Guidelines for Writing a Scientific Report

Format
A scientific report usually consists of the following:
- Title
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Materials and methods or Description of the Model
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions and Summary (optional)
- Acknowledgements (optional)
- References
- Appendix (optional)

Materials and methods / Description of the Model and Results can be compiled into one
single section in purely theoretical projects. If in doubt, talk to your supervisor about the
details of your report format.

There is general agreement among scientists that each section of the report should
contain specific types of information.
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Title
The title should reflect the content and emphasis of the project described in the report. It
should be as short as possible and include essential key words. The author's name (e.g.,
Ana F Silbering) should follow the title on a separate line, followed by the author's
affiliation (e.g., Lehrstuhl für Neurobiologie, Universität Konstanz, D-78457 Konstanz,
Germany).
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Abstract
The purpose of an abstract is to allow the reader to judge whether it would serve his or
her purposes to read the entire report. A good abstract is a concise (100 to 200 words)
summary of the purpose of the report, the data presented, and the author's major
conclusions.
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Introduction

"A good introduction is a clear statement of the problem or project and why you are
studying it." (The ACS Style Guide. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1986.)

The nature of the problem and why it is of interest should be conveyed in the opening
paragraphs. This section should describe clearly but briefly the background information
on the problem, what has been done before (with proper literature citations), and the
objectives of the current project. A clear relationship between the current project and the
scope and limitations of earlier work should be made so that the reasons for the project
and the approach used will be understood.
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Materials and Methods / Description of the Model
In theoretical reports, this section would include sufficient theoretical or mathematical
analysis to enable derivations and numerical results to be checked. Computer programs
from the public domain should be cited. New computer programs should be described in
outline form.
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As the name implies, the materials and methods used in the experiments should be
reported in this section. The difficulty in writing this section is to provide enough detail for
the reader to understand the experiment without overwhelming him or her. It should be
sufficiently detailed that other experienced researchers would be able to repeat the work
and obtain comparable results. When procedures from a lab book or another report are
followed exactly, simply cite the work, noting that details can be found in that particular
source. However, it is still necessary to describe special pieces of equipment and the
general theory of the assays used. This can usually be done in a short paragraph,
possibly along with a drawing of the experimental apparatus. Generally, this section
attempts to answer the following questions:

What materials were used?

How were they used?
Where and when was the work done? (This question is most important in field studies.)
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If the experimental section is lengthy and detailed, as in synthetic work, it can be placed
at the end of the report or as an appendix so that it does not interrupt the conceptual
flow of the report. Its placement will depend on the nature of the project and the
discretion of the writer.
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Results
This section of your report should concentrate on general trends and differences and not
on trivial details. Many authors organize and write the results section before the rest of
the report.

The results section should summarize the data from the experiments without discussing
their implications. The data should be organized into tables, figures, graphs,
photographs, and so on. But data included in a table should not be duplicated in a figure
or graph.

All figures and tables should have descriptive titles and should include a legend
explaining any symbols, abbreviations, or special methods used. Figures and tables
should be numbered separately and should be referred to in the text by number, for
example:
Figure 1 shows that the activity decreased after five minutes.
The activity decreased after five minutes (fig. 1).
Figures and tables should be self-explanatory; that is, the reader should be able to
understand them without referring to the text. All columns and rows in tables and axes in
figures should be labeled.
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Explain your actual findings, using subheadings to divide the section into logical parts,
with the text addressing the study aims. Link your writing to figures and tables as you
present the results. For each, describe and interpret what you see (you do the thinking --
do not leave this to the reader). If you have many similar figures, select representative
examples for brevity and put the rest in an appendix. Mention any uncertainty in
measurement or calculation, and use an appropriate number of decimal places to reflect
it. Make comments on the results as they are presented, but save broader
generalizations and conclusions for later. Answer the question "what did I find out?"
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Discussion
This section should not just be a restatement of the results but should emphasize
interpretation of the data, relating them to existing theory and knowledge. Speculation is
appropriate, if it is so identified. Suggestions for the improvement of techniques or
experimental design may also be included here. In writing this section, you should
explain the logic that allows you to accept or reject your original hypotheses. You should
also be able to suggest future experiments that might clarify areas of doubt in your
results.
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Discuss the importance of what you found, in light of the overall study aims. Stand back
from the details and synthesize what has (and has not) been learned about the problem,
and what it all means. Say what you actually found, not what you hoped to find. Begin
with specific comments and expand to more general issues. Recommend any
improvements for further study. Answer the question "what is the significance of the
research?"

