Designation: E 274 – 97

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Reprinted from the Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Copyright ASTM

Standard Test Method for

Skid Resistance of Paved Surfaces Using a Full-Scale Tire1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 274; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope E 867 Terminology Relating to Traveled Surface Character-

1.1 This test method covers the measurement of skid resis- istics3
tance of paved surfaces with a specified full-scale automotive E 1136 Specification for a Radial Standard Reference Test
tire. Tire3
1.2 This test method utilizes a measurement representing F 377 Practice for Calibration of Braking/Tractive Measur-
the steady-state friction force on a locked test wheel as it is ing Devices for Testing Tires4
dragged over a wetted pavement surface under constant load F 457 Test Method for Speed and Distance Calibration of a
and at a constant speed while its major plane is parallel to its Fifth Wheel Equipped with Either Analog or Digital
direction of motion and perpendicular to the pavement. Instrumentation4
1.3 The values measured represent the frictional properties 3. Summary of Test Method
obtained with the equipment and procedures stated herein and
do not necessarily agree or correlate directly with those 3.1 The test apparatus consists of an automotive vehicle
obtained by other pavement friction measuring methods. The with one or more test wheels incorporated into it or forming
values are intended for use in evaluating the skid resistance of part of a suitable trailer towed by a vehicle. The apparatus
a pavement relative to that of other pavements or for evaluating contains a transducer, instrumentation, a water supply and
changes in the skid resistance of a pavement with the passage proper dispensing system, and actuation controls for the brake
of time. The values are insufficient to determine the distance of the test wheel. The test wheel is equipped with a standard
required to stop a vehicle on either a wet or a dry pavement. pavement test tire. See 4.4 for tire references.
They are also insufficient for determining the speed at which 3.2 The test apparatus is brought to the desired test speed.
control of a vehicle would be lost, because peak and side force Water is delivered ahead of the test tire and the braking system
friction are also required for these determinations. is actuated to lock the test tire. The resulting friction force
1.4 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded acting between the test tire and the pavement surface (or some
as the standard. The SI values given in parentheses are other quantity that is directly related to this force) and the
provided for information only. speed of the test vehicle are recorded with the aid of suitable
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the instrumentation.
safety problems associated with its use. It is the responsibility 3.3 The skid resistance of the paved surface is determined
of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and from the resulting force or torque record and reported as skid
health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory number (SN), which is determined from the force required to
limitations prior to use. For specific safety precautions, see slide the locked test tire at a stated speed, divided by the
Section 5. effective wheel load and multiplied by 100.

2. Referenced Documents 4. Apparatus

2.1 ASTM Standards: 4.1 Vehicle—The vehicle with one test tire locked shall be
E 178 Practice for Dealing with Outlying Observations2 capable of maintaining test speeds of 40 to 60 mph (65 to 100
E 501 Specification for Standard Rib Tire for Pavement km/h) within 61.0 mph (61.5 km/h) during a test on a level
Skid-Resistance Tests3 pavement having a skid number of 50.
E 524 Specification for Standard Smooth Tire for Pavement 4.2 Braking System—The test wheel shall be equipped with
Skid Resistance Tests3 a suitable brake. The brake system shall be capable of locking
the wheel at the conditions specified in 4.1 and maintaining the
locked-wheel condition throughout the test.
1
This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E-17 on 4.3 Wheel Load—The apparatus shall be of such a design as
Vehicle-Pavement Systems and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E17.21 to provide an equal static load of 1085 615 lbf (4800 6 65 N)
on Field Methods for Measuring Tire Pavement Friction. to each test wheel and on detachable trailers a static download
Current edition approved Nov. 10, 1997. Published April 1998. Originally
published as E 274 – 65T. Last previous edition E 274 – 90 (1997).
2
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 14.02.
3 4
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.03. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 09.02.

