Astm e 1859 - 97

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Designation: E 1859 – 97

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS


100 Barr Harbor Dr., West Conshohocken, PA 19428
Reprinted from the Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Copyright ASTM

Standard Test Method for


Friction Coefficient Measurements Between Tire and
Pavement Using a Variable Slip Technique1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 1859; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope 1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the


1.1 This test method covers the measurement of the longi- standard. The inch-pound values given in parentheses are
tudinal friction coefficient with a measurement device that provided for information only.
imposes braking-slip between a tire and a surface for the full 1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the
range of braking-slip speed values. safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
1.2 This test method utilizes a series of incremental single responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
measurements of friction force on a braked test wheel as it is priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
pulled over a wetted or contaminated pavement surface. The bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific precau-
rotational velocity of the braked wheel is feedback controlled tionary statements are given in Section 6 and Note 4.
in order to give a predetermined variable slip ratio gradient in
2. Referenced Documents
accordance with set program parameters. The test wheel is kept
under a constant static normal load and at a constant longitu- 2.1 ASTM Standards:
dinal speed of travel. Its major plane is perpendicular to the E 178 Practice for Dealing with Outlying Observations3
road plane and parallel to its direction of motion. E 274 Test Method for Skid Resistance of Paved Surfaces
1.3 The values measured represent the friction properties Using a Full-Scale Tire4
obtained with the equipment and procedures stated in this test E 501 Specification for Standard Rib Tire for Pavement
method and do not necessarily agree or correlate directly with Skid-Resistance Tests4
those obtained by other pavement friction measuring methods. E 524 Specification for Standard Smooth Tire for Pavement
1.4 The values are intended for use in: Skid Resistance Tests4
1.4.1 Evaluating the braking friction forces on a pavement E 867 Terminology Relating to Traveled Surface Character-
relative to that of other pavements. istics4
1.4.2 Evaluating changes in the braking friction forces of a E 1136 Standard Specification for a Radial Standard Refer-
particular pavement with the passage of time. ence Test Tire4
1.4.3 Evaluating the changes in the braking friction force of E 1551 Specification for Special Purpose, Smooth-Tread
a pavement when subjected to polishing wear and loss of Tire, Operated on Fixed Braking Slip Continuous Friction
macrotexture caused by traffic with passage of time. Measuring Equipment4
1.4.4 Evaluating changes in the braking friction forces of a F 377 Practice for Calibration of Braking/Tractive Measur-
pavement contaminated with ice, moderate amounts2 of slush ing Devices for Testing Tires5
and snow, pollen, vehicle oil spills and condensates from F 457 Test Method for Speed and Distance Calibration of a
vehicle engine exhaust, and deposits from other pollution Fifth Wheel Equipped With Either Analog or Digital
sources. Instrumentation5
1.4.5 Evaluating the braking friction forces of a specimen F 559 Test Method for Measuring Length of Road Test
tire on a clean or contaminated pavement. Courses Using a Fifth Wheel5
1.5 The friction values reported by this test method are
3. Terminology
insufficient to determine the distance required to stop a vehicle
on either a dry, wet, or contaminated pavement. They are also 3.1 Definitions: The terminology used in this test method
insufficient for determining the speed at which control of a conforms to the terminology included in Terminology E 867.
vehicle would be lost. 3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
3.2.1 peak slip friction number, n—the maximum value of
1
the slip friction number.
This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E-17 on
Vehicle-Pavement Systemsand is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
E17.21on Field Methods for Measuring Tire Pavement Friction.
3
Current edition approved Jan. 10, 1997. Published May 1998. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 14.02.
2 4
Slush thickness less than 25 mm (1 in.). Loose snow thickness less than 50 mm Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.03.
5
(2 in.). Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 09.02.