Important Note: this section is often combined with either the Results section or the
Conclusions section. Decide whether understanding and clarity are improved if you
include some discussion as you cover the results, or if discussive material is better as
part of the broader summing up.
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Conclusions and Summary (optional)

A separate section outlining the main conclusions of the project is appropriate if
conclusions have not already been stated in the "Discussion" section. Directions for
future work are also suitably expressed here.

A lengthy report, or one in which the findings are complex, usually benefits from a
paragraph summarizing the main features of the report - the objectives, the findings, and
the conclusions.
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If you choose to include ‘Conclusions and Summary’, restate the study aims or key
questions and summarize your findings using clear, concise statements. Keep this
section brief and to the point.
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Acknowledgements
The last paragraph of text in manuscripts prepared for publication is customarily
dedicated to acknowledgments. However, there is no rule about this, it is an optional
section. Thank people who directly contributed to the paper, by providing data, assisting
with some part of the analysis, proofreading, typing, etc. It is not a dedication, so don't
thank Mom and Dad for bringing you into the world, or your roommate for making your
coffee.
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References
This section lists all articles or books cited in your report. It is not the same as a
bibliography, which simply lists references regardless of whether they were cited in the
paper. Provide sufficient detail to enable somebody to actually track down the
information. The listing should be alphabetized by the last names of the authors. List all
authors for the "et al." publications. Different journals require different formats for citing
literature. Follow a standard format such as the examples below, and note the
distinctions regarding italics, capitalization, volume/page numbers, publisher address,
etc. between the various kinds of references.

Personal (unpublished) communications

Cited in the text only, e.g., "... x is greater than y (Comrie 1999, pers. comm.)."

Lecture Notes
Comrie, A.C., 1999: The climate of Tucson. April 1 lecture, GEOG 230 Our Changing
Climate, University of Arizona.

Web Site
Comrie, A.C., 1999: The climate of Tucson. Internet:
<http://geog.arizona.edu/~comrie/tucson.html>.
Accessed / downloaded / visited 2003-05-01

Single Author Journal Paper

Comrie, A.C., 1999: The climate of Tucson. Climate Journal 5, 123-132.

Multiple Author Journal Paper

Comrie, A.C., B.C. Smith and C.D. Jones, 1999: The climate of Tucson. Climate Journal
5, 123-132.

Book
Comrie, A.C., 1999: The Climate of Tucson. Academic Publishers, Boston.

Government/Technical Report
Comrie, A.C., 1999: The climate of Tucson. Report ABC-001, Institute for Climate
Studies, University of Arizona.

For chapters in books/in an Edited Volume:

Smith, C.J. 1989. Basal cell carcinomas. In Histological aspects of cancer, ed. C.D.
Wilfred, pp. 278-91. Boston: Medical Press.
When citing references in the text, do not use footnotes; instead, refer to articles by the
author's name and the date the paper was published. For example:
Fox in 1988 / Fox (1988) investigated the hormones on the nest-building
behavior of catbirds.
Hormones are known to influence the nest-building behavior of catbirds (Fox,
1988).
When citing papers that have two authors, both names must be listed. When three or
more authors are involved, the Latin et al. (et alia, note the period) meaning "and others"
may be used . A paper by Smith, Lynch, Merrill, and Beam published in 1989 would be
cited in the text as:
Smith et al. (1989) have shown that...

Attribute every idea that is not your own to avoid plagiarism.