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 E 274
of 100 to 200 lbf (450 to 900 N) at the hitch point. to minimize this effect (3). If the foregoing is not practical, data
4.4 Tire and Rim—The test tire shall be one of the standard correction must be made for these effects if they exceed 2 % of
tires for the pavement test as specified in Specification E 501 or actual data during expected operation. All signal conditioning
E 524, and it shall be mounted on a suitable 15 by 6 in. rim. and recording equipment shall provide linear output and shall
Since all rims do not have the same offset from the hub, allow data reading resolution to meet the requirements of 4.5.1.
replacement rims must be of the same offset to ensure All systems, except the smoothing filter recommended in 4.6.2,
consistent alignment of the tire with the water path. The data shall provide a minimum bandwidth of at least 0 to 20 Hz (flat
from the two tires are not interchangeable. (1)5 Alternative within 61 %).
testing for special purposes may be performed with other tires, 4.6.2 It is recommended that an electronic filter, typically
such as a radial standard reference test tire of Specification between 4.8 Hz/-3db/4 pole Bessel-type and a 10 Hz/-3db/8
E 1136. pole Butterworth filter, selected from the types described in Ref
4.5 Instrumentation: (4) be installed in the signal conditioning circuit preceding the
4.5.1 General Requirements for Measuring System—The electronic divider and integration calculation of SN as de-
instrumentation system shall conform to the following overall scribed in 9.4.
requirements at ambient temperatures between 40 and 100°F (4 4.6.3 All strain-gage transducers shall be equipped with
and 40°C): resistance shunt calibration resistors or equivalent that can be
Overall system accuracy—611⁄2 % of applied load from 200 connected before or after test sequences. The calibration signal
lbf (900 N) to full scale; for example, at 200 lbf, applied shall be at least 50 % of the normal vertical load and shall be
calibration force of the system output shall be determinable recorded.
within 63 lbf (614 N). 4.6.4 Tire friction force or torque and any additional desired
Time stability of calibration—10 h, min. inputs, such as vertical load, wheel speed, etc., shall be
The exposed portions of the system shall tolerate 100 % recorded in phase (65° over a bandwidth of 0 to 20 Hz).
relative humidity (rain or spray) and all other adverse condi- Vehicle speed shall also be recorded. All signals shall be
tions, such as dust, shock, and vibrations which may be referenced to a common time base.
encountered in highway operations. 4.6.5 A signal to electrical noise ratio of at least 20 to 1 is
4.5.2 Force-Measuring Transducer—The tire force- desirable on all recorded channels.
measuring transducer shall be of such design as to measure the 4.7 Pavement Wetting System:
tire-road interface force with minimum inertial effects (2). 4.7.1 The water being applied to the pavement ahead of the
Transducers are recommended to provide an output directly test tire shall be supplied by a nozzle conforming to the
proportional to force with hysteresis less than 1 % of the dimensions in Fig. 1. The quantity of water applied at 40 mph
applied load, nonlinearity less than 1 % of the applied load up (65 km/h) shall be 4.0 gal 6 10 %/min·in. (600 mL/min·mm
to the maximum expected loading, and sensitivity to any 610 %) of wetted width. The water layer shall be at least 1 in.
expected cross-axis loading or torque loading less than 1 % of (25 mm) wider than the test tire tread and applied so the tire is
the applied load. The force transducer shall be mounted in such centrally located between the edges. The volume of water per
a manner as to experience less than 1 deg angular rotation with inch (or millimetre) of wetted width shall be directly propor-
respect to its measuring plane at the maximum expected tional to the test speed (5).
loading. 4.7.2 The nozzle configuration and position shall ensure that
4.5.3 Torque-Measuring Transducer—Torque transducers the water jets shall be directed toward the test tire and pointed
provide an output directly proportional to torque with hyster- toward the pavement at an angle of 20 to 30°. The water shall
esis less than 1 % of the applied load and nonlinearity up to the strike the pavement 10 to 18 in. (250 to 450 mm) ahead of the
maximum expected loading less than 1 % of the applied load. vertical axes through the centerline of the test wheel. The
It should have sensitivity to any cross-axis loading less than nozzle shall be 1 in. (25 mm) above the pavement or the
1 % of the applied load. minimum height required to clear obstacles that the tester is
4.5.4 Additional Transducers—Force transducers for mea- expected to encounter, but in no case more than 4 in. (100 mm)
suring quantities such as vertical load, etc., shall meet the above the pavement.
recommendations stated in 4.5.2. 4.7.3 Water used for testing shall be reasonably clean and
4.5.5 Vehicle Speed-Measuring Transducers—Transducers have no chemicals such as wetting agents or detergents added.
such as “fifth wheel” or free-rolling wheel coupled tachometers
shall provide speed resolution and accuracy of 6 1.5 % of the 5. Safety Precautions
indicated speed or 60.5 mph (60.8 km/h), whichever is 5.1 The test vehicle, as well as all attachments to it, shall
greater. Output shall be directly viewable by the driver and comply with all applicable state and federal laws. All necessary
shall be simultaneously recorded. Fifth wheel systems shall precautions shall be taken beyond those imposed by laws and
conform to Method F 457. regulations to ensure maximum safety of operating personnel
4.6 Signal Conditioning and Recorder System: and other traffic. No test shall be made when there is danger
4.6.1 Transducers that measure parameters sensitive to in- that the dispersed water may freeze on the pavement.
ertial loading shall be designed or located in such a manner as
6. Calibration
5
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of 6.1 Speed—Calibrate the test vehicle speed indicator at the
this method. test speed by determining the time for traversing at constant