1
E 1859
3.2.1.1 Discussion—The peak slip friction number is writ- The distance of travel of the test vehicle is added up over time
ten as SFNpeak (s) where s is the slip speed at which it occurred. and recorded with the aid of suitable digital fifth wheel
3.2.2 slip friction number, n—the quotient of the longitudi- instrumentation.
nal friction force in the road plane over the normal load force 4.5 For tire comparison testing two identical test wheels,
at any instant in time and location, multiplied by 100. both are subjected to the same test run control logic for equal
3.2.2.1 Discussion—The slip friction number is denoted as spin velocities and loads in parallel wheel paths on the same
sfn(t) for instantaneous values in time, or sfn(x) for instanta- test track.
neous values in location. The notation SFNcharacteristic specifies 4.6 The braking slip friction coefficient of the paved road
computed values or the slip friction number at a specified surface is calculated and reported as slip friction numbers,
characteristic. sfn(t), at selected instances in time or traveled distance, sfn(x).
3.2.3 slip speed, n—the difference between the speed of the 4.7 The slip friction numbers are typically presented in a
axis of the measuring wheel, which is equal to the traveling graphical form. See Fig. 1 for Cartesian plots of slip friction
speed of the measuring device, and the speed of point on the numbers versus slip speed or slip ratio with identification of:
perimeter of the rotating measuring wheel with undeflected 4.7.1 Peak friction value,
radius, r. 4.7.2 Its corresponding critical slip ratio,
3.2.4 slip-to-skid friction number, n—the value of the slip 4.7.3 An estimated slip-to-skid friction number (similar to
friction number at which the test wheel reaches zero rotational Test Method E 274 Skid Number, SN),
speed during a brake test. 4.7.4 The slope of the tangent at zero slip speed of the
3.2.4.1 Discussion—The slip-to-skid friction number is de- curve, and
noted SFNskid (v) where v is the vehicle speed v at which 4.7.5 The slope of the logarithm curve of friction at high slip
slip-to-skid occurred. ratios.
3.2.5 slope indicator—the rate of change of the slip friction
number expressed as an angle near the peak slip friction 5. Apparatus
number. 5.1 Vehicle—The host vehicle of the measuring system,
3.2.6 tire longitudinal stiffness indicator—the rate of with variable braking force applied, shall be capable of
change of the slip friction number expressed as an angle near maintaining constant test speeds over the range of speed for the
the zero value of the time or location. application. For example, speeds range up to 130 km/h at
airports runways.
4. Summary of Test Method 5.2 Braking System—The speed of the test wheel shall be
4.1 The test apparatus consists of an automotive vehicle controlled by a suitably rated brake system. For example, this
with one or two independently functioning test wheel systems may be accomplished by a hydraulic pump as a braking device.
incorporated into it. Each test wheel system contains a con- The pump can be installed in a closed hydraulic circuit such
tinuously variable brake system and a pavement wetting that the energy delivered by the test wheel is dissipated either
system. The test wheel is equipped with a standard pavement by a hydraulic motor that augments the tow vehicle drive
test tire, a reference tire, or a specimen tire as required for system or by a suitable pressure reduction valve and a thermal
performing pavement surface measurements or tire compari- heat exchanger. See Fig. 2 . The brake system shall be capable
sons, respectively. See 5.3 for standard tire references. of maintaining controlled test wheel rotational velocities inde-
4.2 The overall system is controlled by a programmable pendent of influence by test speed and external forces acting
control unit. The proper test control program is selected in the
control unit for either pavement braking friction or tire
comparison between a reference tire and a specimen tire.
4.3 The test apparatus is brought to the desired test speed. A
controlled amount of water is optionally delivered ahead of the
test tire and the braking system is actuated to control the slip
ratio of the test wheel. As the brake is applied to the test wheel,
the actual rotational velocity of the tire becomes less than the
longitudinal component of the tire velocity. As a result of this
velocity difference, commonly called the slip speed, a longi-
tudinal force is generated called the longitudinal braking slip
friction force.
NOTE 1—Water delivery is not used when testing during winter on ice
or snow or at subzero temperatures.