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Appendix
If necessary, one or more appendices containing raw data, figures not used in the body
of the paper, sample calculations, etc. may be included. They are considered as
additional material to the report, and may not be examined by the reader at all.
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General Points
Aim
The main purpose of a scientific report is to communicate. A typical structure and style
have evolved to convey essential information and ideas as concisely and effectively as
possible. Precise formats vary by discipline and scientific journal, but always treat them
as flexible guidelines that enable clear communication.
Audience
Assume that your intended reader has a background similar to yours before you started
the project. That is, a general understanding of the topic but no specific knowledge of the
details. The reader should be able to reproduce whatever you did by following your
report.
Clarity of Writing
Good scientific reports share many of the qualities found in other kinds of writing. To
write is to think, so a paper that lays out ideas in a logical order will facilitate the same
kind of thinking. Make each sentence follow from the previous one, building an argument
step by step. Group related sentences into paragraphs, and group paragraphs into
sections. Create a flow from beginning to end.
Consistency of Format
Within the report, the exact format of particular items is less important than consistency
of application. For example, if you indent paragraphs, be sure to indent them all; use a
consistent style of headings throughout (e.g., major headings in bold with initial capitals,
minor headings in italics, etc.); write "%" or "percent" but do not mix them, and so on. In
other words, establish a template and stick to it. Consult real journal papers for
examples.
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General Comments on Style

- All scientific names (genus and species) must be italicized. (Underlining indicates
italics in a typed paper.)
- Use the metric system of measurements. Abbreviations of units are used without a
following period.
- Be aware that the word data is plural while datum is singular. This affects the choice of
a correct verb. The word species is used both as a singular and as a plural.
- Numbers should be written as numerals when they are greater than ten or when they
are associated with measurements; for example, 6 mm or 2 g but two explanations of six
factors. When one list includes numbers over and under ten, all numbers in the list may
be expressed as numerals; for example, 17 sunfish, 13 bass, and 2 trout. Never start a
sentence with numerals. Spell all numbers beginning sentences.
- Be sure to divide paragraphs correctly and to use starting and ending sentences that
indicate the purpose of the paragraph. A report or a section of a report should not be one
long paragraph.
- The report should be grammatically sound, with correct spelling, and generally free of
errors. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb.
- Avoid using the first person, I or we, in writing (disputable!). Keep your writing
impersonal, in the third person. Instead of saying, "We weighed the frogs and put them
in a glass jar," write, "The frogs were weighed and put in a glass jar." However, employ
the active rather than passive voice to avoid boring writing and contorted phrases (e.g.,
"the software calculated average values" is better than "average values were calculated
by the software").
- Avoid jargon, slang, or colloquial terms. Define acronyms and any abbreviations not
used as standard measurement units.
- Be consistent in the use of tense throughout a paragraph--do not switch between past
and present. Most of the report describes what you did, and thus it should be in the past
tense (e.g., "values were averaged"), but use present or future tense as appropriate
(e.g., "x is bigger than y" or "that effect will happen").
- Be sure that pronouns refer to antecedents. For example, in the statement,
"Sometimes cecropia caterpillars are in cherry trees but they are hard to find,"
does "they" refer to caterpillars or trees?
- After writing a report, read it over, watching especially for lack of precision and for
ambiguity. Each sentence should present a clear message. The following examples
illustrate lack of precision:
"The sample was incubated in mixture A minus B plus C." Does the mixture
lack both B and C or lack B and contain C?
The title "Protection against Carcinogenesis by Antioxidants" leaves the reader
wondering whether antioxidants protect from or cause cancer.

The only way to prevent such errors is to read and think about what you write. Learn to
reread and edit your work.
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Large parts of this text were directly adopted from the following sources:

1 Dolphin, W.D., 1997: Writing Lab Reports and Scientific Papers. Internet:
<http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/maderinquiry/writing.html>

2 Chemistry.org - The Web Sit of the American Chemical Society. Internet

3 Comrie, A.C.: Scientific Report Writing. Internet:

<http://geog.arizona.edu/~comrie/geog230/report.htm>