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FIG. 1 Water Nozzle

speed a reasonably level and straight, accurately measured the transducer is calibrated. Level the transducers both longi-
pavement of a length appropriate for the method of timing. tudinally and laterally, such that the tractive force sensitive axis
Load the test vehicle to its normal operating weight for this is horizontal. This can be accomplished by minimizing the
calibration. Record speed variations during a traverse with the tractive force output for large variations in vertical load. The
skid-test system. Make a minimum of three runs at each test system (vehicle or trailer) should be approximately level
speed to complete the calibration. Other methods of equivalent during this procedure. The calibration platform shall utilize
accuracy may be used. Calibration of a fifth wheel shall be minimum friction bearings and have an accuracy of 60.5 % of
performed in accordance with Method F 457. the applied load and a hysteresis of 60.25 % of the applied
6.2 Skid Resistance Force—Place the test wheel of the load up to the maximum expected loading. Take care to ensure
assembled unit, with its own instrumentation, on a suitable that the applied load and the transducer sensitive axis are in the
calibration platform, which has been calibrated in accordance same vertical line. Perform the tractive force calibration
with Method F 377, and load vertically to the test load.
incrementally to not less than 800 lbf (3600 N).
Measure the test wheel load within 60.5 % accuracy whenever

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7. General of the SN versus speed curve which is plotted from at least
7.1 Test Preparation—Condition new tires by running them three speeds in increments of approximately 10 mph (15 km/h).
at or near their rated load and inflation pressure on the test The standard speed gradient shall be defined as the slope of the
vehicle (or on another suitable vehicle) at normal traffic speeds SN-speed curve at 40 mph (65 km/h) and shall be so indicated.
for at least 200 miles (300 km) or equivalent before they are
used for test purposes. Prior to each series of tests, warm up the 8. Procedure
tire by traveling for at least 5 miles (10 km) at normal traffic 8.1 Bring the apparatus to the desired speed and deliver
speeds. Inspect the tire for flat spots, damage, or other water to the pavement ahead of the test tire. Approximately 0.5
irregularities that may affect test results, and replace if it has s after beginning of the water delivery, apply the test wheel
been damaged or is worn beyond the wear line. Check the brake so as to lock the wheel completely. The wheel shall
test-wheel load (if adjustable) and adjust, if necessary, prior to remain locked for the duration of the data averaging interval
each test series to within the value specified in 4.3. Set the test (8.4.1).
tire inflation pressure at 24 6 0.5 psi (165 6 3 kPa) at ambient 8.2 Water delivery may be terminated as soon as the brake
temperature just before the 5-mile (10-km) warmup. is released.
7.2 Test Sections—Test sections shall be defined as sections 8.3 Record electrical calibration signals prior to and after
of pavement of uniform age and uniform composition that have testing each section, or as needed to ensure valid data.
been subjected to essentially uniform wear. For instance, sharp 8.4 Data Evaluation—Evaluate the resulting skid-resistance
curves and steep grades shall not be included in the same test records as follows:
section with level tangent sections, nor shall passing lanes be 8.4.1 Mark the point of wheel lock-up and measure the data
included with traffic lanes. Take skid-resistance measurements from a point not less than 0.2 s after this mark for an interval