4.4 The resulting resistive force from friction acting be-
tween the test tire and pavement surface is sampled, filtered,
calculated, and recorded by suitable data acquisition routines. FIG. 1 Sample Slip Friction Number Trace Versus Slip Speed

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FIG. 2 Sample Brake Systems

upon the wheel. For example, it shall maintain fixed slip ratios
within 62 %.
5.3 Test Wheel Specifications and Loading—The load set-
tings shall be the following for these nominal tire and rim6
combinations:
5.3.1 Tire Rim 15 3 6 JJ:
5.3.1.1 Suitable test tires are given in Specifications E 501
and E 524, but note that data from the two tires are not
interchangeable.
5.3.1.2 For these tires the normal load shall be 4.8 kN 6 65
N (1080 6 14.6 lbf). The inflation pressure shall be 165 6 3
kPa (24 6 0.5 psi).
5.3.2 Tire Rim 14 3 5.5 JJ—A suitable test tire is given in
Specification E 1136. The normal load shall be 4.8 kN 6 65 N FIG. 3 Sample Instrumentation Scheme for Control and
(1080 6 14.6 lbf). The inflation pressure shall be 165 6 3 kPa Measurements
(24 6 0.5 psi).
5.3.3 Tire Rim 8 3 4—A suitable test tire is given in
following overall requirements at ambient temperatures be-
Specification E 1551. The normal load shall be 1.423 kN 6 14
tween –20 and 40°C (0 and 100°F):
N (320 6 3 lbf). The inflation pressure shall be 207 6 3 kPa
5.4.1.1 The overall static system accuracy shall be 62.0 %
(30 6 0.5 psi).
of the normal load for the particular test tire mounted. For the
5.4 Instrumentation (See Fig. 3 ):
tire given in Specification E 524 with a normal load of 4.8 kN
5.4.1 General Requirements for Measuring System—The
(1079 lbf), applied calibration force of the system output shall
instrumentation and control system shall conform to the
be within 696 N (21 lbf). For the tire given in Specification
E 1551 with a normal load of 1.423 kN (320 lbf), applied
6
In accordance with Tire and Rim Association (TRA), 3200 W. Market St., calibration force of the system output shall be within 628.5 N
Akron, OH 44313, USA. (6.4 lbf).
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E 1859
NOTE 2—Dynamic system accuracy may be significantly poorer due to be used in the running calculation of sfn(t). Qualified force data
substantial inertial and gravitational effects on the test wheel and to the shall be filtered to remove high frequency noise. These
nature of the friction process, particularly at high friction values. filter-smoothed data shall be separately buffered in tables for
5.4.1.2 Time stability of calibration shall be one year, use by the calculation routine of sfn(t).
minimum. 5.4.7.3 The measurements archive shall be organized in a
5.4.1.3 The exposed portions of the system shall tolerate file of records having specified formats. For each uniquely
100 % relative humidity (rain or spray) and all other adverse numbered test run there shall be a header record with general
conditions, such as dust, shock, and vibrations that may be data, separate data collection records for each data sampling
encountered in operations on paved surfaces. and a trailer record for file integrity control.
5.4.1.4 A programmable logic controller, or other suitable 5.5 Pavement Wetting System:
digital computer, shall be used to monitor and control the 5.5.1 The quantity of water shall be applied such as to
overall instrumentation and collect, buffer, filter, smooth, provide a nominal 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) thickness at any test speed
calculate and put the measurements into storage in digital form. and over the full width of test tire tread plus an additional 25
Scanning frequency for the data collection shall be 10 Hz or mm (1 in.).
