal references are very helpful.
Does the guide service engage in socially responsible environmental,
economic, and employment practices?

SUPPLIES
On expeditions to the remote mountains of the world, climbers either bring it
with them or they do without it. Having the necessary equipment—and
having it in working order—is critical. An expedition needs a complete
equipment list, agreed upon by all team members, that includes both group
and personal gear. See Table 21-1 later in this section.

Food
Food is the heaviest and arguably the most important supply carried on an
expedition. Food provides the necessary fuel for your body to carry loads
and climb the route. It can also serve as one of the great pleasures of the trip.
Every climber has food preferences, so conduct a team survey of strong food
likes and dislikes, as well as allergies, before planning menus.
Will you package and bring your food with you from home, will you buy
food and supplies from local markets when you get to your climbing
destination, or will you use a combination of these methods? Will you
prepare and cook the food yourself, or will you work with a guide, cook, or
other support staff? Will you eat all meals as a group or only some meals
together, or will members of the team be responsible for all their own meals?
Will you cook in a pot, or will all your meals be “boil in a bag”?
If you are working with a guide or cook, be sure to communicate dietary
restrictions clearly. Find out what foods will be provided so that you know
what foods you will need to bring to supplement the menu. Freeze-dried and
other instant foods may not be available at local markets. The foods that you
expect and enjoy may not be available in remote locations and other
countries. Plan accordingly by being sure to bring these items with you, if
needed.
 When planning food weight for packing purposes, plan on roughly at least
35 ounces—about 2.5 pounds (1 kilogram)—of food per person per day,
although this will vary depending on each climber’s metabolism and body
type. With no waste, 35 ounces of food would provide more than 5,000
calories. In reality—because of packaging, nonnutritive fiber, caloric density,
and the food’s irreducible water content—35 ounces of food will provide
only about 3,900 calories per day. Most expedition climbers plan to provide
roughly 4,000 to 5,000 calories of food per person per day. Experience will
tell climbers whether this is just right, too much, or not enough. Too much
food means carrying extra heavy loads between camps and possibly a slower
trip. Too little means climbers will begin losing weight or have to abandon
the climb. For advice on specific menus, see Chapter 3, Camping, Food, and
Water; for a description of nutrition habits for climbers, whether in training
or on the mountain, see “Fundamental Training Concepts” in Chapter 4,
Physical Conditioning.
A condiment and seasoning kit with hot sauce, spices, soy sauce, butter,
and mustard adds interest to bland packaged foods and perhaps will salvage
inedible foods. As much as possible, try out foods ahead of time, preferably
on training climbs with the team.
Early in the trip, foods can differ from those that will be eaten later. Foods
for lower elevations and warmer climates during the approach can include
those that are more time-consuming to prepare, such as pancakes; items that
cannot withstand freezing, such as cheese and peanut butter; and some fresh
items such as cabbage or carrots. Foods carried to higher altitudes should be
very light and tasty and require minimum preparation, such as freeze-dried
items, instant noodles, instant rice, and instant potatoes.
Packaging and organizing food is an important element of expedition
planning. Measure and repackage food in appropriately sized portions—
either each individual portion in a resealable plastic bag, or each meal-sized
portion for the entire group (so much per person per day times the number of
people) in a large resealable plastic bag—to get rid of unnecessary
packaging. Label everything and keep the preparation instructions with the
repackaged foods. Clear plastic bags help organize the food while keeping
the contents visible.

Water
Contaminated water plagues nearly every part of the world. The expedition
kitchen must be able to furnish adequate potable water for everyone through
chemical decontamination, filtering, or boiling (see “Water Treatment” in
Chapter 3, Camping, Food, and Water). Research your climbing destination’s
safe water practices to ascertain how safe the local water is in that area, and
when in doubt, treat your water. Keep in mind that in some countries, water
may need to be treated in cities and towns as well as in the backcountry and
that viruses can be a much bigger concern outside North America and
Europe.

Stove and Fuel

In places where you will be melting snow for water, your stove and fuel
choices are a matter of life and death. In high-altitude regions, choose a
stove that will work efficiently in that environment. (See “Stoves” in
Chapter 3, Camping, Food, and Water.) Canister stoves, while Lightweight,
may not function as well in high-altitude regions. Multifuel stoves are good
in regions where white gas is not readily available and function better at high
altitudes. Even with a multifuel stove, check the fuel’s compatibility with the
stove before heading into the mountains. The cleanliness of fuel in some
areas is questionable. If you are using liquid fuel, bring a fuel filter to filter
all fuel before it is used, and bring a repair kit and tools for stove repair.
Learn to take apart, clean, and troubleshoot repairs on your stove before the
trip.

TABLE 21-1. SAMPLE EXPEDITION EQUIPMENT LIST

This checklist includes the Ten Essentials, although they are not called out as
such. Refer to Table 2-4 and Table 2-7 in Chapter 2, Clothing and Equipment
for more information.
GROUP GEAR

SHELTER
Expedition-quality tent(s)
Snow stakes and/or tent flukes
Sponge for tent condensation
Snow shelter construction tools: large snow shovel (for moving a lot of
snow), small snow shovel (for delicate trimming), snow saw (for cutting
 blocks)

KITCHEN
Cook tent
Stove gear: stove, windscreen and stove platform, fuel containers and
fuel, matches and/or butane lighters
Cooking gear: pots, pot cozy, pot gripper, sponge or scrubber, dipping
cup, cooking spoon
Snow sack (for collecting clean snow to melt for water)
Spices and condiments
Water treatment: filter, chemicals

GROUP MEALS
Food

GROUP CLIMBING GEAR

Ropes
Hardware: snow and ice gear (pickets, ice screws), rock gear (pitons,
cams, chocks), carabiners, runners, fixed line, extra climbing equipment
(spare ice axe or tool, spare crampons, spare rescue pulleys)

REPAIR KIT
Tent repair kit: pole splices, adhesive-backed repair cloth, seam repair
compound
Stove repair kit
Crampon and ski repair kit: extra screws, connecting bars, straps
Duct tape
Multitool (with slotted and Phillips screwdrivers, small pliers, small
wire cutter, shears, file)
Sewing kit: assorted needles and thread, buckles, safety pins
Flat webbing
Other: wire, accessory cord, extra ski-pole basket, patch kit for
inflatable foam pads

FIRST-AID KIT
Most expeditions carry a comprehensive group first-aid kit. In addition to
normal first-aid items, the kit may include the following drugs, plus others
recommended by a physician:
 Prescription drugs vary with the destination, but should include
antibiotics, strong analgesics, antidiarrhetics, laxatives, and altitude
medications (acetazolamide, dexamethasone)
Nonprescription drugs vary with the destination, but should include
cough suppressants, decongestants, and mild analgesics (aspirin,
ibuprofen, acetaminophen)

OTHER GROUP GEAR

Weather radio
Altimeter, map, compass
GPS device
Whichever communication devices the expedition team prefers: Satellite
phone, personal locator beacon (PLB), satellite communicator, two-way
radios
Battery packs
Solar charger with appropriate cords
Wands
Latrine equipment

Typically, transporting any type of fuel on airplanes, trains, and buses is

prohibited. Research the regulations for the party’s specific transportation
needs and destination well ahead of time. Make sure the needed fuel is
available at the destination and bring the stove that works with that fuel.
If you are using liquid fuel, carry empty fuel containers compatible with
your stove and fuel type. Fuel containers must be new or thoroughly cleaned
and aired out before transporting, as airlines will object to containers with
residual vapors. Consider the environmental impact of empty fuel container
disposal and plan accordingly.
Bring sufficient stoves and fuel for any porters or other local individuals
who will be part of the expedition. Adequate cooking equipment will help
reduce the entire team’s impact on the environment.
PERSONAL GEAR
FOOD
Personal dinners, lunches, snacks, etc.

CLOTHING
 Base layers (long underwear)
Midlayers (down or synthetic)
Shell layers: waterproof-breathable wind gear and raingear (top and
bottom)
Belay jacket
Extremities: hands (liner gloves, insulating gloves, mittens), feet (liner
socks, insulating socks), head (balaclava face mask, neck buff, sun hat,
insulating hat)
Double plastic or synthetic mountaineering boots
Expedition gaiters and/or overboots
Other: bandannas, sun shirt, synthetic fill or down booties

SLEEP SYSTEM
Sleeping bag
Bivy sack
Inflatable foam pad, insulating air mattress, and/or closed-cell foam pad
Earplugs

CLIMBING GEAR
Helmet
Ice axe
Second ice tool
Harness with personal anchor
Chest harness
Belay device
Rescue pulley
Ascenders and/or prusiks
Nut tool
Personal carabiners and slings
Large-volume pack
Crampons
Snowshoes or skis with skins
Sled with associated hardware for pulling and duffel bag

OTHER GEAR
Ski poles and trekking poles
Headlamp, extra batteries
Avalanche transceiver
 Avalanche probe
Watch with alarm
Wide-mouth water bottles
Sunglasses, spare sunglasses, goggles
Insulated mug, bowl, spoon
Spare prescription glasses
Passport
Personal hygiene: toilet paper, pee bottle, pee funnel, blue bags,
toothbrush, toothpaste, floss, comb, chemical wipes and/or waterless
skin cleanser, sunscreen, lip balm, foot powder, soap leaves
Personal electronics: camera, e-reader, MP3 player and headphones,
mini projector, phone

Calculate fuel needs before you go. Note that adverse factors such as
wind, cold air, and altitude greatly increase boiling times and fuel needs.
(For formulas and factors, see “How Much Fuel?” in Chapter 3, Camping,
Food, and Water.) Clean the stove often while in the mountains, especially
when using questionable fuel.

Group Gear
Some gear must be decided upon as a group.
Shelter. Decide beforehand as a team how many and what kinds of tents
are best. If necessary, also decide ahead of time who will stay in what tent.
Kitchen. For communal cooking, take pots large enough for group meals
and for melting large amounts of snow. Water bottles must be filled daily, so
pots should be easy to pour from. Bring one cook pot per stove. Bring a
metal gripper to use on pots that lack handles or bails, or use wool gloves as
pot holders. Be careful using synthetic gloves, which will melt if they get too
hot. Consider a stove platform or board, a heat exchanger, a windscreen,
and/or pot cozies in cold climates to make your kitchen more efficient.
Serving spoons and “dipping” cups may also be needed. Consider what type
of lighters and stormproof matches are needed.
Repair kit. Be prepared for critical equipment failure under the prolonged
and rugged demands of an expedition. Put together a comprehensive repair
kit, keeping in mind the relative importance of each piece of equipment to
the progress of the group (see Table 21-1).
 First-aid kit. An expedition should assemble a comprehensive first-aid
kit. Consider how isolated the peak is and the specifics of medical issues and
diseases in that particular region or country. It is a good idea to make a
pretrip appointment with a doctor who is a travel specialist or familiar with
mountaineering. Discuss the vaccinations and preventive care needed in the
destination country and ask specifically for prescriptions for medications
needed for your first-aid kit.
The first-aid kit may include such specialized or prescription items as
altitude medications, strong painkillers, antibiotics, a dental repair kit, and a
suture kit. (See “The Ten Essentials” in Chapter 2, Clothes and Equipment,
as well as Chapter 24, First Aid.) Check on any restrictions or cautions
regarding transporting drugs and medical equipment to a particular
destination. Find out whether different climates or altitudes adversely affect
medications that will be taken on the expedition.
Know the specific medical conditions of team members and their medical
knowledge. Party members should prepare by obtaining wilderness first-aid
training and understanding how the contents of a first-aid kit can be used.
Electronic and communication devices. Electronic gadgets can make
expedition climbing safer and more enjoyable. Devices can be used to get
weather information, call for emergency help, allow communication between
climbers at different locations, and communicate with family and friends
back home. They can also provide a welcome distraction when the weather
keeps you trapped in a tent.
Technological devices are constantly changing, getting lighter, faster, and
more versatile. Some of the current useful devices include: altimeter
watches, GPS units, PLBs, et cetera. Every expedition team should strongly
consider carrying devices that will allow them to ask emergency responders
for help, should they need it. (See more on these tools in Chapters 2,
Clothing and Equipment, and 5, Navigation.) Some devices combine
features, acting as a two-way communication device, sending text messages
and/or emails to friends and family, acting as GPS units, and/or posting GPS
coordinates automatically to a blog or website. Investigate these options to
determine both the technical feasibility of using them where the party will be
traveling and whether local authorities require you to secure their
permission. Many excellent choices in solar chargers and battery packs are
available for charging various group and personal electronic gear.
 Wands. Wands, which are used to mark routes, camp perimeters, gear
caches, and snow shelters, are another group gear item. The number of
wands needed varies according to the specifics of the climb, such as length,
terrain, and route. (See “Wands” in Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse
Rescue.)

Climbing Gear
The route and the chosen climbing style determine what climbing gear is
needed. A route that involves only glacier travel may require just the basics:
rope, ice axe, crampons, and crevasse rescue gear. Technical routes can
require the whole gamut of equipment, from ice screws and pickets to cams,
nuts, and pitons. Depending on the climbing style and organization of the
trip, climbing gear can be personal or communal—or a combination. Certain
pieces of climbing gear, such as crampons and ice axes, are indispensable
personal gear and a large party may want to carry spares.
Ropes. Deciding the type, length, and diameter of the ropes depends on
the route and its difficulty. In addition, carefully consider the length and
style of rope needed for self-rescue situations. Keep in mind that an
expedition can put extraordinary wear and tear on ropes with daily use in
bright sunlight and that it may be necessary to inspect and even retire these
ropes. The team may need to decide how much static rope to bring for fixed
lines along the route.
Ascenders. The cam of a mechanical ascender permits one-way
movement, gripping or squeezing the rope when the ascender is pulled
downward but freely sliding upward. Ascenders make it easier to ascend
fixed lines, handle crevasse rescues, and haul heavy, bulky expedition loads.
Expedition climbers may prefer ascenders over prusik slings, both for
crevasse rescue and for self-belay while climbing with a fixed line—the
extra weight may be justified by the greater utility. A climber may choose a
pair of handled ascenders or one ascender (typically the nondominant-hand
ascender) plus a prusik sling or a mini-ascender. Regardless of the choice,
practice operating the system while wearing bulky gloves or mittens.

Personal Gear
Clothing. Expedition climbers need clothing that can stand up to prolonged
use under severe conditions. The suggestions on clothing and equipment in
the preceding chapters of this book (see Chapters 2, Clothing and
Equipment; 16, Snow Travel and Climbing; and 19, Alpine Ice Climbing)
are generally applicable to expeditions.
Sleeping bag. Take into account each sleeping system’s comfort rating
based on the anticipated climate, season, and altitude of the area the party
will be visiting.
Other personal gear. Each climber will likely want some or all of the
following:
Contact lenses. Climbers who wear contact lenses should carry an
extra set.
Prescription sunglasses. Climbers who require prescription glasses
should carry an extra set of prescription sunglasses as well.
Journal. An expedition can make climbers introspective. A field
journal made of waterproof paper, plus some pencils, helps pass the
time.
E-readers. Catch up on reading while waiting for flights or during
rest days and storm days in the field. E Ink–style e-readers can
perform better in cold conditions and are generally lighter than tablet
e-readers.
Personal hygiene items. During cold-weather trips where water is at
a premium, chemical wipes and/or waterless skin cleansers can
provide a refreshing sponge bath, and talcum powder can take the
edge off the often strong odors that develop over the course of an
expedition.
Pee bottle and pee funnel. The pee bottle eliminates those
unpleasant trips to the latrine during storms and cold nights. Be sure
the bottle has a secure top, is clearly labeled, and is sturdy enough to
withstand freezing and thawing. Women can use pee funnels in
conjunction with a pee bottle. Practice in the shower at home before
the expedition.

EXPEDITIONARY AND MULTIWEEK

CLIMBING TECHNIQUES
Expedition mountaineering calls for the rock, snow, ice, alpine, and winter
climbing techniques covered throughout this book. An expedition may also
add some new techniques to the climber’s repertoire: hauling sleds and using
fixed lines.
SLED HAULING
To move loads of gear and supplies on long approaches, expedition members
often pull sleds behind them (fig. 21-1). Climbers may carry a normal load
in a backpack and pull a sled with another pack’s worth of gear. Before the
expedition, practice on various types of terrain.
A commercial haul sled features zippered covers to hold the load, a waist
harness, and semirigid aluminum poles connecting the sled and harness.
Commercial haul sleds are typically expensive and sometimes difficult to
get, as few companies make them.
A cheaper and more common alternative to a commercial haul sled is a
self-made haul sled using a children’s plastic sled (fig. 21-2). Drill holes in
the sides and attach grommets to the holes to protect the cord. Thread the
holes with 4- to 5-millimeter accessory cord for use as rope attachment
points and to secure loads. Since there is no zippered cover on a self-made
sled, load gear into a duffel bag or haul bag and tie it to the sled. Use
accessory cord to attach the front of the sled to a haul line and as an
attachment for the back of the sled to the rope. A locking carabiner or pulley
helps the sled to move over the snow better. Use 5- to 7-millimeter accessory
cord or create poles from common materials (such as PVC pipe) to pull the
sled. Most climbers find it more comfortable to attach the haul line or poles
to their pack rather than to their climbing harness using two nonlocking
carabiners. If using poles, the pole material should be flexible and climbers
should consider adding a shock system to the pack or harness pole
attachment with dynamic material. Finally, attach a locking carabiner to the
back of the sled to use as a tie in for the rope as shown in Figure 21-1.
Fig. 21-1. Sled and climber rigged for glacier travel.

Fig. 21-2. Self-made haul sled and its components.

As the route steepens, the amount of weight that can be pulled in a sled
decreases. Sleds cannot be used at all on steep, technical climbing terrain.
Haul bags may then be what is needed (see “Hauling” in Chapter 15, Aid
and Big Wall Climbing).
Hauling a sled can get complicated during roped travel on glaciers. A fall
into a crevasse is more treacherous with a sled plunging down behind the
fallen climber. Even if the plummeting sled does not injure the fallen
climber, the sled’s presence and added weight make rescue more difficult.
Minimize the danger of getting hit by the sled during a crevasse fall by using
this simple preventive technique: Where the climbing rope runs past the sled,
tie it snugly with a clove hitch or prusik hitch to a carabiner attached to the
rear of the sled (see Figure 21-2). If a duffel bag is strapped to the sled, be
sure to clip the duffel bag to the rope as well.
In a crevasse fall, first the climber will drop into the crevasse, followed by
the sled. The sled, however, will be stopped above the climber by the tie-in
to the climbing rope (fig. 21-3). If the climber is using a hauling tether
attached to the sled instead of semirigid poles, be sure the tether is long
enough so that in case of a crevasse fall the climber will be well below the
sled as it hangs from the climbing rope. If the climber is using semirigid
poles to haul the sled, in a crevasse fall, the hauling poles may pull the
climber toward the sled, so the climber may want to have a way to detach the
sled from him- or herself while still having the sled tied in to the rope.
This technique depends on having a team member on the rope behind the
fallen climber, to arrest the fall of both the climber and the sled. Therefore, it
will not work for the last climber on a rope. The last person either assumes
the extra risk, or the team can decide to haul only two sleds for every three
climbers on a three-person rope team.
Fig. 21-3. A climber who has fallen into a crevasse, with a sled hanging overhead.

Crevasse Rescue with a Sled

Crevasse rescue with a sled requires improvisation and problem solving
beyond the techniques discussed in Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse
Rescue. It is not only essential that a climber completely understand standard
crevasse rescue practices, it is also helpful to practice sled-hauling and sled-
falling scenarios by dangling with a loaded sled off a rooftop or tree. As you
dangle in the crevasse, your weight may be on the sled haul line, or the sled
weight may be completely on you. This complicates crevasse rescue greatly.
First, attach yourself to the climbing rope with your ascending system
(either mechanical ascenders or the Texas prusik system; see “Ascenders” in
Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue) if you are not already
attached. Make sure you are attached and backed up by the climbing rope
and that you stay attached to the system at all times.
Now you must get out of the pack-and-sled system. If a sled haul line is
attached to your pack, carefully attach the pack to the climbing rope. If
possible, take off the pack and let it hang below you from the climbing rope.
If you are using a commercial haul sled with a waist harness, carefully tie
the sled to the climbing rope and then get out of the waist-harness system,
transferring the sled load onto the climbing rope. Take extreme caution in
this step, as losing a pack or sled full of gear and supplies could be a serious
matter.
Depending on the position of the sled, you may need to ascend around it.
In this case, remove your ascenders, one at a time, and reattach them to the
climbing rope above the knot securing the sled to the climbing rope. You
may also need to untie from the climbing rope in order to move past the sled,
as well as to reach the lip of the crevasse. To make it easier to disconnect
from the climbing rope, some climbers travel with the rope clipped to two
opposite and opposed locking carabiners on their harness, rather than tying
the rope directly to the harness itself. If you need to untie from the climbing
rope, use extreme caution to ensure that you are attached to the system and
backed up at all times.
A fall into a crevasse with a sled can also mean extra effort for topside
teammates if they must pull out the fallen climber and the sled. If the fallen
climber cannot disconnect from the sled, or if no extra rescue rope is
available, topside teammates must haul both climber and sled at the same
time (see “Rescue Methods” in Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse
Rescue).

FIXED LINES
A fixed line is a rope that is anchored and left in place on the climbing route.
It allows safe, quick travel up and down a difficult stretch. Climbers protect
themselves by tying in to a mechanical ascender on the fixed line,
eliminating the need for time-consuming belays. If a climber falls while
climbing next to the fixed line, the ascender cam locks onto the fixed line to
hold that person (see “Using Ascenders” and “Fixing Pitches” in Chapter 15,
Aid and Big Wall Climbing).
The fixed line simplifies the movement of people and equipment,
especially when numerous trips up and down the route are required. Fixed
lines are common on large expeditions to major peaks in order to provide
protection on long stretches of exposed climbing or to protect porters while
they make carries from camp to camp. The lines make it possible for
climbers and porters to carry heavier loads than they could safely carry
without them. Fixed lines are sometimes used as a siege tactic on difficult
rock and ice faces, with climbers retreating down the lines each night to a
base camp and then ascending again the next day to push the route a little
farther.
Fixed lines are often set by guiding companies for their clients to use.
There is an unofficial agreement that all climbers can use all fixed lines set
by any climbing party or guiding service. Exercise caution in deciding
whether to make use of a fixed line already in place on a route. Elapsed time,
exposure to weather, and the ice tools or crampons of climbers who used the
line before your party may have damaged the rope. Fixed lines should not be
used to supplement the climbing ability of an expedition team. Fixed lines
should not be added on popular routes or in violation of the local climbing
ethic.

Equipment for Fixed Lines

To set up and use fixed lines, the party needs rope, anchors, and ascenders. A
static rope—that is, one with low elongation under load—is best because
static ropes are designed to stretch less when weighted. The diameter of
fixed lines usually varies between 7 and 10 millimeters. The ideal size
depends on the terrain and the amount of use the line is expected to get.
Fixed lines are usually longer than a normal climbing rope. They are usually
manufactured in lengths ranging from 90 to 300 meters (300 to 1,000 feet),
depending on diameter.

Setting Up Fixed Lines

A variety of methods can be used to set a fixed line, each appropriate for
certain conditions, climber preferences, and types of line. The key is to think
through the chosen system prior to starting out and, if possible, to test and
refine it before it is actually needed. Here are three possible approaches:
The most common way is for two or three climbers to ascend the
route, using a standard climbing rope to belay one another or to
establish a running belay, and to use a second static rope to set a
fixed line as they climb. The climbers carry the entire spool of fixed
 line with them, letting it out as they ascend and tying it off at each
intermediate anchor along the way.
Another option is like the first, but rather than tying the rope off at
each anchor along the way, climbers just clip the fixed line in to each
intermediate anchor with carabiners instead. In this method, the
climbers do not have to carry the spool but can trail just the end of
the fixed line with them. At the top of the route, after anchoring the
top of the fixed line, the climbers descend, tying off the fixed line at
each intermediate anchor on the descent. It can be difficult to pull up
on the end of the fixed line and overcome the tremendous friction
that develops as the line travels through the carabiners and over the
route.
A third method is to set the fixed line entirely on the descent. This
means, of course, that all of the material for the fixed line first must
be carried to the top of the route. Tie the line in to a bombproof
anchor at the top, then rappel or down-climb to tie the line off at
intermediate anchors.

Anchoring Fixed Lines

Every fixed line must have an anchor at the bottom and a secure anchor at
the top. To anchor the fixed line to the mountain, employ attachment points
that are normally used in belaying and climbing on rock, snow, or ice:
pitons, nuts, natural outcrops, ice screws, pickets, or deadman anchors. (See
“Snow Anchors,” in Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing.) Mark the
location of the bottom and top anchors with wands, making it easier to find
them during or after a snowstorm.
Place a series of intermediate anchors between the bottom and top of the
fixed line. These can be anchors that were placed on the earlier ascent of the
route, although new ones may be added just for the fixed line. Tie off the
fixed line at each anchor (intermediate as well as top and bottom) so that
every section of line is independent of the others. This permits more than
one climber at a time on the line. Be sure that a fall by any climber would
not cause rope movement, rockfall, or anything else that could endanger a
team member.
To tie off the fixed line at each intermediate anchor, use a figure eight on a
bight or clove hitch in the fixed line. Tie a sling directly to the anchor, and
clip the figure-eight loop or clove hitch in to a carabiner attached to that
sling (fig. 21-4a). To minimize the use of carabiners and have one less link
in the system, tie the sling directly through the figure-eight loop or clove
hitch (fig. 21-4b).
There are several considerations when deciding where to place anchors:
Place them to change the direction of the line where necessary or to prevent
pendulum falls. Placing an anchor at the top of a difficult section of the route
is helpful. If possible, place the intermediate anchors at natural resting spots,
making it easier for climbers to stand and move their ascenders past the
anchors.

Fig. 21-4. Intermediate anchors on a fixed line: a, anchor with carabiner clove-hitched to fixed line;
b, anchor without carabiner, using a sling tied through a figure eight on a bight of a fixed line.

Always bury or cover snow and ice anchors, and inspect them regularly
for possible failure due to melting or moving out of place. Keep a close eye
on any rock anchors capable of moving out of place or loosening. Place
anchors at locations that will keep the line from rubbing on rough or sharp
surfaces, or pad the line at points of abrasion. Even small amounts of wear
can multiply into dangerous weak spots on fixed lines. Falls will also
damage the line. After any fall on the line, inspect it for damage and check
the anchors for indications of possible failure.
Ascending Fixed Lines
When ascending a fixed line, attach a sling to a mechanical ascender and
place the ascender on the fixed line. Ascenders are camming units that slide
freely in one direction and clamp down to hold in the other. Climbers
typically use an ascender for their nondominant hand. Tie the sling to the
harness where you normally tie in with the climbing rope, or clip the sling in
to a locking carabiner attached to the harness. Make the sling long enough so
that the ascender will not be out of reach if you fall. If you are climbing a
near-vertical section or climbing with a heavy pack, you may choose to pass
the sling through your chest harness as well to prevent tipping upside down
in a fall.
Follow the specific directions for the brand of ascender you carry. The
ascender should be oriented so that a fall will cause it to clamp the rope. It
should slide easily up the line but lock tight when pulled down the line. Test
it, and check the fittings on your harness, before starting upward.
Use a personal anchor (see “Personal Anchors” in Chapter 9, Basic Safety
System), or a carabiner and sling attached to your harness, as a backup
safety (fig. 21-5a). It might be preferable for the personal anchor to be above
the ascender on upward travel so that the ascender will “push” the personal
anchor along. If you fall and the ascender fails, your personal anchor will
slide down the fixed line to the next anchor below and arrest the fall.
At each intermediate anchor, the climber must pass the knot or hitch in the
fixed line. This is the most dangerous moment in fixed-line travel,
particularly if conditions are severe and you are exhausted. It is best to move
the safety carabiner first (fig. 21-5b). Unclip the carabiner, then reclip it
above the intermediate anchor. Then move the ascender (fig. 21-5c). Another
option is to briefly clip your personal anchor in to the intermediate anchor
while relocating the ascender. Be sure that your personal anchor stays on the
line when the ascender is detached. Think the procedure through in advance
and practice it often so you can perform it reliably under the worst possible
conditions.
Fig. 21-5. Passing anchors while ascending a fixed line: a, set up for ascending, with carabiner-sling
backup; b, move the safety carabiner above the knot first; c, then, move the ascender above the knot,
but below the carabiner.
Fig. 21-6. Passing anchors while descending a fixed line: a, set up for descending, with carabiner-
sling backup; b, move the ascender below the knot first; c, then, move the safety carabiner below the
ascender.

Descending Fixed Lines

Climbing down a fixed line is similar to climbing up. Attach the ascender
sling to your harness. Attach the ascender to the fixed line in the same way
as on the ascent. Double-check that the ascender locks onto the rope when
you pull down on it and that it will be within reach if you end up hanging
from it after a fall. Attach your personal anchor as a backup (fig. 21-6a).
Begin the descent using the fixed line as a hand line (see Figure 14-1 in
Chapter 14, Leading on Rock) or an arm rappel (see Figure 11-23 in Chapter
11, Rappelling). While moving downward, slide the ascender down the rope
by using a light grip on the ascender release. Let go of it instantly in a fall so
the ascender will grab the rope. It is natural to try to hang on to something if
you lose your balance, but be careful not to grab the ascender release.
As in the ascent, the most difficult part is moving past the intermediate
anchors. Move the ascender (fig. 21-6b), then move the personal anchor (fig.
21-6c)—the opposite order from ascending a fixed line. Remember: Never
detach the ascender and the personal anchor at the same time. Keep in mind
that you can temporarily clip your personal anchor in to the intermediate
anchor while relocating the ascender. On steep sections of fixed line,
rappelling the fixed line may be a good alternative to down-climbing.

Passing on Fixed Lines

It can be dangerous for climbers to pass one another on a fixed line.
However, if passing is necessary, it should be clearly communicated by the
team passing to the team being passed, and it should be done at an anchor
point. On popular routes with a fixed line intended for descent, ascending the
descent line as a means of passing another ascending party should be
considered only when the descent line is not currently being used by a
descending party—and it should be considered as a means of passing only
by small parties that can easily move aside if a team decides to use the fixed
descent line to descend.

Removing Fixed Lines

Climbing rope and gear and anchor material of any type are not natural or
biodegradable materials. They must be packed out. Teams are responsible
for removing any fixed lines, gear, and anchor material that they have placed
and then hauling them out. When setting them up, always bear in mind that
they will need to be removed.

EXPEDITION WEATHER
On an expedition, climbers need to become talented amateur weather
forecasters because their safety and success are so closely bound to nature’s
moods. When the party reaches the climbing area, talk to other climbers and
to people who live there about local weather patterns. Find out the direction
of the prevailing winds. Ask about rain and storms. On the mountain, make
note of weather patterns.
The altimeter can serve as a barometer to signal weather changes. Take
clues from the clouds. Cirrus clouds warn of a front bringing precipitation
within the next 24 hours. Lenticular clouds (cloud caps) mean high winds. A
rapidly descending cloud cap is a sign that bad weather is coming. If the
party climbs into a cloud cap, expect high winds and poor visibility. (See
Chapter 28, Mountain Weather, for more about weather.) Be prepared for the
fact that big mountains typically have big storms, strong winds, and rapidly
changing weather.
Wait out a storm, if possible, or consider descending before the weather
gets too severe. There is risk inherent in descending under bad conditions. If
the party expects to be stuck for some time, consider food and fuel cache
locations and whether a storm would affect your access to them.
Fair weather poses problems too. If it is hot and sunny, glaciers intensify
solar radiation. The result can be collapsing snow bridges, moving crevasses,
and increased icefall. In such conditions, it is best to climb at night, when
temperatures are lowest and snow and ice are most stable.

HIGH-ALTITUDE HEALTH HAZARDS

Inadequate levels of oxygen, extreme cold, and dehydration, among other
things, are all potential health hazards that are intensified by high-altitude
conditions. Learn to recognize, prevent, and treat potential health hazards
when they occur (see “High-Altitude Conditions” in Chapter 24, First Aid).
Consult a physician familiar with mountaineering for detailed information
and prescriptions for preventive altitude medications.
On high peaks, temperatures drop well below zero. Although this is good
for keeping snow stable, it can have a detrimental effect on a climber’s body.
Everyone in the expedition party must be aware of the dangers of frostbite,
as well as windburn and sunburn.
Expedition climbing, like any mountaineering, takes climbers to altitudes
where the human body no longer feels at home. Every climber is affected to
varying degrees by reduced oxygen at higher elevations, sometimes leading
to acute mountain sickness (AMS; altitude sickness). This can lead to the
life-threatening conditions of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and
high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). These illnesses are generally
avoidable, through proper acclimatization and hydration.

ACCLIMATIZATION
The best way to combat altitude illness is to prevent it in the first place. The
best way to do this is to ascend slowly. The human body needs time to
acclimatize to higher altitude. (See Chapter 24, First Aid and “Planning and
Preparation,” earlier in this chapter.)
In high-altitude expedition-style climbing, carry loads to a highcamp and
return to lower altitude to recover. Then ascend again the following day.
Ascend at a moderate rate, averaging 1,000 feet (300 meters) a day in net
elevation gain. For example, if suitable campsites are 3,000 feet (900 meters)
apart, carry loads to the next campsite (a 3,000-foot gain) on one day.
Descend back to camp for the night, carry the rest of your gear and tents up
to the next site the next day, and rest at the new camp the third day, for a net
gain of 3,000 feet every three days. Try not to push your limits until you
have become well acclimatized. Schedule rest days after big pushes.
High-altitude alpine-style climbers may spend time at a base camp,
ascending the intended route farther and farther each day before returning to
base camp each night.
Above 18,000 feet (5,400 meters), most people begin to deteriorate
physically regardless of acclimatization. Minimize time at high altitudes, and
periodically return to lower altitudes to recover. The old advice is still good:
climb high, sleep low. The body recovers more quickly at a lower altitude
and acclimatizes faster during exertion than during rest. Active rest days
when climbers build snow walls, hike to lookouts, or practice skills can help
with acclimatization.

HYDRATION
Hydration is critical in avoiding altitude illness (see “Dehydration” in
Chapter 24, First Aid). Everyone should drink 5 to 7 quarts or liters of water
a day and avoid alcohol and caffeine, which have a dehydrating effect. On
many routes, this may mean that several hours each day must be dedicated to
melting snow. This is time well spent, however, because adequate hydration
is important to the success of an expedition.
In addition to using the above recommendations for daily liquid intake,
monitor urine output and color. Urine should be copious and clear. Dark
urine indicates that a climber is not drinking enough water.
Climbers usually lose their appetite at high altitudes. Everyone tends to
eat and drink less than they should. Consider various hot drinks—teas, hot
cocoa, hot electrolyte drinks—to supplement water and calorie intake.

UPHOLDING AN EXPEDITION PHILOSOPHY

Members of an expedition need a common code to live by during their
weeks of traveling and climbing together. One reliable code can be summed
up in three promises that you and your teammates can make to one another:
respect the land, take care of yourselves, and come home again.
Respect the land. Every day, the expedition party has the chance to put
the health and beauty of the land ahead of its own immediate comfort. The
easy way out might be to burn wood fires, set up camp in a virgin meadow,
or leave garbage and human waste on the ground. But if all the climbers
have promised to respect the land, they will be aware of their impact and be
responsible. Leave no trace.
Those who follow your trail will not want to see the wrappers from your
snacks or other signs that your group passed through the area. If you pack it
in, pack it out. Be sensitive to local customs. Local land managers may have
specific wishes about the treatment of their areas. Learn what their
expectations are ahead of time and be respectful. If local practices are more
relaxed than Leave No Trace techniques, however, do not follow local
customs; instead, follow Leave No Trace practices.
Take care of yourselves. If you and your climbing partners have
promised to take care of yourselves, you have made a commitment to group
self-reliance. There may be no choice in the matter, because the party will
likely be a long way from rescuers, helicopters, hospitals, or even other
climbers. Prepare by thinking through the possible emergencies that the
party could face and by making plans for responding to those. You will feel
reassured that plans are ready if you have to use them and grateful if you do
not.
 In addition, foster team spirit by checking on one another throughout the
day regarding adequate fluid intake, use of sunscreen, and other necessities
that will keep team members healthy and in good spirits. After all, as the late
renowned climber Alex Lowe said, “The best climber in the world is the one
having the most fun!”
Come home again. The third promise might be the hardest to keep,
because it can conflict with that burning desire for the summit. It is really a
promise to climb safely and to be willing to sacrifice dreams of the summit
in favor of survival. Expedition climbing is, all things considered, about
pushing limits and testing yourself both physically and mentally.
Each person and each team must decide what level of risk they are willing
to accept. Keep the third promise by being sure that the team agrees upon
what is safe and what is unsafe. Out of that discussion, decisions flow daily
regarding how fast to ascend, what gear to carry, when to change routes, and
when to retreat.
Most climbers would rather return home safely than push for the summit
under unsafe conditions. Having the freedom of the hills does not just mean
reaching the summit; the success of an expedition can be measured in many
ways.
 images

PART V

LEADERSHIP, SAFETY, AND RESCUE

22 LEADERSHIP

23 SAFETY

24 FIRST AID

25 ALPINE RESCUE
THE CLIMB LEADER • ORGANIZING AND LEADING A CLIMB •
BECOMING A LEADER

images

CHAPTER 22

LEADERSHIP

Just as every climbing party needs steadfast navigation tools, every

climb needs good leadership—but the style and form of that guidance
varies with the venture. It is one thing to head out with some longtime
climbing companions for a sunny weekend of peak bagging, but it is
entirely another to mount an extended technical climb with
mountaineers who do not know one another to a peak none of them has
ever seen.

Climbers who know each other well achieve good leadership very
informally, probably without even knowing it. Climbers less familiar with
one another require a more formal, structured organization. In both cases,
leadership provides the same things: a way to put a climb together and
make it a safe and enjoyable experience. As Chinese philosopher Lao-tzu
wrote, “Fail to honor people, they fail to honor you. But of a good leader,
who talks little, when his work is done, his aim fulfilled, they will say, ‘We
did this ourselves.’”

THE CLIMB LEADER

A climb leader is someone who has special responsibility for organizing the
climb and for making decisions en route. Depending on the nature of the
party, the degree of formal organization may vary from highly structured to
virtually nonexistent. Nevertheless, certain necessary functions of the group
are performed one way or another.

Small, informal parties made up of friends often do not select a leader.

Everyone feels responsible for organizing, sharing work, and team
building. Communication is good enough that each member knows what
the others are doing, so coordination is not much of an issue. The climb
organizer or most experienced party member may be tacitly recognized as
leader of such a group.

Large groups do better with a designated leader. Members of the climbing

party cannot know what every other person is doing, so someone needs to
be chief organizer if only to make sure no critical details are overlooked.
Large groups may also need more focus on team building, because it is
likely that the members will not all know one another.

The leadership structure of most climbing parties tends to fit into one of the
following categories.

Peers. A group of acquaintances that decide to go climbing together are

peers. Usually there is no designated leader, but members informally
allocate key functions. Most decisions are made by consensus. Even in this
least formal type of organization, one member will usually emerge as “first
among equals” and be regarded as leader. It will be the person who displays
initiative, good judgment, and concern for the group and who generally
inspires the most confidence.

Climb organizer. The person who organizes the climb is the one who has
the original idea for the venture and then recruits others. The organizer is
usually recognized as the de facto leader, even if the position is never
formalized.

Most experienced. A group tends to bestow leadership upon, and to defer

to the judgment of, a climber who is clearly the most experienced in the
party.

Climbing clubs and schools. Leadership is formally conferred by the

sponsoring group when a climb is part of an organized program. Often,
leaders must go through an accreditation process to ensure a certain level of
experience and competence. There may even be a hierarchy among the
leadership, with an overall leader and assistant instructors to help. There is
no doubt who is the leader, and it is not up to the party to select one. The
leader is expected to organize the climb and to take charge of equipment,
transportation, and other logistical matters. Such climbs are often teaching
situations; students are expected to follow the leader’s guidance, but they
are also supposed to be learning and gaining self-sufficiency.

Guided climbs. Climbers pay guide services to provide competent

leadership. Professional guides are often outstanding climbers and are
completely in charge of their groups. Guides make the decisions for their
clients and assume responsibility for their safety.

ROLES OF THE LEADER

The leader’s role is to help the party achieve the team’s objectives in a safe,
enjoyable manner, with minimum impact on the alpine environment. A
leader must be experienced, with technical skills appropriate for the climb,
but is not necessarily the most experienced in the group or the best climber.
A leader should be in good enough shape to keep up, but need not be the
strongest in the party. A leader does need an abundance of good judgment,
common sense, and a sincere interest in the welfare of the entire party.
Along the way, a leader simultaneously adopts many roles, such as the
following:

Guardian of safety. The paramount concern of any party is safety. Starting

in the planning stage, a leader should ensure that everyone has appropriate
equipment, experience, and stamina and that the route chosen is reasonable
for the party and in safe condition. En route, when climbers become tired,
impatient, or excited, they get careless. A leader learns to see these
conditions as warnings and becomes more alert, watching, gently
reminding, and even nagging when necessary. When tough decisions have
to be made, such as turning back due to weather changes or time
constraints, it is often up to the leader to initiate the unpleasant discussion
before the situation becomes critical. (See Chapter 23, Safety.)

Anticipator. Leaders avoid trouble by anticipating it. Leaders should

always be thinking ahead. In camp, they think of the climb; on the ascent,
of the descent; on the descent, of the trip out. They look for early signs of
fatigue in companions; mentally catalog bivouac sites and water sources;
keep track of the time and progress; and note any changes in weather. By
staying a step ahead they avoid problems or catch burgeoning ones before
they become crises.
Planner. Many details need attention if a group of people is to be at the
right place at the right time with the right equipment to mount a successful
summit attempt. A leader does not have to do all the planning personally,
but he or she does bear responsibility for seeing that all necessary
preparations are being attended to by someone in the group.

Expert. Giving advice when asked or when needed is an important

leadership role. Training, experience, and judgment are the prerequisites for
this role. A person does not have to be the party’s best climber to be an
effective leader but certainly needs enough experience to have developed
“mountain sense.” A range of skills is needed in addition to technical
climbing knowledge. Leaders should know a lot about equipment,
navigation, first aid, rescue techniques, weather—in fact, all the topics
addressed in the various chapters of this book.

Teacher. When less-experienced climbers are along, teaching becomes part

of the leadership role. Usually this involves nothing more than occasional
advice and demonstrations. However, if some members lack techniques
required for safe progress, it may be wise to halt and conduct a little hands-
on learning right then and there, a teaching moment. Many seasoned
mountaineers find that passing along their hard-won knowledge is a
fulfilling experience—but it should be done with a careful touch. Novices
may be embarrassed by their relative lack of skill or intimidated by the
physical danger. There is no justification for browbeating. Instead of using
the approach that says someone else is wrong, try saying, “Let me show
you what works for me.” The exception is when a student is doing
something dangerous; then a more direct approach is needed.

Coach. This is a little different from the role of teacher. The coach helps
people get past difficulties by adding encouragement and support to a base
of knowledge. Often the real obstacle is lack of self-confidence. Assisting a
companion through some difficulty helps that person and also keeps the
entire party moving forward. Coaching effectively, helping people do their
best and emerge smiling, can be one of the particular delights of leadership.

Initiator. A climb progresses by the party making a series of decisions:

Where shall we make camp? Which route should we take? What time
should we get up? When should we rope up? Often the decisions
themselves are not hard to make, but they need to be made in a timely
fashion. The function of leadership is not necessarily to dictate answers but
to get the right issues on the table at the appropriate time.

Arbiter. Once a discussion is under way, differences of opinion will arise.

It is good to collect opinions and get all viewpoints out into the open, but
this can lead to indecision (“Which course do we select?”) or argument
(“You are wrong!”). Anyone in a position of leadership, whether or not it
was formally conferred, has some leverage that can be used to advantage in
these instances. If the party seems to be making a technically incorrect or
dangerous decision, if tempers are rising, or if the discussion is aimlessly
wandering, the weight of the leader’s opinion will often settle matters and
get the climb moving again.

Guardian of the environment. Climbers must do their best to leave the

alpine environment undisturbed so that future generations may sample the
same pleasures. Leaders should set the example by always practicing
minimum-impact techniques (see Chapters 3, Camping, Food, and Water
and 7, Leave No Trace). If others fail to follow this example, they should
be reminded, gently at first, insistently if necessary.

Delegator. A leader’s responsibility is to get things done, but not

necessarily to do them. Delegating tasks has a host of benefits. It allows the
leader to maintain an overview of the entire trip, rather than being tied
down by every little problem and decision. It builds team spirit by giving
people a chance to get involved and be useful. Also, delegation fosters
individual responsibility by clearly demonstrating that doing and deciding
are not the tasks of the leader alone. If someone is having difficulty and
needs special help, a strong, experienced climber might be delegated the
role of personal coach. In a larger group, especially in a teaching situation,
the leader should appoint an assistant who can help keep things moving and
who can take over if the leader is incapacitated.

STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

Two broad categories characterize the style in which leaders perform their
roles. Also see the “Tips for Becoming a Leader” sidebar.
Authoritative style. A goal-oriented leadership style has to do with
process and structure—what to do, who will do it, and how they will do it.
Goal-oriented leaders concentrate on making decisions and directing
others.

Relationship-oriented style. A relationship-oriented leadership style has to

do with showing consideration and helping a group of people become a
supportive, cooperative team. Relationship-oriented leaders take a personal
interest in people and their views, consulting with them on decisions and
thereby building group cohesion and morale.

TIPS FOR BECOMING A LEADER

There is no simple formula for becoming a leader, but there are guidelines:

A leader cannot be self-centered; decisions are made for the good of the
party, not the leader.

A leader’s genuine interest in every party member influences the degree to

which they care about each other and strengthens the group.

A leader cannot pretend and cannot show off; the leader should be honest
about personal limitations. Leaders should admit it when there is something
they do not know—and get the group to help them figure it out.

A sense of humor helps.

Most people lean toward one style or the other, but it is not an either-or
choice. Neither style should be neglected, and effective leaders balance
both styles. The proper balance depends on the nature of the party and the
needs of the moment.

Each leader must develop a personal style through the process of learning
the craft of mountaineering and discovering effective ways of relating to
climbing companions to help them become a happy, effective team. Beyond
that, leaders should be themselves. Some people are jolly and talkative;
some are more reserved. Successful leaders are found among all types of
people. It is more important to be genuine than to try copying some
idealized style.

LEADING IN A CRISIS

Everyone hopes it will never happen, but sometimes things go wrong.

Perhaps conditions turn dangerous or someone is injured. Then the group
focus shifts from recreation to safety and survival. The leader’s role also
changes. If the group has a designated leader, this is the time for that person
to switch to an authoritative style. A small, informal group may find that a
leader emerges. When a clear need for coordination arises, people tend to
look to the most experienced person or the one who, for whatever reason,
inspires the most confidence.

When an accident occurs, there may not be time for lengthy debate.
Prompt, effective action is needed, and it should be directed by someone
with training and experience. Nevertheless, the leader should stay hands-off
as much as possible, instead directing others, maintaining an overview, and
thinking ahead to the next steps. The safety of the rescuers comes first—
even before that of the victim. Act promptly, but deliberately and calmly.
Use procedures that have been learned and practiced; this is no time to
experiment.

The outcome of an accident is usually determined by factors beyond the

climbers’ control. The climb leader will draw upon training and experience
to devise an appropriate plan and then carry it out as safely and effectively
as conditions permit.

Accidents are unexpected, but climbers can prepare for them by taking
courses, reading on the subject, and mentally rehearsing accident scenarios.
Take note of the information in Chapters 23, Safety, and 25, Alpine Rescue.
First-aid training is a must. Chapter 24, First Aid, describes the prevention
and treatment of medical conditions commonly experienced by
mountaineers, but it is not a substitute for hands-on training. Public and
private agencies offer wilderness-oriented first-aid courses, and some
climbing clubs offer mountain-oriented rescue training.

