RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure

CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE
3.1 Basic Assumptions at ULS
Three basic assumptions are made when deriving the expression for flexural strength of
reinforced sections. These are;
A) Sections perpendicular to the axis of bending that are plane before bending remains
plane after bending.
B) The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in the concrete at the same level.
C) The stress in the concrete and reinforcement can be computed from the strains by using
stress-strain curves for concrete and steel.
D) The tensile strength of concrete is neglected in flexural strength calculations.
These assumptions already made are sufficient to allow calculation of the strength and behavior
of reinforced concrete elements. For design however, additional assumptions are introduced to
simplify the problem. These are discussed below.
 For design purpose the stress-strain diagram of concrete can be simplified as shown in
figure 3.1 as per ES EN 2. This diagram is called the parabolic-rectangular stress-
strain diagram.
 Concrete is assumed to fail when maximum compressive strain reaches a limiting value
of εc εcu2 0.0035 in bending and εc εc2 0.002 in axial compression for concrete
grades ≤ C50/60.

Figure 3.1: Parabolic-Rectangular Stress-Strain Diagram for Concrete in Compression

For reinforcement steel, the code specifies the use of bi-linear stress strain curves shown in
Figure 3.2 for the design of sections. As can be seen in Figure 3.2, there are two possible bi-
linear curves: one with an inclined top branch and one with a horizontal top branch.

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RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
If the inclined top branch of the diagram is used, the steel strain is limited to εud = 0.9εuk which
correspond to a maximum design stress of kꞏfyk/γs. Note that the characteristics of the inclined
top branch depend on the ductility class of the reinforcement.
If the horizontal top branch to the design diagram is used, the maximum stress in the
reinforcement is limited to fyd, with no limit to the steel strain.
In order to keep the design equations and design aids reasonably simple, the horizontal top
branch will be used in the derivation of all equations, charts and tables in normal design.

Figure 3.2: Bi-linear stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel.

According to ES EN 2, the simplified rectangular stress block diagram shown in figure 3.3
below can be used for section design. The rectangular stress block is defined by the factors λ
and η. The factor λ, defines the effective height of the compression zone and the factor η,
defines the effective strength. For concrete grades ≤ C50/60, λ=0.8 and η=1.

Figure 3.3: Rectangular stress block Diagram.

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RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.2 Distribution of Strains and Stresses Across a Section in Bending
The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the
regions of tensile strains and that, after cracking, all the tension is carried by the reinforcement.
Two requirements should be satisfied through the analysis and design of reinforced concrete
structures. They are;
 Stress and strain compatibility: - The stress at any point in a member must correspond
to the strain at that point.
 Equilibrium: - The internal forces must balance the external load effects.
Figure 3.4 shows the cross-section of a rectangular singly reinforced concrete beam subjected
to bending moment, and the resultant strain diagram, together with three different types of
stress distribution in the concrete.

Figure 3.4: Singly reinforced rectangular beam.

 The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly proportional
to the strains, which generally occur at the loading level encountered under working
condition and is, therefore, used at the serviceability limit state.
 The rectangular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the
compressive strains are within the plastic range and it is associated with the design for
the ultimate limit state.
 The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the rectangular-
parabolic distribution.
3.3 Types of Flexural Failures
There are three types of flexural failures of reinforced concrete sections:
A) Tension failure
B) Compression failure
C) Balanced failure
These three types of failures may be discussed to choose the desirable type of failure from the
three, in case failure is imminent.

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RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
A) Tension Failure
If the steel content As of the section is small (under-reinforced section), the steel will reach fyd
(the steel will yield) before the concrete reaches its maximum strain εcu of 0.0035. With further
increase in loading, the steel force remains constant at Ts = fydAs, but results a large plastic
deformation in the steel, wide cracking in the concrete and large increase in compressive strain
in the extreme fiber of concrete. With this increase in strain the stress distribution in the
concrete becomes distinctly nonlinear resulting in increase of the mean stress. Because
equilibrium of internal forces should be maintained, the depth of the N.A decreases, which
results in the increment of the lever arm z. The flexural strength is reached when concrete strain
reaches 0.0035. With further increase in strain, crushing of the concrete occurs. This
phenomenon is shown in figure 3.5. This type of failure is preferable and is used for design.
Sections designed to fail in this manner are called under-reinforced sections.

Figure 3.5 Tension Failure.

B) Compression Failure
If the steel content As is large (over-reinforced section), the concrete may reach its capacity
(crushing of the concrete occur) before the steel yields. In such a case the N.A depth increases
considerably causing an increase in compressive force. Again the flexural strength of the
section is reached when εcu = 0.0035. The section fails suddenly in a brittle fashion. This
phenomenon is shown in figure 3.6. Sections designed to fail in this manner are called over-
reinforced sections.