only on pavements that are free of obvious contamination. not less than 1.0 s nor more than 3.0 s. Average the data
7.3 Skid Resistance of a Test Section—Make at least five between these points and use the mean value to read or to
determinations of the skid resistance, at intervals not greater calculate the skid number.
than 0.5 mile (1 km), in each test section with the test vehicle
at the same lateral position in any one lane and at each 9. Calculation
specified test speed. Consider the arithmetic average of all 9.1 Calculate the skid number as follows:
determinations to be the skid resistance of the test section. If
statistical or other criteria applied to the skid number for a long SN 5 ~F/W! 3 100 (1)
test section indicate that it cannot be considered to be uniform, where:
treat the section as two or more sections. For treatment of the F 5 tractive force (horizontal force applied to the test tire
results of faulty tests, see Section 10. at the tire-pavement contact patch), lbf (or N), and
7.4 Lateral Positioning of Test Vehicle on Highway— W 5 dynamic vertical load on test wheel, lbf (or N).
Normally, testing shall be done in the center of the left wheel 9.2 For trailers not of the parallelogram design (3) or where
track of a traffic lane of a highway. A skid number for a the vertical wheel load is not measured directly, the wheel load,
highway surface may be quoted without qualification, only if W, depends on the kinematic layout of the trailer and on the
the test vehicle was so positioned during the test. friction force. Wheel load reduction due to unloading produced
7.5 Test Speeds—The standard test speed shall be 40 mph by the friction force must be taken into account and the
(65 km/h), and tests shall normally be conducted at that speed. following formula used:
Where the legal maximum speed is less than 40 mph, the tests SN 5 ~F/W! 3 100 (2)
may have to be conducted at a lower speed. Where the legal
speed is considerably in excess of 40 mph, tests may be made where:
at the prevailing traffic speed, but it is recommended that at the W 5 W0 − (H/L) F,
same locations, additional tests be made at 40 mph. Maintain H 5 hitch height, in. (or mm),
test speeds within 61 mph (1.5 km/h). L 5 trailer wheelbase length (center of axle to center of
7.5.1 The test speed and the type tire are to be cited when hitch), in. (or mm), and
quoting the obtained skid number. This is to be done by adding W0 5 static vertical load on the test tire, lbf (or N).
the test speed in miles per hour and the letter R for rib tire or 9.3 For a vehicle not of a trailer design, the dynamic vertical
S for smooth tire after SN. For example, SN40R indicates that load must be either measured or computed by analysis of the
the test was run at a test speed of 40 mph with a Specification statics and kinematics of the test vehicle.
E 501 Standard Rib Tire for Pavement Skid Resistance Test, 9.4 For instrumentation systems that incorporate automatic
and SN50S indicates that the test was run at a test speed of 50 dynamic skid number computation equipment, the horizontal
mph with a Specification E 524 Standard Smooth Tire for tractive force is automatically divided by the dynamic vertical
Pavement Skid Resistance Test. When the SI system is used, load in real time (see 9.1). The resultant skid number sn(t) is
the test speed shall be in parentheses. For example, SN(65)R recorded in real time on the strip chart and is available for
indicates that the test was run at a test speed of 65 km/h with automatic averaging over the designated averaging period for
an E501 Standard Rib for Pavement Skid Resistance Test. SN (shown in 8.4.1). The following equations apply:
7.6 Skid-Resistance Speed Gradient Determination— fh~t!
sn ~t! 5 3 100 (3)
Report the change of the skid number with speed as the slope fv~t!

