S5 P720/3 HOLLIDAY WORK – Notes and Questions

Instructions
- Read and summaries the notes.
- Use the internet to google some of the key words in the notes so as to understand
them better.
- Working with your parents or guardians relate the concepts presented to your
surrounding home environment to make sense of what they mean.
- Attempt the questions at the end of the notes to further your understanding of the
topic.
- Return to school with summaries of the notes signed by your parent or guardian

SITE WORKS

Choice of a

site
There are a number of factors that should be considered when selecting a building site and these
include the following

1. The cost of the land where the site is located.

2. The climate of the area.
3. The aspect of the site; which helps to determine the amount of sunlight received on
the various elevations of the building that in turn helps in the planning and location
of the habitable rooms.
4. The elevation of the site is also important since an elevated site is preferable due to
its being drier and easier to drain as compared to the low-lying ones that are likely
to be cold and damp.
5. The prospect of the site. The site should be able to command a pleasant view and
the adjoining land uses should be compatible.
6. Availability of facilities. The site should ideally have access to schools,
shops, parks, sports facilities, swimming pools, community centers and good
public transport facilities.
7. The site should have access to adequate services like electricity, water mains
and sewers.
8. The site subsoil‟s should merit special consideration because of their effect on
the building work especially when it comes to choice of a foundation.
9. Site contamination should be taken into consideration. One should avoid former
industrial sites that could involve expensive site works to remove potential
hazards.
10. The water table of the site should be known. It‟s important that the building is
erected well above the highest ground water level.
11. Subsidence of the site especially in mining areas should also be taken
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 into consideration.

Site investigations
All potential building sites need to be investigated to determine their suitability for building and the
nature and context of preliminary work that will be needed.
During site investigation particular attention is given to the following;

1. Nature of the soil and its probable load-bearing capacity which is usually done
by means of trial holes or borings since there may be variations over the site.
2. The level of the water table should also be established since a high water table
may necessitate subsoil drainage and could cause flooding in winter.
3. Ordinance survey maps, which could show the presence of disused mines or
former ponds.
4. The position and size of main services like sewers should be determined and it‟s
advisable to take a framework of levels over the site so as to ease the draining
of the site.
5. The environment of the site should also be taken into account. This includes the
mature trees on the site, which ought to be retained, or which are even subject
to tree preservation orders or the site being located within a conservation area.
6. Investigations should also include approaching local planning authorities to
ascertain whether there are any special or significant restrictions that could
adversely affect the development of the site, and the position of the building
line or base line.
Site clearing
This is the demolition of existing buildings, the grubbing out of bushes and trees and the removal of
soils to reduce levels on the site prior to construction.
Site clearing is important because it rids the site of any obstruction to the process of setting-out.
The method chosen for the carrying out site clearing (whether mechanical or manual) is determined
by overall economics.

Demolition
This is the partial or complete removal of a structure. Before demolition a series of steps have to be
taken and these are as follows.
1) Remove carefully all saleable items such as copper, lead, steel fittings, domestic fittings,
windows, doors and frames.
2) Examine condition and thickness of walls to be demolished and those to be retained.
3) Check for the relationship as well as the condition of adjoining properties that may be
affected by the demolition.
4) Check on the nature of support to balconies, heavy cornices and stairs.
5) Check whether the demolition will cause unbalanced thrusts to occur in the roof and
framed structures.

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 6) Check whether demolition will extend to public footpath or beyond boundary of site.
7) The services to the structure should be sealed off, protected or removed and the service
providers should be notified.
8) All flammable or explosive materials such as oil drums and gas cylinders should be
removed before demolition commences.
9) Adequate insurance should be taken out by the contractor to cover all claims from
workmen, any third party and claims for loss or damage to property including roads,
pavings and services.
10) Local authorities have to be notified.

There are four factors that determine the method of demolition to be used and these are:
a) Type of structure. Whether the structure is storied, framed structure, reinforced
concrete, chimney etc.
b) Type of construction. Whether it‟s a masonry wall, concrete or of structural steel
construction.
c) Location of site. Whether the site in the middle of a busy town or a less populated
neighborhood.
d) The type of demolition. Whether the structure needs a complete or partial demolition.