Figure 3.6 Compression Failure.

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RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
C) Balanced Failure
At balanced failure the steel reaches fyd and the concrete reaches a strain of 0.0035
simultaneously. This means, yielding of tension steel and crushing of concrete takes place at
same time. This phenomenon is shown in figure 3.7. Sections designed to fail in this manner
are called balanced sections.

Figure 3.7 Balanced Failure.

3.4 Design Equations for Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections

Consider a singly reinforced concrete beam having a rectangular cross section subjected to a
factored load moment, Md as shown in figure 3.8 below.

Figure 3.8 Flexural Stress distributions in singly reinforced rectangular RC beam

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RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
The following equations are applicable to concrete grades of ≤ C50/60 and rectangular sections
with width “b” and effective depth “d”. The effective depth, d, is defined as the distance from
the center of the tensile reinforcement bars to the top most compressed fiber.
In accordance with limit state design method, at ULS of collapse: -
 εc approaches εcu = 0.0035
 The reinforcing steel shall yield first (εyd = fyd/Es)
 Ductility is ensured by means of under reinforcement.
Let xb is the depth to the NA at balanced failure. From similarity of triangles of the strain
distribution of figure 3.8,
xb d  xb  cu  d
  xb  (3.1)
 cu  yd  cu   yd
 If x < x b  Steel yields first (under-reinforced section)
 If x > x b  Crushing of concrete takes place first (over-reinforced section)
From force equilibrium,
FH  0  TS  Cc  As f yd  0.8 xb f cd b (3.2)

As  0.8 cu  f cd A  0.8 cu  f cd
  Letting  b  s    (3.3)
 
bd   cu   yd  f yd bd   cu   yd  f
 yd
Where ρb = the steel ratio for balanced case.
However, for ductility purpose the steel ratio ρ may range between 0.75ρb to 0.9ρb, and in some
cases as low as 0.5ρb in ACI code. According to ES EN 2 ductility is ensured by keeping the
value of kx max = 0.448 (or in other words xmax = 0.448d) for 0% redistribution or even less for
redistribution > 0%.
Rewriting the force equilibrium;
TS  Cc  As f yd  0.8 xf cd b  0.8 xf cd b  bdf yd (3.4)
x  * f yd
Let kx   kx   m (3.5)
d 0 . 8 * f cd
f yd
Where m  (3.6)
0 . 8 * f cd
Taking moment about the Cc,
M C  0  M d  As f yd d  0.4 x  (3.7)
Substituting the value of x and simplifying
M d  0.8bd 2 f cd k x 1  0.4k x  (3.8)
When the equation 3.8 is solved for kx,
 2 4M d 
k x  0 .5  c1  c1    k x max (3.9)
 bd 2 c 2 
Where c1 = 2.5, c2 = 0.32fcd, kx max = 0.448 for 0% redistribution.

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
The section capacity for a singly reinforced section can be computed by first finding the value
of kx using;
A
k x  m  s m (3.10)
bd
Then;
If k x  k x max M u  0.8bd 2 f cd k x 1  0.4k x 
(3.11)
If k x  k x max M u  0.8bd 2 f cd k x max 1  0.4k x max 

3.4.1 Alternative Design Methods for Singly Reinforced Sections

A) Using Design Tables
The design table for rectangular RC sections given in ES EN 2 part 2 is known as General
Design Table No.1. The derivation and the procedure for using this table are discussed below.
Derivation
Rewriting equation 3.8 we get;
Md Md
2
 0.8 f cd k x 1  0.4k x    0.8 f cd k x 1  0.4k x  (3.12)
bd bd 2
Md
Let k m  (3.13)
bd 2
Note that in this equation express Md is in KNm; b & d in meters. As can be seen from these
equations, km is a function of concrete grade & section property.
Rewriting equation 3.7;
Md M 1
 As   As  d
f yd d  0.4 x  d  x
f yd 1  0.4 
 d 
1
Let k s  (3.14)
 x
f yd 1  0.4 
 d
kM
As  s d (3.15)
d
Note that ks is a function of steel grade & section property. In the General Design Table No.1
there are different km values. The maximum value of km is represented by km*. The value of km*
are shown shaded in General Design Table No.1.
Steps to be followed
1) Calculate km using equation 3.13.
2) Enter the General Design Table No.1 using km and concrete grade.
3) If km ≤ km*, then the section is singly reinforced. Hence continue to next step.
4) Read the value of ks from the same table corresponding to steel grade and km.
5) Calculate the area of reinforcement, As using equation 3.15.