higher. 5.5.2 A nozzle conforming to the dimensions in Fig. 1 of
5.4.2 Programmable Control System: Test Method E 274 is suitable for use with the tires given in
5.4.2.1 Input module shall be capable of sampling analog Specifications E 501, E 524, and E 1136. The nozzle configu-
signal with a throughput of 50 Hz or higher. The resolution of ration and position shall ensure that the water jet shall be
transformation from analog to digital form shall be a minimum directed toward the test tire and pointed toward the pavement
of 12-bits, corresponding to decimal number range 0 to 4095. at an angle of 20 to 30°. The water shall strike the pavement
5.4.2.2 The clocking system shall have a minimum of a 10 250 to 450 mm (10 to 18 in.) ahead of the vertical axes through
kHz resolution. the centerline of the test wheel. The nozzle shall be 25 mm (1
5.4.2.3 The buffer shall have sufficient storage to contain in.) above the pavement or the minimum height required to
minimum three consecutive unfiltered values of each force. clear obstacles that the test vehicle is expected to encounter,
5.4.2.4 The storage area shall be sufficient to store one full but in no case more than 100 mm (4 in.) above the pavement.
test run of conditioned data. 5.5.3 Water used for testing shall be reasonably clean and
5.4.3 Force-Measuring Transducer—The tire force measur- have no added chemicals, such as wetting agents or detergents.
ing transducer shall be of such design as to measure the tire
road interface force with no inertial effects. Transducers are 6. Safety Precautions
recommended to provide an output directly proportional to 6.1 The test vehicle, as well as all attachments to it, shall
force with hysteresis less than 1 % of the applied load, comply with all applicable state and federal laws. All necessary
nonlinearity less than 1 % of the applied load up to the precautions shall be taken beyond those imposed by laws and
maximum expected loading, and sensitivity to any expected regulations to ensure maximum safety of operating personnel
cross-axis loading or torque loading less than 1 % of the and other traffic.
applied load. The force transducer shall be mounted in such a 6.2 No test with water application shall be made when there
manner as to experience less than 1° angular rotation with is danger that the dispersed water may freeze on the pavement.
respect to its measuring plane at the maximum expected 6.3 Observe all necessary precautions, particularly on con-
loading. taminated pavements, to ensure a safe stopping distance of
5.4.4 Additional Transducers—Force transducers for mea- sufficient length between the friction measurement vehicle and
suring vertical load shall meet the recommendations stated in other vehicles in traffic, as well as within road perimeters.
5.4.3.
5.4.5 Test Wheel Rotational Speed-Measuring 7. Calibration
Transducers—Pulse encoders shall provide a distance resolu- 7.1 Distance and Speed—Measure the circumference of the
tion of 1.0 mm (0.04 in.) per 1 m, measured in the road plane. inflated tire mounted on the speed reference wheel and of the
Speed shall be calculated at 10 Hz or higher and as the sum of test tire mounted on its wheel using a flexible steel tape with
distance pulses divided by the elapsed interval time. markings in millimetres. Enter the measured circumference as
5.4.6 Vehicle Speed-Measuring Transducers: measured to the nearest millimetre as a parameter to the control
5.4.6.1 Transducers in a separately mounted free-rolling program. The control program will divide the circumference by
wheel for vehicle speed measurement shall comply with the the fixed number of encoder pulses per revolution to obtain the
recommendations in 5.4.5. resolution in accordance with 5.4.5.
5.4.6.2 Output shall be directly viewable for the driver. 7.2 Slip Friction Force:
5.4.7 Signal Conditioning and Recorder System: 7.2.1 Place the test wheel of the assembled unit, with its
5.4.7.1 All signals shall be referenced to a common time own instrumentation, on a suitable calibration platform, which
base. All signal conditioning shall provide linear output and has been calibrated in accordance with Test Method F 377, and
shall allow data reading resolution to meet the requirements of load vertically to the test load. Measure the test wheel load
5.4.1. Recording equipment shall be digital. within 6 0.5 % accuracy whenever the transducer is calibrated.
5.4.7.2 Raw force data shall be written to the buffer in a Level the transducers both longitudinally and laterally, such
manner to enable first-in-first-out reading. Force data not that the tractive force sensitive axis is horizontal. This can be
passing the qualification routine of the program logic shall not accomplished by minimizing the tractive force output for large
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E 1859
variation in vertical load. The system (vehicle or trailer) should treat the section as two or more sections. For treatment of the
be approximately level during this procedure. results of faulty test, see Section 11.