Methods of Demolition
1. Hand demolition. This involves progressive demolition of a structure by operatives using
hand-held tools.
2. Pusher arm demolition. This is progressive demolition using a machine fitted with a steel
pusher arm exerting a horizontal thrust on to the building fabric.
3. Deliberate collapse demolition. Involves the removal of key structural members causing
complete collapse of the whole or part of the building.
4. Demolition ball techniques. This is carried out by swinging a weight or demolition ball
suspended from a crane against the fabric of the structure. This can be by vertical drop,
swinging in line with the jib or slewing jib.
5. Wire rope pulling demolition. Involves the use steel wire ropes on which pulling tension is
gradually applied.
6. Demolition by explosives. Involves charges of explosives placed within the fabric of the
structure and detonated to cause partial or complete collapse. It should be carried out with the
advice and supervision of an expert.

Leveling sloping sites

Sloping sites should be levelled before commencing any construction work. There are three
methods that can be employed to level slopes and these include:
I. Cut and fill: This is where soil cut from the higher section of the sloping site is used
to level the lower section there by leveling the site. It‟s the most common method
because if properly carried out, the amount of cut will equal to the amount of fill.

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 Original ground
level
Formation or
reduced level Cut

Fill

Fig 2.1a Cut and fill method of leveling

II. Cut: In this method soil is cut and then ferried away so as to level the site. This
method has the advantage of giving undisturbed soils over the whole site but also
has the disadvantage of the cost of removing the soil from the site.

Battered face
Original ground
Formation or level
reduced level
Cut

Fig 2.1b Cut method of leveling

III. Fill: This is where soil is ferried from somewhere else and is filled on the site so as
to level the slope. This method is not recommended because if the building is sited
on the filled area there would be a risk of settlement at a later stage.

Formation or
reduced level

Retaining wall
Fill

Original ground
level
Fig 2.1c Fill method of leveling

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 Storage of building materials
The type of storage facilities required for any particular material will depend upon the following
factors:
1. Durability
2. Vulnerability to damage
3. Vulnerability to theft

The following are some of the building materials and how they can be stored on a building site.

a) Cement and lime

These require a dry store free of draughts, which can bring in moist air. These should not be
stored for long periods on site; therefore provision should be for rotational use so that the
material being used comes from the old stock.
b) Aggregates (sand)
These require a clean firm base to ensure that foreign matter is not included when extracting
materials from the base of the stockpile. Different materials and grades must be kept separately
so that the ultimate mix batches are consistent in quality and texture.
c) Brick and blocks
Should be stacked in stable piles on a level and well-drained surface. Facing bricks and light-
coloured bricks should be covered with tarpaulin or polythene sheeting to prevent them from
discolouring by atmospheric pollution and adverse weather conditions.
d) Roof tiles
These should be stacked on edge and in pairs, head to tail, to give protection to the nibs. This is
because tiles have a greater resistance to load when it is imposed on the edge.
e) Timber
This should be stored on a rack of tubular scaffold with a sheet roof covering to enable its
moisture content remain constant. This is because timber is hygroscopic.
f) Ironmongery, hand tools and paints.
These are the most vulnerable items on a building site and therefore should be kept in a locked
hut/store and only issued against an authorized stores requisition.

Setting-out
This is the process of positioning a building on site. See fig 2.2a.
The stages involved in the above process are as follows;
1. The first task is to establish the baseline or building line from which the rest of
the building can be setout. This line is determined by the highway authorities
and in urban areas it‟s approximately 8meters from the back of the public path.