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
B) Using Design Chart
The design chart for the design of rectangular RC sections given in ES EN 2 part 2 is known
as General Design Chart No.1. The derivation and the procedure for using this chart are
discussed below.
Derivation
Rewriting equation 3.8 we get;
 f yd  f yd   f yd 
M d  0.8bf cd  d  d  0.4 d   M d  f yd bd 2 1   (3.16)
 0.8 f cd  0.8 f cd   2 f cd 
Let’s define the following dimension-less parameters:
Md
 --relative ultimate moment (3.17)
f cd bd 2
f yd
 --mechanical reinforcement ratio (3.18)
f cd
Then, neutral-axis depth, x, can be written as,
d
x  0.8 x  d (3.19)
0.8
Combining equations 3.16, 3.17 & 3.18;
 
   1   solving;   1  1  2  (3.20)
 2
Rewriting equation 3.7;
M d  As f yd z where z  d  0.4 x (3.21)
Substituting x and ω into z;
  d
z  1   d  z  1  1  2    (3.22)
 2 2
Rearranging, the required area of tension steel is obtained by;
M
As  d (3.23)
f yd z
Steps to be followed
1) Calculate μ using equation 3.17.
2) Enter the General Design Chart No.1.
3) If μ ≤ μ* then the section is singly reinforced. Note that μ* = 0.143, 0.205, 0.252 & 0.295
for 30%, 20%, 10%, and 0% moment redistribution respectively.
4) Read the value of kz from the chart using μ.
5) Calculate z from kz = z/d.
6) Calculate the area of reinforcement, As using equation 3.23.

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.5 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Sections
If the depth of an RC beam is limited due to architectural or other reasons the section may not
have sufficient compressive area of concrete to resist the moment induced in it. In such cases
the capacity of the section can be increased by placing steel in the compression zone to carry
the additional compressive force.
Consider a doubly reinforced rectangular section subjected to a factored load moment, Md, as
shown in figure 3.9 below. Design equations are derived by dividing the section into two parts:
Balanced singly reinforced section and excess tension steel plus compression steel.
It is assumed that both tension and compression steels have yielded in other words assume that
As & Asc are stressed to fyd or (fs = fsc = fyd). The excess tension steel and compression steel are
proportioned in such a way that the neutral axis is maintained at balanced position.

Figure 3.9 Flexural Stress distributions in doubly reinforced rectangular RC beam

The total moment of resistance of doubly reinforced section, Md, can be written as;
M d  M uc  M usc (3.24)

Where Muc is the moment capacity of balanced singly reinforced section and it is given by;
M uc  0.8bd 2 f cd k x max 1  0.4k x max  (3.25)

And, the corresponding area of tension steel in balancing Muc is,

k x max
A s1  bd (3.26)
m
Musc is the moment carried by the excess tension steel plus compressive steel or;
M u sc  M d  M uc (3.27)

Equating this excess moment, Musc, with the couple made by the internal forces in excess
tension steel and compression steel as shown in Fig.3.9e, area of excess tension steel is;
M usc
As 2  (3.28)
f yd  d  d c 

Therefore, the total area of tension steel, As, required by doubly reinforced section is;
As  As1  As 2 (3.29)

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RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
The area of the compression steel, Asc, is calculated as;
M usc
Asc  if compression steel is yielding (if  sc   yd ) (3.30)
f yd  d  d c 
M usc
Asc  if compression steel is not yielding (if  sc   yd ) (3.31)
f sc  d  d c 
The yielding of the compressive steel can be checked from the strain relation as follows;
 x m a x  d c 
 sc   c u   (3.32)
 x m ax 
Comparing εsc with that of the yield strain εyd = fyd/Es ;
If εsc ≥ εyd then compression steel is yielding and hence fsc = fyd (use equation 3.30)
If εsc < εyd then compression steel is not yielding and hence fsc = Esεsc (use equation 3.31)
Note that equation 3.25 is used to calculate Muc for design. But for the case of analysis Muc is
calculated using;
M uc  0.8bd 2 f cd k1 1  0.4k1  (3.33)
Where,
 A  A sc 
k1   s  m  k x m ax (3.34)
 bd 
3.5.1 Alternative Design Methods for Doubly Reinforced Sections
A) Using Design Tables
The General Design Table No.1 discussed previously for singly reinforced sections can also
be used for doubly reinforced sections as follows.
Steps to be followed
1) Calculate km using equation 3.13.
2) Enter the General Design Table No.1 using km and concrete grade.
3) If km > km*, then the section is doubly reinforced. Hence continue to next step.
4) Calculate the value of Km / Km*
5) Read Ks & Ks’ corresponding to Km / Km* & steel grade from the table.
6) Calculate the value of d2/d (d2 is dc’ for compression steel).
7) Read ρ (correction factor) from the same table corresponding to Km/Km* & d2/d.
8) Read ρ’ (correction factor) corresponding to d2/d.
9) Calculate the area of reinforcement using;
ks M d 
Tension reinforcement, As  (3.35)
d
k M 