7.2.2 The calibration platform shall utilize air bearings, or 8.2.2.3 Testing shall be done in the center of the left wheel
equivalent minimum friction bearings, and have an accuracy of track of a traffic lane of a highway. A slip friction value for a
60.5 % of the applied load and a hysteresis of 60.25 % of the highway surface may only be quoted without qualification if
applied load up to the maximum expected loading. Take care to the test vehicle was so positioned during the test.
ensure that the applied load and the transducer sensitive axis 8.2.3 Airport Runways, Stopways, and High-Speed Taxi-
are in the same vertical line. Perform the tractive force ways:
calibration incrementally to not less than 3.6 kN (800 lbf). 8.2.3.1 Test sections shall be defined as each third of a
runway length7. The thirds are called Section A, B, and C,
8. General Testing Information where Section A is always the section associated with the lower
8.1 Test Preparation: runway designation number.
8.1.1 Condition new tires by running them at or near their 8.2.3.2 The distance between each test point shall be ap-
rated load and inflation pressure on the test vehicle (or on proximately 10 % of the usable length of the runway or such
another suitable vehicle) at normal traffic speeds for at least that each section shall have three tests carried out on it.
300 km (200 miles) or equivalent before they are used for test 8.2.3.3 The objective of the test is to determine the mean
purposes. friction values for Section A, B, and C. In addition, mean
8.1.2 Prior to each series of tests, warm up the tire by friction values can be estimated for smaller fixed sections of
traveling for at least 10 km (5 miles) at normal traffic speeds 150 m (500 ft) each or any length of runway.
and subjecting the test wheel to its test normal load without any 8.2.4 Reference Tracks for Tire Testing:
braking action or self-wetting system on. 8.2.4.1 For tire testing uniform pavement conditions
throughout the test program are highly desirable. Repeated test
NOTE 3—This can be done as part of transportation from base to test runs along the same section of road shall therefore be per-
site.
formed in virgin wheel paths in parallel.
8.1.3 Inspect the tire for flat spots, damage, or other 8.2.4.2 Natural Wet Tracks—When performing test runs
irregularities that may affect test results, and replace it if it has during rainfall or immediately after rainfall, measurements
been damaged or is worn beyond the wear line. may be performed without use of self-wetting facilities of the
8.1.4 Check the test wheel load and, if necessary, adjust friction test vehicle. However, such testing conditions do not
immediately prior to each test series to within the value represent uniform conditions, and the measured results are not
specified in 5.3. comparable with self-wetted test runs.
8.1.5 Set the test tire inflation pressure at the value indicated 8.2.4.3 Ice-Covered Tracks—When performing test runs on
in 5.3 at ambient temperature just before the 10 km (5 miles) ice, water film created from frictional melting, ice crystal
warm-up. history, ambient temperature, relative humidity, and other
8.2 Test Sections: weather conditions influence the test results. For each pass of
8.2.1 General—Test sections shall be defined as sections of the test wheel over the surface, its characteristics will change.
pavement with uniform age and uniform composition that have Repeated test runs along the same section of road should
been subjected to essentially uniform wear. For instance, sharp therefore be performed in separate and parallel wheel paths.
curves and steep grades shall not be included in the same test These conditions do not represent uniform test conditions, and
section with level tangent sections, nor shall passing lanes be the measured results are not comparable.
included with traffic lanes. 8.2.4.4 Hard-Packed Snow Tracks—The information given
8.2.1.1 Unless otherwise specified the length of each indi- in 8.2.4.3 applies.
vidual test distance shall be 150 m (500 ft). 8.3 Lateral Positioning of Test Wheel on Test Sections:
8.2.1.2 Only take measurements on pavement sections that 8.3.1 Roads, Streets, and Highways—Normally, testing
have the same and uniform visual contamination appearance. shall be done in the center of the left wheel track of a traffic
8.2.1.3 Do not measure slush layers thicker than 25 mm (1 lane.
in.) and loose snow layers thicker than 50 mm (2 in.). 8.3.2 Runways and High-Speed Taxiways—Testing shall be
8.2.1.4 Test sections shall be defined within the operational done along two lines, each line parallel with the runway length.