ORGANIZING AND LEADING A CLIMB

Even a simple climb can be a complex undertaking. Once an objective is
chosen, the leader has many tasks to complete before the climb. On the way
to the trailhead and at the trailhead, last-minute checks and updates keep
the outing organized. During the approach, the climb, the descent, and the
way out, the leader helps keep the party organized until the outing is over.
The checklist in Table 22-1 is a useful guide to this process.

The Ten Essentials are described in detail in Chapter 2, Clothing and

Equipment. This section introduces two additional systems approaches for
leaders: Nine Planning and Preparing Steps and Eleven Trip Checks. Using
the 9-10-11 systems together helps improve the odds for a successful trip
(Table 22-1).

BEFORE THE CLIMB: NINE PLANNING AND PREPARING

STEPS

Once an objective is chosen, the leader needs to gather information on the

approach and the climbing route itself. The leader must also select the
party, decide what equipment is needed and who will bring it, make a
schedule that includes enough time to complete the climb with a safety
margin for contingencies, and coordinate transportation to the trailhead.
And in the days leading up to the climb, the leader will be monitoring
weather trends (and snow conditions, if applicable). The Nine Planning and
Preparing Steps help guide a leader through the process (see the sidebar).

NINE PLANNING AND PREPARING STEPS

Before the climb:

1. Leadership

2. Research

3. Planning

4. Safety Margin

5. Equipment
6. Party

7. Weather

8. Communications

9. Evaluation

Leadership

A leader must be capable and qualified. There may be a need for a

competent assistant (or two) to whom tasks can be delegated and with
whom the leader can consult on key decisions. Each rope team with
inexperienced climbers needs a rope leader.

Research

Typically, climbers research the trip so they will know what to expect and
can prepare accordingly. Guidebooks are available covering most popular
climbing areas with written descriptions of approaches and routes, maps,
drawings, and sometimes photos. Topographic maps are invaluable. Check
road and trail conditions for the approach as well.

Some climbing clubs keep files of trip reports from their outings; these can
be valuable both in themselves and because they often give the names of
those who went on the climb. Firsthand experience from someone who has
recently done the route can add significantly to data found in guidebooks.
For peaks on public land, government agencies such as the National Park
Service and US Forest Service can be good sources of information. For a
full discussion of researching a route, see “Gather Route Information” in
Chapter 6, Wilderness Travel.

Permit, registration, and recreational fee requirements vary greatly from

region to region. Many publicly owned parks, forests, and wilderness areas
have some form of governmental regulation. Some may limit where the
party can camp, which can affect the logistics of a climb. Typically,
regulations are designed to preserve the ecology of an area or to increase
the value of the wilderness experience. Some are created for the safety of
visitors; others are in place to gather fees to maintain an area’s
infrastructure and support recreation.

TABLE 22-1. CHECKLISTS FOR ORGANIZING AND LEADING A

CLIMB

BEFORE THE CLIMB: NINE PLANNING AND PREPARING

STEPS

1. Leadership

Choose a leader.

2. Research

Driving route: check to be sure backcountry roads are open.

Hiking route: check trail conditions.

Climbing route: review guidebooks and maps.

Study trip reports.

Determine the technical level and any special problems of the route.

Determine whether wilderness permits or reservations are required.

3. Planning

Estimate miles and/or hours of driving.

Estimate miles and/or hours of hiking to high camp or start of climb.

Estimate hours to summit.

Estimate hours back to cars.

Select maps.
Set compass declination.

Set GPS datum to match maps.

Download any waypoints or route information to GPS device, tablet, or

phone, as applicable.

Leave trip itinerary with a responsible person.

4. Safety Margin

Develop contingency options.

Have “a little extra” for the unexpected.

5. Equipment

Determine equipment needs and make arrangements for sharing equipment

as needed.

Personal equipment: Ten Essentials, food, camping equipment, and

climbing gear.

Group equipment: tents, stoves, cookware, ropes, water treatment, and

climbing hardware.

6. Party

Estimate the levels of climbing skill and physical condition required.

Determine party size.

7. Weather

Look into current route conditions, the weather forecast, and shifts in the
weather window.

Understand how a change in weather will affect the route and the party’s
objectives.
Look into a poor-weather-alternative trip.

Consider a NOAA weather radio or other means for updated forecasts.

8. Communications

Bring a PLB or other emergency communication device.

Consider walkie-talkie two-way radioes.

9. Evaluation

Critique the entirety of the planning effort.

Does the plan add up favorably?

Are there areas of weakness in the trip plan?

Can the plan be improved?

UNDER WAY: ELEVEN TRIP CHECKS

1. Trailhead

Register with park or forest agencies if required.

Make sure everyone has enough food and equipment.

Take an inventory of group equipment, including tents, stoves, water

treatment, ropes, and hardware.

Distribute group equipment to equalize loads.

Share an overview of the plan: route, campsite, day’s schedule, hazards.

2. Navigation

Orient early to the map rather than waiting until there is a concern. Set
altimeters at a place where you are certain of your elevation, often at
trailhead but perhaps at a junction.

Check occasionally to ensure the party is on route.

Note important route decision points.

Create GPS waypoints and tracks helpful for returning in the dark or if
visibility declines.

3. People

Monitor party members for problems.

Make sure that everyone is eating and drinking.

Avoid letting anyone lag.

4. Time

Start early—daylight is invaluable when dealing with the unexpected.

Optimize the location, timing, and duration of breaks.

Monitor progress to turnaround time.

5. Hazards

Watch for anticipated hazards.

Stay alert for unexpected hazards.

Where hazards cannot be avoided, find a safe alternative, mitigate their

outcome, or turn around.

6. Weather and Environment

Watch for, and adjust to, adverse changes in weather and route hazards.

7. Perspective
 Stay alert to the big picture. Avoid fixating on a particular aspect of the
trip to the detriment of others.

Think ahead; anticipate.

Try to catch problems early, when options for dealing with them are most
numerous.

Use the traffic-stoplight analogy to summarize concerns: green (OK),

yellow (caution), red (danger; changes are mandatory).

8. Decisions

Make clear-headed decisions.

Guard against risk assessment and decision-making biases.

Make decisions that maintain safety margins.

Never let judgment be overruled by desire when you are choosing the
route or deciding whether to turn back.

Consider several solutions to a problem, and then choose the best

alternative.

Obey the leader or decisions made by majority rule.

9. Safety

A leader’s primary goal for any outing is to have the whole party return
home safely.

Practice well-reputed climbing techniques.

Never climb beyond the party’s ability and knowledge.

Rope up on exposed places and glaciers. Have at least two rope teams on a
glacier.
Anchor all belays.

Redundancy increases the safety of belay and rappel anchors as well as

other important systems.

Where hazards cannot be avoided or mitigated: consider an alternative, or

turn around.

10. Team

On the approach and on the climb, set a pace that is steady and
maintainable, not necessarily fast.

Take rest stops for the whole party.

Keep the party reasonably together. Agree to regroup at specified times or

places—especially at trail junctions.

Keep rope teams close enough to be in communication with each other.

Assign a responsible person to “trail sweep” and bring up the rear.

Be sure that no one leaves the trailhead until everyone is back and all cars
have been started.

Consider a group meal on the trip home as an opportunity to review the

trip.

11. Leadership

Practice sound leadership techniques.

Look for teaching moments: opportunities that impart knowledge, involve

the party, and continue climbers’ development.

Planning

Develop a trip itinerary and manage time spent en route with a trip plan.
Time has to be carefully rationed on a climb, and the important thing is not
how fast to go but how wisely to use the time the party has.

Establish a schedule before the climb. Estimate the length of each segment
—driving time, approach time, ascent time, descent and/or return time—
and allow some extra time for the unexpected. A typical estimate might be
what is shown in Table 22-2.

In the estimate shown in Table 22-2, if it gets dark at 9:00 p.m. and the
climbers want to be back at the trailhead by then, they must start at 6:30
a.m.

Setting a turnaround time is a good practice. In the example just given, the
party estimates four and a half hours from summit to trailhead for the
descent, with no margin for the unexpected. With an hour for unexpected
delays, they might decide it is reasonable to allow five and a half hours.
This means they must start descending by 3:30 p.m. or risk walking out in
the dark. If the party is moving slowly, another good practice is to start a
candid assessment of progress hours before the turnaround time.

Most guidebooks give times for popular climbs and sometimes for the
approaches as well. Keep in mind, though, that times vary greatly from
party to party. Also, the times may not include breaks. Experience with a
particular guidebook will indicate whether its estimates tend to be faster or
slower than your personal times; adjust accordingly. Another good source
for time estimates is someone who has done the climb.

If no information is available, use rules of thumb based on experience. For

example, many climbers have found that they can average 2 miles (3-plus
kilometers) per hour on an easy trail and 1,000 vertical feet (300 vertical
meters) per hour on a nontechnical approach with light packs. Be realistic
when estimating how long the climb will take.

TABLE 22-2. ESTIMATING TRIP TIME

TRIP SEGMENT ESTIMATED TIME

Drive to trailhead 2.0 hours

Hike up the trail 2.0 hours

Cross-country approach 1.0 hour

The climb itself 4.0 hours

Descent 2.0 hours

Return to the trail 1.0 hour

Hike out 1.5 hours

Total time estimate 13.5 hours

Contingencies 1.0 hour

Total time allowance 14.5 hours

Prepare and share with party members the overall trip plan, route,
participants, equipment, assignments, meeting times, and other pertinent
information to ensure all have the same expectations and understandings.

When developing a trip plan, include the following for each party member:
name, emergency contact, and contact information. Leave a copy of the trip
plan with a responsible person at home, specifying when the party expects
to return and how long the person should wait before notifying authorities
if the party is overdue. Specify which authorities are to be notified if the
party is overdue. For example, in the United States, the National Park
Service has responsibility for mountain rescue in national parks; in most
other areas of the western United States, it is the county sheriff.

Avoid scheduling important business meetings, airplane flights, or social

events for several hours after the scheduled end of a trip. Climbs frequently
take significantly longer than expected.

Safety Margin

Plan for self-reliance and develop contingency options. When should climb
organizers allow themselves to feel that their preparation is adequate?
When is it enough? A good way to gauge is to ask whether the party has the
people, proficiency, and equipment it needs to be self-reliant under normal
circumstances.

Have “a little extra.” It is common for climbs to run over their prescribed
schedule. Any climbing party should be prepared to take care of itself in
case of slowness, navigation errors, route conditions, a mishap, or a
downturn in the weather. In practice, this means having “a little extra” to
provide a margin of safety: extra time, extra clothing, extra food, extra
flashlight batteries, extra climbing hardware, and, above all, extra reserves
of strength. As a general rule, climbers should plan to be self-sufficient for
several hours in excess of the planned trip and understand that it may take
that long to return to the trailhead. Balancing the benefit of extra supplies
against the drag of their weight is an art every mountaineer must develop.

Equipment

The party needs to make decisions about equipment, both personal and
shared. Personal equipment is what each climber must bring: ice axe,
helmet, and harness, for example, in addition to the Ten Essentials (see
“The Ten Essentials” in Chapter 2, Clothing and Equipment). Many
personal items, such as harnesses, ice axes, crampons, and avalanche
transceivers, are useful only if everybody brings them, so coordination is
essential.

Group equipment is shared: tents, stoves and pots, food, ropes, rock and
snow protection, snow shovels, some navigation and communication tools,
GPS devices, and personal locator beacons (PLBs) are examples. Someone
should determine what is needed, survey the climbers to see who owns
what, and then decide who will bring which items. (See Chapter 21,
Expedition Climbing, for more on personal and group gear.)

The party can give itself a margin of safety by planning to arrive at the
trailhead with a little extra equipment for conditions more severe than
anticipated during planning or in case someone forgets an item or fails to
show up. If the party does not need the surplus gear, stash it out of view in
vehicles.

Party

A climbing party must have adequate strength in order to have a safe,

enjoyable, and successful trip. Strength refers to the group’s ability to
accomplish the climb and to cope with situations that may arise. The
party’s strength is determined by the mountaineering proficiency of the
members, their physical condition, the size of the party, and their
equipment. Intangibles such as morale, the members’ degree of
commitment to the climb, and the quality of leadership also affect party
strength.

A strong party consists of several experienced, proficient climbers who are

in good condition and well equipped. What constitutes weakness is not as
easy to define because a party is strong or weak only in relation to its goals.
On a very challenging climb, the addition of a single ineffective member
would make a party too weak. On easier trips, a party may be strong
enough if it has only two strong climbers and several weaker ones; in fact,
this is common on guided climbs. A party with no experienced members is
weak in any situation.

Researching the route helps determine what party strength is needed for a
particular climb. Is the route or the approach physically arduous? What
level of technical challenge, routefinding, or decision making does it pose?
Is the place so remote that the party will be completely reliant on its own
resources, or are there likely to be other people in the vicinity?
Who should go? Every member of a climbing party must be up to the
challenge, both physically and technically. Some climbers will go with only
proven companions when they are attempting routes near the limit of their
abilities. When a leader is considering inclusion of a climber whom the
leader does not know, some questions should be asked.

Experience is the surest indicator of ability; someone who has climbed

several times at a given level is probably capable of doing so again.
Climbing skills should match the chosen route’s requirements. For instance,
experience gained from an indoor climbing gym will not translate to an
alpine environment. Expedition leaders sometimes even request written
résumés, but for a weekend climb, a bit of probing conversation is probably
enough to ascertain a person’s fitness. However, leaders should be aware
that inexperienced people probably do not realize they are unprepared for
the planned climb.

A party that includes novices, or even experienced people who have never
before climbed at the route’s required level of skill, will need to include
veteran climbers who are willing and able to rope lead and coach. The
climb almost surely will take longer, and the chance of success will be
reduced. Be sure everyone in the party understands this situation and
accepts it.

A leader must also consider compatibility when forming a climbing party,

especially for a long or arduous trip. Fortunately, most people seem to be
on good behavior while they are on climbs. The unspoken knowledge that
climbing companions will soon be literally holding one another’s lives in
their hands does much to promote accommodation. Nevertheless,
expedition literature is filled with engaging tales of squabbling parties. To
say the least, dissension in a climbing party is no fun. It may reduce the
party’s chance of success; it is guaranteed to eliminate much of the
enjoyment; and it can even compromise safety.

People who are known to dislike each other should not be on the same
climb. The tensions and close proximity of the climb situation will only
exacerbate any animosity. If two people are not getting along during the
climb, other party members should do their best to keep the situation from
erupting into open conflict, which might possibly threaten the safety and
well-being of the group.

How many should go? The size of the party must be appropriate to the
objective. Both strength and speed should be considered—and sometimes
these two factors are at odds.

The Climbing Code given in Chapter 1, First Steps, recommends that the
minimum party size for safety is three climbers: if one climber is hurt, the
second can go for help while the third stays with the injured person. The
Climbing Code also recommends at least two rope teams for safe travel on
a glacier: if one team is pinned down holding a colleague who has fallen
into a crevasse, the second team is there to effect the rescue.

These rules are general guidelines for minimum party size, but the specifics
of the proposed trip may introduce other considerations. A prolonged
wilderness venture may require a larger group to carry equipment and
supplies, as well as to provide better backup in case of emergency. Some
rock climbs require double-rope rappels on the descent; this lends itself to a
second team unless a single team is willing to carry two ropes. Technical
rock and ice climbs are best done with just two climbers on each rope; for
these climbs, whatever the size of the party, there should ideally be an even
number of climbers so that the group is efficient.

Maximum party size is also determined by considerations of speed and

efficiency, as well as by concerns about environmental impact and by land-
use regulations. A large group can carry more gear and offer more helpers
in case of emergency, but a bigger party is not necessarily a safer one.
Sometimes speed is safety, and experienced alpinists know that a larger
group always moves more slowly. On certain routes, for example, climbers
must move quickly to ensure finishing before dark. A larger party tends to
get more spread out and may kick down more loose rock.

As a general rule, the more difficult the route, the smaller the group should
be. In the extreme case, some long technical climbs are done by parties of
just two fast, experienced people, despite the general recommendation that
three is the minimum safe party size. With a party of two, carry an
emergency communication device or make other arrangements for
emergencies.

Large groups have the potential of damaging the fragile alpine

environment. They also erode the wilderness experience. Park and
wilderness areas typically have party size limits (often 12 people
maximum) to reduce impact and preserve aesthetic values. At the very
least, these limits must be respected. Responsible mountaineers may even
choose to impose tighter restrictions on themselves in particularly fragile
places.

Weather

The understanding of current and anticipated route conditions and weather

remains as much an art as it is a science. However, mountaineers have ever-
increasing access to weather and current route conditions, primarily via the
internet. The amount of information available for a given area, mountain, or
specific route will vary greatly, and for many ranges and mountains, little
or no current information is readily available.

Useful internet sites include those of local and regional governments,

national or regional parks, and private recreation areas, as well as those
sites that detail weather and road conditions. Some of these sites include
real-time weather and web cams for an up-to-the-minute view of
conditions. Local climbing sites can also be useful for current route
conditions, or the leader may be able to post a question.

However, the best source of information concerning current route

conditions will be from a reliable individual who has recently been on the
mountain and route the party is considering; a phone call to a park office,
climbing shop, bush pilot, or friend in the area is a good idea. This is
especially true if the climb involves a long drive or approach.

The “art” portion of understanding conditions and weather forecasting

involves knowing how a change in weather will affect the route and the
party’s climbing objectives. Forecasting is based on inexact models that
may vary widely from actual conditions. Relying heavily on the forecast
timing is risky. Note how the closing of a favorable weather window might
impact the trip if it should run longer than expected. How will specific
changes in temperature, wind, humidity, and precipitation affect the climb?
Having alternate trips (in separated areas) in mind is a good idea that will
help a party avoid “forcing” a climb—nearly always a bad decision.

Communications

Bringing emergency communication devices, such as radios, phones,

satellite communicators, and PLBs, dramatically shortens the time it takes
to summon rescuers. The devices are also useful for telling people back
home that the party will be late but is not in trouble and, thus, can be used
to avoid unnecessary rescue efforts. The devices may also be able to supply
current weather or avalanche hazard updates. Inexpensive handheld radios
may be useful to communicate between rope teams or the front and rear of
the party on a trail when sorting out navigation options, to check in with an
ill climber who stays at camp rather than head for the summit, to obtain
current weather forecasts, and to coordinate during emergencies. Such
devices may also allow communication with responding search and rescue
authorities.

Understanding the limits of the devices is as important as understanding

their usefulness. Phone batteries can be depleted, and in many mountain
locations phones (other than satellite phones) are unable to transmit or
receive. They should be viewed as an adjunct to, not a substitute for, self-
reliance.

Evaluation

Seasoned climb leaders know that taking the time and effort to plan and
prepare for the trip is the best practice for positioning the party for success.
This step looks at the entirety of that effort. Does it add up favorably? Are
there good safety margins? Are there areas of weakness? Can the trip plan
be improved? Unfavorable elements foretell of problems that could occur
later on, may suggest a hazard, could jeopardize the trip, or might increase
the probability of an injury.

No party should set out ill prepared or inadequately equipped or attempt a

route beyond the ability of its members; doing so imperils both the
climbing party and the rescuers who may have to help them out.

UNDER WAY: ELEVEN TRIP CHECKS

How do you know a trip is on course for a successful summit or headed for
a disaster? Careful planning and preparation go a long way in making sure
the trip goes favorably; but once the trip gets under way, monitoring
ongoing progress provides either further assurance or illuminates issues
that may threaten safety or success. Even with the best-prepared plan and
thorough preparation, the unexpected can occur. The Eleven Trip Checks
help the party stay on track and spot potential pitfalls.

Trailhead

Before the party leaves the trailhead, take a few minutes to check that all
necessary equipment and supplies are in the climbers’ packs. Pay particular
attention to the packs of less experienced climbers. Anyone who has been a
climber for very long has had a weekend ruined by a missing critical item.
Distribute group equipment. Are pack weights appropriate, and is group
gear fairly distributed?

Go over the itinerary one last time to make sure everyone is on the same
timetable. Is there new information? Is there a need to make any changes to
the plan? Are there any cautionary “yellow” flags? The leader should
discuss the planned pace, breaks, hazards, and water sources with the party.

Navigation

Most experienced leaders can share several amusing (in hindsight) stories
of navigation misadventures. Orient early to the map rather than waiting
until there is a concern. Check now and then to ensure the party is on route.
Involve the party; the more people actively navigating, the better to avoid
costly mistakes. When you are unsure, take time and effort to regain
confidence. Sometimes it may prove easier to eliminate a choice than to
confirm which is the correct one. Photograph, make notes, or create a GPS
waypoint of key junctions. Record a GPS track if there is concern about
routefinding on the return at night or in a storm or whiteout.
ELEVEN TRIP CHECKS

At the trailhead and on the approach, the climb, and the descent:

1. Trailhead

2. Navigation

3. People

4. Time

5. Hazards

6. Weather and Environment

7. Perspective

8. Decisions

9. Safety

10. Team

11. Leadership

People

Team member skills and fitness may vary considerably. Monitor party
members for problems. On the approach and on the climb, set a pace that is
steady, not necessarily fast. In the long run, the party cannot move faster
than its slowest member; progress may even be slower if that person is
reduced to exhaustion. The important thing is to keep moving steadily.
Watch newer climbers who may have less stamina or are carrying too much
weight.

Take rest stops for the whole party, at specific intervals, rather than halting
randomly whenever someone decides to stop, which is inefficient. Make
sure that everyone is eating and drinking. Is anyone lagging? Lagging will
worsen unless the pace, eating, hydration, or other problems are rectified.
Try to catch potential problems early, when options for preventing the
problem or dealing with it are most numerous.

Time

Manage time and progress. Optimize breaks, taking into account their
location, timing, and duration, as well as the party’s fatigue, water supplies,
et cetera. Daylight can be priceless if the unexpected occurs—start early.
Consider adjusting the campsite location to fit the party’s progress and
schedule. Failure to reach an intended camp may suggest the party will be
slow the following day too. Choose a turnaround time that will
accommodate some unexpected delay.

Hazards

Stay alert for climbing hazards. Some, such as falling, may have been
anticipated, with ropes and equipment brought to mitigate any fall. Others,
such as a swollen stream, might be unexpected, requiring impromptu
measures. Always bear in mind that the outcome of exposure to a hazard is
unpredictable. Avoid hazards; find a safer alternative, or mitigate the
consequence.

One technique to help guard against bias in decision making about hazards
is to come up with three responses to a hazard (see “Recognizing and
Identifying Hazards” in Chapter 23, Safety), then choose the best
alternative. Thinking up multiple options counters the tendency to go with
an impulsive first solution, which may not be the best resolution. Working
through the additional solutions forces a degree of objectivity and rational
thought.

Weather and Environment

Watch for, and adjust to, adverse changes in weather and route hazards.
Does the party have the means to obtain updated weather forecasts? See
more about weather in Chapter 28, Mountain Weather.

Perspective
Stay alert to the big picture; avoid fixation on a particular aspect of the trip
to the detriment of others. Think ahead; anticipate. Is the situation
stressful? The more stressed you are, the harder it is to escape tunnel
vision, keep your perspective and make clear-headed decisions.

One assessment tool uses a traffic-stoplight analogy (fig. 22-1). If the party
is doing well, this signifies a green light (“OK”). If there are some tolerable
bumps in the road to the progress or trip plan, this adds a yellow
(“caution”) light or lights (changes could be needed). When one or more
serious impacts arise, or a number of minor things are going wrong, this
signifies a red (“danger”) light (changes are mandatory). This tool
encourages a group to maintain objectivity and “big-picture” awareness, all
while its members keep an eye on problems. In addition to assessing the
overall trip, this tool can be applied to each element of the trip: weather,
pace, route conditions, and the like.

A traffic signal is an easy mental image to conjure. Presented with several

yellow lights or a single red signal, the party might decide to turn around.
With extra time and a good safety margin, the party might continue with
caution, monitoring their progress.

Decisions

Climbers must make decisions with incomplete information and sometimes

when saddled with fatigue, hunger, dehydration, discomfort, or injury.
Guard against risk assessment and decision-making biases. What are the
facts? What are the options? What do others think? Can the party’s safety
be ensured? Make decisions that maintain safety margins. Never let
judgment be overruled by desire, such as the desire to summit, when you
are choosing the route or deciding whether to turn back (see “A Climbing
Code” in Chapter 1, First Steps). The outcome of exposing the party to a
potentially lethal hazard is unpredictable. If the consequences cannot be
mitigated, the party should find a safe alternative: that might mean turning
around.

Safety
Remain ever vigilant for hazards. Practice well-reputed climbing
techniques. Never climb beyond the party’s ability and knowledge. Rope up
on exposed places and glaciers. There should be two rope teams on a
glacier. Anchor all belays. (See “A Climbing Code” in Chapter 1, First
Steps.) Redundancy greatly increases the safety of belay and rappel anchors
as well as many other systems (see “Equalizing the Anchor” in Chapter 10,
Belaying). In a questionable situation, can you retreat later if conditions
worsen? Sometimes the only safe solution is to withdraw rather than
proceed so that you can come back another day when the hazards can be
better controlled. Nothing on a climb is worth dying for.

images

Fig. 22-1. Climbers must keep their senses alert for warnings and then
make the necessary changes to stay safe.

Team

Generally, success reflects the degree to which the members of a party

share common values and work cooperatively to reach their goal. A
climbing party should stay together—not necessarily in a tight knot, but at
least close enough to be in communication with one another. Safety is
compromised when the party splits. A party that develops an interest in
splitting up indicates serious underlying issues with fitness, speed, or trip
objectives.

Typically the stronger members tend to want to forge ahead, leaving those
most likely to need help isolated from those best able to give it. The danger
of getting separated is greatest on the technical portions of a climb, where
the more skilled climbers can move much faster, or on the descent, where
some want to sprint while others drag due to fatigue. On a trail where the
party becomes spread out, the last two persons should pair up.

A small party of friends will naturally tend to stick together. Problems are
more likely with larger groups. A large party benefits from having a
designated leader, and the leader should coordinate its movement and keep
the party together or in communication. As a leader, give party members
some flexibility to hike up the trail at their own pace but have them regroup
at designated rendezvous points, especially: trail junctions to make sure
everyone goes the right way; danger spots, such as hazardous stream
crossings—in case anyone needs help; and bottoms of glissades, which
naturally tend to split the party.

Leadership

The leadership needs to be effective at pulling together the many elements

of the trip to stay safe and keep on schedule. Other party members then
have more freedom to contemplate various facets and possibly suggest
actions to improve on the plan.

Party members should obey the leader or decisions made by majority rule
(see “A Climbing Code” in Chapter 1, First Steps). A leader need not be at
the front of the party. In fact, many prefer to lead from the middle or rear,
to better keep an eye on the whole group. However, the leader should be
ready to swing into the forefront when a difficulty arises, such as a
routefinding puzzle or a patch of demanding technical terrain. It may be
wise to appoint a strong member as trail sweep, especially on the descent,
to ensure there are no stragglers. Give new climbers the benefit of your
experience. Look for teaching moments. A leader’s primary goal for any
outing is to have the whole party return home safely.

BECOMING A LEADER

The responsibility of leadership is a burden, but the task can have great
rewards. It gives the experienced alpinist an opportunity to pass along
knowledge gained over the years. Mountaineers do not climb because they
must; they climb because they love the mountains. Climb leaders help
others enjoy the sport, and that can be deeply satisfying.

Some climbers may never want to take on the role of leader, but they will
find that possessing a certain degree of leadership is almost inevitable as
they gain experience. A party naturally tends to look to its more seasoned
members for guidance, especially in a crisis. Therefore, all climbers should
give some forethought to what they would do if they were suddenly called
upon to take charge.
Climbers who do aspire to leadership should climb with people they regard
as capable leaders. Study them; observe how they organize the trip, make
decisions, and work with people. Offer to help in order to participate in
some of these activities. Veteran leaders report that they think ahead,
anticipating problems that might arise and concocting possible solutions.
This type of mental rehearsal is excellent training for future leaders.
Climbers should develop the habit of thinking about the entire climb and
the whole party, not just their part of it.

Studying respected leaders is always worthwhile, but it may be a mistake to

model yourself on anyone too closely. A group must believe that its leader
is genuine, and therefore all leaders must develop their own style.
Exercising leadership is not always easy, but it should be done in a way that
is natural for each person. For example, a reserved person should not strain
to act outgoing. Anyone who has technical skill, confidence, and a sincere
interest in the party’s welfare can succeed as a leader.

On your first time out as a leader, choose a climb comfortably within your
abilities. Perhaps invite a proficient friend, someone to rely on. Spend some
extra time organizing, and seek input from the more experienced members
of the party. Be sure to delegate in order to take advantage of their skills.
Do not make an issue of the fact that this is your debut as a leader; that will
only undermine the group’s confidence.

The Climbing Code in Chapter 1, First Steps, is a time-tested set of

guidelines for making leadership decisions. It is deliberately conservative.
Following the code may cost you a summit but it is unlikely to cost a life.
Seasoned leaders may draw on experience to safely modify some of the
rules, but they are not likely to depart from it radically because the code
embodies a commonsense approach to safe mountaineering.

EVERYONE A LEADER

Everyone on a climb needs to be a full partner in the twin tasks of moving

the group safely toward its goal and of building group cohesion. In other
words, each individual must share leadership responsibility. Individual
leadership means, for example, being aware of the group and its progress:
Is someone lagging behind? Ask whether there is a problem, offer
encouragement, and look for ways to help. A group of climbers is
weakened whenever the climbers become separated from each other. Work
at being aware of where climbing companions are at all times, and help to
keep the party together. When you are out front and moving fast, remember
to look behind you from time to time. When you are too far ahead, stop and
let the group catch up—then let them have a breather before you start off
again.

Take part in routefinding. Study guidebooks and maps to become familiar

with the approach and the climbing route. The climbing party is much less
likely to get lost if everyone is actively involved in navigation. Use the
map, compass, and route description frequently so you are always oriented
and know where the party is. Everyone should participate in the group’s
decision making. Each person’s experience is a resource for the party, but
that resource goes untapped if that person fails to speak up.

Establishing a supportive atmosphere is one very important role of

leadership. People need to know that their companions care about them and
will help them. Be part of this effort: help set up a tent, fetch water, carry
the rope, share a cookie. Morale is intangible, but it makes a party stronger.
Morale can be the deciding factor in party success, and it is always the
deciding factor in making the climb enjoyable. Morale is everybody’s job.

Assume responsibility also for your own knowledge, skill, and

preparedness. Research the climb before committing yourself to it; make
sure it is within your abilities. Be properly supplied and equipped. If you
have questions about whether the climb is appropriate for you, or about
what gear to take, ask your companions in advance. If you ever think that
you are getting in over your head, speak up. Better to get some help over a
rough spot or even quit the climb than to create an emergency. Thinking
about the party, its welfare, and how you can contribute is in itself
preparation—perhaps the very best preparation—for leadership.
UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES OF CLIMBING ACCIDENTS •
DEFINING SAFETY TERMINOLOGY • RECOGNIZING AND
IDENTIFYING HAZARDS • AVOIDING AND MITIGATING
HAZARDS • CLIMBING SAFELY

images

CHAPTER 23

SAFETY

No mountaineer begins a climb intending to become seriously hurt, yet

every year climbing accidents injure and kill novice and experienced
climbers alike. No climb is worth serious injury or death. Every
climber’s number-one priority is to return home alive and well.

For an individual climber, serious injury or death is not some esoteric

probability; it’s as real as it gets. Although climbers universally believe that
nothing about a climb is worth their lives, it is surprisingly common to
watch climbers gamble with their lives, many unaware that they are doing
so. Climbing safely can be contrary to our brains’ wiring to discount risk
and take shortcuts to save time and effort. In the short term, we usually get
away with such shortcuts. Over time, shortcuts and unsafe practices tend to
catch up to those who are enchained to these habits, and many of these
adventurers eventually succumb to the odds.

Ed Viesturs, the first American to climb the world’s 14 highest peaks—

whose summits are all above 26,000 feet (8,000 meters)—without
supplemental oxygen, has spoken extensively about turning back on many
climbs because he insisted on safe conditions. Several of his
contemporaries with similar aspirations—but without his safety focus—
have perished.

While climbing is less safe than staying home, climbing is not as dangerous
as public perception portrays it. Climbing—even difficult, challenging
climbing—can be done safely. Nearly all climbing accidents can be avoided
with a reasonably straightforward safety focus. Safety-conscious climbers
can climb the same peaks or routes as the risk takers. Often, safe practices
—which are sound practices—lead to greater successes. In some instances,
climbing safely may take more time, gear, or another attempt to reach the
summit. But in the long term, safe climbers can expect to live longer and
enjoy more years of climbing, more enjoyable adventures, and more
successful summits.

The strategy for safe climbing is pretty simple to state but a bit harder to
put into practice. First, climbers need to know what the climb hazards are
and address them when planning and preparing for the trip. Then on the
climb, it’s about spotting and avoiding hazards, or where they can’t be
avoided, mitigating their consequences.

In Extreme Alpinism, Mark Twight shares, “As an alpinist who carries a

long list of dead friends and partners, I approach the mountains differently
than most. I go to them intending to survive, which I define as a success. A
new route or the summit is a bonus.”

UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES OF CLIMBING ACCIDENTS

A common misunderstanding is that climbing is unsafe because of

mountain hazards largely out of our control. Shrugged shoulders and
comments such as “Stuff happens” are common after climbers learn of an
accident.

Yet this view isn’t accurate. Accidents don’t have to happen. Upon
analysis, it turns out we are our own worst enemy; climbers themselves are
responsible for nearly all climbing accidents. Due to poor planning and
preparation, some parties will even set themselves up for an accident before
they leave town for their trip.

TABLE 23-1. REPORTED CAUSES OF MOUNTAINEERING

ACCIDENTS

MOST FREQUENT IMMEDIATE CAUSES

imagesFall or slip on rock

 imagesSlip on snow or ice

imagesFalling rock, ice, or object

imagesExceeding abilities

MOST FREQUENT CONTRIBUTING CAUSES

imagesClimbing unroped

imagesExceeding abilities

imagesPlacing no or inadequate protection

imagesInadequate equipment or clothing

imagesWeather

imagesClimbing alone

imagesNo helmet

Source: ANAM (see Resources)

There is no official organization responsible for soliciting, collecting, or

analyzing information on mountaineering accidents. The best source of
mountaineering incident information is Accidents in North American
Mountaineering (ANAM), published annually by the American Alpine Club
and the Alpine Club of Canada (see Resources). ANAM focuses on
injurious and fatal climbing incidents in North America. As the sources of
most of this data are voluntary contributions, the number of accidents is
underreported. ANAM’s cumulative data represents decades of accident
reporting and provides historical statistics and trends.

ANAM data shows accidents are generally spread across age groups and
experience levels. Many reports are gripping accounts by the victim or
party members. In these accounts, it becomes apparent that nearly all
accidents could have been prevented by following sound mountaineering
practices.
Table 23-1 shows the most common causes of North American
mountaineering accidents in descending order of relative frequency. The
most likely to occur are first on the list. An immediate cause is one that
directly precipitates the incident, such as a fall. An immediate cause is
generally a surprise, a trigger of the incident. A contributing cause is one
that sets up the incident and/or increases its harm. Contributing causes
often precede an incident, and often the climbing party has missed or
dismissed them. According to ANAM, falls and slips dominate immediate
causes, while a variety of other dangers, from climbing unroped to weather,
are roughly equally likely to be contributing causes.

A typical incident results from one immediate cause and several

contributing causes. In one specific example, a novice was on steep snow
when she slipped, lost her ice axe, was unable to self-arrest, and broke her
leg after sliding 150 feet (45 meters). The slip was the immediate cause;
contributing causes were climbing unroped, not having an ice-axe leash,
and exceeding one’s abilities. An alert climber sees contributing causes as
warnings; acting on these warnings may prevent an incident.

Though poor decision making is not included in ANAM’s list of accident

causes, the analysis of individual reports in ANAM discuss poor decisions
made, and they are the overwhelming reasons behind injuries, much more
so than mountain hazards. The lesson is that climbing is not singularly
dangerous—rather, the decisions climbers make are what lead to accidents
or bring mountaineers home safely.

DEFINING SAFETY TERMINOLOGY

Learning a number of terms helps a climber understand how and why

incidents occur and how to prevent them.

Hazards. Hazards are sources of serious illness, injuries, or death. Such

sources may be people or routes themselves, or they can be related to the
environment, timing, or weather. (see “Recognizing and Identifying
Hazards” later in this chapter). Most serious climbing injuries are outcomes
(see below) arising from exposure (see below) to hazards the victims
opened themselves to.
This chapter uses the term “hazard” synonymously with “climbing hazard.”
Hazards have a recognizable risk for serious injury or death. The definition
used herein excludes very low-probability hazards that are not likely to but
theoretically could result in serious injury or death, such as tripping while
crossing a boulder field, slipping on exposed Class 2 terrain, equipment
manufacturing defects, ineffective water treatment, losing footing on a
modest snow slope, a car accident while driving to the trailhead, poking an
eye with a hiking pole or tree branch, and the like.

Depending upon a climber’s experience, skills, equipment, et cetera, what

may be hazardous to that climber may not be hazardous for another
climber. For example, seasoned climbers ascending or descending steep
faces and slopes will have better balance and technique and moresolid foot
placements, reducing the hazard of steepness for them compared with
people new to climbing.

Exposure. A climber who is subject to the influence of a hazard is

“exposed” to that hazard. If there is no exposure to a hazard, there can be
no bad outcome, such as injury or death. (Exposure is also used by climbers
to denote a place where there is a danger of falling, termed “falling
exposure.”)

Exposure time. The amount of time a climber is exposed to a hazard

increases the risk (see below). For example, on a route known to have
rockfall, several hours of exposure is riskier than a few minutes. Similarly,
quickly crossing a snow slope with suspect stability is less risky than
spending more time on that slope.

Outcome. The consequences of exposure to hazards, or outcomes, are

unpredictable. Outcomes range from favorable (a climber saves some time
by not having donned crampons for a couple of steps across an exposed icy
runnel) to lethal (the climber slips during the crossing). Most exposures to
hazards will not result in injury—the climber gets away with it. However,
any outcome is unpredictable and the full range of consequences exists
with every exposure. Repeatedly getting away with hazard exposure leads
to an underappreciation of risk, an inflated perception of the margin of
safety (see below), and a tendency or willingness to be exposed to similar
hazards in the future.
Accident. This term is normally not used because it suggests either chance
or an unavoidable outcome, which is almost never the case. Terms such as
“outcome” and “incident” are better descriptors.

Incident. Any undesirable outcome is called an incident. Incidents are

usually grouped as near-miss, non-injurious, injurious, or fatal. In everyday
life, injurious incidents would commonly be called accidents.

Risk. Risk is the mathematical probability that a climber’s exposure to a

hazard will lead to an outcome with serious or lethal injury. A climber’s
risk for a particular hazard is impossible to accurately calculate.
Furthermore, for a particular hazard the risk is unique for each climber and
is linked to personal knowledge, skill, experience, fitness, et cetera.
Irrespective of statistical probability, the outcome of the next exposure is
unforeseeable; it is independent of the probability.

Margin of safety. This term is another way of describing risk—in an

inverse fashion. Climbers look to keep risks low and safety margins high.
Margin of safety represents how far a climber is from—rather than how
close a climber is to—a bad outcome. Each climber’s equipment, skills, and
knowledge influence that climber’s margin of safety, just as risk is unique
to each climber.

Here are some illustrations of margin of safety. Crossing a snow bridge has
a lower margin of safety than walking around the end of the crevasse: there
is greater risk in crossing on the snow bridge; there is a greater margin of
safety in circumnavigating it. A climbing move with fall exposure has a
lower margin of safety than the same move without such exposure.
Crossing a tumultuous stream by walking across a log over it has a lower
margin of safety than scooting astride the log on the haunches. An anchored
belay has a higher margin of safety than an unanchored one.

Risk perception. How climbers personally perceive their risk for serious
injury or death from an exposure to a hazard is their risk perception.
Humans have biased risk perception; we overestimate our safety margin
and underestimate risk of injury or death outcomes. Also, new climbers
have a tendency to overestimate risk, while experienced climbers tend to
underestimate risk.
Risk tolerance. Each climber’s comfort with their personal perception of
risk is called their risk tolerance.

Mitigation. Mitigation is an action that can help avoid, but does not
necessarily prevent, injuries. It is an intervention that does not prevent an
incident but may prevent an adverse (injurious) outcome. Belays are a good
example: If a climber slips while rock climbing where there is considerable
falling exposure, the outcome without a belay could be fatal; but with a
belay and arrest, the climber may keep climbing (successful mitigation).
However, the arrest might fail or the falling climber might pull out the
protection and hit the ground or strike a ledge before the belay stops the fall
and be injured (unsuccessful mitigation). In another example, if an
avalanche buries a climber, his or her beacon (mitigation) might allow other
climbers to find and save the climber (successful mitigation), or other
climbers might find the buried climber, only to discover the climber has
died from trauma (unsuccessful mitigation).

Safe climbing. Climbing that avoids or adequately mitigates climbing

hazards is safe climbing.

RECOGNIZING AND IDENTIFYING HAZARDS

Climbing hazards have historically been classified as either objective

(mountain-based) or subjective (human-based) hazards. Using driving a car
as an analogy, road and driving conditions such as road surface, curves,
shoulders, potholes, lane width, lighting, and other traffic are objective
hazards. Speeding, tailgating, weaving, diminished alertness, mechanical
deficiencies of the vehicle, and distractions such as the radio or
conversation are subjective hazards.

Mountain hazards. Examples of mountain hazards include steepness,

dangerous route conditions, falling distance, duration of exposure, river
crossings, bad weather, other environmental considerations, loose rock,
rockfall, avalanches, icefall, crevasses, moats, cornices, unstable snow and
ice, and many more.

Human hazards. “To err is human”; people make mistakes. Human

hazards are underpinned by heuristics. Heuristics are mental shortcuts we
take to help us agilely draw conclusions and make decisions. Usually they
work, but sometimes their oversimplification leads to deficiencies in how
we think, termed biases. Cognitive biases adversely impact memory, team
interactions, and decision making. Psychologists have verified dozens of
biases that distort a person’s thinking and lead to inaccurate conclusions.
Unless people are trained to spot these biases, they are unaware of their
influence.

For example, a bias leads people to confidently believe they are objective
in their assessments and decision making, even when they are not. Another
bias leads people to believe they are better at assessments and decision
making than others in their group, even when they are not.

Many biases adversely impact decision making. Other examples of how

biases manifest include:

imagesOverconfidence

imagesDismissing negative outcomes

imagesUnderestimating the time something takes

imagesInaccurate memory

imagesFavoring statistical outliers

imagesRelying on bad facts and presumptions

imagesFaulty analysis and conclusions

Humans are biased toward downplaying risk. The human brain

convincingly justifies exposures to hazards. But, always remember: the
outcome of an exposure to a hazard is unpredictable no matter what you
think, how experienced or skilled you are, or how steadfastly you believe
otherwise. Most climbers are unaware of the extent to which cognitive
biases distort observations, analyses, and safety decisions.

Besides these biases, climbers can add other human-related “hazards” such
as stress, fatigue, dehydration, injury, emotions, adrenaline, and incomplete
or poor information, which further corrupt the ability to make safe
decisions. As climbers we tend to attribute incidents to mountain hazards
alone instead of acknowledging that we should have chosen a safer option
or mitigated the outcome of the hazards we took on (fig. 23-1).

images

Fig. 23-1. Several underlying hazards and decisions contribute to the

causes of an incident.

AVOIDING AND MITIGATING HAZARDS

Some hazards are obvious, but many are not. New climbers often embrace
the sport with a narrow focus on climbing technique. As a result, they may
get into situations beyond their capabilities and become hurt in the process.
Images of leading or soloing sheer rock and ice couloirs are inspiring, but
beginning climbers can’t appreciate the years of training and experience
that prepare climbers for those routes. Nor do sensational pictures reveal
the detailed planning and preparations undertaken prior to the photo shoot.

Education, training, practice, and experience all help climbers become

better at discovering hazards and recognizing their biases and
compensating for them when making decisions. Until climbers gain these,
they will not know their personal limits nor will they know all the ways
things can go wrong. You don’t know what you don’t know. It takes time
and experience to become an objective and safety-focused decision maker.

images

Fig. 23-2. Safe climbers recognize hazards and avoid them. If hazards
cannot be avoided, they mitigate to abate or allay those hazards.

One technique to help make decisions less biased and more objective is to
think up multiple solutions to a hazard. This forces some objectiveness and
analysis into the process. Some suggest coming up with three alternatives,
accessing the merits of each, and then picking the best one.
National Park Service search and rescue ranger John Dill gives a sobering
overview of Yosemite climbing accidents in an article titled “Climb Safely:
Staying Alive.” His view is particularly insightful about climbers’ states of
mind: “It’s impossible to know how many climbers were killed by haste or
overconfidence, but many survivors will tell you that they somehow lost
their good judgment long enough to get hurt. It’s a complex subject and
sometimes a touchy one. Nevertheless, at least three states of mind
frequently contribute to accidents: ignorance, casualness, and distraction.”

MAKE SAFE DECISIONS AND RECOGNIZE DISTRACTIONS

Studying the ANAM reports helps climbers learn from the misfortunes of
others. These reports are poignant reminders that very few of the incidents
arise from extraordinary situations. Almost all incidents result from not
adhering to well-accepted practices and techniques. Most of the incidents
would have been shockingly simple to prevent. Reading the latest ANAM
every year is a sobering and useful practice to keep this point fresh.

Poorly reined in desire to reach the summit is the most common bias
leading to poor decisions: as the Climbing Code (see Chapter 1, First Steps)
says, “Never let judgment be overruled by desire when choosing the route
or deciding whether to turn back.” Sadly, a number of climbers have lost
their lives trying to complete a socially designated list of peaks, when their
intense focus on scoring that summit overrode safety. A party motivated by
the quality of the trip is less likely to press on into hazards than is a party
motivated by the “must-get” summit.

If you are unsure if the hazard is significant or the risk high enough to be
dangerous, ponder what would happen if dozens of climbers were exposed
to the same situation you face (fig. 23-2). Would it be reasonable to expect
some to suffer a mishap resulting in serious injury or death? If so, and
recalling that the outcome of a specific exposure is unpredictable, in the
scheme of your life, is it worth serious injury or death to go ahead with this
exposure to this hazard?

If a climber is “lucky” and a good outcome follows a poor decision, bias

can lead to incidents in the future. If you won the roll of the dice this time,
a dangerous practice then becomes more tolerable. What about next time?
Will you act differently, or will one parameter be slightly different and lead
to a devastating outcome? Be sure your biases and decision-making habits
are not setting you up for an incident. Do not rely on luck, because when it
runs out, the consequences may be serious.

Yosemite ranger John Dill says that “distraction is caused by whatever

takes your mind off your work: anxiety, sore feet, skinny-dippers below—
the list is endless. Being in a hurry is one of the most common causes.”
Many experienced climbers, he says, are hurt on easy pitches because they
were thinking of a cold beer or a good bivy and made “errors only a
beginner would make” by taking shortcuts to get to these goals. One
particular climber Dill writes about was distracted by darkness, which led
the climber to hurry—he died after rappelling off the end of his rope.

Sometimes many small things, none of which by themselves are significant

enough to begin eroding the trip’s margin of safety. These changes can
involve everything from a little poor weather, some temporary navigation
confusion, the party moving slowly, or a mildly ill party member (tired,
blisters, heavy pack, lack of fitness, leg cramps). At some point, even little
things add up to have an impact. Heed Kurt Diemberger’s message:

images

Fig. 23-3. Three-part focus for a safe trip: plan, prepare, climb.

It was diabolic machinery, into the cogwheels of which all of us were

imperceptibly but irretrievably being sucked—the mechanism being so
complicated that it was not recognizable to the individual: every way that
might have led us out eventually became blocked by the taking of single
decisions, which by themselves would never have been so critical, but in
their conjunction opened the death trap for seven people up at 8,000
meters.