Compression reinforcement, As  s d (3.36)
d

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
B) Using Design Chart
The General Design Chart No.1 discussed previously for singly reinforced sections can also
be used for doubly reinforced sections as follows.
Steps to be followed
1) Calculate μ using equation 3.17.
2) Enter the General Design Chart No.1.
3) If μ > μ* then the section is doubly reinforced. Note that μ* = 0.143, 0.205, 0.252 & 0.295
for 30%, 20%, 10%, and 0% moment redistribution respectively.
4) Read the value of kz from the chart using μ*.
5) Calculate z from kz = z/d.
6) Calculate Mu,s* = fcd bd2μ*
7) Calculate the area of reinforcement using;
M*u,s M d -M*u,s
Tension reinforcement, As   (3.37)
zf yd  d  d 2  f yd
M d -M*u,s
Compression reinforcement, As  (3.38)
 d  d 2  f s
3.6 T-Section and Inverted L-Section
Reinforced concrete floors or roofs are monolithic and hence, a part of the slab will act with
the upper part of the beam to resist longitudinal compression. The resulting beam cross-section
is, then, T-shaped (or inverted L), rather than rectangular with the slab forming the beam flange
where as part of the beam projecting below the slab forms the web or stem.

Figure 3.10: Slab and Beam Floor System.

The T-sections provide a large concrete cross-sectional area of the flange to resist the
compressive force. Hence, T-sections are very advantageous in simply supported spans to
resist large positive bending moment, whereas the inverted T-sections have the added
advantage in cantilever beam to resist negative moment.

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.6.1 Effective Flange Width
As the longitudinal compressive stress varies across the flange width of same level, it is
convenient in design to make use of an effective flange width (may be smaller than the actual
width) which is considered to be uniformly stressed.
Figure 3.11 shows the distribution of the flexural compressive stresses in a slab that forms the
flanges of a series of parallel beam at a section of maximum positive moment. The compressive
stress is a maximum over each web, dropping between the webs. When analyzing and designing
the section for positive moments, an effective compression flange width is used (Figure 3.11b).
When this width, beff, is stressed uniformly, it will give approximately the same compression
force that actually is developed in the full width of the compression zone.

Figure 3.11: Effective width of T-beams.

The effective width of flange should be based on the distance l0 between points of zero moment,
which may be obtained from the figure below.

Figure 3.12: Definition of l0 for the calculation of effective flange width.

Note: The length of the cantilever, l3, should be less than half the adjacent span and the ratio
of adjacent spans should lie between 2/3 and 1.5.
The effective flange width parameters are shown in Figure 3.13 below.

Figure 3.13: Effective flange width parameters.

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RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
Note that the parameters shown in Figure 3.13 are defined as;
bi = half the clear distance to the adjacent beam.
b = actual width of the top slab (extending between the centers of adjacent spans).
bw = width of the web.
The effective flange width beff for a T beam or an L beam can be calculated as:
beff ,i  bw
beff   (3.39)
b
0.2bi  0.1lo

Where beff ,i  0.2lo (3.40)
b
 i
When designing T- or inverted L- sections, since the compressive zones are irregular in shape,
the equivalent rectangular stress block is used instead of the parabolic-rectangular stress block.
The depth of the equivalent compressive stress block, y, of a T-beam may lie either in the flange
or in the web, depending upon the proportion of the cross-section, the amount of tensile steel
and the strength of the materials. In general, one of the three cases discussed below could be
encountered.
1) When the T-section is subjected to negative bending moment, tension is produced on the
flange portion (Fig. 3.14c). In this case it is treated as a rectangular section with b = bw.
2) When the T-section is subjected to positive bending moment and the equivalent
compressive stress block lies within the flange, y ≤ hf, as shown in Figure 3.14b below, the
section can be analyzed as if it were a rectangular beam with b = be.
3) When the T-section is subjected to positive bending moment and the equivalent
compressive stress block lies within the web y > hf, as shown in Figure 3.14d below, the
section acts as T-beam and analysis should be done by accounting the T-geometry.

Figure 3.14: Flexural behavior of T-Beam.

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.6.2 Cross-Section Design
If the section supports a negative bending moment (the flange is on the tension side), then the
cross-section is designed as if it were rectangular with b = bw.
If the section supports a positive bending moment, follow these steps.
1) From structural analysis (Bending Moment diagram), get the design moment, Md.
2) Calculate the effective flange width be.
3) Assuming b = be (rectangular section), calculate kx using;
 2 4M d 
k x  0.5 c1  c1   (3.41)
 be d 2 c2 
4) Calculate x  k x d and then calculate y  0.8 x

5) If y ≤ hf the section is rectangular as assumed in step 3. Therefore, the section is designed

as a rectangular beam with b = be and the area of steel is;
k
As = x be d (3.42)
m

Figure 3.15: Compression zone of a T-section when y ≤ hf.