limits set by the manufacturer of the variable slip device with The distance of the lines from the center line should be
regard to maximum grade and minimum curve radii for the approximately 3 m (10 ft.) or that distance from the center line
proper use of the equipment. at which most aircraft main gear assemblies traverse the
8.2.2 Public Roads and Streets: runway.
8.2.2.1 Make at least five measurements, at intervals not 8.4 Test Speeds:
greater than 1 km (0.5 mile), in each test section with the test 8.4.1 With the variable slip technique friction forces are
vehicle at the same lateral position in any one lane and at each measured at several slip speeds during one test run with
specified test speed. maximum slip speed being equal to the test vehicle speed.
8.2.2.2 Consider the arithmetic average of all determina-
tions to be the slip friction number of the test section. If
statistical criteria applied to the slip friction number for a long 7
International Civil Aviation Organization: Aerodromes, Annex 14, Vol 1 and
test section indicate that it cannot be considered to be uniform, Attachments A and B.

5
E 1859
8.4.2 Slip friction numbers at higher slip speeds may be program loaded into a programmable controller for overall
estimated using the equation: control of the test procedure.
s 9.5 Water delivery may be terminated as soon as the last
sfn~s! 5 SFN0 · e– S0 (1) data averaging interval is completed and the brake is released.
where:
10. Calculation
sfn(s) 5 slip friction number for the test section of the
pavement as measured by the test equipment, 10.1 The program shall calculate the slip fraction numbers,
SFN0 5 slip friction number constant for the test section of sfn(t), from force-slip speed data set records in the digital
the pavement as measured by the test equipment, controller buffer table.
S0 5 speed constant for the test section of the pavement 10.2 Longitudinal Percent Slip:
as measured by the test equipment, and 10.2.1 The program shall calculate the longitudinal slip
s 5 independent variable slip speed. velocity and slip ratio from velocity data set records sampled at
NOTE 4—Precaution: For winter conditions during ambient air
the same instant of time for the braked wheel(s) and speed
temperatures between +4 and– 8°C, the test speed shall be 30 km/h (20 reference wheel.
mph). 10.2.2 The longitudinal percent slip is defined by the
8.4.3 Roads, Streets, and Highways: following equation:
8.4.3.1 For pavement maintenance planning objectives the v – vr
S5 v 3 100 % (2)
standard test speed shall be 65 km/h (40 mph). Maintain test
speeds within 63 km/h (1.5 mph). where:
8.4.3.2 For operational measurement objectives the test S 5 longitudinal percent slip,
speed shall be chosen such that safe measurement operations v 5 longitudinal component of the true or free rolling
are ensured under the given surface, meteorological, and traffic velocity of the tire, corresponding to the velocity of the
conditions during the time of measuring. A test speed of 65 vehicle, and
km/h (40 mph) is recommended when achievable. vr 5 longitudinal component of the braked or actual rolling
8.4.3.3 Where the legal maximum speed is less than 65 velocity of the test tire.
km/h (40 mph), the test may have to be conducted at a lower 10.2.3 The longitudinal slip velocity is defined by the
speed. Where the legal speed is considerably in excess of 65 following equation:
km/h, tests may be made at the prevailing traffic speed, but it
S
is recommended that at the same locations, additional tests be s 5 v · 100 (3)
made at 65 km/h. Maintain test speeds within 63.0 km/h (1.5
mph). where:
8.4.4 Runways, Stopways and High-Speed Taxiways: s 5 longitudinal slip velocity,
8.4.4.1 The standard test speed shall be 65 km/h (40 mph). v 5 longitudinal component of the true or free rolling
Maintain test speeds within 63 km/h (1.5 mph). velocity of the tire, corresponding to the velocity of the
8.4.4.2 Optional additional test speeds for runways are 95 vehicle, and
and 130 km/h (60 and 80 mph). Maintain test speeds within 65 S 5 longitudinal percent slip.