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 Datum post
Profile boards

Main setting out

Diagonal checks lines

Site boundary

Base line

Fig 2.2a Setting out

2. The next step is to position the front of the building on the baseline by checking
the dimensions between of the new building and the side boundaries.
3. Flank walls are then set-out at right angles to the baseline often using the large
builder‟s timber square or the 3:4:5 triangle (Pythagoras theorem).The builder‟s
square is a right-angled triangular timber frame with sides varying in length
which is used by placing it against the baseline while two pegs are driven in on
the return side. By sighting across the two pegs, a third peg can be driven in the
same straight line and thereafter a bricklayer‟s line can be stretched between
them. If the builder‟s square is not available, a right angle can be setout based on
the right-angled triangle whose sides are in the ratio of 3:4:5 (derived from the
Pythagoras theorem). A peg is first driven in at the corner of the building and a
distance of 3m is measured back along the baseline. A peg is driven in at this
point and the ring of the measuring tape is placed over a nail driven into the top
of the peg. The tape is held at the 12m mark (3+4+5=12) against the ring on the
first peg and with the tape around the corner peg, the tape is stretched out to give
the position of the third peg at the 7m mark. The line extended through the third
peg is at right angle to the baseline.
4. A check should now be made of the setting-out lines for right angles and correct
lengths. This can be done by using the site square or diagonal checks as shown
in fig 2.2a
5. To secure permanent line markers, profile boards (see fig 2.2b) are established at
corners of the building and at wall intersections. Nails or saw cuts on the profile
boards demarcate the width of walls and also locate the position of the
foundation trench.

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 Boards
Trench
width
Wall
width

Setting out lines

Nails positioning
trench and walls

Fig 2.2b Profile board

The relevant tools for the work of clearing out are;
1. A steel tape for measuring
2. A large timber builder‟s square used in corners
3. A saw for cutting profile boards
4. A hammer for nailing.

Establishing a datum level

A datum level is a fixed point of known level on site that is used to determine floor and drain invert
levels. There are two ways of establishing a datum level and these are;
I. It can be established by transferring levels from the ordnance bench mark (ODM) to
the building site using the dumpy tilting or automatic level and leveling stuff.
Ordnance bench marks are levels indicated on an ordinance survey map that are found
cut or let into the sides of walls and near by buildings.
II. Where there are no benchmarks on or near the site a suitable permanent datum must
be established and this could be a post set in concrete or a concrete plinth set up on
site. See fig 2.2a

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 Excavations
There are two types of excavations; Trench excavations and basement excavations.
❑ Trench excavation is the digging of narrow trenches of required depth and width in
which a foundation can be laid. On small contracts this can be carried out manually
but on large contracts the use of mechanical trench diggers is more economical.
When digging the trenches, approximately 150mm is allowed for hand trimming in
the trench bottom so as to form an accurate line and level and the process is called
bottoming of trenches. The trimmed surface is then covered with hardcore stones to
protect the soil from drying out and shrinking.
❑ Basement excavation is the digging of a large pit in which a basement of a building
can be constructed. This carried out by excavators.

The method of excavation and timbering to be used will depend upon the following factors;
1. Nature of the subsoil‟s which determines the type of plant or hand tools required and
the amount of timbering necessary.
2. Purpose of the excavation that determines the minimum widths and depths.
3. Presence of groundwater, which may necessitate the need for interlocking timbering,
water pumps or dewatering techniques.
4. Position of the excavation that may impose certain restrictions such as the need for a
license, highway authority or police requirements when excavating in a public road.
5. Non-availability of the right type of plant for bulk excavations may mean that a
different method must be used.
6. Presence of a large number of services may restrict the use of machinery.
7. The disposal of the excavated spoil may restrict the choice of plant due to the load
and unload cycle not keeping pace with the machine output.

The principal machines needed for excavations include;

1. A dragline: This excavates below it‟s own level.
2. A face shovel: This digs in deep faces below it‟s own level.
3. A drag shovel or backator: Digs below it‟s own level and towards it „self. It‟s
primarily used for trench excavations.
4. Skimmer: This is used for shallow excavations and is particularly useful in leveling
and roadwork.
5. Grab and clamshell: Used for moving loose materials.
6. A bulldozer and angle dozer: Used for bulk excavations and grading.
7. A rooter: It‟s a tractor drawn toothed scarifier used for breaking up hard surfaces.