—Kurt Diemberger, The Endless Knot

PLAN AND PREPARE FOR THE CLIMB

Discovering and eliminating hazards starts before the party takes the first
step on the trail—while the climb is being planned and prepared for. Many
hazards can be avoided through preparation and planning (fig. 23-3).
Following checklists and acronyms helps guard against forgetfulness and
memory errors (see “Organizing and Leading a Climb” in Chapter 22,
Leadership).

An oft-quoted climbing adage is “The number-one rule is don’t fall.” It is

smart to learn technical skills in a safe environment such as at a crag or
climbing area, where the focus can be on skill development and
enhancement, rather than in the backcountry, while also dealing with the
myriad trip skills and hazards typical of more-remote venues. In the
backcountry, it is best not to climb a route near your maximum skill level.
Instead, choose a route that is below your technical best, and focus on the
orchestration of all components necessary for a successful trip. The
technical portion of a climb may be the highlight, but it is only one of many
aspects of a mountaineering trip. There is a tendency to focus too intently
on the technical aspects, only to be tripped up by something simple.

When heading to locales subject to adverse weather, plan another trip

elsewhere to improve the odds for a successful outing for a given date.
Similarly, when a particular peak is the foremost goal, schedule the climb
on several calendar dates to improve the odds for acceptable (even stellar)
weather.

Once a plan is put together, participants need to prepare for it. For example,
if a certain level of fitness is needed for the trip, then all participants must
work up to at least that level of fitness.

Careful planning and preparation helps reduce the number of surprises on

the trip. However, despite the best possible planning, real-life surprises can
arise. With poor planning, the possibility of unexpected hazards rises, and it
becomes increasingly challenging to safely avoid or mitigate these hazards.

OVERCOME HAZARDS DURING THE CLIMB

During a trip, climbers should be alert for expected and unexpected

hazards. As hazards are identified, the key to safety is to avoid exposure to
the hazard or, if the hazard cannot be avoided, to mitigate the possibility of
an injurious outcome. If the hazard cannot be avoided or undesirable
outcomes mitigated, then the prudent course is to retreat and return when
the climb can be done safely.

In another look at the car-driving analogy, maintaining the car, slowing

down, selecting a safe route, avoiding congestion, extending vehicle
spacing, taking a restful break, being patient, and allowing extra drive time
are examples of hazard avoidance. Using shoulder restraints and driving a
car with airbags and modern vehicle construction are examples of
mitigation: while these factors would not prevent an incident, they will
likely mitigate and lessen injury.

On the climb, recognize that safe practices for one type of climbing may
not be safe for another type. It may be socially intimidating to use practices
contrary to the local norm, and bad habits may develop. For example, at
sport climbing areas with bolted anchors and established landings, it may
be standard rappel practice to forgo stopper knots in the ends of the rope. A
climber habituated to this practice is unlikely to tie stopper knots elsewhere
when a safe landing is not ensured.

Redundancy substantially improves safety. Where there are independent

backups the probability of all of them failing is the product of the failure
rates of each independent part—comparatively, a very low number. For
example, lead climbers normally place double or triple pieces of protection
when building an anchor—this results in strong redundancy. In contrast,
many climbers rappel from a single anchor without a second thought.
While frequently used single rappel anchors are “proof tested” by each
rappeller and may not benefit from redundancy, temporarily backing up
new and infrequently used rappel anchors provides a substantial margin of
safety compared with a single anchor.

When considering what to do, decision making requires an objective

perspective, which is not easy. You might have a last day of vacation in
which to achieve a long-desired summit, but it began to rain during the
night and the weather looks unsettled. Do you try for the summit even
though you suspect weather and route conditions could be hazardous? Are
there safe options for proceeding? How long can you wait for
improvements, or can you retreat if hazards arise? Do you decide to go
home and come again another time?

CLIMBING SAFELY

Few sports engage us physically and mentally to the extent that climbing
does. Perhaps mountaineering exercises us in ways our minds and bodies
evolved eons ago. Today, we do not grow up in the wild, so we have to
learn safe practices as adults. Safe climbers seek to minimize hazards prior
to their trips. While on the climb, they strive to identify hazards and then
make decisions to avoid them or mitigate adverse outcomes, so that they
return home safely.
PLANNING AND PREPARATION • RESPONDING TO ACCIDENTS • MOUNTAIN MALADIES
• INJURIES • ILLNESSES • PREPARING FOR THE UNEXPECTED

images

CHAPTER 24
FIRST AID
First aid is one of the supportive skills of a truly competent self-
reliant climber. Most skilled mountaineers grow adept at
avoiding and mitigating hazards in the mountains, because it is
far preferable to prevent injuries rather than to be experts at
treating injuries. Yet accidents and illness can strike
mountaineers, just as they can hit anyone at home.

The mountain environment and the physical demands of wilderness travel

bring with them new types of injuries and illnesses. Mountaineers may be
far away from emergency medical services, so the climbing party must be
able to provide first aid. Additionally, mountaineers have a proud history of
coming to the aid of injured and ill people in other parties. All climbers
should be trained in wilderness first aid.
There are two components to mountaineering accident response: the
framework for responding to an accident, and the techniques for treating
specific conditions. This chapter begins with planning and preparation, then
presents the accident response framework, in the form of seven simple
responses appropriate to most backcountry accidents. Following that are
medical conditions associated with the backcountry, from mountain-specific
maladies to injuries to illnesses. However, many of the essential first-aid
skills, such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), splinting, and wound
care, are limited in scope or omitted here, because this book is not intended
to be a comprehensive first-aid text. These skills are best learned by taking
first-aid classes focused on outdoor activities and by regularly refereshing
your knowledge and practicing your skills.

PLANNING AND PREPARATION

A mountaineering party should determine the general first-aid skills of the
party and any relevant personal medical information, such as allergies to
bee stings, diabetes, et cetera, while planning the climb. Opinions differ on
the best format for gathering this information. Some climb leaders like to
ask for medical information individually from each party member in
advance of the trip. The information is then shared with any assistant leader
and elsewhere as needed. This approach protects individual privacy, but it
has the disadvantage of not giving other party members the information
they might need to be most helpful to a stricken person. Thus another
approach is to ask for this information publically, from the group as a
whole, at the trailhead before heading for the climb. Another element of
planning for emergency response is making sure that everyone carries a
personal first-aid kit.

FIRST-AID KIT
In a mountaineering party, each member carries a basic personal first-aid
kit. Table 24-1 lists suggested contents of a personal mountaineering first-
aid kit, to which climbers can add as experience, need, and training dictate.
Some first-aid items may be found elsewhere in the climber’s personal
supplies, such as a tweezers on a multitool or tape from a repair kit.
Personal emergency medications such as epinephrine for allergies should be
well labeled and their location made known to other members of the party.
It is wise to put the first-aid kit in a plastic bag to keep the contents dry.

TABLE 24-1. BASIC FIRST-AID KIT

Adhesive bandages
Skin closures or cyanoacrylate glue
Hemostatic gauze pad
Nonadherent dressings
 Self-adhering roller bandage or wrap
Medical tape
Antiseptic
Blister prevention and treatment supplies
Gloves, nitrile
Tweezers
Needle
Nonprescription pain killer
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
Antidiarrheal
Antihistamine
Topical antibiotic
Accident report form and pencil
Any personal prescriptions (including asthma inhalers, epinephrine, etc.)

On longer trips or in remote areas, the items and quantities can be

adjusted, and a group first-aid kit may make sense. Avoid the temptation to
strip a first-aid kit below the bare minimum simply to reduce weight. On
most trips, the first-aid kit will not be needed, but that does not make it less
essential. An appropriate emergency communication device such as a
phone, satellite communicator, or PLB, can expedite medical assistance in a
serious situation (see “Requesting Outside Assistance” in Chapter 25,
Alpine Rescue).

RESPONDING TO ACCIDENTS
A commonly shared framework for responding to an emergency makes all
the difference in how a climbing party translates knowledge and skill into
effective action. Without such a framework, accident response will be
chaotic and inefficient. The effective response to an accident in the
mountains can be simplified into seven steps, as shown in Table 24-2,
which are covered below in detail.

STEP 1: TAKE CHARGE OF THE SITUATION

The climb leader is responsible for managing the overall accident response.
Safety of survivors is the first priority. Identify, then avoid or mitigate,
threatening hazards. Designate a first-aid provider if one has not been
established. As appropriate, designate first-aid assistants. Choose a spot for
team members to aggregate resources such as first-aid kits, packs, ropes,
racks, et cetera, so they are readily accessible. The climb leader maintains
the big picture, thinks ahead to the next steps, delegates assignments, and,
importantly, avoids being drawn into details that distract from managing the
entirety.

TABLE 24-2. THE SEVEN STEPS IN ACCIDENT

RESPONSE

STEP ACTION TO TAKE

1. Take charge of The climb leader is in charge of the party.

the situation. Safety of the party is the number-one priority.
The climb leader designates a first-aid
provider to oversee care. The first-aid
provider is usually the person with the best
medical skills.

2. Approach the There may be dangerous or deadly

patient safely. considerations, such as rockfall, avalanche,
steepness, to evaluate. Avoid reckless haste!

3. Perform In a dangerous or unworkable environment,

emergency the patient may have to be rescued before
rescue and treatment can begin. The first-aid provider
urgent first aid. checks CAB-B—Circulation + Airway +
Breathing + deadly Bleeding—and
administers urgent first aid.

4. Protect the Protect the patient from the elements and

patient. preemptively treat for shock and
hypothermia; provide psychological support.

5. Check for other Conduct a thorough secondary examination

 injuries. and record findings on an accident report
form (see Figure 24-1).

6. Make a plan. Decide how best to evacuate the injured

person.

7. Carry out the Implement, monitor, and adapt the plan.

plan.

If there are several patients, use triage to direct the party’s limited
resources toward actions likely to have the most benefit and away from
actions that can wait or are hopeless.

STEP 2: APPROACH THE PATIENT SAFELY

Gather first-aid supplies, rescue equipment, and other gear and supplies that
will be needed. Do not endanger party members in the effort to reach an
injured person. Avoid any adrenaline-fueled, tunnel-vision haste to reach
the patient. The climb leader selects the best approach strategy. In technical
terrain, this could require ropes and rescue techniques. (See Chapter 25,
Alpine Rescue.)

STEP 3: PERFORM EMERGENCY RESCUE AND URGENT

FIRST AID
Move a patient only if there is imminent danger to the patient or rescuers.
Otherwise, do not move the patient until the first-aid provider is satisfied
that the move will not aggravate injuries. Patients do not have to be lying on
their back to be examined and treated. If the patient must be moved out of
danger, do so in such a way as to minimize further injury. Note the patient’s
body position and mechanism of the injury, and attempt to determine
whether it is likely that a back or neck injury has occurred. Attempt to
support and immobilize any obvious injured area as well as the neck and
spine during emergency extrication.

Protect Rescuers from Bloodborne Pathogens

Protect rescuers from the patient’s blood and body fluids that might transmit
communicable infectious diseases. Protective measures that create a barrier
between the skin and mucous membranes include disposable gloves, eye-
wear such as sunglasses, or perhaps a bandanna. In situations with
considerable bleeding or vomiting, wearing raingear offers additional
protection.

Make an Initial Assessment

If the patient is unresponsive, check the patient’s CAB-B vital indicators
and begin emergency first aid under these circumstances:
Circulation: Is pulse present?
Airway: Is airway clear?
Breathing: Is patient breathing?
Bleeding: Does patient have any heavy bleeding?

SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES FOR WITHHOLDING OR

TERMINATING CPR
The first-aid provider may withhold or terminate CPR if any of these
conditions occur:
images There is unacceptable risk to the rescuer.
images The rescuer is exhausted.
images The environment is one in which CPR is impossible.
images Injuries are incompatible with life.
images The patient’s body is frozen solid.
images The avalanche victim is pulseless with obstructed airway and
was buried for more than 35 minutes.
images There is no return of a heartbeat after 30 minutes of CPR
(except for a hypothermic patient).

Perform Wilderness CPR

If a pulse is absent, you should begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
if able. Performing CPR in the wilderness is different from performing CPR
minutes away from a hospital; it requires special consideration of injuries
and circumstances specific to wilderness settings. See the sidebar “Special
Circumstances for Withholding or Terminating CPR”; these are based on
recommendations from the International Commission for Alpine Rescue on
the termination of CPR in mountain rescue (see Resources). If you do
perform CPR, do so in accordance with the training you have received.

Manage Serious Bleeding

If there is deadly bleeding, use direct pressure over a hemostatic dressing or
clean clothing. If bleeding persists, apply a pressure dressing. Elevating a
limb is not effective. Applying pressure to a pressure point is effective for
about a minute before ancillary circulation is established. If bleeding
continues uncontrolled, use a tourniquet 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) wide that
incorporates windlass tightening. Place it 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7 centimeters)
above the hemorrhage and tighten it until bleeding stops. Using a tourniquet
may lead to permanent injury, especially when used longer than about two
hours. Before then slowly release the tourniquet to see if the bleeding can
be controlled by other means. See the “Management of Bleeding” sidebar.

MANAGEMENT OF BLEEDING
images Take precautions (gloves, sunglasses, raingear) to protect
rescuers from the patient’s blood and body fluids.
images Apply a hemostatic dressing.
images Apply direct pressure to control bleeding.
images Use pressure dressings on top of existing ones.
images Apply a tourniquet when all else fails.
images Treat for shock with feet elevated 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30
centimeters).

SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF SHOCK

The patient may experience these symptoms:
images Nausea
images Thirst
images Weakness
images Fear and/or restlessness
images Sweating
 images Shortness of breath

Observers may note these signs:

images Pulse rapid but weak
images Breathing rapid and shallow
images Skin cool and clammy
images Lips and nail beds blue
images Restlessness
images Face pale
images Eyes dull
images Pupils dilated
images Unresponsiveness (a late sign)

STEP 4: PROTECT THE PATIENT

The first-aid provider should protect the patient from the environment—
heat, cold, precipitation, et cetera—and prevent shock. See the sidebar
“Symptoms and Signs of Shock.” Make every effort to maintain the
patient’s body temperature. Initial protection from the elements can be done
quickly and usually without moving the patient.

STEP 5: CHECK FOR OTHER INJURIES

Once the patient has been stabilized and treated initially for life-threatening
conditions, the first-aid provider checks for other injuries. Conduct a
systematic head-to-toe secondary survey, looking for the clues listed in the
“Signs of Injury” sidebar. The exam needs to be visual and tactile. For best
results, examine bare skin while making thorough observations for possible
injuries, unless environmental conditions are prohibitive.
The person conducting the examination should use an accident report
form, such as the one in Figure 24-1, to guide the exam. The report provides
information in the event of a change in the patient’s condition or in case
evacuation becomes necessary and the injured person is turned over to
outside assistance for treatment. Perform repeated reassessments to detect
changes or deterioration in the patient’s condition.
STEP 6: MAKE A PLAN
Up until this point, the steps primarily have included urgent first aid and
thorough assessment. Additional first aid may be required, such as wound
care, splinting an injured limb, hydration, medicating for pain, and
preventing shock and hypothermia. The patient may need evacuation, which
may be within the resources of the party or may require additional resources
from outside organizations. Finally, the needs of the remaining party
members have to be considered. All of these are brought together in a plan.
A patient who is not ambulatory nearly always requires additional
assistance to evacuate. Carrying a patient by litter requires proper
equipment and a large number of people to assist, which is beyond the
capabilities of most climbing parties. Self-evacuation should not be
attempted if there are any indications of serious head, neck, or back injuries
(see “Injuries” later in this chapter). Other factors to consider in deciding
whether to attempt a self-evacuation—in addition to the patient’s condition
—include the terrain, the weather, the time of day, the amount of time a
self-evacuation will take, the strength and skills of other party members,
and the practicality of stopping en route if an outside evacuation becomes
the preferred option. If self-evacuation is the plan, party members will have
to plan and organize the effort.

SIGNS OF INJURY
images Unilateral differences
images Discoloration or bruising
images Disfigurement
images Bleeding or loss of other fluids
images Swelling
images Pain or tenderness
images Limited range of motion
images Guarding of a particular body part
images Numbness

images
Fig. 24-1. Accident report form and rescue request form.
 On the other hand, if the climb leader decides to seek outside help, the
party will need a plan for obtaining assistance and taking care of all
members remaining in the wilderness. If the party has an emergency
communication device such as radio, phone, PLB, or satellite
communicator, consider that it is better to request rescue assistance early,
rather than the party finding themselves with a deteriorating patient in the
middle of the night or a storm and unable to continue self-evacuation. If the
plan is to dispatch people to request help, try to send at least two of the
party’s stronger and more competent members, along with the completed
accident report form with information on the patient’s condition, the
condition of the rest of the party, adequacy of survival supplies, and the
party’s specific location. Rescue agencies appreciate early notification as
well to assist with planning and mobilization. See Chapter 25, Alpine
Rescue, for more details.

STEP 7: CARRY OUT THE PLAN

While executing the plan, the party monitors their progress and looks for
opportunities to improve the plan. Monitor the patient and provide
reassurance and support. Give fluids and carbohydrates if the patient can
swallow and tolerate them without nausea. If in doubt, start with occasional
sips of water to ensure tolerance without nausea or vomiting, a hardship the
patient doesn’t need. Remain vigilant because shock may be delayed.
At this stage, psychological support becomes important for the patient
and anyone involved in helping the seriously injured. Keep an eye out for
anyone behaving irrationally or in an agitated or dazed fashion. Often such
individuals can be assigned a simple task that will refocus them.

images
Fig. 24-1. (continued) Accident report form and rescue request form.

Party members may need to prepare to spend time where they are: setting
up a shelter, rationing food, and perhaps getting ready for a night in the
wilderness. See Chapter 25, Alpine Rescue, for details on rescue and
evacuation methods.

MOUNTAIN MALADIES
Certain conditions are associated with mountaineering activities. The
mountain environment can expose climbers to extremes of heat, cold, sun
exposure, and altitude. Field treatment may be challenging since it is rare to
be able to remove the ill climber from the causes. Bear in mind if one
person is suffering others in the party could be close behind.

DEHYDRATION
Water is the most important nutrient. Maintaining good hydration reduces
the risk of heat-related, cold-related, and altitude illnesses. It improves
overall physical performance as well.
Individuals vary in the rate at which their bodies lose water. Water loss
occurs through sweating, respiration, urination, and diarrhea. Gaining
altitude increases urinary and respiratory losses. Various medications can
influence the body’s ability to maintain water balance, by changing how
much a person sweats or feels thirst or by increasing or decreasing urine
output. Conditioning can play a role in the body’s efficient maintenance of
water balance.

images
Fig. 24-2. Heat index.

Climbers may not be aware how much water their body is losing. If they
do not urinate periodically during the day, or if their urine color becomes
darker, they are not drinking enough fluids. Other indications of fluid
dehydration are a flushed feeling, headache, or decrease in, or lack of,
sweating.
Always begin mountaineering outings well hydrated. Drink a cup (or
more) of water 15 minutes before starting out. Once under way, one
strategy is to continue drinking fluids at a rate of 1 to 1.5 cups (0.2 to 0.3
liter) every 20 to 30 minutes of intense aerobic activity. This rate of
drinking helps maintain hydration without making the stomach distended
from the volume taken in. If climbers have been without water for some
time and finally get a chance to hydrate, most people can tolerate drinking a
pint (0.5 liter), but not two, immediately without stomach distension.
Spread the second pint over 15 minutes to avoid that bloated feeling.
Commercial sports and electrolyte drinks are not necessary, but are often
useful—especially to make hydration more palatable in warmer climates
where more sweating occurs. Electrolytes—body salts—lost through
sweating can also be replaced by eating snacks that have some salt content.

EXERCISE-ASSOCIATED HYPONATREMIA
A relatively uncommon fluid-electrolyte disorder called exercise-associated
hyponatremia (EAH) is generally caused by drinking too much water,
which decreases blood sodium levels for up to 24 hours after prolonged
activity. The body has the ability to excrete and sweat about 1–1.5 quarts
(1–1.5 liters) of water per hour. Consumption of water in excess of this may
eventually result in overhydration, decreasing sodium.
To differentiate between dehydration and overhydration, track the
patient’s water intake and urination. It may be helpful to determine the
capacity of water containers and a timeline of when they have been filled.
With heat illnesses, expect increased thirst, rapid heart rate, diminished
urination (darker-colored urine), and dizziness, faintness, or
lightheadedness only upon standing; these indicators are less likely with
EAH.

HEAT-RELATED CONDITIONS
Heat builds up by exertion or by exposure to a hot environment. Humans
lose heat largely through their skin. If a person builds up more heat than the
body can lose, heat-related illness can result. High humidity impairs heat
dissipation because it slows evaporation by perspiration. High temperature
combined with high humidity and strenuous exertion are dangerous
conditions for an intense activity to take place; these can lead to
overheating, which can cause a range of problems, from the crippling pain
of heat cramps to heat exhaustion or heatstroke. Treatment in the field can
be challenging especially when it is hot, sunny, and there is little water,
shade, or snow.

Heat Index
The heat index in Figure 24-2 provides a measure of apparent temperature
increase due to the effect of increasing humidity. For example, if the
ambient air temperature is 90 degrees Fahrenheit (32 degrees Celsius), at a
relative humidity of 40 percent, the perceived temperature will be 93
degrees Fahrenheit (33 degrees Celsius); at a relative humidity of 90
percent, the perceived temperature will be 122 degrees Fahrenheit (50
degrees Celsius).

Heat Cramps
Muscle cramps, especially in the legs, can develop if a climber becomes
dehydrated or electrolyte-imbalanced during sustained exertion. In general,
less-conditioned climbers are more likely to develop heat cramps than
climbers who are in better shape. Heat cramps are avoidable if water and
electrolytes are replenished throughout the climb. Rest, massage, and
gentle, slow stretching of the affected muscles usually help. Replacing
water and electrolytes is important. Severe leg cramps on an approach or
strenuous climb may be a warning sign of pending heat exhaustion.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF HEAT EXHAUSTION

images Headache
images Cool and clammy skin
images Dizziness
images Fatigue
images Nausea
images Thirst
images Rapid pulse and respiratory rate

Heat Exhaustion
Of the two major kinds of heat illness, heat exhaustion is the milder
affliction compared with heatstroke (see below). In the effort to reduce
body temperature, blood vessels in the skin become so dilated (and
sweating-related moisture loss so pronounced) that circulation to the brain
and other vital organs becomes inadequate. The result is an effect similar to
fainting (see the “Signs and Symptoms of Heat Exhaustion” sidebar). The
following people are susceptible to heat exhaustion: the elderly, the poorly
conditioned, individuals on medications that interfere with sweating, people
inadequately acclimatized to a hot climate, and individuals who are
dehydrated or salt-depleted.
 Treatment of heat exhaustion consists of resting—reclining with feet up
—preferably in the shade, removing excess clothing, and drinking plenty of
fluids and electrolytes. Applying water over the head, skin, and clothing can
promote evaporative cooling. On average, it takes one hour to get a quart
(liter) of fluid into the circulatory system.

Heatstroke
Heatstroke, also called sunstroke, is a life-threatening emergency. In
heatstroke, the body’s heat gain is so substantial that body core temperature
rises to dangerous levels: 105 degrees Fahrenheit (41 degrees Celsius) or
more. The most reliable symptom is altered mental state, which might
manifest as irritability, combativeness, delusions, or incoherent speech. See
the “Signs and Symptoms of Heatstroke” sidebar for others.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF HEATSTROKE

images Altered mental state: confusion or uncooperativeness,
advancing toward unconsciousness
images Rapid pulse and respiratory rate
images Headache
images Weakness
images Flushed, hot skin (wet with sweat or sometimes dry)
images Seizures
images Loss of coordination

Treatment of heatstroke must be immediate. Move the patient to the

shade. Cool the head and body by packing them in snow or through
evaporative cooling by splashing on water and vigorously fanning the
person. Remove clothing that retains heat. Add ice packs (snow) to the
neck, groin, and armpits, where large blood vessels are located near the
body surface. Once body temperature has dropped to 102 degrees
Fahrenheit (39 degrees Celsius), the cooling efforts can be stopped.
However, continue to monitor the patient’s temperature, mental status, and
general condition, because temperature instability may continue for some
time, and body temperature could climb again, necessitating more cooling.
If the patient’s gag reflex and swallowing ability are intact, cold drinks may
be provided, since rehydration is critical. The ill person may not be able to
continue for some hours. A heatstroke patient must be evaluated by
competent medical personnel and should not resume activity until after such
an evaluation.

COLD-RELATED CONDITIONS
Cold-related illness and injuries can be localized or systemic. With
immersion foot, Raynaud’s disease, frostnip, and frostbite, the loss is
localized, whereas with cold stress and hypothermia, the loss is systemic.
Body heat is lost to the environment through evaporation (sweating and
breathing), radiation (from uncovered skin), convection (from windy
conditions), and conduction (from touching, sitting, or lying on something
cold).

Windchill
For a given cool temperature, as wind speed increases it draws away heat
by convection. The windchill index, Figure 24-3, provides a mathematical
measure of how wind can accelerate the rate of cooling from exposed skin
compared with the ambient temperature. For a given temperature, as wind
speed increases, it draws more heat from exposed skin. The calculation of
windchill is based on heat-transfer theory. For example, if the air
temperature is minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 23 degrees Celsius) and
the wind is blowing at 25 miles per hour (40 kilometers per hour), then the
windchill temperature is minus 37 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 38 degrees
Celsius). At this temperature and at this wind speed, exposed skin can
freeze in 10 minutes.
By definition, the windchill index temperature is lower than the air
temperature, but loss of heat by windchill cannot cause temperature to drop
below the ambient air temperature; it’s a measure of cooling and not a
measure of ambient temperature. Windchill is of greater significance when
the air temperature is relatively cool—that is, when there is risk of frostbite
or hypothermia. Keep in mind that windchill cools all warm surfaces while
windchill index depicts cooling only on exposed skin; if a climber is
properly dressed for the conditions of the mountain environment using
windproof materials, the windchill effect can be reduced or eliminated (see
“Layering” in Chapter 2, Clothing and Equipment).
Hypothermia
Hypothermia, a cold-related illness that affects the entire body, occurs when
cold overcomes the body’s ability to maintain a normal temperature. As the
body tries to maintain normal core temperature, blood is diverted away
from the skin surface and from extremities. Cold stress results when the
body’s core temperature is between normal and 95 degrees Fahrenheit (35
degrees Celsius). Below this temperature reside the three stages of
hypothermia. Unless remedied, hypothermia becomes a life-threatening
condition that must be assertively treated to prevent the patient’s death. In
contrast, other cold-related illnesses—frostbite and immersion foot—are
localized in their effects and do not have the same urgency.
A classic example of cold stress occurs when active backcountry winter
skiers stop for lunch and wait until they stop sweating and start to feel cool
before donning more clothing. The added clothing, at ambient temperature,
initially draws even more heat from the skiers. Even within the time frame
of a modest lunch break, the skiers progressively feel colder and start
shivering; the added clothing doesn’t warm them up, and they can’t wait to
get on the move to warm up.

images
Fig. 24-3. Windchill index.

Usually hypothermia occurs after prolonged exposure to a chilly

environment rather than exposure to extreme cold. A drizzly day with the
temperature around 25 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 4 degrees Celsius) and a
strong breeze is a more typical setting for hypothermia than minus 10
degrees Fahrenheit (minus 23 degrees Celsius) at the ice cliffs. Wet clothing
and exposure to wind are major mechanisms for losing body heat. Direct
contact with snow or cold rock also robs the body of heat. Dehydration,
inadequate food intake, and fatigue are risk factors. An active climber
immobilized suddenly by injury in a cool, cold, or windy environment is
particularly susceptible.
Hypothermia symptoms vary depending on the individual and the extent
to which and the amount of time body core temperature has been reduced
(see Table 24-3). Initially, signs and symptoms of cooling lag behind the
drop in body core temperature. Typically, the hypothermia patient does not
notice the early signs. Shivering is an initial indication of core cooling as
the body attempts to rewarm itself through muscular work. As cooling
continues, cognitive and physical processes progressively decline.
The distinction between mild and moderate hypothermia is blurry. There
is no practical way to accurately measure core temperature in the mountains
even with a rectal thermometer. In early hypothermia, symptoms include
intense shivering, fumbling hand movements, stumbling, dulling of mental
functions, and uncooperative or isolative behavior. The climbing party can
evaluate coordination by having the person walk an imaginary tightrope for
15 feet (5 meters), heel to toe. As core temperature slides further, shivering
becomes increasingly violent, but at some point it ceases. The patient may
not be able to walk but may still be able to maintain posture. Muscle and
nervous system function continue declining. Muscles become stiff and
movements uncoordinated. Behavior is confused or irrational.

images

In severe to profound hypothermia—body core temperatures below 82

degrees Fahrenheit (28 degrees Celsius)—shivering stops and
consciousness will gradually be lost. As hypothermia further progresses, it
may be extremely difficult to observe a pulse or respiration. The patient’s
pupils may dilate.
Hypothermia is an emergency condition that will lead to death unless
treated. Treat preventively rather than wait until signs and symptoms appear
and then be faced with trying to stop, overcome, and reverse the body’s
inability to generate sufficient heat. The priorities of treatment are to stop
heat loss and rewarm (see the “Tips for Preventing Hypothernia” sidebar).
Help an ambulatory patient (one who can walk) don clothing, consume food
and water, and keep traveling—muscle activity is likely to be the quickest
way to warm up.
Treatment of a nonambulatory hypothermic patient (for example, an
excavated avalanche victim) begins with ending further heat loss by
stopping the person’s exposure to the elements. Insulate the patient from the
ground, out of the wind and precipitation; remove wet clothing. In mild
hypothermia cases, it may suffice to supply dry clothing, add insulation
under and around the patient, and shelter the person from the wind and
elements. If the patient’s gag reflex and swallowing ability are intact, offer
liquids, sweet liquids, energy gels, and carbohydrates for food energy for
shivering. Use heat packs and hot water bottles. Contrary to mountain lore,
supplying warm drinks is not as important as simply replenishing fluids.
(Consider this: pouring a teaspoonful of warm water into a cupful of ice
water would not be an effective way to warm up the cup.) Treat dehydration
until urine output is restored.
Most hypothermia patients with altered consciousness require active
rewarming, which can be very challenging for small parties to accomplish
in the wilderness. Place hot water bottles wrapped in mittens or socks, to
avoid burning, at the patient’s chest, neck, armpits, and groin, where large
blood vessels are located near the body surface. Enclose the patient in a
wrap of clothing, sleeping bags, and sleeping pads to insulate against heat
loss. Direct body contact with a (warm) party member is less effective than
using heat packs or hot water bottles. While ensuring enough fresh air to
prevent carbon monoxide poisoning as well as preventing burns, it may be
possible to use a tarp or rain fly set up around the seated patient to capture
the heat (sauna-like) from a climbing stove. Allow the recovering patient to
shiver for at least 30 minutes before exercise to thermally stabilize them.

TIPS FOR PREVENTING HYPOTHERMIA

images Avoid sweat wetness.
images Avoid windchill by covering exposed skin.
images Maintain hydration.
images Wear adequate insulation and shells.
images Stay well fed.
images Pace yourself to avoid sweating and fatigue.
images Prior to prolonged stops, don chilled clothing to warm it up.
images If you are starting to feel cool, regardless of moving or
stopping, put on more warm clothing.

A profoundly hypothermic patient must be handled gently to avoid

inadvertently sending cold blood from the surface circulation back to the
heart; this “afterdrop” could cause heart rhythm abnormalities such as
ventricular fibrillation. Do not offer oral liquids to a semiconscious patient.
Rewarm the patient slowly to minimize afterdrop. Limit limb movement
and keep the patient horizontal. Once a patient has adequate energy
reserves, the most effective means of heating may be for the patient to walk.
Before starting CPR, feel for a carotid pulse for 1 minute. If there is no
detectable pulse, start chest compressions, including rescue breathing.
Because a profoundly hypothermic person may appear dead, it is essential
not to give up on resuscitation efforts until the patient is warm, has received
adequately performed CPR, and still shows no signs of life. Keep in mind
the saying that “no one is dead until warm and dead.” Severely hypothermic
patients have tolerated delayed and interrupted CPR to make full neurologic
recovery. As in heatstroke, once the severely hypothermic patient is back to
normal body core temperature, the patient must still be monitored because
temperature-regulating mechanisms may not be stable for a considerable
period.
The party must know when to call off a summit quest. Watch out for each
other. When a party member becomes exhausted, that person is often “too
tired” to bother adding clothing, to eat, or to drink, making hypothermia
more likely to occur. Shivering must never be ignored. Because
hypothermia interferes with a mountaineer’s judgment and perception,
climbing partners must be annoyingly persistent in telling a shivering
climber to don warmer gear. (See the “Tips for Preventing Hypothermia”
sidebar above.)

Raynaud’s Disease
Raynaud’s disease is a chronic, temporary, intense vasoconstriction
(constriction of blood vessels) of the tissue in which cold is a frequent
trigger. A climber with Raynaud’s disease may appear to have frostbite.
Initially, involved fingers turn white and stiff and feel numb due to
diminished blood supply. Later they may turn bluish due to a lack of
oxygen. After the blood vessels reopen, the flushing may turn the area red.
Those with a history of Raynaud’s will be familiar with the course of an
episode. These climbers are more susceptible to frostbite or cold injuries
and need to use preventive measures—avoid triggers (exposure to cold
weather without adequate clothing or touching cold gear, such as an ice axe,
for instance) and use good warm gloves or mittens and chemical heat packs
—to keep their hands warm and also to treat an episode. Treat as for
frostnip (see below).
Frostnip
Frostnip, commonly mistaken for frostbite, is a superficial nonfreezing cold
injury associated with intense vasoconstriction (constriction of blood
vessels) in exposed skin—usually fingers, cheeks, ears, or nose. It is a
common occurrence. Waiting too long to don gloves is a frequent cause.
Treat by donning insulated clothing, warming the skin with direct contact
with something warm (warm skin or bottles full of hot water), breathing
with cupped hands over the nose, and using chemical heat packs in gloves
or boots. Exercise increases dilation of blood vessels in limbs, which should
help. Rewarming may be painful, but frostnip does not result in long-term
damage. The occurrence of frostnip may signal conditions favorable for
frostbite (see below).

Frostbite
Frostbite is true tissue freezing; ice crystals form in the body’s internal
fluids, leading to tissue dehydration and eventual tissue death. Frostbitten
tissue is cold, hard, and pale or darkly discolored and is numb. Frostbite can
be classified as superficial (little permanent tissue loss expected) or deep
(tissue loss expected). The distinction is usually difficult to make in the
wilderness. The affected body part can be severely and permanently
damaged, and effects can persist for years. Skin injury is common.
Frostbitten tissue is fragile and should never be massaged.
Avoid frostbite by wearing condition-appropriate, non-constrictive
clothing in layers, and cover exposed areas. Mittens can be warmer than
gloves. Dry feet are important; avoid constricting boots. Chemical hand and
toe warmers are helpful. Wiggle toes and fingers; prompt the party
members to check and move theirs. Avoid skin contact with cold metal or
stove fuel, which can cause frostbite on contact. Stop and warm fingers and
toes before they go numb.
Treatment for frostbite starts with treating for any accompanying
hypothermia (see above). Superficial frostbite can be warmed against
another warm body—for example, placing a cold finger or foot against a
warm belly. In the wilderness, it is undesirable to rewarm a deeply frozen
body part, because if the thawed body part is then refrozen, tissue death will
be more extensive. Instead, evacuate the patient to a medical facility for
rewarming. A frozen foot, once thawed, is impossible to walk on; the
patient will have to be carried out. However, do not attempt to retard
spontaneous rewarming by deliberately packing the area in snow, keeping it
in cold water, or traveling in a chilled vehicle.
In the rare instance in which wilderness rewarming is considered
advisable, the frostbitten part should be warmed in a water bath that is 104
to 108 degrees Fahrenheit (40 to 42 degrees Celsius), about the temperature
of a hot tub. In the wilderness, it will be challenging to maintain water in
this temperature range. Do not use hotter water, as the frostbitten part is
extremely susceptible to thermal injury. Rewarming of an extremity will
take 30 to 45 minutes and will be painful; pain medication may be
necessary. The frostbitten patient should lie down with the injured part
elevated. Blisters often emerge during rewarming; do not rupture these
blisters. Gently wash any open wounds or already ruptured blisters with a
skin antiseptic, and cover them with sterile dressings loose enough to
accommodate some swelling. Patients require additional treatment in a
hospital setting to minimize secondary effects.

Immersion Foot
Immersion foot, also called trench foot, occurs when a person’s feet have
been wet and cold for a period ranging from several hours to days. The
injury appears to be a kind of trauma to nerves and muscles caused by
diminished oxygen distribution (hypoxia), rather than an injury to blood
vessels and skin as in frostbite. Immersion foot could occur after a climber
wades across a stream and hikes for several hours with wet boots, and
soggy feet or on a multiday trip on which the feet never dry out. Immersion
foot results in whitish, pulseless, tingling feet; typically, the unhappy
mountaineer discovers these symptoms in the tent at night. Prevention
consists of assuring the feet are dry for eight hours a day.
Treat immersion foot by drying, gently rewarming, and slightly elevating
the feet. Following rewarming, the affected feet shift through a painful
phase in which they fill with congested blood and other bodily fluids, which
may last several days; they become reddened and swollen, with a bounding
pulse. It may be necessary to cool the feet in order to tone down the
intensity of this phase. After the feet have been rewarmed, the climber may
not be able to walk due to pain for 24 to 48 hours. The patient is at risk for
recurrence of immersion foot. Infection and gangrene may occur in severe
cases.
CONDITIONS RELATED TO ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
Intense ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, particularly when it is
reflected off snow and ice, can burn an unprepared mountaineer at high
altitudes. For every 1,000 feet (305 meters) above sea level, UV radiation
increases about 5 to 6 percent. Burn injuries from overexposure to UV
radiation are potentially serious but preventable.

Sunburn
Cloud cover does not filter out UV radiation effectively, so skin can burn
even on an overcast day. Burned skin can range from bright red to blistered.
Certain medications such as tetracycline, sulfa drugs, and diuretics can
increase the skin’s sensitivity to sun and thus to the danger of its burning.
Sunburn should be treated like any other burn: cool the burned area,
cover it, and treat for pain. Blistered areas in particular should be covered
with sterile dressings to minimize the risk of infection.
The most effective prevention is to cover exposed skin with clothing and
use adequate sunscreen. Tightly woven clothing is effective in screening
UV radiation; there is no need to use special clothing with an ultraviolet
protection factor (UPF) rating. Hats should include a wide brim to protect
the back of the neck as well as face and ears. A handkerchief, neck gaiter,
or thin balaclava can help cover the face. When skin must be exposed,
sunscreen products extend the time that can be spent in the sun without
getting burned. (See “Sun Protection” in Chapter 2, Clothing and
Equipment.)

Snow Blindness
Snow blindness (ultraviolet keratitis) is a potentially serious problem that
results when the outer layers of the eyes are burned by UV radiation. The
cornea (the clear layer at the front of the eye) is most easily burned. Its
surface can become roughened and blistered. With further radiation, the
lenses of the eyes can become burned as well. Snow blindness sets in 6 to
12 hours after the UV radiation exposure. Dry, sandy-feeling eyes become
light sensitive, then reddened and teary, and then extremely painful.
Recovery takes one or more days.
Prevention of snow blindness is straightforward. In high-UV environs,
climbers must wear either goggles or glacier sunglasses with side shields to
block UV radiation bouncing off the snow. Choose sunglasses that block 99
to 100 percent of both UVA and UVB rays. Glare can be filtered out with a
darkly tinted or polarized lens, but these features do not filter out the
burning UV light. If climbers lose their eye protection, emergency goggles
can be fashioned out of duct tape or cardboard by cutting narrow horizontal
slits for each eye. (See “Sun Protection” in Chapter 2, Clothing and
Equipment.)
Treatment of snow blindness includes providing pain relief and
preventing further injury. Cool compresses may reduce pain, and sunglasses
help with photosensitivity. Remove contact lenses unless the patient can
tolerate them and they are needed for evacuation. Advise the snow
blindness patient to avoid rubbing the eyes and to rest. There is no evidence
to support therapeutic bandaging of the eyes. Topical antibiotic ointments,
anti-inflammatories, and systemic pain medications may be used. Recheck
for light sensitivity at half-day intervals.

HIGH-ALTITUDE CONDITIONS
With increasing elevation pressure, temperature and humidity decrease
while ultraviolet radiation increases. It becomes difficult to climb as
efficiently or powerfully as at lower elevations. As elevation increases, the
body’s organs and tissues struggle to get the oxygen they need for
metabolism. Eventually, climbers enter the state of reduced oxygen called
hypoxia. Hypoxia is greatest during sleeping.

Physiological Adaptations to Altitude

One adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia is an increase in the rate and depth
of breathing. After ascending to high altitude, a climber’s respiratory rate
continues to increase for several days. The increase in respiratory rate also
results in greater expiration of carbon dioxide, which lowers dissolved
carbon dioxide in the blood. Another normal adaptation to high-altitude
hypoxia is that the kidneys send more water on to the bladder as urine,
ridding the body of more fluid. This diuresis makes the blood slightly
thicker; the change begins promptly on ascent and continues for several
weeks. Eventually the body produces a greater number of red blood cells in
an effort to increase oxygen-carrying capacity.
Acclimatization
The body adapts to the environmental change of high altitude, but complete
acclimatization takes time. The single most critical reason people get sick at
high altitude is that they ascend too high too fast. The single most important
way to prevent altitude illness is to undertake a slow ascent to high
elevation. On lengthy trips above 10,000 feet (about 3,000 meters), limit
increases in sleeping elevation to about 1,000 to 1,500 feet (about 300 to
460 meters) per night. Two or three times a week, allow an additional night
at the same elevation as the night before. Be sure to maintain adequate fluid
intake.

Insomnia
The ability to sleep soundly deteriorates at high altitude. Most mountaineers
have insomnia at altitude, waking up more often during the night and
getting less deep sleep. Commonly, an irregular breathing rhythm appears
during sleep and sometimes during wakefulness, too. There are periods of
apnea (no breathing) interspersed with periods of hyperventilation, an
alternating rhythm known as Cheyne-Stokes respiration. The low carbon
dioxide content of the blood appears to drive this odd change in breathing.
A small dose (one-quarter tablet) of acetazolamide at bedtime decreases
Cheyne-Stokes respiration and may aid sleep. New evidence suggests that
prescription sleeping pills help with insomnia at altitude; despite concerns
that they depress respiration, they have been used at altitude without
adverse consequences.

Radial Keratotomy
Hypoxia at altitude causes temporary edema and thickening of the cornea,
which may cause increased farsightedness and decreased visual acuity in
climbers who have had the radial keratotomy (RK) procedure. One
approach is to take along glasses or goggles of different corrective
prescriptions. Research is unclear as to altitude effects on laser-assisted in-
situ keratomileusis (LASIK) or photorefractive keratectomy (PRK).

Retinal Hemorrhage
At high altitude, an increase in retinal blood flow and subsequent retinal
vein dilation can lead to retinal hemorrhages in many climbers. Climbers
should be instructed to descend if they develop altered vision. The presence
of high-altitude retinal hemorrhage has been associated with altitude illness.

SIGNS OF ACUTE MOUNTAIN SICKNESS

People with AMS usually have a headache, plus one of the following:
images Insomnia
images Listlessness and/or lassitude
images Loss of appetite
images Nausea
images Vomiting
images Lightheadedness or dizziness made worse when in an upright
position

Acute Mountain Sickness

At least half of the sea-level residents who travel rapidly to moderate
altitude—8,000 to 14,000 feet (2,400 to 4,300 meters)—experience some
degree of acute mountain sickness (AMS). This is a collection of
nonspecific symptoms that can resemble a case of flu, a hangover, or carbon
monoxide poisoning from stove use inside an inadequately ventilated
shelter. Headache is the cardinal symptom, often accompanied by fatigue,
loss of appetite, nausea, and, occasionally, vomiting (see the “Signs of
Acute Mountain Sickness” sidebar). Headache onset is usually 2 to 12
hours after arrival at a higher altitude and often during or after the first
night. Headaches tend to be localized in the occipital or temporal areas.
AMS can vary widely in severity but generally resolves with 24 to 72 hours
of acclimatization.
AMS can progress in severity. In cases wherein symptoms such as
headache and nausea progress, a descent of 2,000 to 3,000 feet (600 to 900
meters) in elevation is the best treatment. The diagnosis of AMS is
confirmed if the condition improves upon descent. It is important to
differentiate AMS from the more ominous HACE and HAPE (see below).
Some medicines can be used to deal with altitude-related health
problems; climbers should ask their physician about the appropriateness of
such drugs for their situation. Some mountaineers use acetazolamide
(Diamox) the night before or the morning of the ascent and through the first
48 hours at high altitude in order to prevent AMS or block its recurrence.
Potential problems caused by this medication are tingling of the extremities,
ringing in the ears, nausea, frequent urination, and a change in the sense of
taste. It is better to test this possibility at home rather than in the mountains.
Acetazolamide does appear to be effective in preventing and treating AMS
as well as the breathing changes brought on by high altitude. The steroid
dexamethasone is effective in preventing and treating AMS as well as
HACE and HAPE; it is usually reserved for treatment or when rapid
elevation gain prevents normal acclimatization.

High-Altitude Cerebral Edema

High-altitude cerebral edema (HACE) usually develops in unacclimatized
climbers above 10,000 feet (about 3,000 meters), although it can occur as
low as 8,500 feet (2,600 meters). HACE may be just the severe
manifestation of AMS. HACE rarely occurs out of the blue and more often
occurs in people who have had AMS that is worsening. Generally, it takes
from one to three days at high altitude for HACE to develop. Vessels in the
brain respond to the stress of high altitude by becoming leaky, resulting in
the brain swelling with increased fluid. Ultimately, the brain swells inside
its rigid container of cranial bones.
Early signs of this deadly condition include deteriorating coordination,
headache, loss of energy, and altered mental status, ranging from confusion
or signs of not thinking clearly to hallucinating. Use the coordination test:
ask the person to walk an imaginary tightrope for 15 feet (5 meters), heel to
toe, to check for ataxia. Nausea and forceful vomiting may be present.
Once HACE develops, it may advance rapidly. The patient may become
somnolent and lapse into a coma. Descent is critical to survival. On some
expeditions, portable hyperbaric chambers (such as the Gamow bag) are
used to create an artificial lower elevation in the effort to stabilize the
patient for a few hours. Supplemental oxygen can also be helpful. Drugs
such as dexamethasone are beneficial; acetazolamide might be an additional
part of the treatment.

High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema

In high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), body fluids leak into the lungs
to a degree that interferes with respiratory function. HAPE is a potentially
fatal condition and survival depends on a rapid response. HAPE is a
different disease from AMS or HACE and can occur quite suddenly in
climbers who were otherwise performing well. Occasionally, HAPE and
HACE do occur together.
Early signs of HAPE may overlap with more benign problems, such as a
persistent cough caused by simple bronchial irritation from dry, high-
mountain air. Decreasing ability to exercise, needing to take more frequent
rest breaks, or falling behind companions might be more subtle signs of
HAPE. Breathlessness and a hacking cough appear as HAPE develops.
Rates of breathing and pulse increase.
If HAPE is allowed to advance, breathing will require effort and will
include bubbling noises. Lips and nail beds may appear dusky or tinged
with blue, reflecting the body’s inability to transfer oxygen into arterial
blood due to the water barrier in the lungs. Some affected people also
develop a low-grade fever, making it difficult to distinguish HAPE from
pneumonia; one indicator of HAPE is how rapidly it worsens with
continued ascent.
The key to treating HAPE is to descend. A descent of 3,000 feet (900
meters) will resolve nearly all HAPE cases that are caught early. If descent
is impossible, oxygen and a Gamow bag are useful. Ultimately, however,
real descent must occur. Some mountaineers use the drug nifedipine, which
widens blood vessels, to help prevent or treat HAPE. Studies suggest that
drugs for erectile dysfunction, including tadalafil and sildenafil, also can be
used for treatment of HAPE in both men and women, particularly when
descent is not feasible.