6) If y > hf, the section is a T- section and it should be designed as a T- beam as discussed
below.
To account for the actual T-shaped compression zone, it is convenient to consider two
hypothetical beams: Beam F and Beam W. The compression block shall be divided into two
parts; one is for the compression in the flange (Beam F) and the other is for the compression in
the web (Beam W) as shown below.

Figure 3.16: Idialization of the compression zone of a T-section when y > hf.

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
From Beam F
M uf  f cd h f be  bw Z f where Z f  d  0.5h f (3.43)

M uf f cd h f be  bw 
Asf  or Asf  (3.44)
Z f f yd f yd

From Beam W
Since M d  M uf  M uw  M uw  M d  M uf (3.45)

 2 4 M uw 
k xw  0.5 c1  c1    k x max (3.46)
 bw d 2 c2 

Note that if kxw > kxmax = 0.448, the section should be doubly reinforced.
k xw
Asw  bw d (3.47)
m
Therefore As  Asf  Asw (3.48)

3.6.3 Cross-Section Analysis

To determine the section capacity, Mu, of a T or inverted L-sections, follow these steps,
1) Calculate the effective flange width be.
2) Assuming b = be (rectangular section), calculate the steel ratio, ρ, using;
A
 s (3.49)
be d
3) Calculate kx = ρꞏm
4) Calculate x = kx d and then calculate y = 0.8x
5) If y ≤ hf, the section is rectangular as assumed in step 2 and it is analyzed as rectangular
section with b = be. Therefore, the section capacity will be,
M u  0.8be d 2 f cd k x 1  0.4k x  (3.50)

6) If y > hf, the section is a T- section and it should be analyzed as T-beam as follows.
. Calculate M uf  f cd h f be  bw Z f where Z f  d  0.5h f (3.51)
M uf
Calculate Asf  and then calculate Asw  As - Asf (3.52)
Z f f yd
Asw
Calculate w  and then calculate kxw  wm (3.53)
bwd
Calculate M uw  0.8bw d 2 f cd k xw 1  0.4k xw  (3.54)

Therefore, the section capacity will be,

M u  M uf  M uw (3.55)

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.7 Design for Durability
As one of the fundamental aims of design is to produce a durable structure, design for durability
should be considered early in the design process. In this section some of the provisions of ES
EN are discussed.
3.7.1 Exposure Class
Exposure conditions are chemical and physical conditions to which the structure is exposed to.
The exposure class of a structural element is used to determine the indicative strength class
(grade) of concrete to be used and the nominal cover to the reinforcement. Exposure classes
according to ES EN 2 are shown in Table 3.1. Figure 3.17 shows schematic explanation of
exposure classes.

Table 3.1: Exposure classes.

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure

Figure 3.17 Schematic explanation of exposure classes

3.7.2 Indicative Strength Classes for Durability
The choice of adequately durable concrete for corrosion protection of reinforcement and
protection of concrete requires consideration of the composition of concrete. The relationship
between concrete strength classes and environmental classes may be described by indicative
strength classes. For each exposure class, annex E of ES EN 2 recommends the indicative
strength classes to be used. The table is shown below.

Table 3.2: Indicative strength classes.

3.7.3 Design Working Life
The design working life is the assumed period for which a structure is to be used for its intended
purpose with anticipated maintenance but without major repair being necessary. The design
working life of structures as per ES EN 0 is shown in Table 3.3. From this table, since the
service life for buildings is 50 years, the structural class of buildings is denoted as S4.
Design working Indicative design
Examples
life category working life (years)
1 10 Temporary structures(1)
2 10 to 25 Replaceable structural parts, e.g. gantry girders, bearings
3 15 to 30 Agricultural and similar structures
4 50 Building structures and other common structures
Monumental building structures, bridges, and other civil
5 100
engineering structures
(1) Structures or parts of structures that can be dismantled with a view to being re-used should not be
considered as temporary.
Table 3.3: Design working life.

Unity University 17 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.7.4 Concrete Cover
The concrete cover is the distance between the outermost surface of reinforcement (including
links and stirrups) and the nearest concrete surface (see Fig 3.18 and 3.19).

Figure 3.18 Definition of cover.

Concrete cover shall be provided to:
 Ensure the safe transmission of bond forces;
 Prevent the occurrence of spalling;
 Provide an adequate fire resistance;
 Protect the steel against corrosion.
The thickness of cover required depends upon:
 The design working life of the structure
 The exposure conditions
 The strength of the concrete
 The shape of the member
 The quality of workmanship, and level of control
The nominal cover, Cnom, is defined as a minimum cover plus an allowance in design for
deviation. Mathematically;
Cnom  Cmin  Cdev (3.56)
Where
Cnom = nominal cover
Cmin = minimum cover
ΔCdev = allowance in design for deviations from the minimum cover
The recommended value of ΔCdev is 10 mm. But if the construction is subjected to a quality
assurance system, it is permitted to reduce ΔCdev to 5 mm.
The Minimum concrete cover, Cmin, is given by;
Cmin,b

Cmin  Cmin,dur (3.57)
10mm

Where
Cmin,b = minimum cover for bond
Cmin,dur = minimum cover due for durability
Each of these terms are discussed below.