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 Boning rod (traveler)
This is a T-shaped piece of timber that is moved along a line sighted across the tops of two adjacent
sight rails or profile boards to ensure that the base of a foundation trench is leveled or that the drain
trench is cut to the required gradient (slope).
Sight rail or
Sight line profile board

Sight rail or
profile board Ground level Support post

Boning rod Boning rod

Foundation
trench

Horrizontal section Cross-section

Fig 2.2c Boning rod

SITE TEMPORARY WORKS

Timbering.
This is the process of laying temporary supports to the sides of excavations and is some times
called planking and strutting.
The sides of excavations need these supports so as to;
1. Protect the operatives while working in the excavations.
2. Keep the excavations open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trench.
The amount of timbering required to the sides of excavations will largely depend on the following;
1. Depth of the excavations,
2. Nature of the soil to be upheld,
3. Vibration and loads from traffic or other causes,
4. Position of the water table,
5. Climatic conditions,
6. Time for which the excavation is to remain open.

The timbers suitable for timbering include;

1. Scots pine
2. Baltic redwood
3. Baltic white wood
4. Douglas fur
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 5. Larch
6. Hemlock.

Fig 2.3a,b,c and d show typical details of timbering to trenches in hard soils, firm soils, dry loose
soils and wet loose soils.

Wedges at one end

Polling boards of strut for
Polling boards
Wedges at one end adjustment
of strut for
adjustment Wallings

Struts
Struts

Fig 2.3a Timbering in hard soils Fig 2.3b Timbering in firm soils
Wedges at one end
Vertical sheeting of strut for
adjustment Polling boards
Wedges at one end
Wallings of strut for
adjustment
Pages

Horizontal sheeting

Struts
Struts

Fig 2.3c Timbering in loose wet soils Fig 2.3d Timbering in dry loose soils

Site fencing
A building site can be given a degree of protection by surrounding it with a fence, which should
fulfil the following functions;

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 1. It should define the limit of the site or compound,
2. Should act as a deterrent to the would-be trespasser or thief.
Fig 2.4a shows the three types of fences and these include;
a. Cleft chestnut pale fence
b. Chain link fence
c. Close boarded fence.
The type of fencing chosen will depend upon the following;
1. Degree of security required
2. Cost implications
3. Type of neighborhood
4. Duration of contract.

Straining post Intermediate posts

Concrete post

All posts painted

Strut and driven

a) Cleft chestnut fence b) Close boarded fence

Stretcher bar

Concrete post Straining wires

c) Chain link fence

Fig 2.4a Types of site fencing

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 Site hoardings
These are close boarded fences or barriers erected adjacent to the highway or public footpath to
prevent unauthorised persons obtaining access and to provide a degree of protection for the public
from the dust and noise associated with building operations.
Written permission in form of a license should be obtained from the local authority to erect a
hoarding. This license sets out the conditions and gives details of duration, provision of footway for
the public and the need for lighting during the hours of the darkness.
There are two common types of hoarding and these include the following;

1. Vertical hoarding: This type of hoarding consists of a series of closed panels securely fixed to
resist wind loads and accidental impact loads. It can be free standing or fixed by stays to the
external walls of an existing building. See fig 2.5a
Night warning
lights

Panels covered
with close Gaurd rail
boarding or
sheeting

Braces

Footway of
t&g boards

Timber fender
painted white

Fixing stakes

Fig 2.5a Free standing vertical hoarding

2. Fan hoarding: This type of hoarding is placed at a level above the normal traffic height and
arranged in such a manner that any falling debris is directed back towards the building or
scaffold. See fig 2.5b

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 Close boarded or
sheeted deck

Timber supports
anchored to existing Struts
building

Hole through
existing wall for
timber supports

Fig 2.5b Fan hoarding

Shoring
This is the process of applying temporary supports to a building to avoid the danger of it collapsing
on any person.
The functions of shoring or the situations where it‟s commonly required are as follows;
1. To give support to walls which are dangerous or are likely to become unstable due to
subsidence, bulging or leaning.
2. To avoid failure of sound walls caused by the removal of subjacent supports such as
where a basement is being constructed near to a sound wall.
3. To give support to an adjacent building or structure during demolition works.
4. To support the upper part of the wall during formation of a large opening in the
lower section of the wall.
5. To give support to a floor or roof to enable a support wall be removed and be
replaced by a beam.
Structural softwood is the usual material used for shoring members it‟s strength to weight ratio
compares favourably with that of structural steel.