INJURIES
One study of the National Outdoor Leadership School courses over a five-
year period showed that 80 percent of the injuries suffered by course
participants were sprains, strains, and soft-tissue injuries. To minimize the
extent of injuries from a mountaineering accident, apply skillful and caring
first aid. Specific treatments for serious injuries are beyond the scope of this
book, so hands-on instruction in mountaineering first aid is essential. (See
Resources in the back of the book for detailed first-aid texts.)
BLISTERS
All wilderness travelers dread blisters. These bubbles under the skin, filled
with clear or blood-tinged fluid, probably represent the most common
health-related reason for ending outings. Small blisters generally are a
source of minor irritation and discomfort, but larger blisters can cause
significant pain, and if they rupture, they can lead to serious infection and
ulceration. Blisters result from the skin rubbing against socks and the inner
lining of the boot—often, new or poorly fitting boots. Blisters happen when
boots are too large or too loosely laced or when socks are lumpy or
wrinkled. Moisture tends to soften the skin, so wet boots or socks promote
blister formation.

images
Fig. 24-4. Blisters: a, starting out as a hot spot; b, tape the hot spot to prevent blister formation; c,
doughnut-cushion a blister once it forms.

A blister usually becomes noticeable first as a hot spot (fig. 24-4a), a

localized sensation of heat that increases in size and intensity over time.
Inspect such spots immediately, and take preventive measures. Place a
generous strip of waterproof plastic adhesive tape or Moleskin over the spot
(fig. 24-4b). Other suitable products include 2nd Skin and Dr. Scholl’s
Molefoam; some sufferers are successful with duct tape or waterproof first-
aid tape. Avoid using adhesive bandage strips (such as Band-Aids) for
covering hot spots; these strips seem to promote blister formation when the
nonadhesive dressing pad balls up and rubs against the already sensitive
skin. Sometimes antichafing products can help as well to prevent hot spots,
but these products don’t always work in footwear.
Once a blister has formed, avoid opening it unless absolutely necessary;
opening a blister may introduce infection to the area. The body will
reabsorb the blister fluid after several days, and it will heal. If the hike or
whatever activity caused the blister must be continued, pad the blister and
protect it from rupture by layering a “doughnut” of padding to a depth that
keeps pressure off the blister itself (fig. 24-4c). The padding doughnut must
be deeper and wider than the blister. Tape the padding well to prevent it
from becoming displaced.
If a blister breaks open, wash and dress it with sterile dressings, as with
any open wound. Infection is a concern; avoid further tissue damage if at all
possible.
To prevent blisters, fit boots properly. Break them in slowly and
thoroughly before launching into any extended hikes. The areas most prone
to blistering are over the heel or Achilles tendon at the back of the ankle
and on the toes. If you tend to blister easily, pad the blister-prone areas with
tape or adhesive foam, but do not pad them so much that a new pressure
point is created around the edge of the foam. Keep feet dry, and wear
adequate, well-fitting socks. Invest in new socks: threadbare socks can
cause blisters.

CHAFING
In addition to foot blisters, friction chafing can occur due to repetitive
motion at a number of places on the body, especially between the thighs.
Chafing is commonly caused by clothing that doesn’t fit, cotton fabrics,
dirty clothing, sweat, and sand or dirt. In severe cases it can painfully rub
away the skin. For chronic chafing, find and eliminate the source.
Lubricating products may help preventively. As for foot blisters, take
immediate action after becoming aware of the irritation. It will only get
worse without intervention.

BURNS
Burns happen in the wilderness when climbers handle hot cookware and
stoves (see also “Sunburn” earlier in this chapter). Burned skin can range
from bright red to blistered to charred (first, second, and third degree,
respectively). Cool a burn within 30 minutes to reduce pain and depth of
injury; use cold water, or snow if available. Filtered or treated water is
preferred. Do not drain any blisters and avoid contamination where the skin
has been broken. Superficial burns or those with a few blisters can be
covered with a topical antimicrobial agent and a nonadherent dressing.
More extensive blistering and deeper skin damage, especially to the face
and hands, need additional bandaging and urgent medical care.
Burns can also occur from friction against skin. Use of proper gloves
when doing certain activities like rappelling will minimize this risk. If these
injuries do happen, treat them as you would other burns. Also see
“Lightning Strikes” later in this section.
EYE INJURIES
Corneal abrasions are one of the most common eye conditions in the
backcountry, and they are usually caused by a foreign body, a blow to the
eye, or the extended use of contact lenses. Symptoms include feeling as
though there is something caught in the eye even when nothing has been
found. Remove any small foreign body from the affected eye. If the eyeball
may be ruptured or if deep scratches are apparent in the cornea, then
evacuate the affected individual immediately. Treat corneal abrasions with
topical antibiotics and frequent use of artificial tears. Sunglasses may help
reduce sensitivity to light, but there is no evidence supporting eye patching
for corneal abrasions. If the injury is still bothersome after 24 hours, seek
further treatment.

WOUND CARE
Wounds such as scrapes, cuts, and punctures are common in the wilderness.
The goals of wound care are to prevent infection, avoid further trauma, and
optimize healing. When providing first aid to someone else, put on
protective gloves to prevent exposure to any possible blood-borne
pathogens. All grossly contaminated wounds should be thoroughly irrigated
with sanitized (filtered, chemically treated, or boiled) water. Pressure
irrigation using a syringe or a hydration bladder is more painful but will
dislodge dirt and other contaminants more effectively. Gentle scrubbing
may be needed to clean the wound. Apply topical antimicrobial agents to
reduce the risk of infection before covering the wound with a nonstick
dressing and bandage. Lacerations can be closed with skin closures (Steri-
Strips) or cyanoacrylate glue if the wound is clean. Use a hemostatic gauze
pad where bleeding is persistent.

SPRAINS, STRAINS, AND FRACTURES

Strains are muscle injuries; sprains are injuries to ligaments. The most
common type of injury that keeps a party from self-rescue and requires
outside assistance is injury to the ankle or foot. While this chapter cannot
adequately cover the details of fractures, emergency splinting in the
backcountry can be used for severe sprains or fractures until the patient is
self-evacuated or rescued. Strains can be quite painful and debilitating.
Being well conditioned, hydrated, and properly warmed up helps prevent
strains. Be careful not to push yourself or your party too quickly.

Taping an Ankle Strain or Sprain

The most common ankle sprain results in an injury to the ligaments on the
outside of the ankle. Taping a severe ankle sprain or strain, as well as some
fractures, may allow a party to self-rescue. Ankle taping is a skill that must
be practiced to keep it in a climber’s first-aid repertoire. The standard
prescription for ankle taping is the “closed basket weave” using 1.5-inch-
wide (3.8-centimeter-wide) adhesive tape, as shown in Figure 24-5. Ideally,
the skin should be dry, clean, shaven, and free from lotions or oils that keep
the tape from sticking to the skin.
To tape an ankle, follow these steps:
1. Anchor strips. First place two adjacent anchor strips all the way
around the leg just below the calf (fig. 24-5a). Place a third strip all the
way around the foot at the arch.
2. U-shaped strips. Then with the foot flexed, run a U-shaped arch strip
(stirrup strip) from the medial (inner) calf anchor strip, beneath the
foot then under tension up to the lateral (outer) calf anchor strip. Place
a U-shaped heel strip (horseshoe strips) from the arch anchor strip
back around and above the heel and forward to the other side arch
anchor, perpendicular to the stirrup strip (fig. 24-5b).

images
Fig. 24-5. Taping an ankle: a, attach anchor strips; b, add U-shaped strips; c, create the basket
weave with layered U-shaped strips; d and e, apply figure-eight heel locks; f, add cover strips.

3. Basket weave. Alternate three stirrup strips with three horseshoe

strips, with a half strip overlap, working from back to front and bottom
to top for a basket-weave appearance. (fig. 24-5c).
4. End locks. Apply two figure-eight heel locks: starting from the high
lateral (outer) ankle, descend medially across the ankle (to inner
ankle), around the heel, under the foot, and medially up the foot,
returning to the start (fig. 24-5d and e).
5. Cover strips. Add strips to cover ends of stirrups and horseshoe strips
(fig. 24-5f).
 After taping the ankle, ask about the patient’s comfort and check
circulation: gently squeeze the toes—the nail bed should turn white, and
once the squeeze is released the toes should return to a pink color within a
second or two. If the climber develops pain or the skin turns bluish or cold
or numb, the tape may need to be loosened or removed.

Splinting a Sprain or Fracture

Several principles apply in backcountry splinting (see the “Fracture
Management” sidebar). Splints should be well padded to avoid damage to
skin and superficial tissues. This is often accomplished by wrapping elastic
bandages around the splint material or by using a soft material to cover the
injured limb. A structural aluminum malleable (SAM) splint is highly
versatile, lightweight, and reusable. Because it can be rolled, flattened,
curved, cut, or folded, a SAM splint is adaptable to many types of injuries.

FRACTURE MANAGEMENT
images Take precautions to protect the first-aid provider from
potential contamination from the injured person’s blood.
images Assess the limb and/or joint for circulation, sensation, and
function.
images Expose the injury site, and control bleeding if present.
images Apply dressings to wounds as needed.
images Prepare a splint.
images Stabilize the injured extremity and apply the splint without
excessive movement of the extremity.
images Use padding to fill any large gaps between limb and splint.
images Immobilize the fracture site and joints above and below it.
images Reassess circulation, bleeding, and sensation periodically.

images
Fig. 24-6. Stabilize an injured area with a SAM splint (doubled to brace a neck, doubled over to an
appropriate length to splint all of a forearm or wrist, or wrapped around a foot and secured with
bandannas to splint an ankle) or improvise with available materials (injured finger taped to adjacent
finger, injured hand immobilized with a triangular bandage, entire injured leg splinted with ice axe,
trekking pole, and sleeping pad).
 For extremity splinting, when possible immobilize the joints above and
below the injury with the splint. Splint the injury in a position that is
comfortable and natural. For an upper-extremity injury, the patient will
generally hold the injured arm in toward the chest, cradling it with the
uninjured arm; splint the arm in this position. For a lower-extremity injury,
strive to make the splint as comfortable as possible and in line with the
patient’s body.
Improvising a splint is often necessary (fig. 24-6). For example, if no
appropriate material is readily available, a lower-leg injury can often be
protected by taping the injured leg to the uninjured leg. Similarly, an injured
finger can be secured to the adjacent finger for temporary protection.
Splints can be fashioned from a wide variety of materials, including sticks
and mountaineering equipment such as a backpack’s internal stays, a rolled-
up backpack, sleeping pads, trekking poles, or an ice axe. Spare webbing,
twisted duct tape, bandannas, or athletic tape can be used to secure an
improvised splint.
Swelling can be expected for hours after a fracture or severe sprain. Take
care to avoid applying splints too tightly, which can impair circulation to
the affected limb. After applying a splint, periodically reassess the patient
by checking pulse, skin temperature, and sensation below the injury while
awaiting outside care.
To minimize swelling of the injured extremity, a bag of snow or ice can
be incorporated into the splint by wrapping the bag in the elastic bandage
that secures the splint. Care must be taken to remove the bag periodically to
avoid cold injury to soft tissue. In general, the snow or ice should be
applied for no more than 20 minutes at a time. The injured extremity should
also be elevated to minimize swelling.

HARNESS SUSPENSION TRAUMA

A motionless climber hanging from a harness is facing a life-threatening
emergency. Harness leg straps restrict blood flow, which leads to blood
pooling in the legs and lowered core blood pressure. The loss of blood
pressure may lead to death within minutes.
The priority is to end suspension. If possible, lower the climber to a
ledge. If the climber is conscious, he or she should move their legs, transfer
weight to any available feature, or stand in improvised aiders made from
slings or a prusik. If a climber is unconscious, a rescuer should immediately
strive to raise and keep the legs horizontal until the climber can be
relocated. The rescued climber can lie flat to help restore normal blood
circulation and chemistry. Monitor and treat any secondary effects.

HEAD, NECK, AND BACK INJURIES

Head and spine injuries are common causes of death in alpine wilderness
accidents. Blunt force injuries often are caused by falling objects, such as
rock or ice, or by a fall in which the climber’s head or back strikes a hard
object. For all head injuries, assume that there is a neck (cervical spine)
injury until an examination proves otherwise. For all cervical spine injuries,
the patient must be monitored for potential head and brain injury. See the
“Indicators of Possible Head Injuries” sidebar.

INDICATORS OF POSSIBLE HEAD INJURIES

images Blunt force to head or neck
images Unconsciousness
images Drainage of blood or clear fluid from the ears, nose, or eyes
images Unequal eye pupil size or unequal constricting response of the
pupils to light
images Black eyes
images Very slow pulse
images Fluctuations in respiratory rate
images Headache
images Disorientation and confusion
images Seizure
images Vomiting

Indicators of possible neck and spine injuries include significant spinal

pain or tenderness, numbness, tingling, or paralysis. Some factors that may
make it hard to determine if there is a cervical spine injury include head
injury, severe or distracting injuries, age greater than 65, and intoxication.
Less-serious injuries may be treatable by the party. A cervical collar is
unnecessary with an uninjured spine or stable spine injury, including neck
sprains, strains, and even mild fractures (for example, a mild compression
fracture). The challenge is to determine if the injury is serious or not.
Patients who have had a minor accident, are ambulatory since the injury, are
in a sitting position, have delayed onset of neck pain, have an absence of
midline cervical spine tenderness, and are able to actively rotate the neck
and spine 30 degrees in each plane should not require a cervical collar.
Serious injuries of the head, neck, and spine have the potential to be
permanently disabling. With severe injuries, immobilizing the head and
spine until rescuers can arrive is the best first-aid treatment. Neutral
alignment should be restored and maintained, unless such a maneuver
causes the patient to resist, experience increased pain, or exhibit a new or
worsening neurologic deficit. Light to moderate traction should be used
when returning a cervical spine to the neutral position. An improvised
cervical collar should be used.

LIGHTNING CAN STRIKE A CLIMBER IN VARIOUS

WAYS
images Direct strike of a mountaineer in the open who could not find
shelter
images Splash strike, in which the lightning current jumps from an
object onto a mountaineer who sought shelter nearby
images Contact injury, from holding an object that lightning hits
images Step voltage, transmitted along the ground or through an
object near a climber (even a wet rope)
images Blunt trauma or blast effect, created by the shock wave from a
nearby strike

If the patient is in significant risk of further injury or death, they may

need to be moved. When transferring a patient with possible neck injuries,
grab the patient’s trapezius muscles (tops of the shoulders between neck and
point of the shoulder) and firmly squeeze the patient’s head between your
forearms, which are placed approximately at the level of the patient’s ears.
Move the patient as a unit, minimizing movements of the neck and back.

Lightning Strikes
The high-mountain environment receives many more thunderstorms each
year than coastal areas do, as the weather systems mass against the
mountains before rising over them. Summer afternoons are the most likely
time for thunderstorms, and therefore lightning, to endanger the
mountaineer. Most lightning ground strikes occur directly below a cloud
and hit the nearest high point. But lightning strikes can emanate from
several miles away toward high points ahead of (or, less frequently, behind)
the main thunderhead cloud formation—“out of a clear blue sky.”
Therefore, mountaineers can be in danger of a lightning strike at times even
when the storm is not directly overhead (see the “Lightning Can Strike a
Climber in Various Ways” sidebar).
Lightning-caused injuries include cardiac arrest, burns, and internal
injuries. The most immediate danger from being struck by lightning is
cardiac arrest. Lightning burns often take several hours to develop after the
strike; these burns are usually superficial (similar to first-degree burns) and
do not usually require treatment (see “Burns” earlier in this section),
although serious internal injuries can also occur. The patient may be
knocked unconscious or have temporary paralysis. The eyes, a vulnerable
port of entry for electrical current, can be damaged in a lightning strike. Ear
damage also may occur; a patient might not respond to your questions
because of a loss of hearing caused by the strike.
After the lightning strike, the patient does not present an electrical hazard
to rescuers. Proceed promptly with first aid, assessing CAB-B: Circulation,
Airway, Breathing, and deadly Bleeding (see “Responding to Accidents”
earlier in this chapter). It is important to get the lightning-strike patient to a
medical facility, because vital body functions may remain unstable for a
considerable time after resuscitation. For information on how to avoid being
struck by lightning, see “Thunder and Lightning” in Chapter 28, Mountain
Weather.

ILLNESSES
One study of the National Outdoor Leadership School’s courses over a five-
year period showed that 60 percent of the illnesses experienced by course
participants were nonspecific viral illnesses or diarrhea. Hygiene appeared
to have a significant impact on these illnesses.
GASTROINTESTINAL DISORDERS
Gastrointestinal (GI) disorders can cause a wide range of symptoms, from a
mildly upset stomach to weeks of diarrhea. The onset of any GI disorder
will ruin a trip. Understanding, preventing, and treating these disorders is
increasingly important to climbers.
Fecal-oral contamination. In mountaineering environments, the most
common cause of gastrointestinal infections that entail diarrhea and
abdominal cramping is fecal-oral contamination. Most often, the source of
the feces is mountaineers themselves. Some rock climbing routes may be
contaminated with feces from previous parties. On glacier routes, handling
ropes that have dragged through soiled snow and ice can lead to
contamination. Water bottles as well as food can become contaminated
from soiled hands. Animal waste also presents a risk.
To keep from contaminating your hands, simply wash them with
biodegradable soap and water before eating and especially after defecation.
This simple step can help a climber avoid many intestinal disorders.
Climbers often are gregarious at rest stops—but think twice before offering
your snack bag for each person to plunge a hand into; pouring some
contents into each person’s hands is less risky. Avoid camping near rodent
burrows. Cover food and water so that they are secure from rodent invasion
at night.
Food poisoning. The symptoms of food poisoning—generally vomiting
and diarrhea, but can also be as simple as an upset stomach—arise rapidly
following ingestion of food contaminated by pathogenic bacteria, viruses,
or parasites as well as chemical or natural toxins. Symptoms tend to subside
within 12 hours. Provide water and electrolytes as tolerated, since
dehydration is a side effect of vomiting and diarrhea. The patient may need
a few hours to regain strength. To prevent food poisoning, use dietary
discretion when traveling. Avoid consuming raw fruits or vegetables, raw
meat, raw seafood, tap water, and ice made from tap water. Instead, stick to
boiled or treated water, properly cooked meat and vegetables, bottled
beverages, and reputable eating establishments.
Contaminated water. While the water flowing in the streams and rivers
of the backcountry may look pure, it can still be contaminated with bacteria,
viruses, parasites, and other contaminants. The incubation period of the
pathogens can be a clue to which kind is the source: Bacterial and viral
pathogens have an incubation period of 6 to 72 hours. Protozoal pathogens
such as Cryptosporidium, Giardia intestinalis, or Giardia lamblia generally
have an incubation period of one to three weeks and rarely present
symptoms in the first few weeks of travel.
Bacterial and viral illnesses begin with the sudden onset of bothersome
symptoms that can range from mild cramps and urgent loose stools to
severe abdominal pain, flatulence, fever, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea.
Untreated bacterial diarrhea lasts three to seven days. Viral diarrhea
generally lasts two to three days. Parasitic diarrhea, such as giardiasis and
cryptosporidiosis, generally has a more gradual onset of low-grade
symptoms, with two to five loose stools per day. Protozoal diarrhea can
persist for weeks to months without treatment. An acute bout of
gastroenteritis can lead to persistent gastrointestinal symptoms, even in the
absence of continued infection.
For most intestinal infections associated with diarrhea, treatment during a
climbing trip consists of adequately replacing fluids and electrolytes. This
can be challenging if the climber is also nauseated. Mix a packet of
replacement electrolytes into treated drinking water; a packet is generally
equal to 1 teaspoon of salt and 8 teaspoons of sugar and is added to 1 quart
(liter) of water. If electrolyte replacements are not available, simply replace
fluids. Provide palatable foods and broths with a substantial salt content.
If the party is heading into regions with questionable hygiene and water
disinfection practices, seek medical advice about antibiotics that can be
taken to help ward off infection, and also ask about antimotility
(antidiarrheal) drugs. However, taking such drugs is not a substitute for
dietary discretion or prudent water treatment practices (see Chapter 3,
Camping, Food, and Water).

TICKBORNE DISEASES
Ticks are arachnids that can carry Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted
fever, and other infections. Tick bites may appear anywhere on the body.
Three to 30 days after a tick bite (7 days on average), disease signs and
symptoms can appear, including fever, chills, headache, fatigue, muscle and
joint aches, and swollen lymph nodes. A rash at the site of the bite occurs in
70 to 80 percent of infected persons, expanding in area up to 12 inches (30
centimeters) across and sometimes resembling a target or “bull’s-eye”
appearance. Skin may feel warm but is rarely itchy or painful.
 After being in tick habitat, shower as soon as possible to wash ticks off
before they attach and to more easily find and remove them. Conduct a full-
body tick check using a mirror to view all parts of your body. Examine gear
for hitchhiking ticks. Once you are at home, tumble clothes in a dryer on
high heat for an hour to kill remaining ticks. If you do find a tick that has
attached itself, avoid folklore remedies such as “painting” the tick with nail
polish or petroleum jelly or using heat to make the tick detach from the
skin. Do not wait for it to detach; follow these steps to remove it:
1. Use fine-tipped tweezers to grasp the tick as close to your skin’s
surface as possible.
2. Pull outward with steady, even pressure. Don’t twist or jerk the tick;
this can cause its mouth parts to break off in your skin. If you are
unable to easily remove a mouth part, leave it alone.
3. Thoroughly clean the bite area and your hands with soap and water.
Reducing exposure to ticks is the best defense against tickborne
infections. Avoid wooded and brushy areas with high grass and leaf litter.
Repel ticks by applying 20 percent to 30 percent DEET or 20 percent
picaridin on exposed skin and clothing; 0.5 percent permethrin applied to
clothing and gear such as boots, pants, socks, and tents remains protective
through several washings. (See “Insect Repellent” in Chapter 2, Clothing
and Equipment.) Light-colored clothing helps you spot ticks, which are
usually a dark brown.

OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

From centipedes to poison oak, some insects, plants, and animals are
poisonous and can cause painful or debilitating conditions. Check with
those knowledgeable of local risks and prevention for the area you are
visiting.

PANIC AND ANXIETY

Mountaineering outings are usually refreshing and rejuvenating
experiences. In extreme situations, such as a serious accident, nearly all
climbers have to deal with their own and one another’s stress, anxiety, or
even panic. Some people also have a tendency toward intense anxiety in
response to certain physical situations in climbing, such as exposure to
heights or to enclosed spaces. This tendency can erupt in a panic response
during a step-across move on a cliff face or while squeezing up a rock
chimney. If affected, a climber may freeze and refuse to go on. The climber
may hyperventilate (breathe rapidly) or be unable to recognize that there are
safe moves available. The person’s ability to fully assess the situation will
be blocked; physical movements will be clumsy and fearful, raising the risk
of a mishap.
If hyperventilation is a problem, breathing into a bag to increase the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the inhaled air can slow the breathing
rate. Redirecting the climber’s focus onto a useful physical task is a strategy
for interrupting the snowballing effect of panic. Fellow climbers can help
by maintaining an atmosphere of confident acceptance and support, by
pointing out an option for retreat if appropriate, and by calmly and matter-
of-factly prompting a panicked climber to use these self-calming
techniques, which are helpful in such situations:
Recognize the panic as an adrenaline reaction to perceived risk.
Focus on slow, steady, deep breathing.
Run through the options for safe movement.
Follow them one at a time.

PREPARING FOR THE UNEXPECTED

It is tempting to assume that carefully reading first-aid texts is sufficient
training. Unfortunately, first aid is very much like any other skill: people
can read, even memorize, all of the greatest texts on skiing, and yet if they
do not practice, they simply will not be good skiers. The same is true with
first aid: to be truly competent in first aid, climbers must practice and
refresh their skills periodically. The best training strategy is to take
advantage of courses offered by many respected organizations.
Practicing first aid will help a climber prepare for dealing with the large
element of uncertainty that accompanies mountaineering accidents and
serious injuries: uncertainty about what happened; uncertainty about the
nature, extent, or seriousness of injuries; uncertainty about what should be
done; uncertainty about what the outcome will be. An injured person does
not wear a big sign saying what is injured and how to best care for it.
Practicing first aid will also help a climber prepare for the alarm and
emotion accompanying accidents. Serious accidents are frightening, and
they tend to flood people’s minds with a spectrum of emotions, which can
interfere with a calm, thoughtful, and rational response. Practicing first-aid
scenarios in outdoor first-aid classes can help climbers respond well even
when the situation is overwhelmingly stressful. Keeping a cool head and
having the skills to provide first aid gives mountaineers confidence in
facing whatever a climbing expedition might bring.
LEARNING RESCUE TECHNIQUES • THE SEVEN STEPS IN
ACCIDENT RESPONSE • RESCUE • PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER •
EVACUATION • SEARCHES • GOING FORWARD

images

CHAPTER 25

ALPINE RESCUE

Climbing instruction emphasizes strategies for preventing and

mitigating accidents, but even the best-prepared climbers may
eventually encounter a situation requiring first-aid and rescue skills.
With outside assistance often hours or days away, a climbing party must
be able to perform first aid, initiate small-party search and rescue
(SAR) efforts, and work effectively with SAR authorities.

This chapter introduces some techniques for small-party rescue from high-
angle alpine terrain, search strategies, and guidelines for interacting with
SAR agencies. In the event of an accident sustained by another party,
climbers must prepare to forgo their planned climb. Instead, they should
offer assistance and donate gear, time, and expertise to help.

LEARNING RESCUE TECHNIQUES

First aid and alpine rescue are two components of responding to an accident
or serious illness. The first-aid skills taught in most urban and workplace
classes are designed to help a severely injured patient survive for the short
time it takes for emergency medical services to arrive. Wilderness-oriented
first aid, in contrast, helps treat and take care of a patient for hours, possibly
days, in an outdoor environment. (See Chapter 24, First Aid, for first-aid
references throughout this chapter.) Alpine rescue involves actions a party
can take to locate a missing climber, rescue an injured climber from steep
terrain, and evacuate an ill or injured climber from the wilderness.

As their climbing skills build and broaden, climbers should also add to their
knowledge of first-aid and rescue techniques. Due to the wide variety of
rescue situations and available techniques, consider taking a course from one
of the many organizations that offer classes in self-rescue. Practice setting
up and running the systems to keep personal skills fresh.

THE SEVEN STEPS IN ACCIDENT RESPONSE

Accidents are not inevitable. Smart planning and preparing beforehand,

practicing sound climbing strategies and techniques, and recognizing,
avoiding, and mitigating hazards can all but eliminate accidents (see Chapter
23, Safety).

The challenges of rescue and evacuation of an ill climber can be just as

difficult as those for an injured climber. The early identification of a serious
illness is the best strategy for treatment or evacuation before it becomes
disabling. Share suspicious signs and behaviors with other party members;
the discussion of these clues can facilitate a prompt diagnosis and faster
response. Many more rescue options are available for the ill climber who
can still walk. While this chapter focuses on accidents, many of the
techniques are appropriate for rescuing the ill climber.

THE SEVEN STEPS IN ACCIDENT RESPONSE

1. Take charge of the situation.

2. Approach the patient safely.

3. Perform emergency rescue and urgent first aid.

4. Protect the patient.

5. Check for other injuries.

6. Make a plan.

7. Carry out the plan.

When serious accidents do occur, they happen unexpectedly, often

stimulating an intense adrenaline response. This evolutionary response of
“freeze, fight, or flight” compromises a climber’s ability to think clearly
while producing a powerful motivation to take immediate action. However,
this adrenaline-fueled response can lead to inappropriate action, which is
likely to make things worse and lead to more injuries or delays in rescue.

Devastating accidents have the potential to overwhelm and emotionally

paralyze people including those not physically harmed. Should this happen
to you, acknowledge what occurred, tell yourself to address that aspect later,
then focus attention on what needs to be done. Start with something small,
something that you have control over. During and immediately after the
accident, the smartest course is to focus on personal and team safety until
the party is able to take calm, deliberate action.

The seven steps in accident response outlined in Chapter 24, First Aid, serve
as guidance for rescue response as well as for first aid. The seven steps help
the party focus in an orderly manner on the tasks to be accomplished (see
“The Seven Steps in Accident Response” sidebar). This section provides an
overview of these steps as they relate to rescue; the section “Putting It All
Together” later in this chapter elaborates on how these steps are
implemented in an accident scenario.

STEP 1: TAKE CHARGE OF THE SITUATION

The climb leader has overall responsibility for accident response. The
immediate priority is to ensure the safety of the remaining climbers.
Throughout the situation, the climb leader must keep returning to the big
picture, planning ahead, delegating specific tasks, and avoiding being drawn
into time- and attention-robbing details. If the climb leader is incapacitated,
an experienced party member must step forward to fill that role.

STEP 2: APPROACH THE PATIENT SAFELY

The rescuer and/or first-aid provider needs safe access to the injured
climber. In steep or dangerous terrain, this may require climbing, rappelling,
or being lowered to the patient. The party members are likely to be desperate
to reach their injured team member, but acting hastily only increases the
chance of additional injuries and delays. The party must think out its actions
and work deliberately rather than reactively, remembering that survivors’
safety always comes first. Considering several solutions to reaching the
patient fosters objectivity and improves the likelihood of finding the best
approach. The time it takes to ensure the party’s safety will not make a
difference in the outcome of the patient’s situation. The adage “half as fast,
twice as efficient” is applicable in rescue response.

STEP 3: PERFORM EMERGENCY RESCUE AND URGENT FIRST

AID

Provide life-saving circulatory, airway, breathing, and bleeding (CAB-B)

treatment, and other crucial first aid. Don’t move the patient unless there is a
danger at the patient’s current location—such as from avalanche, rockfall,
icefall, or immersion in water—or unless the patient is in need of urgent first
aid that cannot be administered at the current location, such as midpitch on a
rock route. See Chapter 24, First Aid, for more on first aid at this stage.

STEP 4: PROTECT THE PATIENT

Be reassuring and communicate to the injured or ill climber what the team is
doing to help. Protect the patient from precipitation, wind, heat, cold, and
other environmental factors. As early as possible, anticipate and
preventively treat the patient for dehydration, shock, and hypothermia, since
successful treatment will be much harder if it begins after signs of these
have appeared.

STEP 5: CHECK FOR OTHER INJURIES

Make a thorough examination of the patient to determine what injuries,

illnesses, or medical conditions exist and their extent (see Chapter 24, First
Aid). This may be difficult in steep terrain, so repeat this process as soon as
the injured or ill climber can be moved to a more suitable location and after
the initial numbing shock of the accident has worn off.

STEP 6: MAKE A PLAN

Input from other party members helps the climb leader take all crucial
factors into account, including the following steps, in preparing the rescue
plan. WE RAPPED may be a useful acronym:

Weather. Take into account anticipated temperature, wind, and

precipitation, which may impact both the patient and the rescue team.
Evacuation. In assessing how to evacuate the party, consider these
questions: How far is it to the trailhead? Can the patient walk? Can the
patient tolerate the rigors of evacuation? If the patient is unable to walk, then
outside assistance will be needed. Where is the best place to wait? Where is
there helicopter access?

Rope. Is roped climbing required to reach the patient, move rescue

personnel, or send a messenger for help? Will a rope system be needed to
raise or lower the patient?

Assistance. Are climbing parties nearby who can help? Unless it is obvious
that the injured climber can self-evacuate, seek additional assistance. It is
better to have outside assistance on the way, even if it turns out later that it
might not have been needed, than to delay the request until need is a
certainty, because it typically takes several hours for rescuers to mobilize
and reach the site. Phones are unreliable in the backcountry, so also carry
emergency communication devices—a satellite phone, satellite
communicator, or personal locator beacon as appropriate to initiate an
official rescue response.

Patient. Is the patient improving, stable, or deteriorating? Is the patient at a

good location? Can the patient be moved without significantly aggravating
any injuries?

Party. Are other members of the group injured or traumatized? Traumatized

survivors may need to be secured to an anchor or relocated to a safe
location, to ensure they do not inadvertently endanger themselves or wander
off. What are the party’s capabilities? Do they need food, water, or rest? Can
they remain on-site for several hours or overnight?

Equipment. Was any important equipment lost or damaged in the accident?

What equipment is available? What can be done with the available
equipment?

Daylight. How much daylight is left? Everything will be much harder after
dark. What are the nighttime impacts?
Once the WE RAPPED assessment is complete, the climb leader draws
together a plan of action. Initially, it may be more conceptual than detailed.
The party should expect the plan to evolve or even radically change as new
information becomes available.

STEP 7: CARRY OUT THE PLAN

As the party carries out the plan prepared in step 6, remember to continually
assess the team and situation so that the plan may be adjusted or improved
upon. With the leader focused on the entirety of the situation, climbers
focused on the specific assignments may suggest improvements to the plan.

RESCUE

When an injured climber or stranded hiker is on steep terrain (for example,

rock cliffs, ice faces, or steep hillsides), a team may need to use ropes to
lower or raise the patient. Figure 25-1 gives an overall picture of what this
might look like: a lowering system (fig. 25-1a) with SERENE anchors (fig.
25-1b), backed up by a belayer (fig. 25-1c), and a climber anchored near the
edge (fig. 25-1d) to communicate with the rescuer as she stabilizes the
patient (fig. 25-1e). (For knots and anchors, see Chapters 9, Basic Safety
System, and 10, Belaying.)

Safety. In a stressful rescue situation, ensuring safety is paramount. There is

a natural human tendency to fail to appreciate the hazards and take
dangerous shortcuts during an emergency. A climbing party must guard
against this tunnel-vision urgency, which can make the situation worse.

Everyone contributes to party safety. Everyone must continually observe and

analyze the plan, rope systems, activity, and environment for hazards.
Before a rope raise or lower, every item in the system must be inspected by
more than one person: this redundant check is an important safeguard for
catching stress-induced errors.

Redundant components hugely improve the safety of a raising or lowering

system. Mathematically, the probability of both components failing is the
product of the failure rates of each independent component, comparatively a
much smaller number. Independent backups are one way to provide system
redundancy. For example, a separate belay rope system provides redundancy
to the primary rescue rope system.

EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Climbing protection and belay systems are designed to absorb or transfer the
forces generated by a one-person, not a two-person, fall; yet rescue
situations may necessitate having two people supported by the rope and
gear. Because typical climbing gear and protection placements are not strong
enough to withstand the fall of two people, to safely use recreational
climbing gear in a rescue, the lowering and raising systems must be
designed to minimize potential falls and built to withstand higher fall forces.
For example, strive to raise and lower from reinforced anchors located
above rather than below or off to the side, which must use redirection.
Redirected components are subject to greater forces than anchors directly in
line with the force. Failure of a redirecting component will lead to a drop
that will impart large forces on anchors.

images

Fig. 25-1. Small party rescue: a, lowering system on rescue rope; b,

SERENE anchors; c, tandem prusik belay on the belay rope; d, climber
anchored near edge communicating; e, rescuer stabilizing patient in front of
her.

Anchors. Strong anchors are the foundation of rescue systems. Due to the
probability of two people relying on the anchor, it must be very strong.
Follow the principles of building anchors—Solid, Efficient, Redundant,
Equalized, and with No Extension (SERENE)—just as the party would
when climbing, until everyone is confident the anchor system will not fail
(see “Anchors” in Chapter 10, Belaying). A basket hitch around a tree is a
strong anchor that is easy to set up and easy to remove (fig. 25-2).

images

Fig. 25-2. Basket hitch variations around a tree: a, using two carabiners; b,
using a single carabiner.
Because snow and ice anchors are weaker than rock anchors, create snow
and ice anchors using several linked pieces of protection. See “Snow
Anchors” in Chapter 16, Snow Travel and Climbing, and “Equipment” in
Chapter 19, Alpine Ice Climbing.

A prusik hitch may be useful in connecting added pieces of protection to the

rope and fine-tuning load distribution within the anchor system. In the event
of a fall, an anchor with legs of similar length will better distribute forces
among the pieces of protection.

Ropes. Dynamic climbing ropes are designed for a single climber. They
typically stretch 6 to 10 percent under the suspended weight of one person;
when 100 feet (30 meters) of a dynamic rope is extended, it will stretch
nearly 8 feet (2.5 meters). The length of stretch increases with a two-person
load. On a steep face, this stretch translates into a rubber-band-like effect.
Each time the patient and rescuer hang freely, the rope will stretch. Each
time they transfer weight to a feature or ledge, the rope will contract. For
example, during a two-person lower, after stepping from a small ledge onto
a face, the pair could drop several feet during the rope extension, potentially
striking something. The thin mantle (sheath) on climbing ropes is subject to
more abrasion with a two-person load than with a one-person load, and the
rubber-band-like stretching effect accentuates this abrasion. Pad places
where the rope runs over sharp edges.

The original climbing rope may have been damaged in the fall. Prudence
calls for transferring the patient to a different rope if available. If a low-
stretch or static rope is available, it is better suited for a rescue (see Chapter
9, Basic Safety System). However, this lack of stretch makes such ropes
unsuitable for catching any fall, and its anchor system must be built to
handle large forces.

When a party is performing a rescue, it is helpful to distinguish ropes by

labeling them according to their function. The rope used to raise or lower a
patient and/or a rescuer becomes the “rescue rope.” A backup rope to the
rescue rope, used whenever two people are raised or lowered, becomes the
“belay rope.”
Double munter hitch. Most belay and rappel devices lack the friction
necessary to lower, stop, or hold a two-person load. The double munter hitch
(see Figure 25-4b) provides sufficient friction to do this.

Pulleys. In a raising system, even the best pulleys suffer friction losses. Due
to frictional losses, a theoretical 3:1 (Z) pulley system may actually have a
ratio of 2.7:1 or less; a 9:1 (Z-on-Z) pulley system will have an actual ratio
of between 6:1 and 7:1 (see Figure 25-6). Carabiners can be used, at a
sufficient friction disadvantage, if no pulleys are available.

Prusiks. Prusiks are useful as rope grabs. Prusiks in combination with a

pulley simplify resetting of raising systems by holding the load during
resets. They act as an automatic acting belay in the event of a rescue rope
failure and provide a hands-free belay if the belayer must temporarily let go
of the belay rope to help pull when raising or if forced to let go by rockfall,
bees, nearby lightning, et cetera. Prusiks can be used to piggyback
supplemental anchor protection and mechanical advantage systems to the
rescue rope.

Tension-release hitch. This hitch, known as a TRH, is used to release

tension on a weighted rope system. It consists of prusik(s), a locking
carabiner, figure eight, and munter (or double munter) hitch around a
pearabiner with a mule knot finish.

images

Fig. 25-3. Tandem prusik belay with tension release hitch: a, SERENE
anchor; b, munter-mule made from tail of rope; c, tandem prusiks spaced 4
inches apart.

Belays. The belay rope is an independent rope backup to the rescue rope.
The belay system consists of a SERENE anchor (fig. 25-3a); a TRH (fig. 25-
3b); and two tandem prusiks around the rescue rope, spaced at least 4 inches
(10 centimeters) apart (fig. 25-3c). The belayer pulls rope through the
prusiks maintaining a few inches of slack to back up the rescue rope during
the raise or lower. The slack will keep the prusiks from inadvertently
tightening or grabbing during routine raising or lowering on the rescue rope.
If the rescue system fails, the resulting force on the belay rope will cause
them to be pulled from the belayer’s hands, and the prusiks will
automatically grab the rope to catch the load. Although one prusik should
work, the second prusik offers redundancy. Once grabbed, the TRH is used
to transfer the load from the belay rope back to the rescue rope.

RAISING AND LOWERING SYSTEMS

An injured climber may need to be extricated from steep terrain. If the

injuries are not too severe, the party may use a mechanical advantage assist
to help raise them or a friction device to lower them as they climb under
their own power. For a patient with more severe injuries, a rescuer can help
support the patient while the team raises or lowers both of them.

Commands. In addition to the typical climbing commands outlined in Table

10-1 of Chapter 10, Belaying, a couple of additional ones specific to rescues
are helpful. At any time, anyone who notices anything appearing unsafe or
amiss should shout “Stop!” immediately. Only when the issue is resolved
should the rescue resume. Calling out “Stop” a dozen times can be expected.
The rescue leader uses “Up” or “Down” to direct those operating the raising
or lowering system and “Reset” when the pullers need to reset the traveling
pulleys in a raising system. Those to whom the commands are directed
should repeat the commands to acknowledge receiving them and help ensure
that everyone has heard them.

Unassisted rescue. A single person puts less stress on the rope and anchor
system than two people (see “Ropes” in the preceding section), so if the
fallen climber is uninjured or has upper-body injuries, the rescuers may
decide to raise or lower the patient without an accompanying rescuer. The
patient ties in to the rescue rope and is then raised or lowered off the steep
terrain by others who do the work.

Assisted rescue. If the fallen climber has more-severe injuries, an

accompanying rescuer is required. The rescuer ties in at the end of the
rescue rope. Upon reaching the patient, the rescuer clips a double sling
between the rescuer’s harness and the patient’s harness using locking
carabiners. The patient and rescuer are now redundantly linked to each other
and both ropes.
For assisted raising or lowering, the patient is attached to the rescue rope by
a prusik hitch that is girth-hitched to a sling, which is attached by a locking
carabiner to the patient’s harness belay loop. This can replace the double
sling used initially to safeguard the patient. Slide the friction hitch up or
down the rescue rope to place the patient alongside the rescuer, in the
rescuer’s lap, below the rescuer, or on the back of the rescuer with the
patient’s chest even with the rescuer’s upper back (as shown in Figure 25-
1e). With an optimal adjustment of the prusik extension, the patient’s weight
hangs from the rescue rope and not from the rescuer; the rescuer maneuvers
and stabilizes the patient as they are being moved. A second rope is used as
the belay rope.

As the angle decreases, less weight hangs from the rescue rope and more
upon the rescuer. If the rescuer cannot manage the patient’s weight on low-
angle terrain, such as a wide bench, it may be helpful to have another
rescuer rappel from a separate anchor and rope to assist alongside. The
rappelling rescuer should use a rappel backup such as the autoblock, as he or
she may need both hands to help move the patient (see “Safety Backups” in
Chapter 11, Rappelling).

Lowering systems. It is much easier and faster to lower a patient than to

raise one, and the double munter hitch is used to lower two people. For
instance, a rescuer can be lowered with a munter hitch (fig. 25-4a) to the
patient, then the munter hitch can easily be converted to a double munter
hitch (fig. 25-4b) to lower both patient and rescuer. The pearabiner must be
opened to convert to a double munter. This conversion can be accomplished
while the rescuer is hanging on the rope, say, for a mid-face rescue. If the
rescuer will be stationary for a while, secure the double munter hitch using a
mule hitch tie-off (see Figure 25-3b). Do not lower two people from a
harness; lower directly off the anchor.

It is preferable to lower a patient and rescuer than to use an assisted rappel.

Tandem rappelling requires the rescuer to do all the work, whereas lowering
allows other climbers to control the descent, stops, and raising if needed; the
rescuer can focus on controlling the patient. Furthermore, if the patient
became unable to continue during a tandem rappel, the rescuer would be in a
tough predicament. Also, there may be insufficient friction to safely control
the rappel with some combinations of rope diameter, weight, rappel device,
and terrain steepness. In the event that a tandem rappel must be used, two
climbers may rappel together by attaching themselves to the same rappel
device with a rappel extension made from a double runner (fig. 25-5). The
rescuer backs up the rappel with an autoblock.

images

Fig. 25-4. Lowering systems: a, using a munter hitch; b, using a double

munter hitch.

Raising systems. A raising system leverages the force the puller can pull
with. The 3:1 (Z) pulley system is usually the most useful of the simple
raising systems (fig. 25-6a). Chapter 18, Glacier Travel and Crevasse
Rescue, describes setting up a 3:1 system.

images

Fig. 25-5. Tandem rappel setup.

When there is a two-person load or only a few haulers, a second 3:1 system
can be added to the pulling end of the first 3:1 system to create a compound
9:1 (Z-on-Z) raising system (fig. 25-6b).

If a 9:1 system provides too much mechanical advantage, it can be easily

converted to a 5:1 system by removing the last prusik and connecting that
prusik’s pulley or carabiner directly to the same carabiner as the second
pulley (fig. 25-6c).

A fast, jerky raise makes it difficult for the rescuer and patient to negotiate
broken terrain and maintain a stable position. If the rope jams and the
haulers keep pulling, the system then applies its powerful mechanical
advantage to the anchors instead of raising the climbers; this may pull out
the anchors. During raising, the belayer should take accumulating slack out
of the belay system to keep the belay tight by pulling the rope through the
tandem prusiks. When practicing rescue techniques, always use a belay rope
(see Figure 25-1c).

If a short lower will be followed by a raise, set up a raising system and use it
in reverse to lower the rescuer to the patient. Then it is all ready to raise.
Knot passes. If a knot in the rope (such as a butterfly knot used to isolate a
damaged section) must pass through a lowering system, use a tension-
release hitch (TRH) (see Figure 25-3b).

As a knot approaches the double munter in a lowering system, attach a TRH

below the double munter hitch and lower the load onto it. When the rescue
rope slackens, relocate the double munter hitch to above the knot. Then
loosen the TRH to transfer the load back onto the relocated double munter
hitch.

In a raising system, as the knot approaches the traveling pulley prusik, reset
and relocate the traveling prusik to below the knot. Continue raising, until
the knot is close to the ratchet pulley prusik. Set the ratchet pulley prusik to
hold the load and, using slings, extend the ratchet pulley with a new ratchet
prusik to below the knot. Continue the raise working the knot through the
remainder of the system with resets of different lengths.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

No definitive step-by-step “recipe” will work for all rescues. There are
numerous accident scenarios and possible ways to use rescue techniques to
solve the problems that arise. Following the seven steps in accident response
and using the party’s technical climbing, rescue, and first-aid skills will
guide climbers through what needs to be done to respond to an accident in
steep terrain.

This section presents possible raising and lowering solutions to a scenario in

which a lead climber has fallen on high-angle terrain to illustrate how to use
the seven steps, interwoven with many climbing, rescue, and first-aid skills.
In this scenario, the climbing party is made up of two rope teams of two
climbers each. Each team has a rope, a rack, and a radio. The lead climber
has fallen on a steep face more than halfway through a pitch on a multipitch
climb and is unconscious and out of sight of the belayer. The climbing rope
has been damaged. The other rope team has already completed the climb.
Fig. 25-6. Raising systems: a, 3:1 system; b, 9:1 system; c, 5:1 system.

Step 1: Take charge of the situation. The fallen climber’s belayer arrests
the fall, and after the climber fails to respond or move, the belayer radios to
the two other climbers already on the summit. The belayer takes charge. The
other team rappels to the top of the pitch, observing the unmoving, hanging
climber below. The party contacts emergency first responders by using a
phone (unreliable in the backcountry), PLB, satellite communicator, or
satellite phone.
Step 2: Approach the patient safely. The top team builds a SERENE
anchor system beefed up for a two-person load. One of these two climbers
lowers the other, who is now the rescuer, with a munter hitch. The rescuer
takes down first-aid supplies, a warm jacket, and the rack. As the rescuer is
lowered past the patient’s highest remaining protection, from which the
patient is hanging, the rescuer notices that the sheath of the patient’s rope
has been stripped from the core.

Continuing down, the rescuer stops above the patient and builds an anchor in
a crack while secured by the rescue rope. Using a TRH, the rescuer attaches
the hitch’s prusik to the patient’s rope below the damaged core. The fallen
climber’s belayer lowers the patient onto this new anchor. The rescuer is
lowered farther down to the patient and attaches a sling between the belay
loops of both the patient’s and the rescuer’s harnesses.