km/h (2.5 mph). 10.3 Longitudinal Slip Friction Numbers:
8.4.5 Tire Comparison—The standard test speed shall be 65 10.3.1 The longitudinal slip friction numbers shall be
km/h (40 mph) for all conditions. Maintain test speeds within calculated as the horizontal force, Fx, applied to the test tire at
63 km/h (1.5 mph). the tire-pavement contact patch, divided by the vertical force,
Fz, exerted on the test wheel at the same instant of time. The
9. Procedure dynamic value at each instant in time is called the dynamic
9.1 Bring the apparatus to the desired speed. For testing longitudinal slip friction number, lsfn(t).
conditions during non-freezing ambient air and ground 10.3.2 The longitudinal slip friction number lsfn(t) is
temperatures, deliver water to the pavement ahead of the test recorded in real time in computer registers and is available for
tire in sufficient time prior to starting brake operation. Apply both a data presentation program to draw various graphical
wheel brake gradually and incrementally in accordance with a result formats and data analysis programs to calculate and
chosen ramp-up schedule, so as to keep the wheel spinning at present quantitative result formats.
the predetermined initial constant slip ratio. The wheel shall 10.3.3 For the curve longitudinal slip friction number versus
remain at this slip ratio for the duration of the force data slip speed, which is normally subjected to log-linear regression
averaging interval. analysis to establish a mathematical model for segments of the
9.2 After the data averaging interval is passed, increment curve, additional curve slope calculation may be performed for
the slip ratio to next higher value by applying sufficient amount the region following the peak value.
of wheel brake. The wheel shall remain at this slip ratio for the 10.3.4 Peak Slip Friction Number and Critical Slip Ratio:
duration of the force data averaging interval. 10.3.4.1 The program shall identify a sequence of maximum
9.3 Repeat this incremental procedure until slip ratio has values for the force quotient Fx⁄Fz as calculated from the
reached 90 % inclusive. sampled, filtered, and smoothed data. The top three highest
9.4 This procedure shall be prescribed in a computer consecutive values in this sequence are calculated as the
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arithmetic mean of three maximum values and presented as the 12.1.2.9 Weather conditions,
peak slip friction number. 12.1.2.10 Lane and wheel-path tested,
10.3.4.2 The slip ratio, S, for the corresponding three 12.1.2.11 Mean values for peak slip friction number and
maximum values of force quotient is calculated as the mean slip-to-skid friction number for the test section and speed
arithmetic mean of slip at maximum friction and presented as at which the tests were made,
the critical slip ratio. 12.1.2.12 Plot of SFN versus slip ratio with markings for
10.3.5 Slip-to-Skid Friction Number—The slip value shall peak slip friction number and slip-to-skid friction number, and
be controlled to some value less than or equal to 100 % that 12.1.2.13 Plot of SFN, test vehicle speed and slip ratio
would be a locked wheel condition in order to avoid wear spots versus interval times for sampling during data acquisition.
on the test tire. The values of the force quotient at the last five 12.2 Runways, Stopways, and High-Speed Taxiways:
highest slip ratios in the test run are extrapolated after the test 12.2.1 Field Report—The field report for each runway test
run by log - linear regression to estimate the force quotient at shall contain data on the following items:
100 % slip. This value is presented as the slip-to-skid friction 12.2.1.1 Airport and designation of runway and location of
number, SFNskid (v). stopway or taxiway,
10.3.6 Skid Number—The skid number (SN) shall be 12.2.1.2 Date and time of day,
calculated as the slip-to-skid friction number times 100 (see 12.2.1.3 Weather Conditions—dry and wet bulb
Test Method E 274). temperatures, cloud cover, and wind,
11. Faulty Tests 12.2.1.4 Distance from centerline tested, and
12.2.1.5 Mean values for peak slip friction number, critical
11.1 Test results that are manifestly faulty, or that differ by slip speed, slip-to-skid friction number in each test section,
more than five SFN units from the average of all tests in the speed of test, nominal normal load on test wheel, and ASTM
same test section, shall be treated in accordance with Practice tire designation.