Types of shoring (shoring systems)

There are three shoring systems; namely:
1. Dead shoring: This type of shoring is used to support dead loads, which act vertically
downwards. It consists of a vertical prop or leg with a head plate, sole plate and some means of
adjustment for tightening and easing the shore.
The steps taken or the operational sequence for erecting a successful dead shoring arrangement
are as follows;

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 a) Carry out a thorough site investigation to determine;
i) Number of shores required,
ii) Bearing capacity of soil and floors,
iii) Location of under ground services which may have to be avoided.
b) Fix ceiling struts between suitable head and sole plates to relieve the wall
of floor and roof loads. The struts should be positioned close to the walls.
c) Strut all window openings with in the vicinity of the shores to prevent
movement or distortion of the opening.
d) Cut holes through the walls slightly larger in size than the needles to enable them
pass through.
e) Cut holes through ceilings and floors for the shore legs.
f) Position and level sleepers on a firm base.
g) Erect, wedge and secure shoring arrangements.
Upon completion of the builders work it‟s advisable to leave the shoring in place for at least seven
days before easing the supports to ensure that the new work has gained sufficient strength to be
self-supporting. See fig 2.6a

Dry mortar
packing

Needle Continuous head plate

Hole for needle

Sole plate
w.i dogs

Shore leg Shore leg

Folding wedges Continuous transom

Sleeper

Ceiling struts

Pavings removed to Folding wedges

provide solid bed
for sleeper w.i dogs

Fig 2.6a Dead shoring

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 2. Raking shores: This shoring arrangement transfers the floor and wall loads to the ground by
means of sloping struts or rakers. One rake for each floor is required and ideally should be to an
angle between 40 and 70 with the horizontal.
The steps taken or the operational sequence for erecting raking shores are as follows;

a) Carrying out site investigations as described for dead shoring,

b) Mark out and cut mortises and housings in wall plates,
c) Set out and cut holes for needles in external walls,
d) Excavate to a firm subsoil and lay a grillage platform and sole plate,
e) Cut and erect rakers commencing with the bottom shore,
f) Fix cleats, distance blocks, binding and if necessary cross bracing over
the backs of the shores. See fig 2.6b

3. Flying shores: These shores fulfil the same functions as raking shores but do so between any
parallel surfaces. This has the advantage of providing a clear working space under the
shoring. The site operations for the setting out and erection of flying shoring systems
are similar to those for raking shoring. See fig 2.6c
Wall

Top shore

Binding

Shores
Middle shore

Bottom shore

Platform

Binding

Fig 2.6b Raking shore Fig 2.6c Flying shore

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 Scaffolding
This is the process of putting up a temporary structure (scaffold) from which persons can gain
access to a place of work in order to carry out building operations. This includes any working
platforms, ladders and guardrails.
There are two basic forms of scaffolds and these are:
a) Putlog scaffolds: This type of scaffolding consists of a single row of uprights set away from
the wall and tied to the building with cross members called putlogs. The uprights or standards
are joined together with horizontal members called ledgers and the whole scaffold is erected as
the building rises. It‟s mostly used for buildings of traditional brick construction. See fig 2.7a
b) Independent scaffolds: This has two rows of uprights or standards, which are tied by cross
members called transoms. This type of scaffold does not rely upon the building for support and
is therefore suitable for use in conjunction with framed structures. See fig 2.7b
Inner standards Gaurd rail
or uprights
Gaurd rail

Wall under
Wall under construction
construction
Boarded
working
platform
Boarded
working
Ladder secured
platform
by ropes to top
ledger
Cross
brace
Ladder secured Head plate Outer standards
by ropes to top or uprights
Putlog ledger Strut