Step 3: Perform emergency rescue and urgent first aid. The rescuer
determines that the fallen climber is breathing and is not bleeding profusely
but is unconscious. Concerned the patient has sustained spinal injuries in the
fall, the rescuer strives to minimize movement of the patient’s head, neck,
and spine. The rescuer places a sling around the patient’s knees and attaches
it to the anchor, adjusting it to raise the patient’s legs toward a more level
orientation to treat possible harness suspension trauma (see Chapter 24, First
Aid).

Step 4: Protect the patient. The rescuer zips a warm jacket around the
patient’s torso and arms to help prevent hypothermia.

Step 5: Check for other injuries. The rescuer examines the patient but can
find no obvious injuries.

FIRST SOLUTION: RESCUE BY RAISING

Step 6: Make a plan. The three climbers decide the best course of action is
to raise the patient to the top of the pitch and await rescue.

Step 7: Carry out the plan. The patient’s belayer unties from the rope; the
rescuer pulls the climbing rope through the pieces of protection, isolates the
damaged core with a butterfly knot, and tosses the end back down to the
patient’s belayer (climbing partner).

The rescuer now belays the patient’s partner, who climbs and cleans
protection up to the rescuer. Here the patient’s partner takes both racks,
attaches a prusik safety from his or her harness to the rescue rope, and then
climbs, sliding the prusik up the rescue rope (self-belaying) while also being
belayed by the rescuer, until it’s possible to tie in to the unused end of the
rescue rope that has been dropped down. The patient’s partner removes the
self-belay prusik and continues ascending, top belayed, to the ledge.

The two climbers at the top of the pitch use the damaged climbing rope to
set up a tandem prusik belay with a TRH on a new anchor and use the rescue
rope to set up a 9:1 (3:1 on 3:1) raising system.

The top climbers maneuver the rescuer with the 9:1 system so that the
patient can be secured to the rescuer’s back with a nylon webbing carry (see
Figure 25-9f). As these two are hoisted and belayed past the mid-face anchor
the patient had been suspended from, the rescuer removes the TRH holding
the patient. (The tension release feature was not needed.)

Once they are all at the top of the pitch, the party reassesses the patient’s
injuries, provides more spinal immobilization, and adds clothing and
insulation to help prevent hypothermia and shock. They consider their own
survival needs and resources, then prepare to wait for outside help from a
local search and rescue agency.

Later the three climbers decide it makes little sense for all four to remain at
the belay ledge rather than for two of them to leave their extra clothing,
food, and water and descend.

SECOND SOLUTION: RESCUE BY LOWERING

Step 6: Make a plan. In this case, when the party makes their plan they
decide to lower the patient.

Step 7: Carry out the plan. The patient’s belayer unties; the rescuer pulls
the climbing rope through the pieces of protection, clips in to it with a
butterfly knot beyond the damaged core, threads the rope through the new
mid-face anchor, and tosses the free end back down to the patient’s belayer,
who builds a tandem prusik belay with a TRH.

The rescuer connects a sling from the patient’s harness belay loop to a prusik
on the rescue rope, then releases the mid-face anchor TRH to transfer the
patient onto the rescue rope. The climber at the top lowers the rescuer and
patient on a double munter hitch while the patient’s partner operates a
bottom belay until the rope runs out.

The rescuer takes the belay rope from the bottom belayer and sets up a self-
belay with tandem prusiks from the harness belay loop; the rope now runs
from the tandem prusiks up through the mid-face anchor and back down to
the butterfly tie-in on the rescuer’s harness.

The top climber continues the lower of the patient and rescuer to the belay
ledge while the rescuer self-belays with the tandem prusiks. The top climber
rappels the route, cleaning it.

images

Fig. 25-7. Improvised sled for snow evacuation using a tarp, a pair of skis,
and sleeping pads.

EVACUATION

When an injury occurs the party may be miles from the trailhead or even a
trail. The patient’s condition, the distance to be traveled, and the party’s
strength determine the feasibility of evacuation to the trailhead. The party
may also decide to evacuate the patient to a better location to wait until
outside assistance arrives or evacuate to an area suitable for helicopter
pickup, or they may remain in place.

For a time after an injury, the patient’s pain may be lessened by endorphins
in the bloodstream. As time goes on, the endorphin levels drop and swelling
tissues may add to pain or limit range of motion. If the patient must be
moved or must move under his or her own power, doing this sooner is
generally less painful than waiting until later.
Snow evacuations. The party may be able to improvise a sled with typical
gear carried by the group (fig. 25-7). Spread out a tarp, bivy sack, tent, or
rain fly. Place two skis flat on top of the tarp, with the tips and the tails tied
together approximately two to three ski widths apart; the skis provide
support for the patient’s head, torso, and pelvis, so adjust the final spacing
between the skis to maximize this support. Next, place layers of sleeping
pads, packs, clothing, and sleeping bags on the skis to protect the patient
from heat loss and bumps by isolating the patient from the ground. Now
place the patient on top of the padding. Wrap and secure the tarp around the
patient. At the top of the patient’s head, gather the tarp material together and
tie a rope or sling around this point; an over-hand knot in the tarp material is
one way of keeping the cord or webbing from slipping off.

Place loops in the hauling rope to go around the pullers’ waists. Following
the fall line is the easiest path; traversing on a firm slope is difficult. A
trailing line, attached to the rear of the sled, may be used as a brake on
steeper downhill slopes to keep the sled from overrunning the pulling
climbers. On steep slopes, lower the patient with a lowering system rather
than pulling the sled.

Cross-country versus trail evacuations. It takes considerable effort to

move a nonambulatory patient a short distance on a trail. It is almost
impossible without a trail.

Assisted walk. If the patient is able, he or she can walk, with one or more
rescuers walking alongside to provide physical support. A rescuer close
behind can help in difficult terrain. Have party members ahead select the
easiest route and remove loose branches and other obstacles. Using trekking
poles may help. Along some stretches, such as crossing boulder fields or
logs, the patient may choose to scoot across on his or her own.

images

Fig. 25-8. Coil carry: a, coil the rope, sizing the loops to fit from the
patient’s armpits to crotch, then separate the coil in half to form a pair of
loops; b, place patient’s legs through loops; c, slip upper part of loops over
carrier’s shoulders and tie these loops together at the chest with a short
piece of webbing.
Back carries. A strong climber may be able to carry the patient on his or her
back for a short distance if the weight is distributed properly. Either the coil
carry (fig. 25-8) or the nylon webbing carry (fig. 25-9) is helpful. For the
nylon webbing carry, use 1-inch webbing, and pad pressure points for
greater comfort. On a trail, doubling the webbing may be more comfortable.
The rucksack carry is another method of back carry: make slits in the sides
of a large backpack so the patient can step into it as though it were a pair of
shorts, then the carrier wears the backpack as usual, with the patient as the
load. Rescuers should take turns acting as carriers and choose a pace that
will not exhaust the party. Using of any of these techniques off trail is
difficult.

Stream and obstacle crossings. A rescue party may need to cross slippery
streams or jumbled boulders. Loss of footing could prove disastrous to both
the patient and a rescuer who is doing a carry. Form two lines of rescuers
across the obstacle from one side to the other. These rescuers can act as
handholds and supports for the rescuer who is carrying the patient.

With swift water, it is easy to underestimate the water’s hydraulic forces. It

is dangerous to tie in to a rope; if someone slips, the rope may entrap the
person underwater or midstream. Ropes should not cross perpendicular to
the banks but at an angle downstream so that the current helps move you
across. A Tyrolean traverse may be possible if it can be rigged high enough
above the water to ensure that the patient will not sag down into the water.
See Chapter 15, Aid and Big Wall Climbing.

RESCUES INVOLVING OUTSIDE RESOURCES

When the party lacks the resources to deal with the search, injuries, rescue,
or evacuation, they need outside rescue assistance. Organized search and
rescue (SAR) groups bring to the scene the benefits of training and
experience, combined with specialized equipment and techniques. When
planning a climbing trip, make sure to find out and include in the itinerary
what outside agency will be contacted should assistance be required.

Worldwide, there are a variety of approaches to SAR. Many countries may

have nationalized SAR services. In urban North America, the local fire
department is responsible for rescue. In the backcountry, responsibility most
frequently rests with the county sheriff’s department. In some parts of the
United States, the state, National Park Service, military, or coast guard may
be responsible. Most field SAR personnel are volunteers. Mountain rescue
teams consist of volunteer climbers who receive training in wilderness-
oriented first aid, search, rescue, and helicopter operations.

In North America, it is rare to be charged for SAR costs. In Europe and

many other parts of the world, climbers must expect to be charged. Usually,
inexpensive insurance policies for climbing can cover these costs.

images

Fig. 25-9. Nylon webbing carry: a, place webbing around patient’s back and
under shoulders, crossing in front of the chest; b, place ends over carrier’s
shoulders (from back to front); c, bring ends alongside carrier’s ribs,
through patient’s crotch, and around outside of patient’s thighs; d, carrier
ties ends of webbing together around waist; e, patient puts arms around
carrier’s neck, if able; f, patient hangs primarily from prusik to rescue rope,
webbing secures and stabilizes patient to rescuer, and belay rope provides
redundancy.

Requesting Outside Assistance

It is essential to communicate clearly with the SAR agency to avoid

miscommunication. From a SAR perspective, location of the patient and
whether or not the patient is ambulatory are the most important pieces of
information. Next in importance is information on the injury, condition of
the patient, and best access to the accident site. The accident report in Figure
24-1, in Chapter 24, First Aid, provides a good format for documenting this
crucial information.

Being prepared for the unexpected is a hallmark of competent climbers, and

being prepared includes having the ability to summon help in an emergency.
Outside rescuers can be contacted using various emergency communication
devices such as radios, smartphones (unreliable in the backcountry), PLBs,
satellite communicators, or human messengers.
Radios and smartphones. Climbing parties will save hours in obtaining
help if they can get through with a radio or smartphone, but in the mountains
and wilderness, smartphones and radios tend to be unreliable. Radios require
line-of-sight communications with another radio or repeater station.
Amateur radios, together with amateur repeaters, are generally the most
reliable method of communication from remote locations. These radios are
regulated by the federal government; their operation requires a license.
Citizens band (CB), family radio service (FRS), and general mobile radio
service (GMRS) radios have range and propagation limitations. With all
devices, sometimes service can be improved if the caller moves a bit,
reorients the antenna, or transmits from a higher elevation. Satellite phones,
due to their greater bulk and expense, have not seen widespread acceptance
except in remote climbing areas.

Where smartphones have network coverage, they are invaluable for

communicating with outside rescuers. During a remote climb, cell phone
batteries are likely to be rapidly depleted due to the phones’ intensified
attempts to stay on the network where coverage is poor. Smartphones should
be turned off at the trailhead or, to use the camera or GPS navigation
features, place phones in “airplane mode.” The display is usually the largest
power consumer. Take along an extra battery or power source. When battery
life becomes an issue, inform the SAR authorities; it may be best to shut the
phone off for an agreed-upon period of time. Texting will help preserve
instructions without having to write them down and will save battery life;
texting may also be able to access the cellular network when voice will not.
Increasingly it is possible to text 9-1-1 call centers.

Personal locator beacons. PLBs are the most reliable means of summoning
help; they use technology similar to that used on aircraft and ships for
emergencies. The signal’s location will be routed to the local government
SAR authority. These robust devices—which weigh as little as 4 ounces
(112 grams)—will send signals for at least 24 hours in extreme
environments.

Satellite communicators. Businesses have developed somewhat similar

devices using commercial satellites but they are not as robust. Generally
satellite communicators have richer features but require paid subscriptions.
Depending on the devices, you can enable ongoing location tracking, send
different notifications, summon help, and text message. When a party is
running slow, being able to keep friends and family informed provides
everyone peace of mind and may head off an unnecessary search and rescue
call. (See Chapter 5, Navigation.)

Human messengers. In some situations, sending someone from the

climbing party may be the only means of communicating with outside help.
If this is the case, try to send two messengers for safety. Resist rushing to
send the messengers on their way. Instead, take a few minutes to make sure
the messengers have everything they will need such as car keys, the party’s
plans, emergency contacts, and the like. A messenger should carry a map
showing the precise location of the patient. Messengers need to pace
themselves and travel safely; they must avoid the natural tendency to rush. It
is more important to be certain that the messengers will reach assistance
than to worry about the time it will take them to reach assistance.

Interacting with SAR

The initial call for outside assistance should use the normal local procedure
for fire, police, or medical emergencies, such as dialing 9-1-1 in the United
States. The dispatcher will connect the party to the appropriate SAR
authority.

Communicate location. Because emergency dispatch centers rarely handle

wilderness emergency requests, there is potential for miscommunication.
For example, the jurisdiction where the accident is reported or where the
emergency dispatch center is located may be different from where the
accident occurred. Geographical names may vary and may even be used for
multiple places in the same region. The dispatcher is not likely to be familiar
with climbing terminology.

The location of the accident must be communicated unmistakably. Start with

simple information such as the state, county, closest city or town, and road
names. This may seem too basic, but heartrending stories abound of rescuers
being sent to the wrong side of a mountain or of a desperate climbing party
watching a helicopter search an adjacent peak. If communicating by radio or
phone, give information such as map coordinates; the type of map and its
name, along with a description of the location; and the route name, including
the guidebook that describes it. Use more than one way to describe the
location (redundancy). The party’s elevation can be an invaluable piece of
information for establishing location. If using a coordinate system, specify
the datum and format, especially when using latitude and longitude, since
there are several formats. Specify whether any compass bearings are true or
magnetic.

Assist the rescuers. Make an effort to speak with the rescue team that will
be entering the field. Mountain rescuers will have specific questions about
access and route conditions that dispatchers or SAR mission leaders are
unlikely to ask. This information will assist the mountain rescuers in
formulating the best strategy and selecting the right equipment. Rarely, the
party’s messengers may be asked to escort rescuers back to the accident
scene.

At the scene, do everything possible to help the arriving SAR team. This
could range from having drinking water available to setting up fixed lines to
help rescuers reach the accident scene. When a mountain rescue team
arrives, they will assume responsibility for first-aid treatment and
completing the rescue and evacuation. The SAR leader will look to members
of the arriving teams to perform most of the vital tasks.

The climbing party can help by cooperating closely with the rescuers. The
climb leader remains in charge of the remaining climbing party and is
responsible for its safety. The climbing party may be escorted out. However,
the climbing party should be prepared to lend a hand in the rescue if
requested.

HELICOPTER RESCUE

Helicopters have revolutionized mountain rescue. They can deliver rescue

teams to remote areas and pluck injured climbers from cliffs and glaciers.
Helicopters can deliver an injured climber to the hospital in hours, whereas
ground evacuation can take days. However, do not base rescue plans on an
immediate helicopter rescue just because helicopters are used in the area.
Bad weather, darkness, hot temperatures, or high altitude may limit
helicopter operation. A helicopter also may not be available due to another
assignment or maintenance. If a helicopter can rescue an injured climber(s),
the remaining party members may or may not be evacuated by helicopter.

Make the party visible. In many types of terrain, it is surprisingly difficult

to see people from a helicopter. Help the crew by waving brightly colored
items; using mirrors, watch or electronic device display faces, stove
windscreens, or shiny pots; making tracks in snow; or moving around on a
contrasting background such as snow, forest clearings, ridges, and riverbeds.
Effectively sized flares and smoke bombs are too large for climbing parties
to carry, but devices similar to laser presentation pointers, intended for
signaling helicopters, could be carried. If a helicopter approaches at night,
presume the pilot is using night vision goggles. If so, too much light can be
disruptive to such vision. A single small light directed at the ground is
sufficient once you believe the helicopter is headed toward you. Once the
helicopter has positively identified the party, it may fly off to prepare for the
rescue or to land rescuers a short distance away.

Prepare the area. A rescue helicopter loads an injured person in one of

three ways: it lands (or hovers just above the ground) and takes the patient
aboard; it hovers overhead while hoisting the patient aboard; or it hovers
over-head to connect the patient to a fixed-length cable. For an anticipated
landing, clear a level area for the helicopter. Move all loose objects, such as
branches and saplings, well away from a landing site. Fly a brightly-colored
wind indicator from a nearby location as high as possible.

Take safety precautions. When dealing with helicopters, safety concerns

are of utmost importance. Many things pose a danger, including static
electricity buildup on the helicopter, blowing dust and debris, intense
windchill, and loss of visibility from blowing rock, dirt, debris, and snow.
The downwash and noise of the helicopter are overwhelming; wear eye
protection and climbing helmets. Anything not secured will blow away!

Assist the crew. If a radio is lowered to the party, you may need to press a
button to talk to the pilot. If the helicopter lands, stay out of the proximate
landing area and behind protection from windblown debris. Expect a crew
member, upon landing, to come to you; approach only when signaled to do
so. If you must approach, do so from the front or sides of the helicopter, as
long as you can stay well below the main rotor. Do not approach from
behind, to avoid the low and nearly invisible tail rotor. If a pack must
accompany the patient, remove any loose items and place them inside the
pack, and be sure to send the written accident report out with the patient. If
the helicopter hovers and lowers a crew member to the ground, prepare to
assist this crew member in loading the injured climber. This person will not
necessarily be a climber and may be unfamiliar with glaciers, steep terrain,
and safe climbing practices. Do not touch any cables and baskets from the
helicopter until they first touch the ground, which discharges static
electricity.

Finally, if the helicopter hovers and lowers a bare hook, allow the helicopter
cable’s hook to touch the ground to discharge static electricity before
touching it! Do not anchor the hook to the ground, and ensure that the hook
and cable do not snag on anything. Expect the hook and cable to move about
as the helicopter adjusts to hold a stationary hover.

For the patient to remain upright when hoisted, make sure that both a seat
harness and a chest harness are on the patient. Girth-hitch a single-length
sling to the seat harness belay loop and pass it through the chest harness to
create the attachment point. Press the helicopter hook’s safety latch to open
it, and place the attaching sling in the hook. If a pack is also being hoisted
by hook, girth-hitch a double-length sling through both the pack’s shoulder
straps (the haul loop may not be strong enough) and insert the sling into the
same hook with the climber; the pack will hang below the climber.

Once the attaching sling is secured in the hook and the patient is no longer
attached to any anchor, make eye contact with the hoist operator and raise
your hand overhead, pointing to the sky.

SEARCHES

The Climbing Code described in Chapter 1, First Steps, instructs climbers to

stay together. The desire to split the group is an indicator of a worrisome
problem within the team; separating sets up the weaker party for a mishap.
Generally, the smaller the party, the higher the risk for becoming lost. Solo
travelers are at greatest risk. Do not allow a single person to descend on his
or her own, and do not spread out the group in unfamiliar terrain and on
poorly marked trails. If a climber becomes separated from the climbing
party, there is always the risk that an accident might injure that individual,
immobilizing him or her.

SEARCHES BY THE CLIMBING PARTY

If a climbing party realizes that a member is missing, it’s time to initiate a

search.

Prepare a search plan. In preparing to search, examine the topographical

map for possible alternate paths the climber may have taken. Try to visualize
errors the person might have made. Give consideration to the lost person’s
skill level, resources, and remaining stamina. Lost people tend to head
downhill and to take the path of least resistance. Look at the map for inviting
pathways, choke points that focus travel, and barriers that block travel
altogether.

Careful strategy saves time. Before sending out party members, the climb
leader should set a meeting or return time and place based on a reasonable
amount of search time. If radios or cell phones are available, the search
teams should agree on a scheduled call-in.

Start the search. If bad weather, difficult terrain, or medical considerations

suggest that the missing climber might need help, start the search without
delay. The most effective search strategy is to return to the location where
the missing person was last seen and retrace the route, looking for places
where the climber might have left the path. Use whistles, shouting, or any
other noisemaking to extend your reach. Look for clues, especially
footprints. Inform any encountered travelers of the search and share
instructions to pass on to the lost person. Prominently mark and identify all
physical points you want outside searchers to be able to locate.

Request outside help. If, after the designated period of searching, the party
members check in and/or meet up only to find that no sign of the missing
climber has been seen, it is time to request outside help. The longer a lost
person is on the move, the farther he or she can travel and the harder it is to
find the person.

SEARCHES INVOLVING OUTSIDE RESOURCES

The science of searching has advanced over the years. Leaders from
government agencies responsible for searches have models to help predict
the behavior of lost people and determine search segment probabilities. A
number of specialized SAR teams may search. Search dogs follow scents
and disturbances; human trackers can spot signs of passage; helicopters
cover large areas quickly; drones cover smaller parcels; horseback and foot
teams search less-difficult terrain; four-wheel-drive and all-terrain vehicles
travel rough roads and wait at trailheads; mountain rescue teams cover steep
terrain.

Each search has different needs. Once the authorities have been notified, the
best action for the original climbing team is to meet with the SAR leader.
The SAR leader will want specific information that only the climbing team
can provide. The party will be directed where to meet the SAR leader, which
usually means waiting at the trailhead. After an initial debriefing, the search
leader may ask the climbing team to remain at the SAR base to answer
questions that arise. The climb leader should call the emergency contact
person for the missing climber. When the climbing party leaves the SAR
base, they should always leave their contact information. Friends of the
missing person and other untrained volunteers are unlikely to be used during
a SAR-organized search.

GOING FORWARD

Planning and preparation identify many hazards before a climb begins, and
during the climb, hazard identification and avoidance go a long way in
ensuring the party’s safety. Still, circumstances do arise, so being prepared
to perform rescues is important. Learn leadership, first-aid, and rescue skills,
and keep current by regular practice and review. Make sure to practice the
rescue techniques outlined in this chapter—reading by itself does not
provide the necessary skills. Consider contributing your mountaineering
skills to the community by joining your local mountain rescue group.

Become one of those climbers—confident in leadership, accident

prevention, first-aid, and rescue skills—who has the ability to rescue and
evacuate an injured person in treacherous terrain. Then you will be more
fully prepared to pursue the freedom of the hills.
 images

PART VI

THE MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT

26 MOUNTAIN GEOLOGY

27 THE CYCLE OF SNOW

28 MOUNTAIN WEATHER
GEOLOGIC PERSPECTIVES • HOW MOUNTAINS ARE FORMED • MOUNTAIN
STRUCTURES • MOUNTAIN MATERIALS • WHERE TO GET GEOLOGIC INFORMATION

images

CHAPTER 26
MOUNTAIN GEOLOGY
Geology is essential knowledge: climbing success—or even your
life—can depend on your understanding the form and
substance of mountains. Climbers learn from experience that
different types of rock affect what different routes are like,
ranging from sheer walls to those having cracks and ledges
galore. Climbers also discover that some kinds of rocks are
very durable, whereas others crumble under pressure. This
knowledge is important for the safe and well-rounded
mountaineer.

GEOLOGIC PERSPECTIVES
Climbers can gain a better understanding of mountains by examining them
on three scales: as an overall landscape, as a single outcrop, and as a close-
up view of a single specimen of rock. Each perspective contributes to a
broad comprehension of the mountain environment.
Landscape. The wide-angle landscape view examines the mountain as a
whole, sometimes from miles away. Observing geology at this scale helps
climbers find a viable route to the summit. Using photos or binoculars, look
for routes with strong, supportive rock, or identify areas where rock may be
weak and unreliable—in other words, places to trust and places to treat with
caution. Ridges may follow a layer of resistant rock. Sets of fractures may
offer a zigzag route to the summit. Sudden changes in slope may indicate a
fault (a fracture along which movement has occurred) or an abrupt change
in rock type.
Outcrop. The midrange perspective focuses on specific outcrops from 10
to 100 feet (3 to 30 meters) away. Here climbers can see features that could
help—or hinder—an ascent. For example, a regular pattern of cracks is
probably a good bet for chock placements, and a reliable avenue upward
may be found in a resistant dike, which forms when the intrusive magma
that has filled a fracture has cooled to form rock harder than the host rock.
Rock. At arm’s length from the outcrop or closer, the details of the rock
itself are more apparent. At this scale, climbers can identify rock types and
recognize textures that might be difficult to climb or that might provide
advantageous holds.

HOW MOUNTAINS ARE FORMED

The ultimate landscape view is the whole earth. When we look at mountain
ranges on a global scale, we can see a clear pattern of their occurrence, and
this pattern can be explained by plate tectonic processes. According to the
theory of plate tectonics, the outermost layer of the earth (the lithosphere) is
composed of plates that are slowly but constantly moving.
Most mountain ranges are formed by immense forces that squeeze rock
masses together or pull them apart. Where tectonic plates move toward each
other, their edges (margins) are called convergent. Where tectonic plates
pull away from each other, their margins are called divergent. Along what
are called transform margins, blocks of lithosphere move side by side and
mountains rarely form. The sections below describe the two types of
mountain-forming plate margins.

images
Fig. 26-1. Characteristic features of various types of convergent and divergent plate margins: a,
ocean–ocean convergent margin producing a volcanic island arc; b, ocean–continent convergent
margin producing a continental volcanic arc; c, continent–continent convergent zone producing a
suture zone mountain range; d, oceanic divergent margin producing a midocean ridge; e, continental
divergent margin producing a continental rift; f, intraplate mantle plume producing a chain of
seafloor hot-spot volcanoes.
CONVERGENT PLATE MARGINS
Three varieties of convergent margins each produce a somewhat different
type of mountain.

Ocean–Ocean Margins
Where two plates of oceanic lithosphere converge is called an ocean–ocean
margin (fig. 26-1a). The older, colder slab forms a subduction zone by
sinking beneath the younger, warmer slab. Deep within the subduction
zone, 55 to 60 miles (90 to 100 kilometers) below the earth’s surface,
abundant magma (molten rock beneath the earth’s surface) is formed and
rises buoyantly. Over time, much of the magma makes its way to the
surface, where a chain of oceanic island volcanoes grows. The island
mountains of the Aleutians and Indonesia are two examples.

Ocean–Continent Margins
Subduction can also occur where oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath
the edge of a continent (fig. 26-1b). This produces a chain of volcanic
mountains on land. Three types of volcanoes can be formed.
Shield volcanoes. Great conical stacks of basalt flows with gentle slopes,
such as Belknap Crater in the Cascade Range of central Oregon, are shield
volcanoes, which are uncommon.
Stratovolcanoes. Most of the climbing destinations along ocean–
continent convergent margins are stratovolcanoes (also known as composite
volcanoes), composed mainly of andesite and having steep slopes, such as
Washington State’s Mount Rainier and Mount Baker or Japan’s Mount Fuji.
Cinder cones. Composed of pyroclastic fragments, cinder cones are
generally only a few hundred feet high. Examples include the Black Buttes
near Bend, Oregon, and Wizard Island in Oregon’s Crater Lake.
As tectonic plates move, they cause various stresses—faulting, folding,
and uplift—that create mountain structures (see “Mountain Structures” later
in this chapter). These movements, as well as erosion, expose deeper layers
of the earth’s crust. For example, the schist and gneiss exposed in
Washington’s North Cascades originated as clay and silt on the seafloor 250
million years ago. During plate convergence, this material was buried as
much as 100,000 feet (30,000 meters) beneath the earth’s surface, where it
was metamorphosed by heat and pressure into schist and gneiss. Continued
plate convergence has now moved these rocks back to the surface in the
northern part of the North Cascades range. To the south, volcanism has
buried the metamorphic basement yet again and has built a chain of large
stratovolcanoes that extends from British Columbia to northern California.
Mountain ranges of similar origin include the Andes of South America and
the Japanese Alps.

Suture Zones
Many of the major mountain ranges of the earth are found where
continental plates or island arcs have smashed together as they have
converged (fig. 26-1c). For example, the Himalayan range has been uplifted
by the collision of India and Asia, Europe’s Alps were created by Africa’s
northward push into Europe, and the Rocky Mountains were uplifted by the
collision of numerous microplates that extended the edge of North America
hundreds of miles westward over the past 170 million years. In these
mountain ranges, faulting may thrust one part of the range over another.
These huge thrust-faulted structures are well exposed in the Alps, the
Canadian Rockies, and the North Cascades (see Figure 26-3).

DIVERGENT PLATE MARGINS

Where lithospheric plates diverge, the lithosphere is stretched and
ultimately breaks apart, as when taffy is pulled too quickly. The most
extensive divergent margins are the submarine mountain ranges of the
midocean ridges (fig. 26-1d), but these are obviously inaccessible to
climbers. Divergent margins also develop within continents (fig. 26-1e),
and these definitely produce terrain of interest to mountaineers.
Continental rifts. As the lithospheric plates move apart along
continental rifts, vertical faults break the crust into huge block-shaped
mountains with nearly vertical faces on one side and gentler slopes on the
other. These form great escarpments, such as East Africa’s Great Rift
Valley. Some mountains of the western United States, including Utah’s
Wasatch Range and California’s Sierra Nevada, are fault-block ranges
associated with stretching (extension) within the North American Plate
rather than along its margin (see Figure 26-2).
Mountains created by extension generally have less relief (contrasting
elevations) than those created by convergent margins, but not always.
Mount Whitney, part of the Sierra Nevada, is the highest peak in the
contiguous United States, at 14,494 feet (4,400 meters); Wheeler Peak of
the Snake Range in eastern Nevada rises above 13,000 feet (4,000 meters).
Volcanism also affects the topography of rifted margins. Magma from the
upwelling mantle beneath the rift can rise through faults to the surface,
where over time it builds up both shield volcanoes and composite
volcanoes, such as Africa’s Mount Kilimanjaro.

INTRAPLATE HOT-SPOT VOLCANOES

The tallest mountain on Earth is not Mount Everest but, rather, the island of
Hawaii, where the summit of Mauna Kea is 30,000 feet (9,000 meters)
above the seafloor. Hawaii is part of a chain of volcanic islands and
underwater sea-mounts that extend from the mid-Pacific nearly to Japan.
These gigantic islands of basalt are the surface expression of thermal
plumes, called hot spots (fig. 26-1f), that rise from the lower mantle toward
the overlying lithosphere like a cumulus cloud building toward the
stratosphere on a warm summer day. These plumes burn through the
moving lithosphere, creating a chain of volcanoes built upward from the
seafloor.

images
Fig. 26-2. Typical structures of a continental divergent plate margin, such as the Basin and Range of
the western United States or the East African Great Rift Valley; note steep escarpment formed due to
normal faulting.

Hot spots are also located within the continents—an example is the chain
of volcanoes and lava flows (lava is rock that is molten at the surface of the
earth) that extend across the Snake River Plain from near Boise, Idaho,
northeast to Yellowstone National Park, where the plume is currently
located. Because hot spots produce mainly shield volcanoes with gentle
slopes, technical climbing is rarely required to ascend them. However, one
of the most interesting traverses in the world is the trail to the summit of
Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii.

MOUNTAIN STRUCTURES
The slowest tectonic plates move at about the same velocity as fingernails
grow, and the fastest move at about the same velocity as hair grows: a range
of about 2 to 7 inches (5 to 17 centimeters) per year. Such slow movements
cannot be seen, but the effect on the earth’s surface can be profound. Slow
as it is, this movement of the tectonic plates stresses rocks, and the results
are the varying structures known as mountains. These stresses move
mountains up, down, or from side to side and break them up into pieces.
Near the earth’s surface the rock layers are brittle, so they fracture into
joints or move along faults. At greater depths, where the temperature and
pressure are higher, the rocks tend to bend into folds rather than breaking.

FOLDS
Most sedimentary rocks are originally deposited in horizontal layers known
as beds. However, in mountains such as the Front Range of Colorado, it is
common to see beds that dip steeply or are even vertical. These rocks have
been compressed into folds. This movement can be simulated by laying a
napkin flat on a table and pushing its sides together, producing a series of
archlike anticlines and troughlike synclines (fig. 26-2). Folds range in size
from microscopic to a mile or more high. In some cases, such as the Ridge
and Valley Province of the United States’ Appalachians, the shape of the
range is dictated by the underlying fold structure. The patterns of folds
create ramps, overhangs, and resistant ridges that can be crucial factors in
planning a route to a summit.

JOINTS AND VEINS

Joints are cracks that develop when rock masses expand or contract.
Contraction joints are formed when hot rock shrinks during cooling. The
only common kind of pure contraction jointing is the columnar structure of
lava flows. The result is an array of roughly hexagonal columns that are
typically 10 feet (3 meters) in height. Exceptionally high columns such as
Devils Tower in Wyoming provide spectacular climbing opportunities.
Joints also develop when erosion exposes rocks that were once buried
deeply within the earth, and as the overlying rocks are stripped away,
fracturing can result from the once-buried rocks expanding upward. If the
expansion joints develop parallel to the exposed surface (as at Half Dome in
California’s Yosemite National Park), rocks peel off in layers that are called
exfoliation joints (fig. 26-3). Sets of joints commonly occur at angles of 30,
60, or 90 degrees to each other—and these joint angles tend to be persistent
as long as the rock type is the same. Recognition of joint patterns is
essential for routefinding, especially on vertical faces in granitic rocks,
where joints could be the only path to the summit without aid climbing.

images
Fig. 26-3. Typical structures of a continental convergent margin, such as Europe’s Alps, the
Himalaya, and North America’s Rocky Mountains.

Veins are fractures that have been filled by minerals, most commonly
quartz or calcite. Veins can have an important effect on the texture of
weathered rock surfaces. Quartz veins tend to project out as resistant ridges,
whereas softer calcite veins are recessed. On some sheer faces, these can
provide the only holds available, so the pattern of fractures determines
where climbers should look for the next hand- or foothold.

FAULTS
Faults are fractures along which movement has occurred. The discernible
movement may be only a fraction of an inch, or the movement can uplift a
whole mountain range, such as Wyoming’s Teton Range. Climbers need to
know about faults because they can bring blocks of very different rock
together. Fault zones also can consist of very weak, ground-up rock called
gouge that may present a hazard to climbers.
Faults are classified according to their relative movement. Normal faults
involve vertical movement that occurs when the earth’s crust is stretched to
the point of breaking (see Figure 26-2), as in the Basin and Range region of
Nevada, Utah, and California. Vertical movement also occurs along reverse
faults and along thrust faults, which are reverse faults with an angle of less
than 20 degrees (as shown in Figure 26-3). Here the fault is caused by
compression due to the collision of lithospheric plates; examples are
Europe’s Alps and the Himalaya.
Strike-slip faults (for example, the San Andreas Fault in California) move
the lithosphere in a horizontal plane, rather than up and down. This can
move mountains from place to place but generally does not cause uplift.

MOUNTAIN MATERIALS
The rocks that compose mountains are the foundation of the climbing
experience. Each type of rock has a different fracture pattern, surface
texture, and durability. The strength of rocks, as well as their resistance to
erosion and weathering, depends on the minerals of which they are
composed. This in turn determines the reliability of holds and the overall
climbing strategy for different rock types.

MINERALS
Minerals (crystals that are solid and inorganic) have unique properties by
which they can be identified: color, hardness, cleavage (the tendency to
split along definite crystalline planes), luster, and crystal shape. Only seven
minerals compose most rocks of the earth’s crust. Six of these are silicate
minerals: feldspar, quartz, olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. Except
for biotite, these silicates are generally hard, durable materials. Only one
common mineral, calcite, is soft and soluble. Calcite is composed of
calcium carbonate, the major ingredient in many antacid tablets. It is
resistant and stable in arid climates but dissolves readily in humid climates
—and in acid rain.
Feldspar and quartz are the most resistant to breakdown under the
constant assault of weathering. They are also the most abundant rock-
forming minerals, composing most granites and sandstones. The other
silicates—olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite—are dark, iron-rich
minerals. Pyroxene is commonly found in basalt and gabbro. Amphibole
and biotite are familiar as the black crystals in granite, granodiorite, and
diorite, as well as in many schists and gneisses.

ROCKS
Rocks are classified into three categories: igneous (crystallized from a
melt), sedimentary (deposited as particles, precipitates, or organic matter),
and metamorphic (recrystallized by heat and/or pressure). A mountain
climber does not need to be an expert in classifying rocks. However, it is
very useful to be able to recognize a few general categories, because
different rock types call for very different climbing strategies.
The first thing climbers need to know is that rocks are like a box of
chocolates: you cannot tell what “flavor” they are until you look inside each
one. Weathering, lichens, and biofilms (groups of microorganisms that grow
together and stick to a surface) obscure the surface of many rock outcrops.
To identify a rock’s true color and appearance, look for a fresh surface that
has recently broken open. Beneath a brown exterior there may be a black
basalt, a white rhyolite, or even a glassy obsidian.
The following sections contain a few generalities about what kinds of
climbing are effective on some of the most common rock types.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks (from the Latin ignis, meaning “fire”) crystallize from
magma or lava. They can be either volcanic rocks (named for Vulcan, the
Roman god of fire), which form from lava that is extruded at the surface, or
plutonic rocks (named for Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld), which
form underground from magma. See Table 26-1.
Volcanic rocks. The two types of volcanic rock are lava flows and
pyroclastics. Most lavas crystallize rapidly under conditions of
supercooling, so they commonly consist mainly of very tiny mineral grains
that are invisible without magnification. However, they often include large
crystals that formed in magma chambers underground before eruption. The
composition of lava flows is essentially the same as their plutonic
counterparts, the granitoids—in others words, rhyolite has the same
chemical composition and minerals as granite, andesite matches diorite, and
basalt matches gabbro (see Table 26-1). Most lava flows make very good
climbing rock. Exceptions are lavas that are full of small cavities formed by
gas bubbles and flows that have been chemically altered (alteration zones)
by corrosive volcanic gases. This type of lava flow, which is composed of
crumbly rock that is hazardous to climb, can be found on most volcanoes.
Pyroclastics are deposits of volcanic rock fragments produced by
explosive eruptions. These include outcrops of ash and pumice that tend to
fail unpredictably and therefore should be avoided on climbing routes if
possible. Many pyroclastics also show some degree of chemical alteration.
Anyone climbing stratovolcanoes from the Aleutians to the Andes should
be aware of this potential hazard.

TABLE 26-1. CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Color and Volcanic (extrusive): Plutonic (intrusive):

 Mineral Content fine-grained rock coarse-grained rock
erupted as lava or ash; that cools and
cools quickly; may crystallizes slowly
contain small holes or underground
crystals

Light-colored; very Rhyolite or dacite Granite or granodiorite

little iron content (black, glassy =
obsidian)

Usually gray; Andesite Diorite

moderate iron
content

Dark (black to Basalt Gabbro or peridotite

green-black); high (rare)
iron content

images
Fig. 26-4. Environments of deposition of various kinds of sedimentary rocks.

Plutonic rocks. The most common plutonic rocks are the coarse-grained
granitoids—granite, granodiorite, and diorite. Granitoids are very durable
unless highly weathered. They tend to have multiple fracture planes that
define crack systems toward the summit or chimneys if accentuated by
weathering. A good way to check the reliability of protection in granitoid
rock is to hit it with a hammer. If it rings, it is good rock; if it makes a dull
thud, be careful.

Sedimentary Rocks
Most sedimentary rocks are made of three types of material: fragments
(clastics) of preexisting rocks, precipitates from solution (chemical), or
organic material. Clastic rocks are classified according to the size of
fragments in the rock. Fine-grained rocks, including thinly bedded shales,
are the products of deposition in quiet, low-energy environments such as
lakes or the seafloor. Coarse-grained clastic rocks, including sandstones and
conglomerates, are transported and deposited in higher-energy regimes such
as stream channels and beaches washed by waves crashing onshore (fig. 26-
4).
Sandstone with silica cement (gritstone) is, for many, the most desirable
rock to climb. It has continuous fracture systems, as do granitoids, coupled
with high friction from its sandpapery surface formed of quartz and feldspar
grains. Sandstone outcrops are commonly slabby, with many reliable hand-
and footholds. Sandstone provides good protection unless it is highly
weathered or poorly cemented. Note that sandstone can be weak when wet.
Shale is also slabby, but because it is composed chiefly of soft clay, it
crumbles just as easily as do altered pyroclastics. The best protection is
probably a long, thin blade driven between layers, but nothing should be
trusted. Avoid shale if possible, but be aware that it is commonly found in
layers between sandstones.
Limestones, composed of chemical precipitates or organic material, are
deposited in warm equatorial seas. Routefinding on limestone can be
challenging because crack systems are far less continuous than on granitoid
rocks. Also, limestone is composed of the soft mineral calcite, so if
protection points are stressed during an ascent, as in the event of a leader
fall, they can degrade and fail. Where limestone has been below the water
table before uplift, it can have many solution cavities, caves, and overhangs
that make climbing interesting.

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been
recrystallized by heat and pressure. The most distinctive change is foliation,
wherein minerals are aligned like the grain in wood; foliation is found in
slates, phyllites, schists, and gneisses. Foliation is a plane of weakness in
the rock, from a rock climber’s viewpoint. This weakness dominates in
slate, which is fine-grained. If you try to drive a piton parallel to the
foliation, a slab of rock will easily split off that looks like a piece of
blackboard. Schist, which has mineral grains coarse enough to be visible,
has more resistance to splitting, but protection is still poor if it is placed
parallel to the foliation. Most gneisses are similar to granitoids in strength,
but climbers should still be aware of the foliation plane.
There are also several nonfoliated metamorphic rock types, including
quartzite, marble, and hornfels. Quartzite, like sandstone, is a climber’s
favorite. It is slabby, with long, continuous fractures, and forms very solid
outcrops, but it lacks the friction of sandstone, especially when wet. Note
that in the alpine zone, where extensive freezing and thawing occur,
quartzite slabs can sluff off, but not as easily as sandstone does. Marble is
similar to limestone in that it is composed of soft calcite that is easily
degraded and soluble in humid climates. It tends to have more continuous
fractures than limestone, but expect unusual topography. Hornfels is a rock
formed by heat along the margin of granitoid plutons. It is very hard and
brittle. Chocks and cams work well in this rock, but the acts of driving
pitons and placing bolts can splinter it.
Climbers should be aware of metamorphic changes along fault zones. In
the shallow part of faults, movement shatters or grinds rock into gouge.
Decomposition can also occur if hot fluids circulate through the fractured
rock. Both the gouge and decomposed rock are very weak and are
unreliable for protection. Deeper in the fault zone, rocks tend to flow rather
than break. This produces mylonites, which have an intense foliation and
are generally as unreliable as schist for protection points.

WHERE TO GET GEOLOGIC INFORMATION

The primary provider of geologic maps and information in the United States
is the US Geological Survey (USGS); its website is the gateway to a
cornucopia of geologic data for the entire world (see Resources for all
websites mentioned here). Check out links to the USGS map finder—a
clickable set of maps showing the name and location of all available 7.5-
minute topographic maps. Another useful service of the USGS is the
National Geologic Map Database. A new venture of the USGS is the
Geology in the Parks program, which provides information via a website
and brochures in cooperation with the National Park Service.
Other federal agencies that dispense geologic data are the US Forest
Service and the US Bureau of Land Management. Nearly all of the state
geological surveys also maintain websites with abundant geologic
information; links to state geological surveys are listed online.
Another useful tool for planning climbing trips, Google Earth is a virtual
mapping program that displays satellite images. The free program can be
downloaded or accessed online. It allows climbers to easily see the terrain
and specific features for almost any mountain on Earth, facilitating route
planning.
Many mobile applications today provide accessible and useful
information via phones and other mobile devices. The caveat to this is not
all backcountry areas have data access, so climbers must download this
information ahead of time for offline access in the field.
To get a site-specific geologic map or details on the geology of a chosen
climbing route, there is no better place than the nearest college geology
department. Many have websites with a lot of local geologic information,
and all have faculty and students who are avid climbers and know exactly
what rocks and structures they have seen on different routes.
Better still, start looking carefully and making detailed notes on the
geologic features of the routes that you climb. Climbers are in effect
practicing geologists, interpreting rock types and structures as they ascend.
Personal observations are the best way to learn how to read the rocks for
future climbs.
SURFACE FORMS OF SNOW COVER • AGING OF THE SNOW COVER • THE FORMATION
OF GLACIERS • THE FORMATION OF SNOW AVALANCHES • UNDERSTANDING THE
CYCLE OF SNOW

CHAPTER 27
THE CYCLE OF SNOW
Understanding the cycle of snow helps climbers anticipate
changing conditions from the bottom of the mountain to the top,
from morning to evening, and from day to day. While dramatic
changes occur during storms, often subtle changes—caused by
different exposures to sun and wind or aging processes—create
significant impediments or enhancements to travel.

Snow crystals form in the atmosphere when water vapor condenses at

temperatures below freezing. They form around centers of foreign matter,
such as microscopic dust particles, and grow as additional atmospheric water
vapor condenses onto them. Tiny water droplets also may contribute to snow
crystal growth. The crystals generally are hexagonal, but variations in size
and shape are almost limitless, including plates (fig. 27-1a), dendrites (fig.
27-1b and e), columns (fig. 27-1c and f), and needles (fig. 27-1d). The
particular shape depends on the air temperature and the amount of water
vapor available.
When a snow crystal falls through air masses of different temperatures
and with different water vapor contents, snow crystals may become more
complex or combine. In air that has a temperature near freezing, snow
crystals stick together to become snowflakes: aggregates of individual
crystals. When snow crystals fall through air that contains water droplets, the
droplets freeze to the crystals, forming the rounded snow particles called
graupel (fig. 27-1g)—soft hail. When snow crystals ascend and descend into
alternating layers of above- and below-freezing clouds, layers of glaze and
rime build up to form hailstones (fig. 27-1h). Sleet (fig. 27-1i) is a refrozen
raindrop or melted snowflakes that have refrozen.
The density of new-fallen snow depends on weather conditions. The
general rule is that the higher the temperature, the denser (heavier and
wetter) the snow. However, density varies widely in the range of 20 to 32
degrees Fahrenheit (minus 6 to 0 degrees Celsius). Wind affects snow
density, because high winds break up falling crystals into fragments that
pack together to form dense, fine-grained snow. The stronger the wind, the
denser the snow. The lowest-density (lightest and driest) snow falls under
moderately cold and very calm conditions. At extremely low temperatures,
new snow is fine and granular, with somewhat higher densities. The very
highest densities are associated with graupel or needle crystals falling at
temperatures near freezing.

Fig. 27-1. Snow crystal forms: a, plate; b, dendrite (stellar crystal); c, column; d, needle; e, spatial
dendrite (combination of feathery crystals); f, capped column; g, graupel (soft hail); h, hail (solid
ice); i, sleet (icy shell, inside wet).

The amount of water (solid or liquid) in layers of snow can indicate its
density. Higher water content means that more space is occupied by ice or
water and less air is present, causing higher density. In new-fallen snow,
water content ranges from 1 to 30 percent, sometimes even higher, with the
average for mountain snowfall being 7 to 10 percent.