E 178, as far as applicable. 12.2.2 Summary Report—Test results are entered in forms
12. Report specified by state civil aviation authorities.
12.3 Tire Comparison:
12.1 Highways:
12.3.1 Field Report—The field report for each tire test shall
12.1.1 Field Report—The field report for each test section
contain data on the following items:
shall contain data on the following items:
12.1.1.1 Location and identification of test section on road, 12.3.1.1 Location and description of test field and type of
street, or test track, including lane, wheel-path, direction of surface,
normal traffic travel, and direction of measurement, 12.3.1.2 Date and time of day,
12.1.1.2 Date and time of day, 12.3.1.3 Weather Conditions—Dry and wet bulb
12.1.1.3 Weather Conditions—Ambient air temperature, temperatures, cloud cover, and wind,
humidity, cloud cover, and wind, and 12.3.1.4 Mean values for peak slip friction number, critical
12.1.1.4 Peak slip friction number, critical slip speed, slip- slip speed, slip-to-skid friction number in each test section,
to-skid friction number, speed of test, nominal normal load on speed of test, nominal normal load on test wheel, and reference
test wheel, and ASTM tire designation. tire and their respective designations, and
12.1.2 Summary Report—The summary report shall include 12.3.1.5 Average time rate of change of the braking slip
data for each test section on the following items insofar as they speed between the initial value and the peak.
are pertinent to the variables or combinations of variables
under investigation: 13. Precision and Bias
12.1.2.1 Location and identification of test section, 13.1 Precision—Data is being collected in order to
12.1.2.2 Number of lanes and presence of lane separators, determine precision attainable with this test method. A
12.1.2.3 Grade and alignment, statement regarding precision will be made in a future revision
12.1.2.4 Pavement type, mix, design of surface course, of this test method.
condition, and aggregate type (specific source, if available), 13.2 Bias—The relationship of the measured friction units
12.1.2.5 Age of pavement, to some “true” value of longitudinal friction has not been
12.1.2.6 Annual average daily traffic, studied at this time. Bias determinations are not possible at this
12.1.2.7 Posted speed limit, time due to the inability to establish a true value of friction for
12.1.2.8 Date and time of day, pavement surfaces.

7
E 1859
BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Kulakowski, B. T., Chi, M., and Lin, C., “Measurement and (4) U.S. Patent No. 4 958 512, Sept. 25, 1990.
Modeling of Truck Tire Traction Characteristics,” Vehicle, Tire, (5) Jörnsen Reimpell, Helmut Stoll, The Automotive
Pavement Interface, ASTM STP 1164, J. J. Henry and J. C. Chassis:Engineering Principles, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Wambold, Eds., ASTM, 1992, pp. 112–124. 1996, pp. 79–96.
(2) International Civil Aviation Organization, “Aerodrome Design (6) U. S. Patent No. 5 195 808, March 23, 1993.
Manual,” ICAO Doc 9157-AN/901, Part 3. (7) National Aeronautics and Space Administration, “Mechanical
(3) U. S. Patent No. 5 249 851, Oct. 5, 1993. Properties of Pneumatic Tires,” Technical Report R-64, pp. 28–30.

The American Society for Testing and Materials takes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection
with any item mentioned in this standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any such
patent rights, and the risk of infringement of such rights, are entirely their own responsibility.

This standard is subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee and must be reviewed every five years and
if not revised, either reapproved or withdrawn. Your comments are invited either for revision of this standard or for additional standards
and should be addressed to ASTM Headquarters. Your comments will receive careful consideration at a meeting of the responsible
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