Unity University 18 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
Minimum cover for bond, Cmin,b
To transmit bond forces safely, and to ensure adequate compaction of the concrete, the
minimum cover for bond, Cmin,b, should not be less than the bar diameter, or equivalent bar
diameter for bundled bars, unless the aggregate size is over 32 mm. If the aggregate size is over
32 mm, Cmin,b should be increased by 5 mm. That is;
Cmin,b   or n (3.58)

Minimum cover for durability, Cmin,dur

In order to get Cmin,dur, the structural class should be determined first based on Table 3.4
assuming the initial value of the class is S4. The structural class can be modified in case of the
following conditions:
 The service life is 100 years instead of 50 years
 The concrete strength is higher than necessary
 Slabs (position of reinforcement not affected by construction process)
 Special quality control measures apply
Based on the final value of the structural class and the exposure class, the value of Cmin,dur can
be read from Table 3.5.

Table 3.4: Recommended structural classification.

Table 3.5: Values of Cmin,dur, with regard to durability for reinforcement steel.

Unity University 19 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.8 Minimum Spacing of Reinforcements
 The spacing of bars shall be suitable for the proper compaction of concrete and when an
internal vibrator is likely to be used, sufficient spaces shall be left between the
reinforcement bars to enable the vibrator to be inserted.
 The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars (shown in figure 3.19 below) shall
be at least equal to the largest of the following values.
20mm

Sclr   or n (3.59)
d  5mm
 g
Where
ϕ = The diameter of the largest bar.
ϕn = The effective diameter of bundled bars (if there is any).
dg = The maximum size of the aggregate.
 Where bars are positioned in separate horizontal layers, the bars in each layer should be
located vertically above each other and the space between the resulting columns of the bars
should permit the passage of an internal vibrator.

Figure 3.19: Definition of cover and clear spacing of reinforcement in beams.

3.9 Minimum and Maximum Area of Longitudinal Reinforcement (ES EN 2)
 The area of longitudinal tension reinforcement, As, should be greater than As,min.
 0.26 fctm
 bt d
AS ,min   f yk (3.60)
0.0013b d
 t

 Except at lap locations, the cross-sectional area of tension or compression reinforcement

should not exceed As,max.
As,max = 0.04Ac (3.61)
Where
bt = the mean width of the tension zone; for a T-beam with the flange in compression, bt = bw.
Ac = the cross-section area of concrete (i.e Ac = btD)
d = the effective depth
D = the gross depth

Unity University 20 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.10 Effective Span Length
The effective span, leff, of a member should be calculated as follows:
leff  l n  a1  a2
Where
ln = is the clear distance between the faces of the supports;
Values for a1 and a2, at each end of the span, may be determined from the appropriate ai values
in the figure below. Note that t is the width of the supporting element as shown.

Figure 3.20: Effective span length.

For an isolated cantilever, the effective span is the length of the cantilever measured from the
face of the support.

Unity University 21 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.11 Depth from Deflection Requirement (Beams & Slabs)
The depth of beams is usually governed by flexure. But, for initial estimate of the depth, the
serviceability requirement of deflection can be used. The span-to-effective-depth ratio given in
Table 3.6 can be used to get an initial value of effective depth. For preliminary calculation of
d using Table 3.6, assume “concrete is lightly stressed (ρ = 0.5%)”. The depth of slabs is
governed by deflection and it is the most important part of slab design.
The depth calculated using this table are usually conservative and smaller depths can be
achieved using an improved equation (specially for slabs). See the procedure on page 27 (“How
To Reduce The Initial Depth of Slabs”).

Table 3.6: Basic span-to-depth ratios.

Table 3.6 is generated using equation 3.62-a and 3.62-b, assuming a steel grade of S-500 and
concrete grade of C30/37.
l     
3/2

 K 11  1.5 fck o  3.2 fck  o 1  If   o (3.62-a)

d     

l  o 1  
 K 11  1.5 fck  fck  If   o (3.62-b)
d      12 o 

Where l/d = the limiting span/depth ratio.

K = factor to take into account the structural system (from Table 3.6)
ρo = reference reinforcement ratio.
o  0.001* fck (3.63)
ρ = calculated tension reinforcement ratio.
As,cal
 (3.64)
bd
ρ' = calculated compression reinforcement ratio.