SURFACE FORMS OF SNOW COVER

Snow and ice undergo endless surface changes as they are affected by wind,
air temperature, solar radiation, freeze-thaw cycles, and rain. This section
describes most of the surface permutations that mountaineers typically
encounter. Table 27-1 summarizes the dangers and travel considerations
associated with these various forms of snow.
Rime. Formed right at ground level, rime is the dense, dull white deposit
formed by water droplets freezing on trees, rocks, and other objects exposed
to the wind. Rime deposits build into the oncoming wind. Rime may form
large, feathery flakes or a solid incrustation, but it lacks regular crystalline
patterns. Typically it is easy to break, forming a weak, crusty surface when it
is on top of snow and a poor, unreliable anchor when it is on rock or ice
faces.
Hoarfrost. Another type of snow that forms at ground level, hoarfrost
forms on solid objects by the process of sublimation: the direct conversion of
atmospheric water vapor to a solid. Unlike rime, hoarfrost displays distinct
crystalline shapes: blades, cups, and scrolls. The crystals appear fragile and
feathery, sparkling brilliantly in sunlight. When deposited on top of snow,
hoarfrost is known as surface hoar, generally produced during a cold, clear
night. A heavy deposit of surface hoar makes for fast, excellent skiing with
fun, crinkly sounds. (For depth hoar, see “Aging of the Snow Cover” later in
this chapter.)
Powder snow. A popular term for light, fluffy new-fallen snow, powder
snow is more specifically defined as new snow that has lost some of its
cohesion because large temperature differences between the pits and peaks
of its feathery dendrite (branching) crystals have caused recrystallization.
The changed snow is loose (uncohesive) and powdery (mostly air). It
commonly affords good downhill skiing and may form dry loose-snow
avalanches. Climbing or walking through powder is difficult, and any weight
on it readily sinks.
Corn snow. After the advent of melting in early spring, a period of fair
weather may lead to the formation of coarse, rounded crystals on the snow
surface. The crystals, often called corn snow, are formed when the same
surface layer of snow melts and refreezes for several days. When corn snow
thaws each morning after the nighttime freeze, it is great for skiing and step-
kicking. Later in the day, after thawing has continued, corn snow can
become too thick and gooey for easy travel. During the afternoon, the
associated meltwater also may lubricate the underlying snow and promote
wet loose-snow avalanches, especially if the snow is stressed by people
glissading on it or by the sliding and turning actions of skis, snowboards,
and snowmobiles.
Rotten snow. Rotten snow is a spring condition characterized by soft, wet
lower layers that offer little support to the firmer layers above. Rotten snow
forms when lower layers of depth hoar (see “Aging of the Snow Cover” later
in this chapter) become wet and lose what little strength they have. It is a
condition that often leads to wet loose-snow or slab avalanches running clear
to the bare ground. Continental climates, such as that of the North American
Rockies, often produce rotten snow. Maritime climates, such as that of the
Pacific coastal ranges, which usually have deep, dense snow covers, are less
likely to produce rotten snow conditions. In its worst forms, rotten snow will
not support the weight of even a skier. Snow that promises good spring
skiing in the morning, when there is some strength in the crust, may
deteriorate to rotten snow later in the day.
Meltwater crust. A snow crust that forms when water that melted on the
snow’s surface refreezes and bonds snow crystals into a cohesive layer is
called a meltwater crust. Sources of heat that cause meltwater crusts include
warm air, condensation at the snow surface, direct sunlight, and rain.
Sun crust. Sun crust is a common variety of meltwater crust that derives
its name from the main source of heat for melting. In winter and early
spring, the thickness of a sun crust over dry snow usually is determined by
the depth of solar heating. Often it is thin enough that skiers and hikers break
through, which is very uncomfortable. In later spring and summer, when free
water is found throughout the snow cover, the sun crust’s thickness—usually
less than about 2 inches (5 centimeters)—depends on how cold temperatures
become at night.

TABLE 27-1. SNOW CONDITIONS AND THEIR RELATED

TRAVEL CONSIDERATIONS AND DANGERS

SNOW EFFECTS EFFECTS ON DANGERS

CONDITION ON PROTECTION
TRAVEL

Rime Breakable;
 can trap feet
or skis

Hoarfrost Fun skiing If hoarfrost is

buried, potential
avalanche danger

Powder snow Difficult Ropes cut Potential

walking, through it; ice avalanche danger
good skiing axes do not hold
in it; clogs
crampons;
deadmen need
reinforcing with
buried packs,
etc.

Corn snow Walking on it Bollards must When frozen,

best in be large to hold avalanche
morning; potential low;
skiing on it when melted,
best in stability depends
afternoon on water content
and underlying
layer strengths

Rotten snow Difficult Ropes cut Potential

traveling through it; ice avalanche danger
axes do not hold
in it; deadmen
need reinforcing
with buried
packs, etc.

Meltwater Breakable; May require Slippery

crust can trap feet crampons
if crust thin;
 good walking
if crust thick;
skis require
edges

Wind slab Good walking Potential

avalanche danger,
especially on
leeward slopes

Firnspiegel Breakable

Verglas Breakable; Slippery

impedes rock
travel

Suncups Uneven but Low danger

solid walking because usually
or skiing form in old, stable
snow

Nieves Difficult to Ropes catch on Low danger

penitentes negotiate them because usually
form in old, stable
snow

Drain Uneven but Low danger

channels solid walking because usually
or skiing form in old, stable
snow

Sastrugi and Uneven but Ropes catch on A sign of wind

barchans solid walking them transport and
or skiing potential slab
formation; ski
edges may catch
on them
 Cornices Difficult to Ropes cut Can break away
negotiate; through them underneath or
best to avoid above traveler

Crevasses Difficult to Require rope Easy to fall into,

negotiate; protection especially if
may be hidden
hidden by
snow; best to
avoid

Seracs Difficult to Ropes catch on Very unstable; can

negotiate; them break
best to avoid catastrophically

Avalanche Hard surface, Slippery;

paths good walking relatively free
from avalanche
danger unless
portion of slab
remains or is
recharged by new
snow

Avalanche Difficult to Relatively free

debris negotiate from avalanche
danger unless
portion of slab
remains or is
recharged by new
snow

Rain crust. Another type of meltwater crust, rain crust forms after
rainwater has percolated into the surface layers of snow. The rain water often
follows preferred paths as it percolates through the snow, creating fingerlike
features that act as pinning points, holding the crust to the underlying snow
after it refreezes. The pinning action of many rain crusts helps to stabilize
the snow against avalanching and makes for strong walking surfaces,
especially in the Pacific’s coastal ranges where heavy winter rainfall is
common, even at high elevations. Glazed rain crusts can be extremely
slippery and dangerous. Rain nearly always freezes on top of glacier ice,
even during summer. This makes travel on glaciers following a fresh rain
particularly hazardous.
Wind slab. After surface snow layers are disturbed by the wind, age
hardening takes place to form a wind slab. When fragments of snow crystals
broken by the wind come to rest, they are compacted together. Then the
wind provides heat, particularly through water vapor condensation, which
causes melting. Even when there is not enough heat to cause melting, the
disturbed surface layer warms and then cools when the wind dies, providing
additional metamorphic hardening. Traveling usually is fast and easy on hard
wind slabs, but the slabs can break in long-running fractures, and if they
overlie a weak layer or form a cornice, added stress causes avalanching.
Firnspiegel. The thin layer of clear ice sometimes seen on snow surfaces
in spring or summer is called firnspiegel (a German word meaning “snow
mirror,” pronounced FEARN-spee-gull). Under the right conditions of
sunlight and slope angle, the reflecting of sunlight on firnspiegel produces
the brilliant sheen called glacier fire. Firnspiegel forms when solar radiation
penetrates the snow and causes melting just below the surface at the same
time that freezing conditions prevail at the surface. Once firnspiegel is
formed, it acts like a greenhouse, allowing snow beneath to melt while the
transparent ice layer at the surface remains frozen. Firnspiegel usually is
paper thin and quite breakable. Breaking through firnspiegel while traveling
causes little discomfort, unlike breaking through sun crusts.
Verglas. A layer of thin, clear ice formed by water (from either rainfall or
snowmelt) freezing on rock is called verglas. It is most commonly
encountered at higher elevations in the spring or summer when a freeze
follows a thaw. Verglas (a French word meaning “glazed frost” or “glass
ice,” pronounced vair-GLAH) also may be formed by super-cooled
raindrops freezing directly as they fall onto exposed objects—a phenomenon
known as freezing rain, also sometimes inaccurately called silver thaw.
Verglas forms a very slippery surface, and like black ice on a roadway, it can
be difficult to anticipate.
Suncups. Also called ablation hollows, suncups can vary in depth from 1
inch to 3 feet (2.5 centimeters to 1 meter) or more (fig. 27-2a). Where
sunshine is intense and the air is relatively dry, suncup depths usually
increase with increasing elevation and decreasing latitude. On the ridges of
each cup, sun-heated water molecules evaporate from the snow surface. In
the hollows, water molecules released by solar heating are trapped near the
snow surface, forming a liquid layer that promotes further melt. Because
melting can occur with only one-seventh of the heat that is required for
evaporation, the hollows melt and deepen faster than the ridges evaporate.
The hollows are further deepened by differential melting when dirt in the
hollows absorbs solar radiation. The suncups melt faster on the south
(sunny) side in the northern hemisphere, so the whole suncup pattern
gradually migrates northward across a snowfield.
Warm, moist winds tend to destroy suncups by causing faster melt at the
high points and edges. A prolonged summer storm accompanied by fog,
wind, and rain often will erase a suncup pattern completely, but the cups
start to form again as soon as dry, fair weather returns. While skiing over
suncups, it is easy to catch an edge, especially if the cups are hard and frozen
from nighttime cooling. The unevenness of suncupped surfaces makes
walking uphill tedious, but traveling downhill is made a little easier by
“skating” into each hollow.
Nieves penitentes. When suncups grow up, they become nieves penitentes
(pronounced nee-EH-vays pen-ih-TEN-tays, from the Spanish for “snow
penitents,” derived from the forms’ similarity to the shape of a penitent’s
cowl). Nieves penitentes are the pillars produced when suncup hollows
become very deep, accentuating the ridges into columns of snow that look
like praying statues (fig. 27-2b). They are peculiar to snowfields at high
altitudes and low latitudes, where solar radiation and atmospheric conditions
conducive to suncups are intense. The columns often slant toward the
midday sun. Nieves penitentes reach their most striking development among
the higher peaks of South America’s Andes and the Himalaya, where they
may become several feet high and make mountain travel very difficult.
Drain channels. After melting has begun in spring, water runoff forms
drainage patterns on snowfields. The actual flow takes place within the
snowpack, not on the surface. As snow melts at the surface, the water that is
formed percolates downward until it encounters either impervious layers that
deflect its course or highly permeable layers that it can easily follow. Much
of the water also reaches the ground beneath. Water that flows within the
snow often causes a branching pattern of drain channels that appear on the
surface. This happens because the flowing water accelerates the snow
settlement around its channels, which are soon outlined by depressions at the
surface. The dirt that collects in these depressions absorbs solar radiation,
causing differential melting that further deepens them.

Fig. 27-2. Surface features on snow: a, suncups; b, nieves penitentes; c, sastrugi.

On a sloping surface, drain channels flow downhill and form a parallel

ridge pattern that can make it a little difficult to turn while glissading or
skiing. On flat surfaces, drain fields create a dimpled-looking surface,
similar to suncups but more rounded. The appearance of dimples or drain
channels suggests that a significant amount of water has percolated into the
snow cover. If these dimples or channels are frozen, it can be a good sign of
stability against avalanches. However, if they are newly formed and still soft
with liquid water, snow stability may be compromised by meltwater that has
percolated into a susceptible buried layer and weakened it.
Sastrugi and barchans. When it is scoured by wind, the surface of dry
snow develops a variety of erosional forms, such as small ripples and
irregularities. On flat, treeless territory and high ridges, both of which are
under the full sweep of the wind, these features attain considerable size.
Most characteristic are sastrugi (pronounced sass-TRUE-gee, a Russian
word meaning “grooves”), the wavelike forms with sharp prows directed
into the prevailing wind (fig. 27-2c). A field of sastrugi—hard, unyielding,
and as much as several feet high—can make for tough going.
High winds over featureless snow plains also produce dunes similar to
those found in desert sand, with the crescent-shaped dune, or barchan, being
most common. These stiff, uneven features cause difficult traveling,
especially when ice or rocky ground is exposed between each one.
Cornices. Deposits of snow on the lee edge of a ridgetop, pinnacle, or
cliff are called cornices. Snow that falls during storms furnishes material for
cornice formation. Cornices also are formed or enlarged by snow blown
from snowfields that lie to the windward side of the ridge or feature (see
Figure 17-5a). As a general rule, cornices formed during snowstorms (see
Figure 17-5b) are softer than those produced by wind drift alone. Cornices
present a particular hazard because they overhang, forming an unsupported,
unstable mass (which may not be solid all the way through) that can break
off (see Figure 17-5c) due to natural causes or human disturbance. It is
dangerous to walk on a cornice. In addition, falling cornices are dangerous to
those below and also can set off avalanches.

AGING OF THE SNOW COVER

Snow that remains on the ground changes with time. The crystals undergo a
process of change—metamorphism—that usually results in smaller, simpler
forms and a snowpack that shrinks and settles. Metamorphism begins the
moment that snow falls and lasts until it completely melts away. Because the
snowpack continually changes over time, mountaineers find it useful to
know the recent history of weather and snow conditions in an area, in order
to calculate what the snow cover will be like.
Equilibrium growth process. One type of metamorphism, the
equilibrium growth process, gradually converts the varied original forms of
the snow crystals into old snow: homogeneous, rounded grains of ice (fig.
27-3). Both temperature and pressure affect the rate of change. When
temperature within the snow is near the freezing point—32 degrees
Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius)—change is rapid. The colder it gets, the
slower the change; it virtually stops below minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit
(minus 40 degrees Celsius). Pressure from the weight of new snowfall
speeds changes within older layers. Snow that has reached old age—
surviving at least one year and with all original snow crystals now converted
into grains of ice—is called firn or névé. Any further changes to firn snow
lead to formation of glacier ice (see the next section).

Fig. 27-3. Metamorphism of a snow crystal in the equilibrium growth process; days indicate time
required for shapes to change under average temperature and pressure conditions in a typical
seasonal snow cover.

Kinetic growth process. Another type of metamorphism, the kinetic

growth process, takes place when water vapor moves from one part of the
snowpack to another by vapor diffusion, which deposits ice crystals that are
different from those of the original snow. This kinetic growth produces
faceted crystals (fig. 27-4). When the process is completed, the crystals often
have a scroll or cup shape, appear to be layered, and may grow to
considerable size—up to 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) or so. They form a fragile
structure known as depth hoar that loses all strength when crushed and
becomes very soft and weak when wet. This weak, unstable snow form is
popularly referred to as sugar snow when dry and rotten snow when wet.
The conditions necessary for its formation are a large difference in
temperature at different depths in the snow and sufficient air space so that
water vapor can diffuse freely. The conditions are most common early in
winter when the snowpack is shallow and unconsolidated.
Fig. 27-4. Metamorphism of a snow crystal in the kinetic growth process results in a scroll or cup
shape that appears layered and may become relatively large.

Age hardening. In addition to undergoing metamorphic changes caused

by variations in temperature and pressure, snow can age by mechanical
means, such as wind. Snow particles broken by wind or other mechanical
disturbances undergo a process known as age hardening for several hours
after they are disturbed. This age hardening is the reason why it is easier to
travel in snow if you follow tracks previously set by feet, skis, snowshoes, or
snowmobiles.
Snow’s variations in strength are among the widest strength variations
found in nature: New snow is about 90 percent air, and the individual,
unconnected grains make it a fluffy, weak material that is easy to break
apart. In contrast, wind-packed old snow may contain less than 30 percent
air, with the small, broken particles forming strong interconnected bonds that
can create layers 50,000 times harder than fluffy new snow. The variations
between these two extremes and the continual changes in strength caused by
changes in temperature, pressure, and wind make for highly variable
conditions from place to place and hour to hour.

THE FORMATION OF GLACIERS

Glaciers form for a rather simple reason: Snow that does not melt or
evaporate during the course of a year is carried over to the next winter. If
snow continues to accumulate year after year, eventually consolidating and
beginning a slow downhill movement, it has become a glacier.

Fig. 27-5. Rounded snow grains that are pressed and squeezed together form a large glacier ice
crystal.

Within the old snow—the firn or névé—the metamorphic conversion of

snow crystals into grains of ice has been completed. Now the grains of ice
are changed into glacier ice in a process called firnification. Firn turns into
glacier ice when the air spaces between the grains become sealed off from
each other so the mass becomes airtight (fig. 27-5).
Each spring when the lower snow layers are still at temperatures below
freezing, percolating meltwater refreezes when it reaches these lower layers.
This refrozen meltwater forms ice layers within the firn. Therefore, by the
time compaction and metamorphism have prepared an entire area of firn for
conversion to glacier ice, the firn may already contain irregular bodies of ice.
Once glacier ice has formed, metamorphism does not cease. Some of the
ice grains continue to grow at the expense of their neighbors, and the
average size of the ice crystals increases with age (fig. 27-6). Large glaciers,
in which the ice takes centuries to reach the glacier’s foot, may produce
crystals more than 12 inches (30 centimeters) in diameter, gigantic
specimens grown from minute snow particles.
To understand how a simple, valley-type alpine glacier is born, picture a
mountain in the northern hemisphere that has no glaciers. Now suppose
climatic changes occur that cause snow to persist from year to year in a
sheltered spot with northern exposure. From the beginning, snow starts to
flow toward the valley in the very slow motion called creep. New layers are
added each year, the patch of firn snow grows deeper and bigger, and the
amount of snow in motion increases. The creeping snow, while melting and
refreezing, dislodges soil and rock, and the flow of water around and under
the snow patch additionally influences the surroundings. This small-scale
process of erosion eventually leads to formation of a hollow where the
winter snows are deposited in deeper drifts. After the snow deepens beyond
100 feet (30 meters) or so, the increasing pressure of the many upper layers
of firn causes the lower layers to begin turning to glacier ice. A glacier is
born.

images
Fig. 27-6. Ice crystals increase greatly in size as they transform from snowflakes and firn into glacier
ice.

With continued nourishment from heavy winter snows, the glacier flows
toward the valley as a stream of ice. At some point in its descent, the glacier
reaches an elevation low enough and warm enough that no new snow
accumulates. The glacier ice begins to melt. Eventually the glacier reaches a
point, even lower and warmer, at which all ice carried down from above
melts each year. This is the lower limit of the glacier.
Glaciers vary from stagnant masses with little motion to vigorously
flowing rivers of ice that transport large masses each year from higher to
lower elevations. Glaciers in relatively temperate climates flow both by
internal deformation and by sliding on their beds. Differences in speed
within the glacier are somewhat like those in a river: fastest at the center and
surface and slower at the sides and bottom where bedrock creates drag.
Small polar glaciers present a striking difference in appearance from their
temperate cousins, for they are frozen to their beds and can flow only by
internal deformation. The polar glaciers look much like flowing molasses,
whereas temperate glaciers are rivers of broken ice.

CREVASSES
Crevasses are important features of glaciers. Crevasses are fractures that
occur when ice encounters a force greater than it can bear. Near the surface
of a glacier, where ice is just beginning to form, the ice is full of tiny flaws
and weakly bonded crystals. When it stretches or bends too fast, it can break
apart in a brittle manner, like glass. The result is a crevasse.
Crevasses typically are 80 to 100 feet (25 to 30 meters) deep. At depths
greater than that, ice layers become stronger, with increasingly large and
well-bonded crystals. When stresses try to pull this deeply buried ice apart,
overlying pressure further squeezes it together, causing it to flow and deform
like thick, gooey honey. In colder glaciers—at high elevations or in polar
climates—crevasses can penetrate somewhat deeper because colder ice is
more brittle and tends to break more easily.
 Temperate glaciers normally have more, and shallower, crevasses than
polar glaciers because temperate glaciers usually move faster. When glaciers
move very fast, such as over a very precipitous drop, extensive fracturing
occurs, which forms an icefall. The numerous crevasses link together,
isolating columns of ice called seracs.

ICE AVALANCHES
Ice avalanches can pour from hanging glaciers, icefalls, and any serac-
covered portion of a glacier. Ice avalanches are caused by a combination of
glacier movement, temperature, and serac configuration. On warm,
lowelevation glaciers, ice avalanches are most common during late summer
and early fall when meltwater has accumulated enough to flow underneath
the glacier and increase its movement. The avalanche activity of high-
elevation glaciers and cold glaciers that are frozen to the bedrock has no
such seasonal cycle.
Reports differ on the time of day when ice avalanches are most active.
Field observers suggest that they are most common during the afternoon.
This may be possible in a snow-covered serac field if daytime heating
loosens snow enough to avalanche into seracs and cause them to fall,
creating an ice avalanche. However, scientists have discovered an increase in
activity during the early morning hours when the ice is cold and most brittle.
Ice avalanches can occur any time of year and any time of day or night.

THE FORMATION OF SNOW AVALANCHES

Numerous combinations of snow patterns cause avalanches. Every
snowstorm deposits a new layer of snow. Even during the same storm, a
different type of layer may be deposited each time the wind shifts or the
temperature changes. After snow layers are deposited, their character is
continually altered by the forces of wind, temperature, sun, and gravity. Each
layer is composed of a set of snow crystals that are similar in shape to each
other and that are bonded together in similar ways. Because each layer—
each set of crystals—is different, each reacts differently to the various
forces. Knowing something about these differences can help climbers
understand and avoid avalanches.
Snow avalanches usually are categorized by their release mechanism:
loose-snow avalanches start at a point; slab avalanches begin in blocks. Slab
avalanches usually are much larger and involve deeper layers of snow.
Loose-snow avalanches can be equally dangerous, however—especially if
they are wet and heavy, if they catch victims who are above cliffs or
crevasses, or if they trigger slab avalanches or serac falls.

LOOSE-SNOW AVALANCHES
Loose-snow avalanches can occur when new snow builds up on steep slopes
and loses its ability to remain on the slope. The snow rolls off the slope,
drawing more snow along as it descends. Sun and rain also can weaken the
bonds between snow crystals, especially if they are newly deposited, causing
individual grains to roll and slide into loose-snow avalanches. Skiing,
glissading, and other human activities also can set off loose-snow avalanches
by disturbing the snow. Loose-snow avalanches can easily sweep climbers
into crevasses and over cliffs, destroy tents, and bury or carry away vital
equipment.

SLAB AVALANCHES
Slab avalanches are more difficult to anticipate than loose-snow avalanches
because they involve buried layers of snow that often cannot be detected
from the surface. Usually a buried weak layer or weak interface is
sandwiched between a slab layer and a bed layer or the ground (fig. 27-7).
The buried weakness is disturbed in a way that causes it to reduce its
frictional hold on the overlying slab.
Slab avalanches create an amount of havoc to climbers that is equal to or
greater than that of loose-snow avalanches. Not only can slab avalanches
fling people and equipment off slopes or bury them, but the tremendous
speed of a slab avalanche and the force of impact have been known to move
entire buildings and transport objects and people hundreds of yards
downslope. It is difficult to survive an avalanche that is hurtling downslope,
and once a person is buried, the snow hardens, rapidly making it difficult to
breathe and hampering rescue.

images
Fig. 27-7. Typical snow layering in a slab avalanche, with a weak layer between the slab and bed
layers.

The Buried Weak Layer

Depth hoar and buried surface hoar (hoarfrost) are the most notorious weak
layers. They can withstand a significant amount of vertical load but have
little or no shear strength—that is, they slide easily along their horizontal
interface. They may collapse like a house of cards, or their structure may
give way like a row of dominoes. In addition, depth hoar and buried surface
hoar can survive weeks to months with little change in their fragile structure.
Surface hoar (also known as “frost”) can form all across the snow cover,
persisting most in shaded places that are protected from wind. Buried by
subsequent snowfall, it becomes a weak layer that can promote avalanching.
It becomes most dangerous if the first storm following hoarfrost formation
begins with cool, calm conditions. This is because it can quickly form a thin
layer, even in a matter of hours. This layer is hard to detect, but can still
function as a layer for subsequent snow loading.
Depth hoar matures fastest in the shallow snow of early winter, when the
ground is still warm and the air is cold (common in continental regions), but
it can develop anytime or anyplace where there are large differences in
temperature at different depths of snow. Weakness begins as soon as
temperature and associated vapor-pressure differences cause molecules of
water vapor to move onto facets of individual ice crystals instead of into
bonds between crystals. This causes a loose, sugar-like collection of ice
grains. Therefore, immature depth hoar (solid, faceted shapes) may be just as
weak as mature depth hoar (open, cup, and scroll shapes).
Buried graupel (soft hail; see Figure 27-1g) is another classic weakness
within the snowpack because it can act like ball bearings if disrupted. Other
weaknesses that can make it easier for slabs to avalanche include plate-
shaped crystals (see Figure 27-1a).
Buried weak layers may persist longer over glacier ice than over bare
ground. The glacier reduces the amount of geothermal heating available to
the snow from the ground, keeping temperatures somewhat cooler and
slowing metamorphism. This means that buried weaknesses in seasonal
snow underlain by glaciers can persist following storms and well into the
summer long after adjacent snowy slopes have stabilized.

The Slab Layer

Once the underpinning of a snowpack is sufficiently weakened, the
overlying snow (either a single layer or group of layers) begins to slide. If
the overlying snow is cohesive enough to develop some tension as sliding
begins—that is, if it sticks together enough to form a slab—it may break in
long fractures that propagate across the slope. Lengthy fractures can result in
large, heavy blocks that easily pull away from the rest of the slope, such as
along the side and bottom of a slope where more-stable snow may exist.
Slabs commonly are formed by brittle, wind-deposited snow layers. Wind
often deposits snow in pillow-like patterns on the leeward side of ridges,
thickest in the middle of the slope (where most of the weight of the slab, and
thus the greatest avalanche danger, exists) and thinner on the edges. Wind
slabs can maintain their blocky integrity throughout a slide, thrusting
powerful masses downslope.
Slabs also are commonly formed by layers of needle-shaped crystals (see
Figure 27-1d) deposited like a pile of pickup sticks and by layers of
branching crystals with many interlocking arms (see Figure 27-1b and e),
which often pulverize immediately after release to form fast-moving powder
avalanches.
Thick rain crusts often bridge over weakened surfaces and are rarely
involved in avalanches until they begin to melt in spring. Sun crusts, on the
other hand, usually are thinner and weaker than rain crusts and can be
incorporated in a group of slab layers.
If the overlying snow is too warm or too wet compared with the
underlying weakness, it may not break, instead just deforming slightly in
response to the change in basal friction and staying on the slope. However, if
the underlying weak layer fails quickly and initial movement is significant,
even this wet and pliable slab can avalanche. This scenario occurs
commonly during spring when thick layers of old depth hoar are weakened
by percolating meltwater. The resulting collapse of the depth hoar can cause
a bending motion, like a whip, that overstresses the slab and causes it to
fracture and slide. This whiplike effect also can occur in dry snow.
If the overlying snow is fragile and noncohesive—technically not a slab—
the failure of a weak layer may simply result in snow grains in the overlying
snow collapsing over each other but remaining in place. However, if the
weak layer is buried surface hoar or slightly rounded branching or plate
crystals, the failure can be so rapid that even the most fragile snow layers
can turn into slab avalanches.

The Bed Layer

A bed layer provides the initial sliding surface of avalanches. Common bed
layers are the smooth surfaces of old snow, meltwater crust, glaciers,
bedrock, or grass. The interface of these smooth surfaces and the snow
above can be further weakened if temperature changes promote the
formation of depth hoar or if the interface is lubricated by meltwater or
percolating rainwater. The bed layer also can be the collapsed fragments of
old depth hoar.

AVALANCHE TRIGGERS
Humans are efficient trigger mechanisms for avalanches. Descending
glissaders, stomping snowshoers, and ascending skiers, especially when
executing kick turns, disturb layers of depth hoar or buried surface hoar. The
sweeping turns and traversing motions of downhill skiers and snow-boarders
are effective at releasing loose-snow avalanches and fragile but fast-moving
soft-slab avalanches. Snow-plow turns, hockey-stops, sideslipping downhill,
or falling may release wet loose-snow and wet slab avalanches. It is even
possible to initiate an avalanche by traveling below a slope, especially if the
buried weakness is surface or depth hoar, because a domino effect can occur
as the delicate crystal structure collapses, propagating the failure uphill. The
weight and vibration of snowmobiles can set off avalanches in places where
nonmotorized travel would not.
Storms also trigger avalanches. Many types of buried layers (such as thin
layers of slightly rounded branches and platelike crystals) fail when a force
is applied evenly over a broad surface, as occurs when storms deposit layers
of new snow. Earthquakes, cornice and serac falls, and other internal and
external effects on the snow can cause avalanches at unpredictable times and
places. Loud sounds alone cannot trigger avalanches; for example, it is the
concussive impact (not the percussive noise) of bombs set off by ski
professionals that triggers a controlled slide. To learn more about
avalanches, see Chapter 17, Avalanche Safety.

UNDERSTANDING THE CYCLE OF SNOW

Learning about the terrain and weather preceding a trip can help climbers
anticipate snow conditions before leaving home. During a trip,
understanding how wind, sun, and precipitation affect snow at different
elevations and on different slope aspects will help determine choice of route
and use of equipment.
Dense snow can provide good walking surfaces and sound bollards for
rope belays, but if the snow is dense enough to have transformed to ice, then
the walking can be slippery and carving bollards can be difficult. Fluffy new
snow is fun for skiing downhill but makes uphill travel arduous and provides
little or no support for belaying. The variety, combination, and timing of
snow layering can promote avalanching.
The cycle of snow, from the first falling flake to glacier ice to meltwater,
creates a dramatic and ever-evolving environment to challenge and delight
climbers.
FORCES THAT CREATE WEATHER • THUNDER AND LIGHTNING •
LOCALIZED WINDS • FIELD FORECASTING IN THE MOUNTAINS •
CREATING CUSTOM WEATHER BRIEFINGS • APPLYING THE
INFORMATION

images

CHAPTER 28

MOUNTAIN WEATHER

It is no accident that many of the world’s grandest monuments and

temples—the pyramids of Egypt and Mexico, for example—mimic
mountains. Mountains exude massive strength and permanence, their
summits frequently assailed by storms that the ancients believed were
signals of divine presence and power. Approaching the summit of such
a peak was an act thought to risk the disfavor of the gods.

Today most climbers believe that a disastrous encounter with severe

weather is the result of insufficient respect for the elements or bad luck,
rather than the work of an angry god. There is no question that a trip into
the mountains can expose people to more dangerous weather than most
other environments on earth. Refuge can be harder to find, and major peaks
can manufacture their own weather. Despite improvements in weather
forecasting, knowledge of exactly how the atmosphere works, particularly
in mountainous regions, is still incomplete. The wise climber not only
carefully checks weather forecasts and reports before a trip but also
develops an ability to assess the weather in the field.

FORCES THAT CREATE WEATHER

Understanding weather forecasts and reports requires a basic grasp of the

forces that create weather. Such knowledge will not only help mountaineers
better digest such information before leaving home, it will also help
climbers detect important changes on the trail or climbing route as the
weather changes over time.
THE SUN

The sun does far more than simply illuminate Planet Earth. It is the engine
that drives the earth’s atmosphere, providing the heat that, along with other
factors, creates the temperature variations that are ultimately responsible
for wind, rain, snow, thunder, and lightning—everything known as weather.

The key to the sun’s impact is that the intensity of the sun’s radiation varies
across the earth’s surface. Closer to the equator, the sun’s heat is more
intense. The extremes in temperature between the equator and the poles
come as little surprise; however, those differences in air temperature also
lead to air movement, which moderates those temperature extremes.

AIR MOVEMENT

The horizontal movement of air (what is called wind) is all too familiar to
anyone who has pitched a tent in the mountains. However, air also rises and
descends. When air cools, it becomes denser and sinks; the air pressure
increases. But when air warms, it becomes less dense and rises; the air
pressure decreases. These pressure differences, the result of temperature
differences, produce moving air. Air generally moves from an area of high
pressure to one of low pressure (fig. 28-1). Remember, wind direction is
defined as the direction the wind is coming from, not the direction it is
moving toward.

images

Fig. 28-1. The earth’s air circulation patterns: movement from areas of
high pressure at the poles toward areas of low pressure at the equator,
deflected in the middle latitudes by the earth’s rotation.

Air moving from high to low pressure carries moisture with it. As that air
moves into the zone of lower pressure, then rises and then cools, the
moisture may condense into clouds or fog. The reason is that, as the air
cools, its capacity to hold water vapor is reduced. This is why you can
“see” your breath when the air temperature becomes cold: the water vapor
in your mouth condenses into liquid water droplets as you breathe out. The
process of cooling and condensation operates on a large scale in the earth’s
atmosphere as air moves from high-pressure systems into low-pressure
systems, where it rises.

Because Arctic and Antarctic polar air is colder and therefore denser than
air closer to the equator, it sinks. The zone where it sinks and piles up is a
region of high pressure. As the air sinks and its pressure increases, its
temperature warms a bit. The effect is similar to what happens to football
or rugby players caught at the bottom of a pile: they get squeezed the most,
and their temperature (and possibly temperament) heats up. In the
atmosphere, this warming within a high-pressure area tends to evaporate
some of the moisture present. That is why the Arctic receives very little
precipitation. Although this sinking motion heats the air enough to
evaporate much of the moisture in it, the air does not heat up enough to
transform the poles into the tropics!

THE EARTH’S ROTATION

If the earth did not rotate, the cold polar air would just continue to slide
toward the equator. However, the air sinking and moving from the poles
toward the equator and the air rising from the equator do not form a simple
loop moving from north to south (or from south to north) and back again.
The rotation of the earth around its axis deflects this air. Some of the air
rising from the equator descends over the subtropics, creating a region of
high pressure. In turn, part of the air moving from these subtropical highs
moves north into the air moving south from the north pole (or moves south
into the air moving north from the south pole). The boundary between these
two very different air masses is called the polar front (see Figure 28-1).
When this boundary does not move, it is called a stationary front. It often
serves as a nursery for the development of storms.

images

Fig. 28-2. Fronts: a, cold front displaces warmer air; b, warm front
displaces colder air.

COLD FRONTS AND WARM FRONTS

Because of the great contrast in temperatures across the polar front,
together with imbalances caused by the rotation of the earth and differing
influences of land, sea, ice, and mountains, some of the cold, dry air from
the north slides south (or, in the southern hemisphere, air from the south
slides north). That forces some of the warm air to rise. The zone where cold
air is replacing warm air is referred to as a cold front (fig. 28-2a), and the
zone where warm air is gradually replacing cooler air is referred to as a
warm front (fig. 28-2b); both types of fronts appear as a “wave” or bend on
the stationary front. An occluded front combines characteristics of warm
and cold fronts and is typically found near the center of a mature low-
pressure system.

Both cold and warm fronts are marked by unique clouds, which help the
mountaineer distinguish one type of front from the other. Clouds seen
ahead of, along, or just behind a cold front include cumulus (fig. 28-3a),
altocumulus (fig. 28-3b), cumulonimbus (fig. 28-3c), and stratocumulus
(fig. 28-3d). These clouds are puffy, resembling cotton candy. The name
cumulus refers to their “pile” or “heap” shape. Stratocumulus clouds are
sheetlike layers of cumulus clouds; the name stratus refers to the
“sheetlike” or “layered” characteristics of these clouds.

Clouds seen ahead of or along a warm front include a halo (fig. 28-3e),
lenticular (fig. 28-3f), stratus (fig. 28-3g), cirrocumulus (fig. 28-3h),
cirrostratus (fig. 28-3i), altostratus (fig. 28-3j), and nimbostratus (fig. 28-
3k). Overall, lowering and thickening clouds signal the approach of
precipitation and lowered visibility.

The “wave” or bend that develops along what started out as a stationary
front may develop into a low-pressure system, with air circulating
counterclockwise around the low (the opposite direction of air moving
around a high)—again, a consequence of the earth’s rotation and friction.

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING

Thunderstorms can be set off by the collision of different air masses when
fronts move through or by the rapid heating of air when it comes in contact
with sun-warmed mountain slopes. Once this air is warmed, it becomes
buoyant and tends to rise. If the atmosphere above is cold enough, the air
tends to keep rising, producing what are called air-mass thunderstorms. A
single lightning bolt can heat the surrounding air up to 50,000 degrees
Fahrenheit (approximately 25,000 degrees Celsius). That heating causes the
air to expand explosively, generating earsplitting thunder.

Thunderstorms in the mountains can and do kill (fig. 28-4)—and not just
from lightning strikes, although lightning is the biggest killer, claiming an
average of 200 lives in the United States alone each year. Lightning can
also spark dangerous wildfires, and even a moderate thunderstorm may
release up to 125 million gallons (473 million liters) of rainwater. The
resulting flash floods can quickly inundate streambeds and small valleys,
sweeping away entire camp-grounds. The growing popularity of
canyoneering, particularly rappelling in deep slot canyons, increases
climbers’ exposure to flash floods and drowning. Thunderstorms can also
produce winds of lethal intensity, capable of leveling entire stretches of
forest.

TABLE 28-1. CLOUD-COVER CLUES

IF THEN CHECK FOR

High cirrus clouds, halo Precipitation possible Lowering, thickening

around sun or moon within 24–48 hours clouds

High cirrus clouds

forming tight ring or Precipitation possible Lowering, thickening
corona around sun or within 24 hours clouds
moon

“Cap” or lenticular clouds Precipitation possible Lowering, thickening

forming over peaks within 24 to more than 48 clouds
hours; strong winds
possible near summits or
leeward slopes
Thickening, lowering, Warm or occluded front Shifting wind;
layered flat clouds likely within 12–24 hours dropping pressure

Breaks in cloud cover Cold front likely within Shifting wind;

closing up 12 hours dropping pressure

images

Fig. 28-3. Identifying cloud types: a, b, c, and d, cloud types seen ahead of,
along, or just behind a cold front; (continued on next page)

images

Fig. 28-3. (continued from preceding page) e, f, g, h, i, j, and k, cloud types

seen ahead of or along a warm front.

images

Fig. 28-4. Thunderstorm hazards include lightning, flash floods, and high
winds.

By taking a few precautions, climbers can avoid most accidents caused by

mountain thunderstorms (see the “Tips If Thunderstorms Are Forecast”
sidebar). Begin by obtaining updated weather reports and forecasts before
hitting the trail.

GAUGE THE MOVEMENT OF A THUNDERSTORM

How is it possible to gauge the movement of a thunderstorm? It is easy

with a watch. Use the “flash to bang” principle: The moment lightning
flashes, start counting the seconds. Stop timing once the bang of thunder is
heard. Divide the number of seconds by five; the result is the
thunderstorm’s distance away in miles. Continue to time lightning and
thunder discharges to judge whether the thunderstorm is approaching,
remaining in one place, or receding. If the time interval between the
lightning and thunder is decreasing, the thunderstorm is approaching; if the
interval is increasing, it is moving away.

TIPS IF THUNDERSTORMS ARE FORECAST

imagesObtain updated weather reports and forecasts before hitting the

trail.

imagesDo not camp or climb in a narrow valley or gully.

imagesDo not climb or hike in high, exposed areas.

imagesClimb high early and descend by the afternoon. Thunderstorms

tend to develop with afternoon heating.

imagesWatch small cumulus clouds for strong, upward growth; this may
signal a developing thunderstorm.

imagesWatch for cumulus clouds changing from white to dark gray or

black.

This technique works because the light from the lightning moves much
faster than the sound from the thunder. Although the thunder occurs at
virtually the same instant as the lightning, its sound travels only about 1
mile (1.6 kilometers) every 5 seconds, whereas the lightning flash,
traveling at 186,000 miles (300,000 kilometers) per second, arrives
essentially instantaneously. That is why the lightning is seen before the
thunder is heard, unless the thunderstorm is very close—too close.

IF A THUNDERSTORM APPROACHES

If climbers are caught out in the open during a thunderstorm, they should
try to seek shelter. Tents are poor protection: metal tent poles may function
as lightning rods; stay away from poles and wet items inside the tent. Take
the following precautions to avoid being struck by lightning:

imagesGet away from water because it readily conducts electricity.

imagesSeek low ground if the party is in an open valley or meadow.

 imagesMove immediately if your hair stands on end.

imagesAvoid standing on ridgetops, at lookout structures, or near or

under lone tall trees, especially isolated or diseased trees, which are more
likely to fall in thunderstorm winds.

imagesLook for a stand of even-sized trees if the party is in a wooded

area.

imagesDo not remain near or on rocky pinnacles or peaks.

imagesDo not remain near, touch, or wear metal or graphite

equipment, such as ice axes, crampons, climbing devices, and frame
packs.

images

Fig. 28-5. Wind accelerates through gaps and passes.

imagesInsulate yourself from the ground if possible. Place a soft pack

or foam pad beneath you to protect against step voltage transfer of the
lightning strike through the ground—though ground currents may move
through such insulation.

imagesCrouch to minimize your profile, and cover your head and ears.

imagesDo not lie down—lying down puts more of your body in contact
with the ground, which can conduct more electrical current.

LOCALIZED WINDS

Understanding large-scale wind patterns, both at the earth’s surface and in

the upper atmosphere, is important for being able to gauge the weather.
However, because mountains, by their very nature, alter wind considerably,
understanding localized patterns is crucial to the mountaineer. It can mean
the difference between successfully reaching the summit, being tent-bound,
or getting blown off the mountain.

GAP WINDS
Winds are often channeled through gaps in the terrain such as major passes
or even between two peaks. Wind speeds can easily double as they move
through such gaps (fig. 28-5).

Climbers can use this knowledge to their advantage. If possible, gauge the
surface wind speeds upwind of a gap or pass before traveling into the
vicinity of these terrain features. Knowing the upwind velocities can
prepare a climber for gap winds that may be twice as strong. Avoid
camping near the downwind portion of the gap, and consider selecting
climbing routes not exposed to such winds. A major peak can block or slow
winds for a few miles downwind.

VALLEY AND GRAVITY WINDS

Sparsely vegetated ground is typically found closer to ridges. Because it

heats more rapidly than forest-covered land near valley floors, and because
heated air rises, wind is generated that moves up either side of a valley,
spilling over adjoining ridgetops. Such uphill breezes, called valley winds,
can reach 10 to 15 miles (16 to 24 kilometers) per hour, attaining peak
speed during the early afternoon and dying out shortly before sunset.

TABLE 28-2. WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED CLUES

(NORTHERN HEMISPHERE)

IF AND IF THEN

Air pressure drops; low-

Clouds lower, thicken;
Winds shift to E or SE pressure system
precipitation possible
approaching

Winds shift from SW Air pressure rises Drying and clearing

to NW likely; showers on
windward slopes,
especially along US or
Canadian west coast
 Continued air pressure
Increasing winds from
drop; low-pressure system Winds likely to increase
from E to SE
approaching

Showers possible along

Air pressure rises; high-
Winds shift from SW windward slopes,
pressure system
to W especially along US or
approaching
Canadian west coast

At night the land cools, and the cool air flows downslope in what is called a
gravity wind. Such downslope breezes reach their maximum after
midnight, dying out just before sunrise. Camping at the base of a cliff may
result in an uncomfortably breezy evening. The more open the slopes
between a campsite and the ridge above, the faster the winds will be.

FOEHN WINDS (CHINOOKS)

When winds descend a slope, air temperatures may increase dramatically in

what is called a foehn wind or, in the western United States, a chinook. The
air heats as it sinks and compresses on the leeward side of the crest (fig. 28-
6), sometimes warming 30 degrees Fahrenheit (17 degrees Celsius) in
minutes, melting as much as a foot of snow in a few hours. These winds are
significant because of their potential speed, the rapid rise in air temperature
associated with them, and the potential they create for both rapid melting of
snow and flooding. Such winds can increase the risk of avalanches, weaken
snow bridges, and lead to sudden rises in stream levels.

Warning signs make it possible to anticipate a potentially dangerous foehn

wind or chinook. Expect such a wind with temperatures warming as much
as 6 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet (3 degrees Celsius per 300 meters) of
descent, if these three conditions are met:

1. You are downwind of a major ridge or crest, primarily to the east of

mountains.
2. Wind speeds across the crest or ridge exceed 30 miles (48 kilometers)
per hour.

3. You observe precipitation above the crest.

images

Fig. 28-6. Foehn winds (chinooks) descend and warm quickly.

MAJOR INDICATORS OF AN APPROACHING STORM

imagesChanges in cloud cover

imagesChanges in air pressure

imagesChanges in wind direction

imagesChanges in wind speed

BORA WINDS

The opposite of a chinook is a bora or, as it is called in Greenland, a

piteraq. A bora is simply wind consisting of air so cold that its sinking,
compressing motion as it flows downslope fails to warm it significantly.
Such subzero winds are most common downslope of large glaciers. Their
speeds can easily exceed 50 miles (80 kilometers) per hour. A bora can
blow away tents, throw climbers off balance, lower the windchill to
dangerous levels (see “Windchill Index” in Chapter 24, First Aid), and
obscure visibility by blowing snow.

FIELD FORECASTING IN THE MOUNTAINS

The process of gathering and evaluating weather data should not end at the
trailhead or at the beginning of the climbing route. Changes in weather—
which can cause weather-related accidents in the mountains—rarely occur
without warning. At times the clues can be subtle, and sometimes they are
as broad as daylight (see the “Major Indicators of an Approaching Storm”
sidebar).
No single one of the four factors shown in the sidebar will tell you all you
need to know; examine each carefully. The rest of this section gives some
guidelines for evaluating these elements, which can enhance the weather
reports and forecasts climbers obtain before leaving home. Occasionally,
such information can also be updated en route via smartphone, although
that’s subject to coverage and the reliability of the phone app or source. For
changes in cloud cover, see Table 28-1; for changes in wind direction and
speed, see Table 28-2.

TABLE 28-3. AIR PRESSURE AND/OR ALTIMETER CHANGE

OVER 3 HOURS

PRESSURE ALTIMETER
ADVISED ACTION
DECREASE INCREASE

0.02–0.04 inch (0.6–

20–40 feet (6–12 meters) None; continue to monitor
1.2 millibars)

If clouds lowering hourly

0.04–0.06 inch (1.2– or thickening, begin
40–60 feet (12–18 meters)
1.8 millibars) checking pressure
changes hourly

Winds ranging from 18 to

33 knots (21 to 38 miles
0.06–0.08 inch (1.8- per hour) likely—
60–80 feet (18–24 meters)
2.4 millibars) consider less-exposed
locations, continue
monitoring conditions

More than 0.08 inch More than 80 feet (more Winds of 34 knots (40
(more than 2.4 than 24 meters) miles per hour) or greater
millibars) likely—move
 immediately to protected
area

AIR PRESSURE CLUES

A barometer or barometric altimeter can give excellent warning of an

approaching weather system. A barometer measures air pressure directly; a
barometric altimeter measures air pressure and reports elevation. A
decrease in air pressure shows on an altimeter as an increase in elevation
even when the party has not changed its elevation; an increase in air
pressure shows on an altimeter as a decrease in elevation, again, even when
the party has not changed its elevation. (See “Altimeter” in Chapter 5,
Navigation.)

Table 28-3 evaluates a developing low-pressure system, but rapidly

building high pressure also can have its troublesome effects—principally,
strong winds.

FREEZING LEVEL AND SNOW LEVEL

It can be useful to estimate the freezing level and snow level. Such
estimates are subject to error because they are based on the average
decrease in temperature as altitude increases: 3.5 degrees Fahrenheit per
1,000 feet (2 degrees Celsius per 304 meters) of elevation gain (see the
“Estimating the Freezing Level” sidebar). Still, such estimates are usually
better than the alternative: no estimate. Once the freezing level has been
estimated, use the guidelines in Table 28-4 to estimate the snow level.

ESTIMATING THE FREEZING LEVEL

To estimate the elevation at which the temperature drops to 32 degrees

Fahrenheit, climbers simply need to know their elevation and the
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit:

images

For example:
 images

To estimate the elevation at which the temperature drops to 0 degrees

Celsius, climbers simply need to know their elevation and the temperature
in degrees Celsius:

images

For example:

images

TABLE 28-4. ESTIMATING THE SNOW LEVEL

IF AND IF THEN

Expect to find the snow

Stratus clouds or fog Steady, widespread level 1,000 feet (304
present precipitation meters) below the
freezing level

Expect to find the snow

level as much as 2,000
Cumulus clouds feet (608 meters) below
Locally heavy
present or a cold front the freezing level; snow
precipitation
approaching will stick 1,000 feet (304
meters) below the
freezing level

CREATING CUSTOM WEATHER BRIEFINGS

Consider gathering weather information at least one day, and preferably

two to three days, before a planned departure. That gives the party a chance
to verify the forecasts by observing conditions. If the forecasts are pretty
close to what the party actually sees, climbers can proceed with planning
with more confidence than if the forecast and observed weather conditions
are 180 degrees apart.

TWO TO THREE DAYS BEFORE THE TRIP

imagesCheck the overall weather pattern: the positions of highs, lows,

and fronts.

imagesCheck the projected weather forecast for the next two days.