Standards or Window Transom

Window uprights opening
opening
Transom
Sole plate
Ledger

Ledger

Bridle fixed to Base

transoms on both plate Sole plate
sides of opening

Ladder fixing Base Ladder fixing

Sole plate stake plate stake

Fig 2.7a Putlog scaffolding Fig 2.7b Independent scaffolding

The materials used for scaffolding include;
I. Tubular steel
II. Tubular aluminum
III. Timber.
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 Timber scaffold
Logs obtained from young fairly straight trees, which are cut to about 4m lengths are used. The
members are lashed together with wire or rope and nails may also be used to join one piece to
another.
Advantages
1. In areas where timber is plentiful it is cheap and easily obtained.
2. No fittings used.
3. No extra maintenance costs.
4. Easily cut to size.
5. Wastes and old logs can be sold as firewood. It therefore has high scrap value
Disadvantages
1. Use is restricted to low-rise buildings only.
2. As the logs are made from young trees, they are prone to insect attack, thus limiting their
length of usefulness.
3. Large holes are left in the wall after use and these need to be patched.
4. Regular replacement is essential in order to avert likely failure resulting from over dried logs.

Tubular scaffold
Steel and light-alloy tubes are the commonest materials used for this type of scaffolding and metal
coupling fittings are used to secure members together.
Advantages
1. Less likely to deteriorate compared to timber.
2. If correctly used its more rapidly erected.
3. More convenient for internal work owing to wider range of widths.
4. Takes up less space when stored.
5. Used for multi-storey buildings
Disadvantages
1. High cost of preservation.
2. High initial cost.
3. Many types of couplers needed.

Gantries
These are elevated platforms used when the building being maintained or under construction is
adjacent to a public footpath. A gantry over a public footpath can be used to support an independent
scaffold, housing units of accommodation or storage of materials. See fig 2.8a

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 Independent scaffold

Close boarded guard

Existing building or rail to all open sides
building under of gantry
construction
Timber boarded Night warning
working platform lights

Structural support
columns
Support
cleats Bulkhead lights Structural steel cross and
longitudinal beams
Close boarded
hoarding Gaurd rail
Working
space Public walkway Warning lights
Road

Kerb Timber fender painted white and

fixed with straps to column

Fig 2.8a Gantry

Formwork

These are moulds or boxes into which wet concrete can be poured and compacted so that it will
flow and finally set to the inner profile of the box or mould.
To be successful in it‟s function a formwork must fulfill the following requirements;
1. It should be strong enough to support the load of the wet concrete.
2. It must not be able to deflect under load which load includes wet concrete, self-
weight and superimposed loads such as operatives.
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 3. It must be accurately set out because concrete being a fluid when placed, it will take
up the shape of the formwork.
4. It must have grout-tight joints since grout leakage can cause honey combing of the
surface or produce fins which have to be removed.
5. It‟s size should be designed so that it can easily be handled by hand or by
mechanical lifting device.
6. The formwork should be designed such that it can easily be assembled and
dismantled without any members being trapped.
7. Formwork material must be chosen so that it can be easily fixed using either double-
headed nails, round wire nails or wood screws.
The requirements for formworks enumerated above makes timber the most suitable material for
general formwork. However the moisture content of the timber should be between 15 and 20% so
that the moisture movement of the timber is reduced to a minimum.
If the timber is dry it will absorb moisture from the concrete, which will weaken the resultant
concrete member and also cause the formwork to bulge and swell thereby giving an unwanted
profile to the finished concrete.
If the timber is wet (with a high moisture content) it will shrink and cup which could result in open
joints and leakage of grout.