As,cal
  (3.65)
bd

Unity University 22 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
In general, the adequacy of the provided depth can be checked by verifying that;

l l
     (3.66)
 d  allow  d  actual
Where
(l/d)actual = actual span length divided by the effective depth, d.

l
   N  F1  F2  F3 (3.67)
 d  allow
N = span-to-effective-depth ratio from equation 3.62a or 3.62b.
F1 = factor to account for flanged sections. For rectangular sections, F1 = 1.

  be 
1  0.1 1
For T-sections F1    bw  (3.68)

0.8
F2 = factor to account for brittle partitions in association with long spans. Generally F2 = 1, but
if brittle partitions are liable to be damaged by excessive deflection, F2 should be determined
as follows:
 in beams and other slabs with spans in excess of 7 m, F2 = 7/leff
 in flat slabs in which the longer span is greater than 8.5 m, F2 = 8.5/leff
F3 = factor to account for service stress in tensile reinforcement given by;

 310

F3    s (3.69)
1.5


 As,cal   SLS load 

 s  f yd     (3.70)

 As , pro   ULS load 
Where,
As,cal = calculated tension reinforcement.
As,pro = provided tension reinforcement.
SLS load = gk  2qk

ULS load = 1.35gk  1.5qk

Note that the inverse of the ratio of the provided to the calculated steel should not be greater
than 1.5, that is As,pro/As,cal ≤ 1.5.

Unity University 23 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
3.12 Analysis and Design of One-Way Solid Slabs
A reinforced concrete slab is a broad, flat plate, usually horizontal, with top and bottom surfaces
parallel or nearly so. Reinforced concrete slabs are mainly used for; roofs and floors of
buildings, parking lots, bridge decks …etc. According to ES EN 2; to be considered as a slab,
the short span length shall not be less than five times the overall slab thickness (Lx ≥ 5D),
where, D is the thickness.
Most of the times, slabs are statically indeterminate elements that consequently redistribute the
stresses applied on them. This ability makes them highly secure against bending and shear
failure. Reinforced concrete solid slabs that are supported by a beam or a wall on their edges
are classified based on how the load is transferred to the supports. They are;
1) One-way solid slabs: Loads are transferred to the support only in one direction.
2) Two-way solid slabs: Loads are transferred to the support in both directions.
In this course, one-way solid slabs are discussed
3.12.1 One-Way Solid Slabs
A slab is considered to be one-way if either:
 It is supported on all four sides with the ratio of the long span length (Ly) to the short
span length (Lx) is greater than two (Ly/Lx > 2), or
 If two of its sides that are parallel are free (unsupported) irrespective of the ratio
between Ly & Lx.

Figure 3.21: Examples of one-way solid slab.

In one-way slabs that are supported on all four sides, the load is carried in the short span
direction (about 90% or more of the total load is carried by the short span and is transmitted to
the supporting beams in the long direction); hence bending takes place in the direction of the
shorter span as shown in Fig. 3.22 below.

Figure 3.22: one-way slab supported on all four sides. (a) Plan (b) 3D deflected shape.
Whereas in one-way slabs with two parallel unsupported sides, the load is carried towards the
supporting beams; hence bending takes place in the direction of the unsupported sides.

Unity University 24 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
Design of One-way Solid Slabs
One-way solid slabs are designed as if they are a series of beams of 1m width, i.e. they are
designed as singly reinforced rectangular beams having 1m width and a depth equal to the
thickness of the slab, but the reinforcements are detailed in a different manner. The depth of
slabs is governed by deflection requirements (see “Depth from Deflection Requirement”).

Figure 3.23: One-way solid slab and slab idealization.

Generally, one-way spanning slabs are analyzed as a continuous beam strip subject to the most
unfavorable arrangements of load. The continuous slab spans between the transverse beam
supports.

Figure 3.24: Continuous one-way solid slab.

In one-way solid slabs;
 Load per unit area (KN/m2) on the slab would be the load per unit length (KN/m) on
this imaginary beam of unit width.
 Since the loads are transmitted to the supporting beams in the long direction, the main
reinforcement shall be placed at right angles to these beams i.e. the main steel is in the
direction of the span. These main steel should form the outer layer of reinforcement to
give the section maximum lever arm.
 Additional bars known as secondary or distribution reinforcement shall be placed in the
other direction (at right angles to the main moment steel) to carry temperature and
shrinkage stresses. They also serve the purpose of tying the slab together and
distributing non-uniform loads through the slab.