ONE DAY BEFORE THE TRIP

imagesCheck the current weather to evaluate the accuracy of the

previous day’s forecasts.

imagesCheck the overall weather pattern again: the positions of highs,

lows, and fronts.

imagesCheck the projected weather for the next two days.

imagesCheck for updates every six to eight hours if the possibility of

strong winds, thunderstorms, or significant snow or rain is mentioned. The
lead time on such forecasts is short because of the rapid changes that
sometimes occur.

ON THE DAY OF THE TRIP

imagesCheck the current weather to evaluate the accuracy of the

previous day’s forecasts.

imagesCheck the projected weather for the trip’s duration.

imagesMake decisions based on current forecasts, the track record of

earlier forecasts, personal experience, and the demands of the trip.

APPLYING THE INFORMATION

Mountaineers have a rich supply of weather forecast sources available to

them before they depart on a trip. Such information gathered with a
purpose is of great value. Begin with the vital step of obtaining current
forecasts for the locale of the climb, followed by careful observation during
the outing. Analyze changes in cloud cover, pressure, and wind speed and
direction. Consider all such weather information thoroughly when selecting
approach and climbing routes, camp locations, and start and turnaround
times. Constant awareness of the environment and its impact on the party’s
plans will create a greater margin of safety during your pursuit of the
freedom of the hills.
APPENDIX: RATING SYSTEMS

A rating system is a tool that helps a climber choose a climb that is both
challenging and within his or her ability. The development of rating
systems for climbing began in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries in Britain and Germany. In the 1920s, Willo Welzenbach created a
rating system, using roman numerals and the British adjectival system, to
compare and describe routes in the Alps. This system was used as the basis
of the Union Internationale des Associations d’Alpinisme (UIAA,
International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation) system of rating.
Rating systems have since proliferated. Ratings used internationally today
include no fewer than seven systems for rock, four for alpine climbing, four
for ice, and two for aid climbing.

Rating climbs is a subjective task, which makes consistency between

climbing areas elusive. Climb ratings assume fair weather and availability
of the best possible equipment. Variables that affect the rating include the
size, strength, and flexibility of the climber, as well as the type of climb
(for instance, face, crack, or friction climbing), and the types of holds or
features on the climb itself.

Ideally, a route is rated by consensus in order to reduce personal bias,

though climbs often are rated by the first-ascent party. A guidebook author
typically does not climb every route in the guidebook and therefore has to
rely on the opinions of others. In some cases, a route may have been
completed only once.

Ratings described as “stiff” indicate that the climb is harder than it is rated,
whereas a description of a “soft” rating indicates the climb is easier than it
is rated. Of course, evaluation of a rating system is no more precise than the
rating system itself. Whenever you climb in an area for the first time, it’s a
good idea to start out on recommended or “starred” routes at a level lower
than your usual ability until you can evaluate the local ratings and the
nature of the rock.

ALPINE CLIMBING
The National Climbing Classification System (NCCS), developed in the
United States, assigns grades to describe the overall difficulty of a
multipitch alpine climb or long rock climb in terms of time and technical
rock difficulty. It takes the following factors into account: length of climb,
number of difficult pitches, difficulty of hardest pitch, average pitch
difficulty, commitment, routefinding problems, and ascent time. The
approach and remoteness of a climb might or might not affect the grade
given, depending on the guidebook and area. It should be emphasized that
with increasing grade, an increasing level of psychological preparation and
commitment is necessary. This system assumes a party that is competent
for the expected level of climbing.

Grade I. Normally requires several hours; can be of any technical

difficulty.

Grade II. Requires half a day; any technical difficulty.

Grade III. Requires a day to do the technical portion; any technical

difficulty.

Grade IV. Requires a full day for the technical portion; the hardest pitch is
usually no less than 5.7 (in the Yosemite Decimal System for rating rock
climbs; see below).

Grade V. Requires a day and a half; the hardest pitch is at least 5.8.

Grade VI. A multiday excursion with difficult free climbing and/or aid
climbing.

Grade VII. Requires at least 10 days of suffering on a huge wall, in poor

weather, in a remote area. Climbing grades are at least as difficult as those
on a Grade VI climb with all other factors increasing in intensity.

Like other rating systems, the grade is subjective. For example, the Nose on
El Capitan in California’s Yosemite National Park is rated Grade VI.
Warren Harding and companions took 45 days for the first ascent, in 1958.
John Long, Billy Westbay, and Jim Bridwell made the first one-day ascent
in 1975. Hans Florine and Peter Croft cut the time to under four and a half
hours in 1992, and Lynn Hill (accompanied by a belayer) led the first free
ascent in 1993 and the first one-day free ascent in 1994. The time needed
for a climb is as relative as the abilities and technologies of the climbers.
The type of climb affects what factors of the given grade are emphasized.
Proper planning, including study of a route description, are more valuable
in estimating a party’s climbing time than the given grade.

ROCK CLIMBING

Rating systems have been created for free climbing, aid climbing, and
bouldering.

FREE CLIMBING

In 1937, a modified Welzenbach rating system was introduced in the

United States as the Sierra Club System. In the 1950s, this system was
modified to more accurately describe rock climbing being done at Tahquitz
Rock in California by adding a decimal to the Class 5 rating. This is now
known as the Yosemite Decimal System (YDS). This system categorizes
terrain according to the techniques and physical difficulties encountered
when rock climbing. Figure A-1 compares the YDS with other international
rating systems.

Class 1. Hiking.

Class 2. Simple scrambling, with possible occasional use of the hands.

Class 3. Scrambling; hands are used for balance; a rope might be carried.

Class 4. Simple climbing, often with exposure. A rope is often used. A fall
could be fatal. Typically, natural protection can be easily found.

Class 5. Where rock climbing begins in earnest. Climbing involves the use
of a rope, belaying, and protection (natural or artificial) to protect the leader
from a long fall.

The decimal extension of Class 5 climbing originally was meant to be a

closed-end scale—that is, ranging from 5.0 to 5.9. Up until 1960 or so, a
climb that was the hardest of that era would be rated 5.9. The rising
standards in the 1960s, however, led to a need for an open-ended scale.
Strict decimal protocol was abandoned, and 5.10 (pronounced “five-ten”)
was adopted as the next highest level. As the open-ended system let the
decimal numbers go up to 5.11, 5.12, and ever higher, not all climbs were
rerated, leaving a disparity between the “old-school ratings” and the new
ratings.

The YDS numbers reached 5.15 in the first few years of the twenty-first
century. The ratings from 5.10 to 5.15 are subdivided into a, b, c, and d
levels to more precisely state the difficulty. The most difficult 5.12 climb,
for instance, is rated 5.12d. A plus sign or a minus sign is occasionally used
as a more approximate way to refine a classification. Sometimes a plus sign
will be added to indicate that the pitch is sustained at its particular rating,
while a minus sign might indicate that the pitch has only a single move at
that level.

The extended numbers of the fifth-class rating system can’t be defined

precisely, but the following descriptions offer general guidelines:

5.0–5.7. Easy for experienced climbers; where most novices begin.

5.8–5.9. Where most weekend climbers become comfortable; employs the

specific skills of rock climbing, such as jamming, liebacks, and mantels.

5.10–5-11. A committed recreational climber can reach this level.

5.12–5.15. The realm of true experts; demands much training and natural
ability, as well as, often, repeated working of a route.

The YDS rates only the hardest move on a pitch and, for multipitch climbs,
the hardest pitch on a climb. The YDS gives no indication of overall
difficulty, protection, exposure, runouts, or strenuousness. Some
guidebooks, however, will rate a pitch higher than the hardest move if the
pitch is very sustained at a lower level. A guidebook’s introduction should
explain any variations on the YDS that may be used.
Because the YDS does not calculate the potential of a fall, but only the
difficulty of a move or pitch, a seriousness rating has been developed. This
seriousness rating (introduced by James Erickson in 1980) appears in
guidebooks in a variety of forms; read the introduction to any guidebook
for an explanation of its particular version.

PG-13. Protection is adequate, and if it is properly placed, a fall would not

be long.

R. Protection is considered inadequate; there is potential for a long fall, and

a falling leader would take a real “whipper,” suffering serious injuries.

X. Inadequate or no protection; a fall would be very long with serious,

perhaps fatal, consequences.

Ratings of the quality of routes are common in guidebooks. If anything,

they are even more subjective than the basic climb ratings because they
attempt to indicate aesthetics. The number of stars given for a route
indicates the quality of the route in the eyes of the guidebook writer. A
standard number of stars for the very best climbs has not been established.
A climb with no stars does not mean the climb isn’t worth doing, nor does a
star-spangled listing mean that everyone will like the route.

images

Fig. A-1. Six of the world’s seventeen climbing rating systems.

AID CLIMBING

Rating aid moves or aid climbs is different from rating free climbs in that
the rating system is not open-ended like the YDS. An aid climbing rating
primarily indicates the severity of a possible fall, based on the quality of
protection available. To some extent, an aid rating indicates the difficulty of
the climbing, but only in that there is a loose correlation between easy-to-
place protection and its ability to arrest a fall. However, following a series
of “easy” hook moves for a distance of 40 feet (12 meters) with no
protection left to arrest a fall might garner a rating of A3, while conversely
some A1 pitches might accommodate high-quality protection at regular
intervals but could be extremely difficult to climb if the crack is a deep,
awkward flare with protection available only at its very back.

The scale is from A0 to A5 or from C0 to C5. The “A” refers to aid climbs
in general, which may utilize pitons, bolts, or chocks. The “C” refers to
clean aid climbing, meaning that a hammer is not used to make placements.
A rating such as C2F, with the “F” indicating “fixed,” indicates that the
pitch can be climbed clean only if critical gear normally placed with a
hammer has been left in place by other parties. It is sometimes possible to
climb a pitch clean that is rated with the A0–A5 system, and some pitches
have two ratings, one A rating and one C rating, which indicates the grade
with or without a hammer.

The following rating system is used worldwide except in Australia (which

uses M0 to M8; the “M” stands for mechanical):

A0 or C0. No aiders are required. Fixed gear such as bolts may be in place,
or the climber may be able to simply pull on a piece of gear to get through
the section, a technique sometimes called “French free.”

A1 or C1. Good aid placements; virtually every placement is capable of

holding a fall. Aiders are generally required.

A2 or C2. Placements are fairly good but may be tricky to place. There
may be a couple of bad placements between good placements.

A2+ or C2+. Same as A2, though with increased fall potential—perhaps 20

to 30 feet (6 to 10 meters).

A3 or C3. Hard aid. Several hours to lead a pitch, with the potential of 60-
to 80-foot (18- to 24-meter) falls, but without danger of grounding (hitting
the ground) or serious injury.

A3+ or C3+. Same as A3, but with the potential of serious injury in a fall.
Tenuous placements.

A4 or C4. Serious aid. Fall potential of 80 to 100 feet (24 to 30 meters),

with very bad landings. Placements hold only body weight.
A4+ or C4+. More serious than A4. More time on the route, with increased
danger.

A5 or C5. Placements hold only body weight for an entire pitch, with no
solid protection such as bolts. A leader fall at the top of a 150-foot (45-
meter) A5 pitch means a 300-foot (90-meter) fall or a fall that would cause
a serious impact on a rock feature, the latter of which may be equivalent to
hitting the ground.

A5+. A theoretical grade; A5, but with bad belay anchors. A fall means
falling to the ground (anchor failure).

Aid ratings are always subject to change. What was once a difficult A4
seam may have been beaten out with pitons to the point that it will accept
large chocks, rendering it C1. Camming devices and other examples of
newer technology can sometimes turn difficult climbs into easy ones. Some
climbs once considered A5 might now be rated A2 or A3 after repeated
traffic and with the use of modern equipment.

Big wall climbs are rated like this:

The Nose, El Capitan: VI, 5.8, C2

This means that the Nose route on Yosemite’s El Capitan is a Grade VI (a

“multiday excursion”); the most difficult moves that you must free-climb
(with no option to aid) are YDS 5.8; and the most difficult aid is C2.

BOULDERING

Bouldering—climbing on large rocks, fairly close to the ground—has

gained popularity. Though once a game played by alpinists in mountain
boots on days too rainy for climbing, bouldering has become an all-out
pursuit of its own. John Gill created his B-scale to rate boulder problems:

B1. Requires moves at a high level of skill—moves that would be rated

5.12 or 5.13.
B2. Moves as hard as the hardest climbs being done in standard rock
climbing (5.15 currently).

B3. A successful B2 climb that has yet to be repeated. Once repeated, the
boulder rating automatically drops to B2.

John Sherman created the open-ended V-scale, which gives permanent

ratings to boulder problems (unlike Gill’s scale, with its floating ratings).
As shown in Figure A-2, Sherman’s scale starts at V0- (comparable to 5.8
YDS); it moves up through V0, V0+, V1, V2, and so on, with V16 being
comparable to 5.15c YDS. Neither the B- nor V-scale takes into account the
consequences of a rough landing on uneven terrain.

SHERMAN V-SCALE
YOSEMITE DECIMAL SYSTEM
(BOULDERING)

5.8 V0-

5.9 V0

5.10a-b V0+

5.10c-d V1

5.11a-b V2

5.11c-d V3

5.12- V4

5.12 V5
5.12+ V6

5.13- V7

5.13 V8

5.13+ V9

5.14a V10

5.14b V11

5.14c V12

5.14d V13

5.15a V14

5.15b V15

5.15c V16

Fig. A-2. The Sherman V-scale for rating boulder problems, compared with
the Yosemite Decimal System for rating rock climbs.

ICE CLIMBING
The variable conditions of snow and ice climbing make rating those climbs
difficult. The only factors that usually do not vary throughout the season
and from year to year are length and steepness. Snow depth, ice thickness,
and temperature affect the conditions of the route; these factors plus the
nature of the ice and its protection possibilities determine a route’s
difficulty. These rating systems apply mainly to waterfall ice and other ice
formed by meltwater (rather than from consolidating snow, as on glaciers).

COMMITMENT RATING

The important factors in this ice climbing rating system are length of the
approach and descent, the length of the climb itself, objective hazards, and
the nature of the climbing. (The Roman numeral ratings used in this system
have no correlation to the numerals used in the grading system for overall
difficulty of alpine climbs; see “Alpine Climbing” earlier.)

A short, easy climb near the road, with no avalanche hazard and a
I.
straightforward descent.

A route of one or two pitches within a short distance of rescue

II.
assistance, with very little objective hazard.

A multipitch route at low elevation, or a one-pitch climb with an

approach that takes an hour or so. The route requires from a few hours
III.
to a long day to complete. Descent may require building rappel
anchors, and the route might be prone to avalanche.

A multipitch route at higher elevations; may require several hours of

IV. approach on skis or foot. Subject to objective hazards; possibly with a
hazardous descent.

V. A long climb in a remote setting, requiring all day to complete the

climb itself. Requires many rappels off anchors for the descent.
Sustained exposure to avalanche or other objective hazard.
 A long ice climb in an alpine setting, with sustained technical
climbing. Only elite climbers will complete it in a day. A difficult and
VI.
involved approach and descent, with objective hazards ever-present, all
in a remote area far from the road.

Everything a grade VI has, and more of it. Possibly requires days to

VII. approach the climb, and objective hazards render survival as certain as
a coin toss. Needless to say, difficult physically and mentally.

TECHNICAL RATING

The technical grade rates the single most difficult pitch, taking into account
the sustained nature of the climbing, ice thickness, and natural ice features
such as chandeliers, mushrooms, or overhanging bulges. These ratings have
been further subdivided, with a plus added to grades of 4 and above if the
route is usually more difficult than its stated numerical grade.

1.A frozen lake or streambed (the equivalent of an ice rink).

2.A pitch with short sections of ice up to 80 degrees; lots of opportunity for
protection and good anchors.

3.Sustained ice up to 80 degrees; the ice is usually good, with places to rest,
but it requires skill at placing protection and setting anchors.

4.A sustained pitch that is vertical or slightly less than vertical; may have
special features such as chandeliers and runouts between protection.

5.A long, strenuous pitch—possibly 165 feet (50 meters) of 85- to 90-
degree ice with few if any rests between anchors. Or the pitch may be
shorter but on featureless ice. Good skills at placing protection are required.

6.A full 165-foot pitch of dead-vertical ice, possibly of poor quality;

requires efficiency of movement and ability to place protection from
awkward stances.
7.A full pitch of thin, vertical or overhanging ice of dubious adhesion. An
extremely tough pitch, physically and mentally, requiring agility and
creativity.

8.Thin, gymnastic, overhanging, and bold. Pure ice climbs at this level are
extremely rare.

These ratings typically describe a route in its first-ascent condition.

Therefore a route that was rated a 5 on its first ascent might be a 6- in a
lean year for ice, but only a 4+ in a year with thick ice. The numerical ice
ratings are often prefaced with WI (water ice, or frozen waterfalls), AI
(alpine ice), or M (mixed rock and ice; historically, mixed climbs were
described with the YDS).

NEW ENGLAND ICE RATING SYSTEM

A system developed for the water ice found in New England applies to
normal winter ascent of a route in moderate weather conditions:

NEI 1. Low-angle water ice of 40 to 50 degrees, or a long, moderate snow

climb requiring a basic level of technical expertise for safety.

NEI 2. Low-angle water ice with short bulges up to 60 degrees.

NEI 3. Steeper water ice of 50 to 60 degrees, with bulges of 70 to 90

degrees.

NEI 4. Short vertical columns, interspersed with rests, on 50- to 60-degree

ice; fairly sustained climbing.

NEI 5. Generally multipitch ice climbing with sustained difficulties and/or

strenuous vertical columns, with little rest possible.

NEI 5+. Multipitch routes with a heightened degree of seriousness, long

vertical sections, and extremely sustained difficulties; the hardest ice
climbing in New England to date.

MIXED CLIMBING
Jeff Lowe introduced the Modern Mixed Climbing Grade to simplify the
rating of the crux on mixed ice and rock routes. It is an open-ended scale
with routes rated M1 to M13. A plus sign or a minus sign is added to
broaden the range and to prevent grade compression. It is the consensus of
top climbers that the M ratings in Europe are inflated by one grade. See
Figure A-3 for a comparison of the M grades to YDS ratings.

OTHER MAJOR RATING SYSTEMS

A variety of rating systems are used throughout the world. Figure A-1
compares the principal systems. Apart from the main rating systems
described here, other rating systems are used around the world, which are
unique to their own treatment of seriousness and local weather and
conditional phenomena. The Alaska Grade, for example, is a grading
system unique to Alaska that takes into account severe storms, cold,
altitude, and cornicing; it extends from Grade 1 to 6 (instead of overall
commitment ratings I to VII).

MODERN MIXED GRADE YOSEMITE DECIMAL SYSTEM

M4 5.8

M5 5.9

M6 5.10

M7 5.11

M8 5.11+/5.12-

M9 5.12+/5.13-
M10 5.13+/5.14-

M11 5.14+/5.15-

M12 5.15

M13 5.15+

Fig. A-3. The Modern Mixed Climbing Grades for mixed rock and ice
climbs, compared with the Yosemite Decimal System for rating rock climbs.

When climbing in a new area, be sure to check with local authorities and/or
guidebooks and become knowledgeable about any possible local grading
systems and their peculiarities.

ROCK CLIMBING

Australian. The Australian system uses an open-ended number series. The

Australian number 38, for example, is equivalent to 5.15c in the YDS.

Brazilian. The rating of climbs in Brazil is composed of two parts. The

first part gives the general level of difficulty of the route as a whole,
ranging from first to eighth grade (or degree). The second part gives the
difficulty of the hardest free move (or sequence of moves without a natural
rest). Figure A-1 shows only the second part of the Brazilian system, the
part that is most comparable to the other systems shown. The lower range is
expressed in roman numerals; the designation “sup” (for superior) is added
to refine the accuracy of the rating. The upper range is expressed in Arabic
numerals with letter modifiers.

British. The British system is composed of two elements: an adjectival

grade and a technical grade.

The adjectival grade—such as Very Difficult (VD) or Hard Severe (HS)—

describes the overall difficulty of a route, including such factors as
exposure, seriousness, strenuousness, protection, and runouts. The list of
adjectives to describe increasingly difficult routes became so cumbersome
that the British finally ended it at Extremely Severe (ES) and now simply
advance the listing with numbers: E1 for Extremely Severe 1, E2 for
Extremely Severe 2, and so forth:

E. Easy.

M. Moderate.

D. Difficult.

VD. Very difficult.

HVD.Hard very difficult.

MS. Mild severe.

S. Severe.

HS. Hard severe.

VS. Very severe.

HVS. Hard very severe.

ES. Extremely severe.

E1. Extremely severe 1.

E2. Extremely severe 2.

E3. Extremely severe 3.

The technical grade is defined as the hardest move on a particular route.

This numeric component of the British system is also open-ended and is
subdivided into a, b, and c.

The two grades are linked to each other. For example, the standard
adjectival grade for a well-protected 6a, which is not particularly sustained,
is E3 (and the combined rating would be expressed as E3 6a). If the route is
a bit run-out, it would be E4; if it is really run-out, it would be E5. See
Figure A-1.

French. In the French open-ended system, ratings of 6 and above are

subdivided into a, a+, b, b+, c, and c+. The French rating of 9b+ is
comparable to 5.15c in the YDS.

UIAA. The UIAA open-ended rating system uses roman numerals.

Beginning with the fifth level (V), the ratings also include pluses and
minuses. The UIAA rating of XII is comparable to 5.15c in the YDS.
German climbers use the UIAA system.

ALPINE CLIMBING AND ICE CLIMBING

The International French Adjectival System (IFAS) is an overall rating of

alpine and ice climbs used primarily in the Alps. The system is used by
several countries, including France, Britain, Germany, Italy, and Spain. It
expresses the seriousness of the route, including factors such as length,
objective danger, commitment, altitude, runouts, descent, and technical
difficulty in terms of terrain.

The system has six categories that are symbolized by the initials of the
French adjectives used. It is further refined with the use of plus or minus
signs, or the terms “sup” (superior) or “inf” (inferior). The ratings end with
an adjective readily understood in English:

Facile (“easy”). Steep walking routes, rock scrambling, and easy

F. snow slopes. Crevasses possible on glaciers. Rope not always
necessary.

Peu difficile (“a little difficult”). Rock climbing with some technical
PD.
difficulty, snow and ice slopes, serious glaciers, and narrow ridges.

Assez difficile (“fairly difficult”). Fairly hard climbs, steep rock

AD.
climbing, and long snow and/or ice slopes steeper than 50 degrees.

Difficile (“difficult”). Sustained hard rock and snow and/or ice

D.
climbing.

Très difficile (“very difficult”). Serious technical climbing on all

TD.
kinds of terrain.

Extrêmement difficile (“extremely difficult”). Extremely serious

ED.
climbs with long, sustained difficulties of the highest order.

ABO.Abominable. Translation—and difficulty—obvious.

GLOSSARY

accessory cord Core-and-sheath-constructed cord of diameters ranging

from 2 to 8 millimeters, fabricated from aramid (Kevlar), nylon, Perlon,
polyester, and polyethylene (Dyneema or Spectra) fibers.

accumulation zone The portion of a glacier that receives more snow every
year than it loses to melting.

acute mountain sickness (AMS) An altitude-related illness.

aid climbing Using gear to support a climber’s weight while climbing.

aiders Webbing ladders that allow an aid climber to step up. Also called
etriers.

alpine rock climbing Rock climbing that requires mountaineering skills.

alpine start Starting before daybreak.

alpine touring (AT) See randonée skiing.

altimeter Instrument for determining altitude.

American technique Cramponing technique that combines flat-footing

(French) and front-pointing (German) techniques on steep snow or ice.
Also called combination technique. See combination technique.

AMS See acute mountain sickness.

anchor The point on the mountain to which the climbing system is securely
attached; there are belay anchors, rappel anchors, and protection in rock,
snow, and ice.

approach shoes Lightweight, sticky-soled shoes designed for both trails

and moderate rock climbing.
ascender Mechanical device used to ascend a rope. Also called jug, jumar.

autoblock A hitch that provides modest friction to simulate the grip of a

hand. Commonly used while rappelling.

back-cleaning A procedure in which the leader cleans some protection

while ascending the route.

bearing The direction from one place to another measured in degrees from
true north.

belay anchor See anchor.

belay device A piece of equipment that applies friction to the rope to arrest
a fall.

belaying Fundamental technique of generating friction to stop a rope’s

movement and the climber attached to that rope.

bergschrund Giant crevasse found at the upper limit of glacier movement,

formed where the moving glacier breaks away from the ice cap or
snowfield above.

bight A 180-degree bend in a rope.

big wall climbing Climbing on a large, sheer wall, which usually requires
bivouacs and extensive aid climbing.

bivy From the French bivouac, meaning “temporary encampment.”

bivy sack Large fabric envelope that serves as a Lightweight alternative to

a tent.

body belay See hip belay.

bollard A mound carved out of snow or ice and rigged with rope, webbing,
or accessory cord to provide an anchor.
bolt Permanent piece of artificial protection consisting of a threaded bolt
that is placed into a hole drilled into rock.

braking hand The belayer’s hand that secures the belay; must be kept in
contact with the rope at all times.

cairn A pile of rocks used as a route marker.

cam See spring-loaded camming device, Tricam.

camming Application of torquing or counterpressure with climbing gear.

carabiner Metal snap-link that comes in various shapes and sizes;

indispensable and versatile tool of climbing used for belaying, rappelling,
clipping in to safety anchors, securing the rope to points of protection, and
numerous other tasks.

CEN European Committee on Standardization, Comité Européen de

Normalisation. The European nonprofit organization responsible for
creating and maintaining climbing equipment standards. The “CE” mark
signifies that a product meets all applicable European legislation. See also
UIAA.

chimney A crack wide enough to fit a climber’s body and narrow enough
to allow a climber to apply opposing force to both walls.

chlorine dioxide Chemical water-treatment method (not to be confused

with chlorine) for purifying water.

chock Climbers’ hardware comprising removable protection. Also called

stopper, wired nut.

chockstone A rock firmly lodged in a crack or between gully walls.

circlehead See copperhead.

clean climbing Climbing without permanently marring the rock.

cleaning Removing protection.

cleaning tool See nut tool.

climbing in coils The preferred tie-in method for two-person glacier travel
teams—for closer spacing between rope partners and more efficient travel.

combination technique Cramponing technique that combines flat-footing

(French) and front-pointing (German) techniques on steep snow or ice.
Also called American technique.

contour lines Lines on topographic maps that represent constant

elevations.

coordinate system A system, such as UTM or latitude and longitude, to

describe a location on the earth.

copperhead Malleable hardware used in aid climbing. Also called head,

circlehead.

cord See accessory cord.

cordelette A long runner usually made of 7- to 8-millimeter nylon or

small-diameter, high-strength accessory cord.

crag climbing Technical rock climbing in an area close to roads and

civilization that does not require alpine skills.

crampons A set of metal spikes that attach to boots in order to penetrate

hard snow and ice.

crevasse A crack or chasm in a glacier.

crux The most significant, committing, or difficult section of a pitch or

climb.

daisy chain Sewn sling with stitched loops.

datum The anchoring points for a coordinate system. Critical when using a
map with a GPS device.

deadman Any object buried in the snow to serve as an anchor. Also any
piece of hardware such as an ice screw or ice tool used extemporaneously
for a protection placement in ice.

declination Compass adjustment needed to correct for local difference

between magnetic north and true north.

dihedral Where two walls meet in approximately a right-angled inside

corner. Also called open book.

dry rope Rope treated to make it more water-repellent.

dry tooling Climbing on rock with ice tools and crampons.

DWR Durable water repellent. A chemical coating applied to fabrics to

make them hydrophobic and able to shed water. Currently essential to the
functioning of virtually all waterproof-breathable fabrics.

dynamic rope A rope that stretches under loads.

Dyneema Brand name for ultra-high-molecular weight, ultra-strong

polyethylene fibers. Material is highly abrasion resistant and very
lightweight but has a low melting point and is very slippery, making knots
difficult. Commonly used in climbing runners; also called Spectra.

edging Climbing technique using either the inside or outside edge of the
foot so that the edge of the sole is weighted over the hold.

emergency communication device A device that can be used to summon

help in an emergency. Includes radios, smart phones, personal locator
beacons (PLBs), satellite phones, and satellite communicators (Garmin
InReach and SPOT).
equalette A cordelette with pretied knots used to rig anchors. See
cordelette.

equalization Equalizing forces on a multipoint anchor.

Esbit fuel Waxy fuel tablets made of hexamine and used in ultralight
stoves.

etriers See aiders.

fall factor The length of a fall divided by the length of the rope between
belay device and fallen climber.

fall line The line of travel of a freely falling object.

feeling hand The belayer’s hand that pays the rope in and out.

fixed line Rope anchored in place.

fixed pin Permanent piton.

flagging Climbing technique that involves extending a limb for

counterbalance, to prevent pivoting or the “barn-door” effect.

flaking Uncoiling the rope, one loop at a time, into a neat pile.

flat-footing See French technique.

fluke Metal-plate anchor used in snow and sand.

follower See second.

free climbing Using ropes and other means of climbing protection to

protect against injury, not assist progress. Originally meant “free from aid.”

free solo climbing Climbing without any rope or other means of protection
where a fall would result in serious injury or death.
French technique Cramponing technique used on moderately steep snow
and ice in which the feet are placed flat against the surface of the snow or
ice. Also called flat-footing.

friction climbing See smearing.

front-pointing Kicking front crampon points into hard snow or ice. Also
known as German technique.

gaiters Article of clothing used to seal boundary between pant legs and
boots from water, snow, and debris.

German technique See front-pointing.

glissade A controlled slide on snow.

Global Positioning System Collective term for satellite-based navigation

system run by US Department of Defense and similar agencies in other
countries. Often referred to as GPS.

grade A ranking from I to VII describing the overall difficulty of a

multipitch alpine climb or long rock climb in terms of time and technical
rock difficulty.

guylines Cords attached to a tent or tarp and staked out to brace it.

HACE See high-altitude cerebral edema.

halbmastwurf sicherung (HMS) German for “half clove-hitch belay”;

another term for the munter hitch. Carabiners stamped “HMS”
accommodate the munter hitch.

HAPE See high-altitude pulmonary edema.

hardshell Typically uninsulated rain parka or pants made from waterproof-
breathable fabric. See also softshell.

heads See copperhead.

hero loop See tie-off loop.

hex Hexagonally shaped removable protection. high-altitude cerebral

edema (HACE) An altitude-related illness affecting the brain.

high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) An altitude-related illness

affecting the lungs.

hip belay A method of applying friction to the rope with the belayer’s body
that does not require a mechanical device. Also known as a body belay.

HMS See halbmastwurf sicherung.

ice axe Specialized tool used by climbers, generally for snow and ice
travel.

ice screw A tubular, hollow screw used as protection in ice.

ice tool Short ice axe or hammer used for technical ice climbing.

icefall Steep, jumbled section of a glacier.

jamming A basic technique of crack climbing in which a hand or foot is

jammed into a crack, then turned or flexed so that it is snugly in contact
with both sides of the crack and it will not come out when weighted.

jugging Ascending the climbing rope with mechanical ascenders in aid

climbing. Also called jumaring.

jumaring See jugging.

K

kernmantle rope Rope composed of a core of braided or parallel nylon

filaments encased in a smooth, woven sheath of nylon; designed
specifically for climbing.

Kevlar Aramid synthetic fiber trademarked by DuPont; used in accessory

cord, among other things. See also accessory cord.

leader The climber who takes the lead on a roped pitch.

leashless tool Ice tools specifically designed to be used without leashes.

Leave No Trace Principles of minimum impact developed by the

organization of the same name.

lieback To use hands in opposition to feet to create a counterforce.

load-limiting runner A presewn runner with a series of weaker bar tacks

that fail at lower impact forces and absorb high loads. Also called energy-
absorbing sling.

mantel To use hand downpressure to permit the raising of the feet.

matching To place both hands or both feet on the same hold.

microfilter Drinking water filter designed to filter parasites, protozoa, and

bacteria, but not viruses. See purifier-filter.

moat Gap between snow and rock.

moraine Mounds of rock and debris deposited by a glacier.

mountaineering boot Crampon-compatible, stiff-soled footwear.

munter hitch A friction knot used for belaying and rappelling. Also called
the Italian half hitch. See also halbmastwurf sicherung.

nieves penitentes Snow pillars produced when suncup hollows become

very deep, accentuating the ridges into columns of snow that look like a
person wearing a penitent’s cowl.

nut Passive removable protection that is a wedging-type chock.

nut tool Tool used for removing protection. Also known as cleaning tool or
chock pick.

nylon cord See accessory cord.

objective hazard Physical hazard associated with a climbing route, such as

rockfall, exposure, and high altitude.

off-width A crack that is too wide for a hand jam but too narrow for
chimney technique.

open book See dihedral.

pearabiner A carabiner large enough at its wider end to accommodate a

munter hitch.

Perlon A brand name for nylon 6. See accessory cord.

personal locator beacon Electronic device that broadcasts a user’s GPS

location to emergency first responders via government-based satellites.
Also called PLB; similar to satellite communicators.

picket An aluminum stake used for an anchor in snow.

pitch The distance between belays on a climb.

piton A metal spike used as protection.

plunge-stepping A technique for walking down a snow slope that involves

assertively stepping away from the slope and landing solidly on the heel
with the leg vertical (but not with the knee locked), transferring weight to
the new position.

posthole To sink deeply with each step in snow.

protection Point of attachment that links climbing rope to the terrain. Also
known as pro.

prusik A friction hitch. Also a technique for ascending a climbing rope

using friction hitches.

purifier-filter Drinking water filter designed to filter parasites, protozoa,

bacteria, and viruses. See microfilter.

quickdraw A presewn runner, typically 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 centimeters)

long, with a carabiner loop sewn into each end through which a carabiner is
attached.

randonée skiing Ski technique used by climbers that employs hybrid

equipment allowing free-heel ascent and alpine descent and that
accommodates climbing boots. Also known as alpine touring.

rappel anchor See anchor.

rappelling Fundamental climbing technique of safely descending a rope

using friction to control speed.

rest step Ascent technique that ends every step with a momentary stop
relying on skeletal structure to give muscles a rest.
rock shoe Specialized rock climbing footwear with a sticky rubber sole.

rope drag Friction that impedes the rope’s travel.

runner Length of webbing or accessory cord used to connect components

of the climbing safety system. Also called a sling.

running belay Climbing technique in which all members of the rope team
climb at the same time, relying on immediate protection rather than a fixed
belay. Also called simul-climbing.

satellite communicator Electronic device that broadcasts a user’s GPS

location to emergency first responders via commercial satellites. Also
called satellite messengers. May include texting, location tracking, and
other nonemergency communication.

scrambling Unroped, off-trail travel that requires some use of hands.

scree Loose slope of rock fragments smaller than talus.

second The climber who follows the leader on a roped pitch. Also known
as a follower.

self-arrest Ice-axe technique used to stop a fall on snow.

self-belay Ice-axe technique in which the ice axe is jammed straight down
into the snow and held by the head or head and shaft.

serac Tower of ice on a glacier.

simul-climbing See running belay.

single-pulley system See 2:1 pulley system.

ski mountaineering Involves climbing mountains, either on skis or

carrying skis, and skiing down using randonée or telemark gear and style.
See also alpine touring, randonée skiing.
skins Strips of textured material that attach to the bottom of skis for
traction, designed to let the ski slide forward on snow but not backward.

SLCD See spring-loaded camming device.

sling See runner.

smearing Rock climbing technique in which the foot points uphill and the
climber maximizes contact between the rock and the sole of the shoe for
friction. Also called frictioning.

snow pit Pit dug into snow in order to observe snow conditions.

softshell Article of clothing made from dense, stretchy, woven synthetic

fabric.

Spectra See Dyneema.

SPF Sun protection factor, the rating system that quantifies the degree of
sun protection provided by a sunscreen product.

sport climbing Technical rock climbing that relies on fixed protection

(bolts) and does not usually require mountaineering skills; compare trad
climbing.

spring-loaded camming device (SLCD) Active removable protection that

uses spring-loaded cams to create opposing force in a crack. Also called a
cam.

spring-loaded nut A chock that uses a small sliding piece to expand the
profile of the chock after it is placed in a crack.

static rope A rope that does not stretch; used for fixed lines and hauling.

stemming Climbing technique using counterforce in which one foot

presses against one feature while the other foot or an opposing hand pushes
against another feature; commonly used to climb chimneys or dihedrals.
Also called bridging.
step-kicking Climbing technique that creates ascending steps in snow.

stopper See wired nut.

suncup Small hollow in snow or ice that is created by melting and

evaporation.

talus Rock fragments large enough to step on individually. See also scree.

team arrest Arrest attempted by several members of a rope team on a snow

slope.

technical climbing Climbing in which belays or protection should be used

for safety.

Ten Essentials Essential gear that should be carried on all wilderness trips.
Developed by The Mountaineers.

3:1 pulley system Raising system that theoretically triples the amount of
weight a rescue team could haul without a pulley. Also called Z-pulley
system.

tie-off loop Short runner commonly used for tying off belays, for self-belay
during a rappel, in aid climbing, and in rescue. Also called hero loop.

topos Topographic maps or climbers’ route sketches.

top roping A sport climbing technique in which the climber is belayed

using a rope that runs up from the belayer, through a preplaced top anchor,
and back down to the climber.

trad climbing Technical rock climbing in which climbers place and

remove protection; compare sport climbing.

Tricam Removable protection with a lobe-shaped camming wedge; can be

set actively or passively.
tube chock Telescoping protection used for off-width cracks.

2:1 pulley system Raising system that theoretically doubles the amount of
weight that a rescue team could haul without a pulley. Also called single-
pulley system.

UIAA International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation, Union

Internationale des Associations d’Alpinisme. The internationally
recognized authority in setting standards for climbing equipment.
See also CEN.

UPF Ultraviolet protection factor, the rating system that quantifies the
degree of sun protection provided by a garment.

UTM The Universal Transverse Mercator is one of the principal coordinate

systems used to define a location on the earth. See also coordinate system
and datum.

verglas The thin, clear coating of ice that forms when rainfall or melting
snow freezes on a rock surface.

V-thread anchor A V-shaped tunnel bored into the ice, with accessory
cord or webbing threaded through the tunnel and tied to form a sling.

V-thread tool A hooking device used to pull accessory cord or webbing

through the drilled tunnel of a V-thread ice anchor.

webbing See runner.

wired nut Passive removable protection. Also known as chock, stopper.

Z
Z-pulley system See 3:1 pulley system.
RESOURCES

Chapter 1: First Steps

Barcott, Bruce. The Measure of a Mountain: Beauty and Terror on Mount

Rainier. Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 2007.

Blum, Arlene. Annapurna: A Woman’s Place. Reprint ed. Berkeley, CA:

Counterpoint, 2015.

Bonatti, Walter. The Mountains of My Life. Translated and edited by Robert

Marshall. London: Penguin Classic, 2010.

Gillman, Peter, and Leni Gillman. The Wildest Dream: The Biography of
George Mallory. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2001.

Herzog, Maurice. Annapurna: First Conquest of an 8000-Meter Peak. 2nd

ed. Translated by Nea Morin and Janet Adam Smith. Guilford, CT: Lyons
Press, 2010.

Krakauer, Jon. Eiger Dreams: Ventures Among Men and Mountains.

Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2009.

Molenaar, Dee. The Challenge of Rainier: A Record of the Explorations

and Ascents, Triumphs and Tragedies on the Northwest’s Greatest
Mountain. 40th anniversary ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2011.

Muir, John. Nature Writings; The Story of My Boyhood and Youth; My First
Summer in the Sierra; The Mountains of California; Stickeen; Essays.
Edited by William Cronon. New York: Library of America, 1997.

_______. Our National Parks. In John Muir: The Eight Wilderness-

Discovery Books. Seattle: The Mountaineers; London, Diadem, 1992.

_______. The Wild Muir: Twenty-Two of John Muir’s Greatest Adventures.

Selected and introduced by Lee Stetson. Yosemite National Park, CA:
Yosemite Conservancy, 1994.
Nash, Roderick Frazier. Wilderness and the American Mind. 5th ed. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014.

Roberts, David. The Mountain of My Fear and Deborah: Two

Mountaineering Classics. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2012.

Simpson, Joe. Touching the Void: The True Story of One Man’s Miraculous
Survival. New York: Perennial, 2004.

Stuck, Hudson. The Ascent of Denali (Mount McKinley): A Narrative of the

First Complete Ascent of the Highest Peak in North America. New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1914 (USA: CreateSpace Independent Publishing
Platform, 2015).

Turner, Jack. Teewinot: Climbing and Contemplating the Teton Range. New
York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001.

Washburn, Bradford, and David Roberts. Mount McKinley: The Conquest

of Denali. New York: Abrams, 2000.

Chapter 2: Clothing and Equipment

Carline, Jan D., Martha J. Lentz, and Steven C. Macdonald.

Mountaineering First Aid: A Guide to Accident Response and First Aid
Care. 5th ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2004.

“Find the Insect Repellent That Is Right for You.”

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). www.epa.gov/insect-
repellents/find-insect-repellent-right-you.

Kirkpatrick, Andy. “Cragmanship: Modern Climbing Gear, Technique, and

Theory.”
http://andy-kirkpatrick.com.

Nasci, Roger, et al. “Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, & Other

Arthropods.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), US
Department of Health and Human Services, 2015.
https://www.nc.cdc.gov/travel.
Outdoor Gear Lab, various reviews, www.outdoorgearlab.com.

“Pesticides” US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

www.epa.gov/pesticides.

Recreational Equipment, Inc. (REI) Expert Advice.

www.rei.com/learn/expert-advice.html.

Wilkerson, James A., ed. Medicine for Mountaineering & Other Wilderness
Activities. 6th ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2010.

Chapter 3: Camping, Food, and Water

Kirkpatrick, Andy, various articles, www.andy-

kirkpatrick.com/writing/gear.

Muir, John. John of the Mountains: The Unpublished Journals of John

Muir. Edited by Linnie Marsh Wolfe. Madison: University of Wisconsin
Press, 1979. First published 1938.

Outdoor Gear Lab, various reviews, www.outdoorgearlab.com.

Recreational Equipment, Inc. (REI) Expert Advice,

www.rei.com/learn/expert-advice.html.

Tilton, Buck, and Rick Bennett. Don’t Get Sick: The Hidden Dangers of
Camping and Hiking. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2002.

Chapter 4: Physical Conditioning

Berardi, John. “The Five Rules for a High-Performance Body,”

www.precisionnutrition.com/day-1.

Haskell, W. L., et al. “Physical Activity and Public Health: Updated

Recommendation for Adults from the American College of Sports
Medicine and the American Heart Association.” Medicine & Science in
Sports & Exercise 39, no. 8 (2007): 1423–1434.
Hörst, Eric J. How to Climb 5.12. 3rd ed. Guilford, CT: Globe
Pequot/Falcon, 2012.

_______. Maximum Climbing: Mental Training for Peak Performance and

Optimal Experience. Helena, MT: Globe Pequot Press, 2010.

_______. Training for Climbing: The Definitive Guide to Improving Your

Performance. Guilford, CT: Falcon, 2016.

Luebben, Craig. Rock Climbing: Mastering Basic Skills. 2nd ed. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2014.

Schurman, Courtenay W., and Doug G. Schurman. The Outdoor Athlete.

Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2009.

_______. Train to Climb Mount Rainier or Any High Peak. Video. Seattle:
Body Results, 2002. www.bodyresults.com.

Soles, Clyde. Climbing: Training for Peak Performance. 2nd ed. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2008.

Twight, Mark, and James Martin. Extreme Alpinism: Climbing Light, Fast,
and High. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1999.

Chapter 5: Navigation

Burns, Bob, and Mike Burns. Wilderness Navigation. 3rd ed. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2015.

_______. Wilderness GPS. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2013.

CalTopo, USGS topographic maps, www.caltopo.com.

CanMaps, Canadian topographic maps, www.canmaps.com.

Gaia GPS, topo maps and trails available for Google (Android) and Apple
(iOS) phones, www.gaiagps.com.
Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, magnetic
declination information, www.geomag.nrcan.gc.ca/calc/mdcal-en.php.

Gmap4, enhanced Google Maps and topo maps,

https://mappingsupport.com/p/gmap4-free-online-topo-maps.html.

Google Earth, aerial photographs, www.google.com/earth.

MyTopo, USGS topographic maps, www.mytopo.com.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National

Centers for Environmental Information, magnetic declination information,
www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/declination.shtml.

Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), Canadian topographic maps,

www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-
information/maps/9767.

OpenStreetMap (OSM), a collaborative project to create a free editable

map of the world; OSM maps available through apps such as Gaia GPS.

Renner, Jeff. Mountain Weather: Backcountry Forecasting and Weather

Safety for Hikers, Campers, Climbers, Skiers, and Snowboarders. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2005.

Trails.com, topographic maps, www.trails.com.

US Coast Guard, Navigation Center, GPS information, www.gps.gov.

US Geological Survey (USGS), topographic maps, https://store.usgs.gov.

Chapter 6: Wilderness Travel

Allen, Dan. Don’t Die on the Mountain. 2nd ed. New London, NH:
Diapensia Press, 1998.

Anderson, Kristi, ed. Wilderness Basics. 4th ed. Seattle: Mountaineers

Books, 2013.
Berger, Karen. Everyday Wisdom: 1001 Expert Tips for Hikers. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 1997.

_______. More Everyday Wisdom. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2002.

Cosley, Kathy, and Mark Houston. Alpine Climbing: Techniques to Take

You Higher. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2004.

Fletcher, Colin, and Chip Rawlins. The Complete Walker IV. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 2002.

Herrero, Stephen. Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance. Guilford,

CT: Lyons Press, 2002.

Nelson, Dan. Predators at Risk in the Pacific Northwest. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2000.

Petzoldt, Paul. The New Wilderness Handbook. New York: W. W. Norton,

1984.

Smith, Dave. Backcountry Bear Basics. 2nd ed. Seattle: Mountaineers

Books, 2006.

Zawaski, Mike. Snow Travel: Skills for Climbing, Hiking, and Moving
Across Snow. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2012.

Chapter 7: Leave No Trace

Brame, Rich and David Cole. NOLS Soft Paths: How to Enjoy the
Wilderness Without Harming It. 4th ed. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole
Books, 2011.

Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics. Outdoor Skills and Ethics.
Boulder, CO: Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics, n.d. Booklet
series covering regions of the United States and a variety of outdoor
activities applicable anywhere. www.lnt.org.

Chapter 8: Access and Stewardship

Access Fund, The. Climbing Management: A Guide to Climbing Issues and
the Development of a Climbing Management Plan. Boulder, CO: The
Access Fund, 2008. www.accessfund.org.

Attarian, Aram, and Kath Pyke, comps. Climbing and Natural Resources
Management: An Annotated Bibliography. Raleigh: North Carolina State
University; Boulder, CO: The Access Fund, 2001.

Chouinard, Yvon. “Coonyard Mouths Off.” Ascent 1, no. 6: 50–52. San

Francisco: Sierra Club, 1972.

Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics. Skills and Ethics: Rock
Climbing. Boulder, CO: Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics, 2001.
www.lnt.org.

Pritchard, Paul. Deep Play: A Climber’s Odyssey from Llanberis to the Big
Walls. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1998.

Chapter 9: Basic Safety System

Animated Knots by Grog, website and app, www.animatedknots.com.

Lewis, S. Peter, and Dan Cauthorn. Climbing: From Gym to Crag. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2000.

Lipke, Rick. Technical Rescue Riggers Guide. 2nd ed. Bellingham, WA:
Conterra, 2009.

Luebben, Craig. Knots for Climbers. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon,

2001.

Owen, Peter. The Book of Climbing Knots. Guilford, CT: Globe

Pequot/Falcon, 2000.

Soles, Clyde. The Outdoor Knots Book. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2004.

Chapter 10: Belaying

Lewis, S. Peter, and Dan Cauthorn. Climbing: From Gym to Crag. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2000.

Long, John, and Bob Gaines. Climbing Anchors. 3rd ed. Guilford, CT:
Globe Pequot/Falcon, 2013.

_______. More Climbing Anchors. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon,

1998.