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*
1 t2 for each test section, data on the following items insofar as they
SN 5 t 2 t sn ~t!dt (4)
2 1 t1 are pertinent to the variables or combinations of variables
under investigation:
where:
11.2.1 Location and identification of test section,
sn (t) 5 dynamic skid number in real time,
fh(t) 5 dynamic tractive force in real time, lbf (or N), 11.2.2 Number of lanes and presence of lane separators,
fv(t) 5 dynamic vertical load in real time, lbf (or N), 11.2.3 Grade and alignment,
t1 5 time of start of averaging period, s, 11.2.4 Pavement type, mix design of surface course, condi-
t2 5 time of end of averaging period, s, and tion, and aggregate type (specific source, if available),
SN 5 mean skid number. 11.2.5 Age of pavement,
If a 1-s averaging interval is used, then t 1 5 0, t2 5 1, and 11.2.6 Average daily traffic,
the equation reduces to: 11.2.7 Posted speed limit,
11.2.8 Date and time of day,
*
1
SN 5 sn ~t!dt (5) 11.2.9 Weather conditions,
0
11.2.10 Lane and wheel-path tested,
The arithmetic mean skid number can be recorded on the 11.2.11 Average, high, and low skid number for the test
strip chart as an amplitude trace to the same scale as the section and speed at which the tests were made. (If values are
dynamic skid number trace and be scaled directly from the reported that were not used in computing the average, this fact
chart, or it may be digitized and recorded on magnetic tape, on shall be recorded.), and
punched tape, or by printer on paper tape. When the standard 11.2.12 Plot of speed gradient data (if obtained).
rib tire of Specification E 501 is used, the designation shall be
SN Test Speed R, and when the standard smooth tire of 12. Precision and Bias
Specification E 524 is used, the designation shall be SN Test 12.1 The relationship of observed SN units to some “true”
Speed S. value of locked-wheel sliding friction has not been established
at this time. As a result, only repeatability is given for this test
10. Faulty Tests method.
10.1 Test results that are manifestly faulty, or that differ by 12.2 The acceptable precision of SN units can be stated in
more than 5 SN from the average of all tests in the same test the form of repeatability. As there is no significant correlation
section, shall be treated in accordance with Practice E 178. between standard deviation and arithmetic mean of sets of test
values, it appears that standard deviations are applicable to this
11. Report test method regardless of the average locked wheel sliding
11.1 Field Report—The field report for each section shall friction of the surface. An acceptable standard deviation of 2
contain data on the following items: SN units was obtained from numerous tests conducted on a
11.1.1 Location and identification of test section, variety of systems at the Field Test and Evaluation Centers.6
11.1.2 Date and time of day, 12.3 This value is based on evaluations of many skid
trailers. The standard deviation of each was determined at each
11.1.3 Weather conditions: principally temperature, cloud
of three speeds on the basis of 36 individual skids, 12 each on
cover, and wind,
each of three pads. It was also determined for each trailer on an
11.1.4 Lane and wheel-path tested, over-all speed basis of 108 individual skids, 12 at each of three
11.1.5 Skid number, speed of test, and test tire type, either speeds on each of three pads.
SN Test Speed R or SN Test Speed S, for each test in mph; use
parentheses for speed in SI units. 6
Supporting data are available from ASTM Headquarters. Request RR:E17-
11.2 Summary Report—The summary report shall include, 1000.

REFERENCES

(1) Henry, John Jewett, “Use of Blank and Ribbed Test Tires for Motors Proving Ground Model II Coefficient of Friction Vehicle,”
Evaluating Wet-Pavement Friction,” Transportation Research Record Presentation to ASTM Committee E-17, March 22, 1967. Available as
788. General Motors Proving Ground Report PG-26395.
(2) Goodenow, G. L., Kolhoff, T. R., and Smithson, F. D., “Tire-Road (6) Smith, L. L., and Fuller, S. L., “Florida Skid Correlation Study of
Friction Measuring System—A Second Generation,” Society of Auto- 1967—Skid Testing with Trailers,” ASTM STP 456, Am. Soc. Testing
motive Engineers, Paper No. 680137. and Mats., 1969.
(3) Kummer, H. W., and Meyer, W. E., “Tentative Skid Resistance (7) Cook, L. M., and Dancy, W. H., Jr., “Development and Fabrication of
Requirements for Main Rural Highways,” National Cooperative High- the Virginia Skid-Resistance Measurement Vehicle-Model 2,” Virginia
way Research Program, Report No. 37, Highway Research Board, Highway Research Council (Box 3817, University Station, Charlot-
1967. tesville, VA 22903).
(4) Neill, Jr., A. H., Boyd, P. L., and Hinch, J., “Filtering Techniques for (8) Meyer, W. E., Hegmon, R. R., and Gillespie, T. D., “Locked-Wheel
Measuring Peak Braking Coefficients,” Tire Science and Technology, Pavement Skid Tester Correlation and Calibration Techniques,”
Vol 6, No. 4, pp. 263–275, Nov. 1978. NCHRP Report No. 151, Transportation Research Board, 1974.
(5) Goodenow, G. L., “The Design and Construction of the General (9) Kearns, R. W., and Ward, J. F., “The Static Force Calibration of a Skid

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Resistance Measuring System,” Institute for Basic Standards, National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC, May 1973.

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