Types of formwork

1. Foundation formwork: This formwork consists of side and end panels, which are firmly
strutted against the excavation faces to resist the horizontal pressures of the wet concrete
and to retain the formwork in the correct position. Ties are also required at the top of the
formwork to act as a top restraint. See fig 2.9a
Straight cut
excavation
Thrust pad Battered
excavation
Ties Ties Struts
Thrust pad

Formwork Formwork
Struts

Fig 2.9a Foundation formwork

2. Column formwork: A column form or box consists of a vertical mould, which has to
resist considerable horizontal pressures in the early stages of casting the concrete. The

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 formwork is constructed to the full storey height of the column with cut outs at the top
to receive the incoming beam forms. Some raking strutting is required to plumb and
align the column forms until the concrete has hardened. See fig 2.9b

3. Beam formwork: This consists of a three-sided box that is supported by cross members
called head trees that are propped to the underside of the soffit board. In the case of
framed buildings support to the beam box is also provided by the column formwork. See
fig 2.9c

4. Slab formwork: Floor or slab formwork consists of panels framed or joisted and
supported by the beam formwork with intermediate propping. Adjustment for levelling
purposes can be carried out by using small folding wedges between the joists. See fig
2.9d

Margin pieces
Plywood soffit
Plywood beam sides
Opening for beam
formwork

Struts

Struts
Cleat
Joist
Panels of boards

Cleats Runner or stringer

Yokes or clamps
(to resist pressure)
Props Crosshead or
headtree
Brace

Fig 2.9b Column formwork Fig 2.9c Beam formwork

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 Edge beam Outline of Plywood soffit Internal beam
Strut concrete slab

Cleat

Joist
Crosshead or
Brace headtree Runner or
stringer

Props
Folding wedges
Sole plate

Fig 2.9d Slab formwork

Centres
These are temporary structures usually of light timber construction whose function is to support
arches of brick or stone while they are being built until when they are sufficiently set to support
themselves and the load over the opening. See fig 2.10b,c and d.
The type of centre to be used will depend upon the following:
a) The weight to be supported
b) The span
c) The width of the soffit

Turning piece
This is a temporary wooden support shaped to the profile of the arch soffit to support the arch
during construction. See fig 2.10a

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 Fig 2.10a Turning piece

25x25 Laggings

200x25 Rib
25x25 Laggings 50 Thick ribs

200x32 Tie
150x32 Ties

Folding wedges
Braces

150x75
Props

100x75 Props

150x75 Sole 200x75 Sole

pieces pieces

Fig 2.9b Center for small span arches Fig 2.9c Framed center for medium span arches
(up to 1500mm)

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 250x32 Braces

Laggings

250x32 ribs
in 2 layers

250x32 Tie
250x32 Tie Folding wedges
Head

100x100
Braces

Horizontal
brace

Props

Horizontal Sole plate

brace

Fig 2.9d Framed center for wide spans (up to 4000mm)

EXERCISE

1(a) Define the following terms:

(i) Site clearing
(ii) Setting out
(iii) Datum level
(b) With the aid of sketches show how you can level the ground.
(c) (i) What is timbering
(ii). Show how timbering is done in firm soils

2(a) Why is it necessary to clear a site prior to setting out.

(b) State in order of first to last the stages taken on setting out ready for trenching. Name the
relevant tools for the work.

3(a) (i) Explain why and where timbering is necessary to apply in building
construction.

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 (ii). Draw a simple sketch of the type of timbering you would use to
cater for the site that has wet-loose soils.

4(a) List five points to be considered when selecting a

building site. (b) Explain the following terms as related to
the building industry:
(i) Site preparation (iv)
Timbering (ii) Hoardings
(v) Scaffolding (iii) Profile
(c) List any five equipments required for setting out a domestic house.

5(a) Draw an annotated diagram of the

following: (i) A corner
profile
(ii) Timbering in a firm ground
(b) Give a brief description of the following as related
to a site: (i) Fence
(ii) Store
(iii) Pegs
(iv) Boarding

6(a) Describe the use of the following mechanical plants on a building firm:
(i) Excavator (ii) Dumper
(iii) Vibrator (iv) Brick elevator

7(a) Explain the following terms as related to the

building site: (i) Site investigation
(ii) Bearing capacity of sub-soils
(iii) Bearing pressure
(b) With the aid of sketches describe how timbering is done in loose sub-soils.

8.(a) Briefly give the relevance of the following on a

building site: (i) Drawing office
(ii) Workshops canteen
(iii). Store
(iv) Hoarding
(v) Pegs

9. Define the following terms in building construction

(i) Quoin pegging
(ii) Diagonal checking
(iii). Building line

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