Luebben, Craig. Rock Climbing Anchors: A Comprehensive Guide. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2006.

Samet, Matt. The Climbing Dictionary: Mountaineering Slang, Terms,

Neologisms & Lingo. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2011.

Chapter 11: Rappelling

Lewis, S. Peter, and Dan Cauthorn. Climbing: From Gym to Crag. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2000.

Luebben, Craig. How to Rappel! Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon, 2000.

_______. Knots for Climbers. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon, 2001.

Viesturs, Ed, with David Roberts. No Shortcuts to the Top: Climbing the
World’s 14 Highest Peaks. New York City: Broadway Books, 2006.

Chapter 12: Alpine Rock Climbing

Donahue, Topher. Advanced Rock Climbing: Expert Skills and Techniques.

Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2016.

Goddard, Dale, and Udo Neumann. Performance Rock Climbing.

Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1993.

Hörst, Eric J. How to Climb 5.12. 3rd ed. Guilford, CT: Globe
Pequot/Falcon, 2012.
Ilgner, Arno. The Rock Warrior’s Way: Mental Training for Climbers. 2nd
ed. La Vergne, TN: Desiderata Institute, 2006.

Layton, Michael A. Climbing Stronger, Faster, Healthier: Beyond the

Basics. 2nd ed. Self-published, 2014.

Lewis, S. Peter, and Dan Cauthorn. Climbing: From Gym to Crag. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2016.

Long, John. How to Rock Climb! 5th ed. Guilford, CT: Globe
Pequot/Falcon, 2010.

_______. Sport and Face Climbing. Evergreen, CO: Chockstone Press,

1994.

Loughman, Michael. Learning to Rock Climb. San Francisco: Sierra Club

Books, 1981.

WideFetish, off-width cracks, www.widefetish.com.

Chapter 13: Rock Protection

Long, John, and Bob Gaines. Climbing Anchors. 3rd ed. Guilford, CT:
Globe Pequot/Falcon, 2013.

_______. Climbing Anchors Field Guide. 2nd ed. Guilford, CT: Globe
Pequot/Falcon, 2014.

_______. More Climbing Anchors. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon,

1998.

Long, John, and Craig Luebben. Advanced Rock Climbing. Guilford, CT:
Globe Pequot/Falcon, 1997.

Luebben, Craig. Rock Climbing Anchors: A Comprehensive Guide. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2006.

Chapter 14: Leading on Rock

Donahue, Topher. Advanced Rock Climbing: Expert Skills and Techniques.
Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2016.

Long, John, and Bob Gaines. Climbing Anchors. 3rd ed. Guilford, CT:
Globe Pequot/Falcon, 2013.

_______. Climbing Anchors Field Guide. 2nd ed. Guilford, CT: Globe
Pequot/Falcon, 2014.

_______. More Climbing Anchors. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon,

1998.

Long, John, and Craig Luebben. Advanced Rock Climbing. Guilford, CT:
Globe Pequot/Falcon, 1997.

Luebben, Craig. Rock Climbing Anchors: A Comprehensive Guide. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2006.

National Park Service. Technical Rescue Handbook. 11th ed. US

Department of Interior, 2014.

Chapter 15: Aid and Big Wall Climbing

Long, John, and John Middendorf. Big Walls. Guilford, CT: Globe
Pequot/Falcon, 1994.

Lowe, Jeff, and Ron Olevsky. Clean Walls. Video. Ogden, UT: Adaptable
Man Productions, 2004.

McNamara, Chris. How to Big Wall Climb. Mill Valley, CA: SuperTopo,
2013.

McNamara, Chris, and Chris Van Leuven. Yosemite Big Walls. 3rd ed. San
Francisco: SuperTopo, 2011.

Ogden, Jared. Big Wall Climbing: Elite Technique. Seattle: Mountaineers

Books, 2005.

Robbins, Royal. Advanced Rockcraft. Glendale, CA: La Siesta Press, 1973.

Chapter 16: Snow Travel and Climbing

Cliff, Peter. Ski Mountaineering. Seattle: Pacific Search Press, 1987.

Fyffe, Allen, and Iain Peter. The Handbook of Climbing. London: Pelham
Books, 1997.

Parker, Paul. Free-Heel Skiing: Telemark and Parallel Techniques for All
Conditions. 3rd ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2001.

Prater, Gene, and Dave Felkley. Snowshoeing: From Novice to Master. 5th
ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2002.

Soles, Clyde. Rock and Ice Gear: Equipment for the Vertical World.
Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2000.

Twight, Mark, and James Martin. Extreme Alpinism: Climbing Light, Fast,
and High. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1999.

Zawaski, Mike. Snow Travel: Skills for Climbing, Hiking, and Moving
across Snow. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2012.

Chapter 17: Avalanche Safety

American Avalanche Association, www.americanavalancheassociation.org.

American Avalanche Association and USDA Forest Service National

Avalanche Center. “Snow, Weather, and Avalanches: Observation
Guidelines for Avalanche Programs in the United States.” Pagosa Springs,
CO: American Avalanche Association, 2010.
www.fsavalanche.org/observational-guidelines.

American Institute for Avalanche Research and Education (AIARE),

http://avtraining.org.

Avalanche.org, www.avalanche.org.

Avalanche Canada, www.avalanche.ca.

Colorado Avalanche Information Center, US avalanche accident reports,
http://avalanche.state.co.us/accidents/statistics-and-reporting/.

Ferguson, Sue A., and Edward R. LaChapelle. The ABCs of Avalanche

Safety. 3rd ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2003.

LaChapelle, Edward R. Secrets of Snow: Visual Clues to Avalanche and Ski

Conditions. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001.

McClung, David, and Peter Schaerer. The Avalanche Handbook. 3rd ed.
Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2006.

Moynier, John. Avalanche Aware: The Essential Guide to Avalanche Safety.

Guilford, CT: Falcon, 2006.

Northwest Avalanche Center, www.nwac.us.

O’Bannon, Allen, with illustrations by Mike Clelland. Allen & Mike’s

Avalanche Book: A Guide to Staying Safe in Avalanche Terrain. Guilford,
CT: Falcon, 2012.

Tremper, Bruce. Avalanche Essentials: A Step-by-Step System for Safety

and Survival. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2013.

_______. Avalanche Pocket Guide: A Field Reference. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2014.

_______. Staying Alive in Avalanche Terrain. 2nd ed. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2008.

Chapter 18: Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue

Cosley, Kathy, and Mark Houston. Alpine Climbing: Techniques to Take

You Higher. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2004.

Selters, Andy. Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue. 2nd ed. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2006.
Tyson, Andy, and Mike Clelland. Glacier Mountaineering: An Illustrated
Guide to Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue. Guilford, CT: Globe
Pequot/Falcon, 2009.

Tyson, Andy, and Molly Loomis. Climbing Self-Rescue: Improvising

Solutions for Serious Situations. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2006.

Chapter 19: Alpine Ice Climbing

Barry, John. Snow and Ice Climbing. Seattle: Cloudcap Press, 1987.

Chouinard, Yvon. Climbing Ice. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1978.

Cosley, Kathy, and Mark Houston. Alpine Climbing: Techniques to Take

You Higher. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2004.

Gadd, Will. Ice and Mixed Climbing: Modern Technique. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2003.

Harmston, Chris. “Myths, Cautions, and Techniques of Ice Screw

Placement.” Paper presented at 1999 International Technical Rescue
Symposium, Fort Collins, CO, November 5–7, 1999.

Isaac, Sean. Mixed Climbing. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon, 2004.

Lowe, Jeff. The Ice Experience. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1979.

_______. Ice World: Techniques and Experiences of Modern Ice Climbing.

Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1996.

Luebben, Craig. How to Ice Climb! Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon,

2001.

Raleigh, Duane. Ice Tools and Techniques. Carbondale, CO: Primedia,

1995.

Soles, Clyde. Rock and Ice Gear: Equipment for the Vertical World.
Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2000.
Twight, Mark, and James Martin. Extreme Alpinism: Climbing Light, Fast,
and High. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1999.

Chapter 20: Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing

In addition to this list, the waterfall and mixed ice climbing online
community is thriving with information and innovation. Look for
instructional videos and materials on AMGA- or IFMGA-certified guide
websites.

Chouinard, Yvon. Climbing Ice. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1978.

Cosley, Kathy, and Mark Houston. Alpine Climbing: Techniques to Take

You Higher. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2004.

Gadd, Will. Ice and Mixed Climbing: Modern Technique. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2003.

Harmston, Chris. “Myths, Cautions, and Techniques of Ice Screw

Placement.” Paper presented at 1999 International Technical Rescue
Symposium, Fort Collins, CO, November 5–7, 1999.

Issac, Sean. Mixed Climbing. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon, 2004.

Lowe, Jeff. Ice World: Techniques and Experiences of Modern Ice

Climbing. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1996.

Luebben, Craig. How to Ice Climb! Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon,

2001.

Twight, Mark, and James Martin. Extreme Alpinism: Climbing Light, Fast,
and High. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1999.

Chapter 21: Expedition Climbing

Anderson, Dave, and Molly Absolon. NOLS Expedition Planning.

Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2011.
Bezruchka, Stephen. Altitude Illness: Prevention and Treatment. 2nd ed.
Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2005.

House, Steve, and Scott Johnston. Training for the New Alpinism: A
Manual for the Climber as Athlete. Ventura, CA: Patagonia Books, 2014.

Houston, Charles. Going Higher: Oxygen, Man, and Mountains. 5th ed.
Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2005.

Powers, Phil, and Clyde Soles. Climbing: Expedition Planning. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2003.

US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine. “Altitude

Acclimatization Guide,” by Stephen R. Muza, Charles S. Fulco, and Allan
Cymerman. USARIEM Technical Note TN04-05. Natick, MA: USARIEM,
2004. http://archive.rubicon-
foundation.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/7616/ADA423388.pdf?
sequence=1.

Chapter 22: Leadership

American Alpine Club and Alpine Club of Canada. Accidents in North

American Mountaineering. Annual publication. Distributed by
Mountaineers Books, Seattle.

Bass, Bernard M., and Ralph Melvin Stogdill. Bass and Stogdill’s
Handbook of Leadership. 3rd ed. New York: Free Press, 1990.

Chatfield, Rob, and Lewis Glenn, eds. Leadership the Outward Bound
Way: Becoming a Better Leader in the Workplace, in the Wilderness, and in
Your Community. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2007.

Graham, John. Outdoor Leadership: Technique, Common Sense, and Self-

Confidence. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1997.

Kosseff, Alex. AMC Guide to Outdoor Leadership. Boston: Appalachian

Mountain Club Books, 2010.
Martin, Bruce. Outdoor Leadership: Theory and Practice. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics Publishers, 2006.

Petzoldt, Paul. The New Wilderness Handbook. New York: W. W. Norton,

1984.

Roskelley, John. Nanda Devi: The Tragic Expedition. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2000.

Chapter 23: Safety

American Alpine Club and Alpine Club of Canada. Accidents in North

American Mountaineering. Annual publication. Distributed by
Mountaineers Books, Seattle.

Barton, Bob. Safety, Risk, and Adventure in Outdoor Activities. London:

Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd., 2007.

Diemberger, Kurt. The Endless Knot: K2, Mountain of Dreams and

Destiny. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1991.

Dill, John. “Climbing Safety: Staying Alive.” National Park Service,

Yosemite National Park Search and Rescue, 2004. www.friendsof
yosar.org/climbing.

Twight, Mark, and James Martin. Extreme Alpinism: Climbing Light, Fast,
and High. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1999.

Viesturs, Ed, with Dave Roberts. No Shortcuts to the Top: Climbing the
World’s 14 Highest Peaks. New York City: Broadway Books, 2006.

Chapter 24: First Aid

“Athletic Taping—Ankle: Closed Basket Weave.” Marshfield Clinic, 2011.

www.marshfieldclinic.org/mHealthyLiving/Documents/Athletic-Taping-
An-Ankle.pdf.

Bennett, Brad, et al. “Wilderness Medical Society Practice Guidelines for

Treatment of Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia.” Wilderness and
Environmental Medicine 25. no. 4 (2014): S30–S42.
www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-6032(14)00271-3/fulltext.

Bezruchka, Stephen. Altitude Illness: Prevention and Treatment. 2nd ed.

Seattle: Mountaineers, 2005.

Bowman, Warren D., American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, and

National Ski Patrol. Outdoor Emergency Care: Comprehensive Prehospital
Care for Nonurban Settings. 4th ed. Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 2003.

Carline, Jan D., Martha J. Lentz, and Steven C. Macdonald.

Mountaineering First Aid: A Guide to Accident Response and First Aid
Care. 5th ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2004.

Connor, Bradley. “Travelers’ Diarrhea.” CDC Health Information for

International Travel (The Yellow Book), 2016.
www.nc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2016/the-pre-travel-
consultation/travelers-diarrhea.

Davis, Kyle P., and Robert W. Derlet. “Cyanoacrylate Glues for Wilderness
and Remote Travel Medical Care.” Wilderness and Environmental
Medicine 24 (2013): 67–74. www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-
6032(12)00266-9/pdf.

Edlich, Richard. “Cold Injuries.” Medscape.com, March 2016.

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1278523-overview#a5.

Fitch, A. M., B. A. Nicks, et al. “Basic Splinting Techniques.” New

England Journal of Medicine 359 (2008): 26.

Forgey, William W., ed. Wilderness Medical Society Practice Guidelines

for Wilderness Emergency Care. 5th ed. Guilford, CT: Globe
Pequot/Falcon, 2006.

Hackett, Peter H., and David R. Shlim. “Altitude Illness.” In CDC Health
Information for International Travel. (The Yellow Book), 2016.
wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2016/the-pre-travel-
consultation/altitude-illness.
Hackett, Peter H., and Robert C. Roach. “High-Altitude Illness.” New
England Journal of Medicine 345, no. 2 (July 12, 2001): 107–114.

Le Baudour, Chris, and David Bergeron. Emergency Medical Responder:

First on Scene. 10th ed. New York: Pearson, 2015.

Luks, A. M., and E. R. Swenson. “High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema:

Prevention and Treatment.” American College of Chest Physicians 21
(2007): Lesson 22.

National Weather Service Heat Index,

www.nws.noaa.gov/om/heat/heat_index.shtml.

Paal, Peter et al. “Termination of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation in

Mountain Rescue.” High Altitude Medicine and Biology, 13 #3: 200–208.
www.alpine-rescue.org/ikar-
cisa/documents/2013/ikar20131013001086.pdf.

Paterson, Ryan, et al. “Wilderness Medical Society Practice Guidelines for

Treatment of Eye Injuries and Illnesses in the Wilderness.” Wilderness and
Environmental Medicine, 25 #4 (2014) S19–S29.
www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-6032(14)00268-3/fulltext#s0025.

Risk Management at NOLS. Available at www.nols.edu. January 2017.

Schimelpfenig, Tod, and Linda Lindsey. NOLS Wilderness First Aid. 3rd
ed. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002.

Shah, Neeraj, et al. “Wilderness Medicine at High Altitude: Recent

Developments in the Field.” Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine 6
(2015): 319–328. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4590685/.

Singer, A. J., and A. B. Dagnum. “Current Management of Acute

Cutaneous Wounds.” New England Journal of Medicine 359 (2008): 10.

Singletary, E. M. et al. “Part 15: First Aid: 2015 American Heart

Association and Red Cross Guidelines Update for First Aid.” Circulation
132, no. 8 (2015): S574–S589.
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/132/18_suppl_2/S574.full.pdf+html.

“Tactical Combat Casualty Care: Medical Personal Guidelines and

Curriculum.” National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians,
2016. www.naemt.org/education/TCCC/guidelines_curriculum.

“2015 American Heart Association Guidelines for CPR and ECC.”

https://eccguidelines.heart.org/index.php/circulation/cpr-ecc-guidelines-2.

Van Tilburg, Christopher, ed. First Aid: A Pocket Guide: Quick Information
for Mountaineering and Backcountry Use. 4th ed. Seattle: Mountaineers
Books, 2001.

Warrell, David, and Sarah Anderson, eds. Expedition Medicine. 6th ed.
New York: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 2003.

Weiss, Eric A. Wilderness and Travel Medicine: A Comprehensive Guide.

4th ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2011.

_______. Wilderness 911: A Step-by-Step Guide for Medical Emergencies

and Improvised Care in the Backcountry. Seattle: Mountaineers Books,
2007.

West, John, Robert Schoene, Andrew Luks, and James Milledge. High-
Altitude Medicine and Physiology. 5th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,
2012.

Wilkerson, James A., ed. Medicine for Mountaineering and Other

Wilderness Activities. 6th ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2009.

Wilkerson, James A., and Gordon Giesbrecht. Hypothermia, Frostbite, and

Other Cold Injuries: Prevention, Recognition, and Prehospital Treatment.
2nd ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2006.

Wright, Justin, and Arthur Islas. “Concussion Management in the

Wilderness,” Wilderness and Environmental Medicine 25 (2014): 319–324.
www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-6032(14)00007-6/pdf.
Zafren, Ken, et al. “Wilderness Medical Society Practice Guidelines for the
Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia.”
Wilderness and Environmental Medicine 25, #no 4 (2014), S66–S85.
www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-6032(14)/00283=x/pdf.

Chapter 25: Alpine Rescue

Fasulo, David. Self-Rescue. 2nd ed. Guilford, CT: Globe

Pequot/Chockstone, 2011.

Lipke, Rick. Technical Rescue Riggers Guide. 2nd ed. Bellingham, WA:
Conterra Technical Systems, 2009.

Long, John, and Bob Gaines. Climbing Anchors. 3rd ed. Guilford, CT:
Globe Pequot/Falcon, 2013.

_______. More Climbing Anchors. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot/Falcon,

1998.

May, W. G. Mountain Search and Rescue Techniques. Boulder, CO: Rocky

Mountain Rescue Group, 1973.

Tyson, Andy, and Molly Loomis. Climbing Self-Rescue: Improvising

Solutions for Serious Situations. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 2006.

Chapter 26: Mountain Geology

Association of American State Geologists, www.stategeologists.org.

Google Earth, www.google.com/earth.

Hiking the Geology series (various states). Seattle: Mountaineers Books,

various dates.

McPhee, John. Assembling California. New York: Farrar, Straus and

Giroux, 1993.

_______. Basin and Range. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1981.
Roadside Geology series (various states). Missoula, MT: Mountain Press,
various dates. http://geology.com/store/roadside-geology.shtml.

Tabor, Rowland, and Ralph Haugerud. Geology of the North Cascades: A

Mountain Mosaic. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1999.

US Bureau of Land Management, www.blm.gov.

US Forest Service, www.fs.fed.us.

US Geological Survey, www.usgs.gov.

_______. Geology in the Parks program, http://3dparks.wr.usgs.gov.

_______. National geologic map database, http://ngmdb.usgs.gov.

Chapter 27: The Cycle of Snow

Benn, Douglas I., and David J. A. Evans. Glaciers and Glaciation. 2nd ed.
Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2010.

Colbeck, S., et al. The International Classification for Seasonal Snow on

the Ground. Cambridge, England: International Glaciological Society and
International Association of Scientific Hydrology, 1992.

Cuffey, K. M., and W. S. B, Paterson. The Physics of Glaciers. 4th ed.

Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, 2010.

Ferguson, Sue A. Glaciers of North America: A Field Guide. Golden, CO:

Fulcrum Publishing, 1992.

Gray, D. M., and D. H. Male, eds. Handbook of Snow. New York:

Pergamon Press, 1981.

Hobbs, Peter V. Ice Physics. Oxford: Claredon Press, 1974.

LaChapelle, Edward R. Field Guide to Snow Crystals. Cambridge,

England: International Glaciological Society, 1992.
_______. Secrets of Snow: Visual Clues to Avalanche and Ski Conditions.
Seattle: University of Washington Press; Cambridge, England: International
Glaciological Society, 2001.

Post, Austin, and Edward R. LaChapelle. Glacier Ice. Seattle: University of

Washington Press; Cambridge, England: International Glaciological
Society, 2000.

Chapter 28: Mountain Weather

Renner, Jeff. Lightning Strikes: Staying Safe Under Stormy Skies. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2002.

_______. Mountain Weather: Backcountry Forecasting and Weather for

Hikers, Campers, Climbers, Skiers, and Snowboarders. Seattle:
Mountaineers Books, 2005.

_______. Mountain Weather Pocket Guide: A Field Reference. Seattle:

Mountaineers Books, 2017.

Schaefer, Vincent J., and John A. Day. A Field Guide to the Atmosphere.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991.

Whiteman, C. David. Mountain Meteorology: Fundamentals and

Applications. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Williams, Jack. The Weather Book: An Easy-to-Understand Guide to the

USA’s Weather. 2nd ed, New York: Vintage, 1997.
INDEX

The index that appeared in the print version of this title was intentionally
removed from the eBook. Please use the search function on your eReading
device to search for terms of interest. For your reference, the terms that
appear in the print index are listed below.

A
Abalakov, Vitaly
Abalakov (V-thread anchor)
ablation hollows
acceleration and impact force
access
fees
accessories
sleeping bag
stove
accidents. See also injuries
reported causes of mountaineering (table)
seven steps in response
use of term
Accidents in North American Mountaineering (ANAM)
acclimatization to higher altitude
acute mountain sickness (AMS)
adzes
aerobic exercise
aesthetic impacts
AIARE Field Book
aid climbing
 aid placements for
basic aid sequence
basic aid techniques
clean
cleaning pitches
described
equipment
establishing belays
generally
iron hardware and bolts
overhangs and roofs
racking
rating system
resting
seconding
spirit of
switching with free climbing
tension traverses and pendulum
swings
top-stepping
Tyrolean traverses
uses of
aiders (etriers)
air movement
air pressure
and/or altimeter change over
three hours (table)
clues
alpine aid climbing
alpine climbing rating system
alpine ice climbing
equipment
generally
ice tools
rating system
techniques of
alpine picks
alpine rescue
accident response steps
evacuation
learning rescue techniques
rescue
searches
alpine rock climbing
alpine terrain features
altimeter
altitude, physiological adaptations to
American Institute for Avalanche Research and Education (AIARE)
American technique
anaerobic exercise
analog altimeters
anchors
artificial
belay
deadman
equalizing
fixed
for glacier travel
lead-line
multiple
natural
placing
rappel
for rescues
rock, snow, or ice
SERENE systems
setting up ice
setting up rappel
snow
system for crevasse rescues
tent
angles
animals
protecting from food
 sharing wilderness with
anticlines
anxiety
aperture belay devices
approach shoes
artificial anchors
ascenders
ascending
fixed lines
snow
steep terrain
ascent, calculating rate of
Ascent of Denali, The (Stuck)
assisted-braking belay devices
athletic tape
autoblock hitch
auto-locking belay devices
avalanche beacon
avalanches
education
forecasts
formation of snow
hazard, evaluating
ice
loose-snow
North American public avalanche danger scale (table)
planning trips in avalanche terrain
recovery
rescue
rescue transceivers
safety
slab
snowpack and
surviving
terrain and
triggers of
weather and
Avalanches and Observations Reference (table)
avalanche transceivers
axes. See ice axes

B
bachmann hitch
back carries
back-cleaning
backing down snow
back injuries
backpacks
bacteria
balaclavas
barchans
barometric altimeters
barrel knot
baselines
bat hook
batteries
beaks
bearings
bears
bed layer of avalanches
belay jacket
belays and belaying
anchors for
arriving at next belay
belay position and stance
braking force
choosing belay spot
climbing use
communication and
escaping the
establishing belays
fireman’s belay
hip belay
on ice
 leading and following
methods of
munter hitch, using
protecting the leader
rope handling
running belays
scenarios
self-belay
on snow
technique with device
using belay devices
in waterfall ice climbing
belay seat
bends. See knots, bends, hitches
bergschrunds
Big Bros
big wall climbing
aid climbing
descending
described
equipment
fixing pitches
living in vertical world
multiday techniques generally
retreating
big wall hammers
birdbeaks
bivouacs
bivy sacks
Black Diamond gear
ATC (air traffic controller)
ATC Guide
AvaLung II
Camalot C3, C4
blades
bleeding, managing
blisters
bollards, snow
bolts
bongs
boot(s). See also crampons; rock shoes
for alpine ice climbing
care for
insoles
plastic
proper fit
types of
boot-axe belays
bora winds
bouldering rating system
boulders
bowline knots
breakfasts
Bridwell, Jim
brittle ice
brush
buckets (footholds)
Buffs (neck tubes)
burns
butterfly coil
butterfly knot

C
cairns
cam hooks
camming devices
camming hooks
campfires
camping, snow and winter
camps and camping. See also bivouacs
durable surface
Leave No Trace principles
campsites, selecting
Campylobacter jejuni
cams
carabiner-ice axe belay
carabiners
in aid climbing
clipping technique
for glacier travel
shapes and sizes
use and care
carabiner shift
carbohydrates
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
cardiovascular endurance
caterpillar technique
cat holes
cauliflower ice
CCH Alien
cell phones. See also communication devices
chafing
chalk
chandelier ice
cheater sticks
chest harness
chicken heads
chimneys
chinook winds
chlorine, chlorine dioxide
chock pick
chocks
Chouinard, Yvon
cinder cones
circleheads
cleaning pins
cleaning tool
Clean Mountain Cans (portable toilets)
climbing. See also specific type
aid. See aid climbing
alpine ice. See alpine ice climbing
 clubs, schools
commands, commonly used (table)
expedition. See expedition climbing
face
harnesses
hazards, avoiding and mitigating
helmets
ice or snow without crampons
leading. See lead climbing, leadership
leashless
minimizing impacts
mixed
party size
rack
rating systems
ropes. See ropes
six rating systems (fig.)
on vertical ice
waterfall ice. See waterfall ice climbing
in winter environment
Climbing Code
“climbing in coils,”
clinometers
clip-on bindings
clipping bolts
clothing
for alpine ice climbing
care for
climbing
extra
fabrics for
for glacier travel
layering of
waterproof
cloud-cover clues (table)
cloud types
clove hitch
coil carries
cold fronts
cold-related conditions
cold weather clothing
commands
commonly used climbing (table)
rescue
communication among backcountry parties
communication devices
cell phones
local
navigation and
communication with fallen climbers
compass
bearings
cautions in using
dip
features of
magnetic declination
navigation by
navigation using map and
necessity of
practice
setting for magnetic declination
conglomerates
container recycling
containers
fuel
recycling
waste
for water
contaminated water
continental rifts
contour lines on topographic maps
convergent plate margins
cooking. See also food
boiled water
 high-elevation
cookware, utensils
copperheads
cordelette
cornices
corn snow
costs of expeditions
cotton
cougars
couloirs
counterbalance
counterforce
counterweight hauling
Covington, Michael
CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation)
crack climbing
crag climbing
crampons
for alpine ice climbing
attachment
climbing ice or snow with
fit, maintenance, safety
fitting
for glacier travel
hinged, semirigid, rigid
history of
instep, approach
in mixed climbing
parts of
techniques for (table)
for waterfall ice climbing
creep (snow)
crevasses. See also glacier(s)
crossing crevasse fields
detecting
falls into
generally
 glaciers and
inside
rescue methods
rescue response
right turn to, and rope management
sled in (fig.)
crimp handholds
crises, leading in
Croft, Peter
crossing rivers and streams
cross training
Cryptosporidium parvum
cultural impacts
cycle of snow
cyclospora (waterborne pathogen)

D
daisy chains
day packs
deadman anchors
decisions, making good
Deep Play (Pritchard)
DEET
dehydration
delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS)
depth hoar
descending
fixed lines
on ice
snow
talus, scree, boulders
walls
device-mule
devices, belay
diaper sling
diarrhea
Diemberger, Kurt
digital altimeters
digital maps
digital wristwatches
Dill, John
dinners
diuresis
divergent plate margins
DMM Bug belay device
docking haul bags
dogs
double fisherman’s bend
double gear sling
double-rope technique
down-climbing
downhill
down insulation
downward-pressure climbing technique
drain channels
duct tape
dulfersitz rappel method
dynamic moves
dynamic ropes
Dyneema

E
earth’s rotation and weather
easting
echelon formation past crevasses
Eckenstein, Oscar
Edelrid Eddy belay device
edging
El Capitan (Yosemite National Park)
emergencies
accident response steps
leading in crises
rescue and urgent first aid
Endless Knot, The (Diemberger)
environmental impacts
equalettes
equipment. See also specific piece of
aid climbing
alpine ice climbing
big wall climbing
determining party’s needs
essentials
for fixed lines
for glacier travel
racking
for rescues
sample expedition equipment list (table)
sample list
for snow climbing
waterfall ice climbing
Escherichia coli
ethics of climbing
etriers
evacuation and rescue
exercise-associated hyponatremia
exfoliation joints
expedition climbing
conditioning, physical and mental
expeditionary climbing techniques
an expedition philosophy
generally
high-altitude health hazards
planning, preparation
sample expedition equipment list (table)
weather
exposure time
Extreme Alpinism (Twight)
eye injuries
eye protection

F
face climbing
fall factors
fall forces
falls
into crevasses
stopping
unconscious victims
fats
faults (geology)
fecal-oral contamination
field forecasting in the mountains
fifi hooks
figure-eight bend
figure eight on a bight
filters, water
finger jams
fireman’s belay
fires
minimizing campfire impacts
necessity of
firn
firnification
firnspiegel (“snow mirror”)
first aid
essential equipment
first-aid kits
generally
injuries
mountain maladies
practicing
seven steps in accident response
fisherman’s bend
fist jams
FITT parameters for training
fixed belays
fixed lines
flagging
flat-footing
flat overhand bend
flexibility training
Florine, Hans
foehn winds
folds
foliation
food. See also cooking
on big walls
composition of
cookware, utensils
for expeditions
extra
Leave No Trace principles
menu suggestions
nutrition habits
planning, packaging
preparing meals in bear country
protecting from animals
food poisoning
footholds
exchanging placements of
for face climbing
jamming
footwear
See also boot(s); rock shoes
fractures and splinting
free climbing
“freedom of the hills” concept
free-hanging ice
free soloing
freezing level, estimating (table)
French technique
friction hitches
frictioning
Friends
frog stretch exercise
front-pointing technique
frostbite, frostnip
full-body harness
funk (in clothing)
funkness devices

G
gaiters
Gamow bags
gap winds
garbage
gear. See also clothing, equipment, or specific type
climbing
group, for expeditions
gear slings
geology. See mountain geology
German technique
Giardia lamblia
giardiasis
Gill, John
girth hitch
glacial moraines
glacier(s)
equipment for travel
features of (fig.)
formation of
generally
travel fundamentals
glissading
Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
described
devices
mountaineering with
navigation using
orienting using
glossary
gloves
for aid climbing
for alpine ice climbing
for belaying
Google Earth
Gore-Tex
gouge
GPS devices
gravity winds
Grigri
Grivel, Laurent
ground insulation
group gear for expeditions
groups, hiking with
guided climbs
guided expeditions
guide services

H
half clove-hitch belay (HMS)
Half Dome, Yosemite National Park
hammers
hammers, big wall
handholds
counterforce
downward-pressure climbing technique
for face climbing
jamming
long reaches
hand line
hands on rock
hand-taping for climbing
handwear
hangdogging
Harding, Warren
harnesses, climbing
harness suspension trauma
hats
haul bags
haulers
hauling, big wall technique
hauling, sled
hazards
assessing
described
overcoming during the climb
head injuries
headlamps
headwear
health hazards of high altitude
heat cramps
heat exhaustion
heat-related injuries
heatstroke
helicopter rescues
helmets
for aid climbing
for alpine ice climbing
climbing
hero loops
hex
high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE)
high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE)
Hill, Lynn
hip belay
hitches. See knots, bends, hitches
hoarfrost
hooking
hooks
hornfels
horns
Hörst, Eric
hot spots
How to Climb (Hörst)
human waste, managing
hydration
hyperbaric chambers, portable
hyperventilation
hypothermia
hypoxia

I
ice
belaying on
climbing on vertical
climbing, rating system
descending on
placing protection on
traversing steep to vertical
types of
ice anchors, setting up
ice avalanches
ice axes
for alpine ice climbing
for glacier travel
leashes
maintenance, safety
parts of
self-arrest, self-belay grasps
stopping a fall
techniques for (table)
using
ice bollards
ice pillars
ice screws
ice tools
igloos
igneous rocks
Ilgner, Arno
immersion foot
impact force
injuries. See also specific injury
accident report form
cold-related conditions
first aid
lightning-caused
managing bleeding
rescue request report
shock symptoms
signs of
insect repellent
insomnia
insulating air mattresses
insulation
ground
sleeping bags
intestinal disorders
intraplate hot-spot volcanoes

J
jamming
joints and veins (geology)
jugs
jugging
jumars
jumping across crevasses

K
Keller, Helen
kernmantle rope
klemheist hitch
knee pads
knifeblades
knives
knobs
knot passes
knots, bends, hitches. See also specific knot, bend, or hitch
basic knots
 friction hitches
generally
releasable knots

L
ladder steps
latitude
lead climbing. See also leadership
changing leads
choosing a rack, racking
cleaning a pitch
climbing with party of three
double- and twin-rope techniques
Eleven Trip Checks
leading and pitches
nontechnical terrain
personal responsibility
protecting special situations
on rock, step by step
technical climbs
waterfall ice climbing
leadership. See also lead climbing
becoming a leader
checklist for organizing and leading climbs (table)
the climb leader
first-aid leader
leading in crises
organizing the climb
role of leaders
styles of
lead-line anchors
leads, changing
leashes, ice axe
Leave No Trace
Leeper Z pitons
leg wrap
lieback technique
lightning and thunder
lightning-caused injuries
limestones
line of zero declination
line position
liquid fuel storage
load-limiting runners
local communication devices
locator beacons. See personal locator beacons (PLBs)
locking carabiners
longitude
Long, John
long reaches
loose rock
loose-snow avalanches
lost, getting
Lowe, Jeff
lowering systems
lunches, snacks
Lyme disease

M
magnetic declination
malleable hardware
malleable placements
Mallory, George Leigh
mantel
maps
bearings on
handling, carrying
orienting
routefinding with
in Ten Essentials
topographic
types of
marble
matching
Mauna Kea
meal planning, Leave No Trace
mechanical ascenders
mechanical rappel systems
meltwater
meltwater snow
metamorphic rocks
Metolius three-cam unit (TCU)
MICROspikes
micronuts
minerals
mitigation, and safety
mittens
mixed climbing
moats
Modern Mixed Climbing Grade
morale of climbing party
mosquitoes
mountaineering boots
mountaineering with GPS
mountain geology
geologic information sources
geologic perspectives
how mountains are formed
mountain materials
mountain structures
mountain(s)
geology. See mountain geology
key features of
using GPS in the
mountain weather
creating custom weather briefings
field forecasting in the mountains
forces that create
localized winds
thunder and lightning
Mount Everest
Muir, John
mule knot
munter hitch
munter-mule-overhand (MMO) knot
muscle cramps

N
National Climbing Classification System (NCSS)
natural anchors
navigation. See also maps; orientation; routefinding
altimeters
bearings
clinometers
and communication devices
compass. See compass
described
getting lost and found
GPS (Global Positioning System)
by instrument
maps. See maps
in Ten Essentials
trip preparation
using GPS
workflow using GPS
neck injuries
neck tubes, neck gaiters
New England ice rating system
nieves penitentes
North American public avalanche danger scale (table)
North Cascades range
northing
nunatak
nutrition. See food
nuts
nut tools
nylon
nylon climbing ropes
nylon-webbing carries

O
offset nut
off-width climbing
oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE)
Omega Pacific Link Cam
one-legged dead lift
Open Door, The (Keller)
orientation
described
by instrument
using GPS
Our National Parks (Muir)
overhand knot
overhand loop
overhand slipknot
overhangs and roofs
in aid climbing
climbing
protection
rappelling
seconding
top-stepping

P
pace
packs
pads, types of
panic
pathogens, waterborne
PBUS (pull, brake, under, slide) rope technique
pearabiners
Peckers
pendulums
in aid climbing
rappelling
 swings, seconding
personal gear for expeditions
personal locator beacons (PLBs)
pets
Petzl belay devices
Grigri
Grigri+
Reverso
Petzoldt, Paul
phones
cell
communication devices
with GPS apps
physical conditioning
pickets
picks of ice axes
pied
pied troisième
pigeonhole steps
pillars, ice
pins, cleaning
piolet
piolet traction
pitch
pitons
placement
types of
using
for waterfall ice climbing
placement exchanges
placements
aid climbing
ice screws
ice-tool
planning
Eleven Trip Checks
expeditions
 first-aid plans
food
rescue plans from crevasses
rescues
route rock climbing
safety
trips into avalanche terrain
plate margins, divergent
PLBs and satellite communicators
plotting a bearing
plunge-stepping
plutonic rocks
point position
polyester
portaledges
powder snow
precipitates (rocks)
Pritchard, Paul
probing for avalanche victims
protection
placing on ice
for waterfall ice climbing
protein
prusik hitch
prusiks
as backup for rappelling
as rope grabs, belays
self-belay with
unsecured
prusik slings
pulleys
big wall equipment
rescue
pyroclastics (rocks)

Q
quartzite
quickdraws

R
rack
choosing
how to
for ice climbing
for mixed climbing
racking considerations
where to rack gear
racking
and aid climbing
for waterfall ice climbing
racking devices
radial keratotomy
radios
Rainier, Mount (national park)
raising systems
rappel and rappelling
anchors
carabiner brake method
dulfersitz
extension
finishing rappel
generally
on ice
jammed
multiple
potential problems
rappel systems
rope
safety backups
setting up rope
technique
rappel rings
rating systems for climbing
Raynaud’s disease
Realized Ultimate Reality Piton (RURP)
recovery
avalanche
time after training
remote fuel stoves
removable protection
active
passive
placing
removing
repair kits
rescue pulleys
rescues
alpine. See alpine rescue
avalanche
from crevasses
from crevasses, glaciers
helicopter
involving outside resources
stages of transceiver searches
team
techniques
terminology
resources for this book
resting
aid climbing
hiking
on snow
rest step
retinal hemorrhage
retreating on wall
rewoven figure eight
ridges
rime
rivers
rivet hangers
rock climbing
 basic techniques
crack climbing
down-climbing
face climbing
fixed protection
jamming
leading on rock
other techniques
rack
rating system
rock protection
stacking
style, ethics
types of
rockfall
rock protection
connecting rope to protection
equalizing protection
etiquette
natural protection
removable protection
rock shoes
rocks, types of
Rock Warrior’s Way, The (Ilgner)
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
roofs. See overhangs and roofs
ropes
in aid climbing
for alpine ice climbing
in belaying
carabiners
care of
climbing, types of
coiling
connecting to protection
double-rope technique
entrenched
 for expeditions
for glacier travel
jammed
knots, bends, hitches
management on glaciers
management while following
minimizing entrenchment of, in crevasse rescues
PBUS (pull, brake, under, slide)
rope technique
performance tests
for rescues
runners
snow climbing techniques
standard drop-test fall for dynamic
tangling of
team protection
throwing down
twin-rope technique
types of
UIAA tests for
water-repellent
rope-soloing
rope teams
rotten ice
rotten snow
routefinding
described
with maps
on snow
wilderness
runners
running belays
Rutschblock (glide block) test

S
safe decision framework (fig.)
safety
 acceptable risk, understanding your sphere of
avalanche
being alert to risk-affecting changes
crevasse rescues
first aid. See first aid
ice axe
increasing by assessing hazards
margin of
rappel, backups
roles of leaders
selecting safe route in backcountry
snow travel
stove
system
terminology
salmonella
San Andreas Fault, California
sandstone
sastrugi (“grooves”)
satellite communicators
satellite photographs
sawed-off pitons
scrambles
scree
search and rescue (SAR) groups
searches
seated gluteal stretch
seat harnesses
seconding
tension traverses and pendulum swings
traverses and overhangs
sedimentary rocks
self-arrest
grasp
to stop a fall
self-belay
grasp
 to stop a fall
self-calming techniques
self-equalizaton
self-inflating pads
self-reliance ethic
self-rescues from crevasses
SERENE anchor systems
shaft of ice axes
shale
shell jacket
shell layer
shelters. See also snow shelters; tents
essential equipment
generally
Sherman, John
Sherman V-scale for bouldering (fig.)
shield volcanoes
shock symptoms
shoes. See also boot(s), rock shoes
for aid climbing
shovels, snow
sidehill
side pull handholds
simul-climbing
single bowline
sitting hip belays
situational awareness, importance of maintaining
skill development
ski poles
skis
slab avalanches
sled hauling
sleds for snow evacuation
sleeping bags
sleepwear
slings
slope angle, aspect
slopers handholds
slopes
steepness, and avalanche hazard (fig.)
steepness of (table)
SMART goals
smartphones
smearing
snacks
snow. See also ice climbing, snow climbing
aging of snow cover
ascending
belaying on
climbing. See ice climbing, snow climbing
conditions and related travel considerations, dangers (table)
crystal forms (fig.)
cycle of
descending
evacuations
formation of glaciers
formation of snow avalanches
hiking through
Leave No Trace principles
level, and freezing level
level, estimating (table)
metamorphism of crystals (fig.)
observing conditions
probing
snowpacks, and avalanche hazard
surface layer of snow cover
tips for melting
types of
snow anchors
snow blindness
snow bollards
snow bridges
snow camping
snow caves
snow climbing. See also ice climbing
avalanche safety. See avalanche safety
equipment
generally
roped techniques
routefinding on snow
techniques of
snowpacks, and avalanche hazard
snow shelters
snowshoes
snow shoveler exercise
snow trench shelters
socks
solar panels
solo climbing
spandex
spikes of ice axes
splinting sprains, fractures
sport climbing
style
sprains, strains, and fractures
spring-loaded camming devices (SLCDs)
spring-loaded nuts
square knot
squeeze chimneys
stacking
standard hooks
static equalization
stein puller
stemming
step-cutting
step-down exercise
step-kicking through snow
stewardship
Sticht, Fritz
Sticht plates
stoppers
stopping a fall
storage
liquid fuel
ropes
water
stove fuel
stoves
strains, sprains, and fractures
stratovolcanoes
streams
strength training
strike-slip faults
Stuck, Hudson
styles of climbing
subduction zone
sunburn
sun crust
suncups
sun protection (sunglasses, sunscreen)
sun, the
supplemental resources
supplies for expeditions
suture zones
synclines
synthetic fabrics
synthetic fleece
synthetic fills

T
tablets with GPS apps
talus
tape
tarps
team rescues
teams, choosing for expeditions
technical climbing
temperature
 cold and warm fronts
freezing level, estimating (table)
sleeping bag rating systems
windchill temperature index
Ten Essentials
tension-release hitch
tension traverses and pendulum swings
tents
types of
in winter
terminology (glossary)
terrain traps
tethers of ice axes
Texas prusik
thin ice
three-point suspension
thrust faults
thumb cam
thunderstorms
tickborne diseases
ticks
tie-off loops
toe jams
toilet
managing human waste
pee bottles
pee funnels
problems in Denali National Park
when you must go
toilet kits
topographic maps
topos
top-stepping
torquing
Totem Cam
trad climbing
traditional style climbing
trail finding
training
Trango belay devices
Pyramid
Vergo
transceivers, avalanche rescue
travel
on glaciers
snow, generally
traverses
protecting
seconding
steep to vertical ice
tension
Tyrolean
treatment, water
trekking poles
trench foot
Tricams
triple fisherman’s bend
trip time, estimating (table)
tube chocks
Twight, Mark
twin-rope technique
two-way radios
Tyrolean traverses

U
UIAA climbing ratings
ultralight travel
undercling
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
uphill
urine
US Geological Survey (USGS)
USGS map finder
UV light for treating water
V
valley winds
vapor-barrier liners (VBLs)
veins and joints (geology)
verglas
Viesturs, Ed
viruses
volcanoes
classification of igneous rocks (table)
intraplate hot-spot
V-scale for bouldering
V-thread anchors
V-thread tools

W
walkie-talkies
walking
wands
warm fronts
washing
Washington’s Mount Rainier National Park
waste containers
waste disposal
water
on big walls
containers for
contaminated
falling in
hydration
needed per day
pathogens in
replenishing, treating
using stoves in
waterfall ice climbing
crampon techniques
equipment
generally
 ice-tool techniques
protection
rack for
stacking
unusual conditions
vertical progression
water knot
waterproof fabrics
waterproofing boots
weather
and avalanches
checking information about
creating custom briefings
expedition climbing
mountain. See mountain weather
predicting using altimeters
wedge pitons
Welzenbach, Willo
Westbay, Billy
whistles
whiteouts
Wild Country Technical Friend
wilderness
campsite options (table)
preserving
sharing with animals
travel
wildlife, respecting
wind
and avalanche hazard
and choosing campsites
direction and speed clues (table)
localized
using stoves in
windchill
windchill temperature index
wind slabs
winter camping
women’s backpacks
wool
wound care
Wright, Cedar

Y
Yosemite Decimal System (YDS) for rating climbing
Yosemite National Park. See Half Dome, El Capitan

Z
zipper effect
BRAND NAMES AND TRADEMARKS

The following trademarks and brand names are referenced in this ninth
edition: Alien and Alien Hybrids (Fixehardware), Allen wrench, Ambit
GPS watch (Suunto), Apex Tool Group, ATC Guide (Black Diamond),
AvaLung II (Black Diamond), BackCountry Navigator (Critter Map
software), Ball Nut (C.A.M.P. USA), Band-Aid (Johnson & Johnson),
BaseCamp (Garmin), Block Roll (Kong), Buff, Bug (DMM), CalTopo,
Camalot (Black Diamond), Camalot C3 (Black Diamond), Camalot C4
(Black Diamond), Cinch (Trango), Clean Mountain Can (Paul Becker GTS
Inc.), Coleman, Diamox (Lederle Laboratories), Dyneema (DSM), Eddy
(Edelrid), E Ink (E Ink Corporation), Esbit (Esbit Compaignie GmbH),
Ensolite (Armacell), EpiPen (Dey Laboratories), eTrex series GPS
(Garmin), European Committee on Standardization (CE), eXplorist series
GPS (Magellan), Fat Cam (Metolius), Friend (Wild Country), FullRange
(Patagonia), Gaia GPS, Gamow bag (Chinook Medical Gear), Garmin,
GigaPower (Snow Peak), Gmap 4, Google Earth, Gore-Tex, Green Trails
Maps, Grigri (Petzl), Hexentric (Black Diamond), Ibex, Icebreaker,
inReach Explorer+ and inReach SE+ (both Garmin), Kevlar (DuPont),
Leave No Trace, Link Cam (Omega Pacific), Lost Arrow (Black Diamond),
Lycra (Invista), MICROspikes (Katoola), Micro Traxion (Petzl), MIOX,
Molefoam (Dr. Scholl’s), Moleskin (Dr. Scholl’s), MSR and NeoAir
(Cascade Designs, Inc.), OpenStreetMap (OpenStreetMap Foundation),
Parsol 1789 (Givaudan), Pecker (Black Diamond), Perlon (Perlon Monofil
GmbH), Phillips screwdriver, Polartec Alpha (Polartec), Primus, Pro
Traxion (Petzl), Pyramid (Trango), Recreational Equipment, Inc., Reverso
4 (Petzl), RURP (Black Diamond), Screamer (Yates Gear), 2nd Skin
(Spenco), SmartWool, Spectra (Honeywell), SPOT (SPOT, LLC),
Stairmaster (Nautilus), Steri-Strip (3M), Stopper (Black Diamond), Svea
(Optimus), Talon (Black Diamond), TCU (Metolius), Technical Friend
(Wild Country), Teflon (DuPont), Therm-a-Rest (Cascade Designs, Inc.),
Totem Cams (Totem Cams), Tricam (C.A.M.P. USA), Trivex (PPG), Tyvek
(DuPont), UIAA (International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation),
Ursack, Velcro, Vergo (Trango), WAG BAG (Phillips Environmental
Products), Waste Case (Metolius), WD-40, Wikipedia, Yates Gear
Screamer, and Z piton (Leeper).
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