Unity University 25 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
Detailing of slabs
The following rules are applicable to all types of slabs.
1) The clear cover to reinforcement for slabs is;
For exposure class of XC1; Cnom = max{20;10+ϕ}
For exposure class of XC3; Cnom = max{30;10+ϕ}
2) The center to center distance between rebars is;
as b
S (3.71)
As
3) The minimum area of main reinforcement is given by;
 0.26 fctm
 bt d
AS ,min   f yk (3.72)
0.0013b d
 t

4) Except at lap locations, the area of main reinforcement should not exceed As,max = 0.04Ac
5) The minimum area of secondary reinforcement should be ≥ 20% of the main reinforcement
As,sec,min = 0.2As (3.73)
6) The maximum spacing between main bars should be less than Smax;
3D
Smax   (3.74)
400mm
In areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum moment, Smax should be;
2 D
Smax   (3.75)
250mm
7) The maximum spacing between secondary bars should be less than Smax,sec;
3.5 D
S max,sec   (3.76)
450 mm
In areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum moment, Smax,sec should be;
3 D
S max,sec   (3.77)
400 mm
8) Where partial fixity is likely to exist despite the assumption of simple support in design,
25% of the reinforcement required to resist the maximum span moment should be provided
at the top of end supports. At the end supports, the reinforcement should extend from the
face of the support, at least 0.2 times the length of the adjacent span (See Fig. below).

Unity University 26 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
HOW TO REDUCE THE INITIAL DEPTH OF SLABS
According to the European commission joint research center (JRC) scientific and policy report
on Eurocode-2, an improved l/d equation can be used with an iteration process to get a smaller
depth. The improved equation is;
l s K

d  g k   2 qk 1/3

l  g k   2 qk 
1/3

Rearranging; d
s K
Where
l = span length of slab (Lx for solid slab and Ly for flat slab)
gk = Total dead load = gk1 + gk2
gk1 = self-weight
gk2 = External dead load (plastering, floor finishing, permanent partition…)
qk = Live load
ψ2 = Combination factor for quasi-permanent load condition (Table A1.1 of ES EN-1990)
K = Factor to take into account the structural system or span type (Table 7.4N of ES EN-1992)
λs = Factor that depends on the concrete grade & the ratio of flange to web width bflange/bweb.
The values of λs are given in the table below. Note that for solid and flat slabs bflange/bweb = 1.
C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50
bflange/bw ≤ 3 53 57 60 63 65
bflange/bw > 3 49 53 56 59 61

To start the calculation; first, get an initial estimate of the depth using Table 7.4N of the code.
The reduction of the initial depth is an iterative process and the steps are;
Step-1: Calculate the self-weight; gk1 = 25xD
Step-2: Calculate the total dead load; gk = gk1+ gk2
l  g k   2 qk 
1/3

Step-3: Calculate the new effective depth; d 

s K
Step-4: Calculate the new gross depth; D = d +d’
Repeat these steps until the gross depth becomes the same (usually 3 iteration suffice).
Note: Table A1.1 of ES EN-1990 is given in Chapter-2 (Table 2.3)
Table 7.4N of ES EN-1992 is given in Chapter-3 (Table 3.6)
Sample example
A solid slab panel with a short span length of 4.8m is located at the corner (end-span) of an
office building. The load from floor finishing and permanent partitions is 3.61KN/m2. The slab
is to be built using C25/30 concrete and S-400 rebar grade. Assume XC-1 exposure class and
rebar size of Ø10 for the slab. Calculate the depth of the slab using the JRC iteration method.

Unity University 27 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Design of Beams for Flexure
Solution
Parameters for the slab panel are;
 For XC-1 and Ø10, the cover will be 20mm. Hence, d’=cov+0.5ϕ = 20+5 = 25mm
 Length; l = Lx = 4.8m
 K = 1.3 (for End span)
 For C25/30 and solid slab; λs = 57
 External dead load; gk2 = 3.61KN/m2
 Since the floor is used as an office, it is Category-B as per Table 6.1 of ES EN 1991-1-1.
And from Table 6.2 of ES EN 1991-1-1, the live load for Category-B floor is qk = 3KN/m2.
 For offices (Category-B) from Table A1.1 of ES EN-1990, ψ2 = 0.3
⇒ ψ2 x qk = 0.3*3 = 0.9KN/m2

First get an initial estimate of the depth from Table 7.4N of the code as follows.
For end span l/d = 26
⇒ d = l/26 = 4800/26 = 185mm
⸫ Initial gross depth; D = d + d’ = 185 + 25 = 210mm = 0.21m
Next, to reduce the initial depth, perform the iteration process as follows.

1st iteration
Step-1: gk1 = 25xD = 25*0.21 = 5.25 KN/m2
Step-2: gk = gk1+ gk2 = 5.25 + 3.61 = 8.86 KN/m2
l  g k   2 qk  4.8  8.86  0.9 
1/3 1/3

Step-3: d    0.1385m  138.5mm

s K 57  1.3
Step-4: D = d +d’ = 138.5 + 25 = 163.5mm ≈ 165mm

2nd iteration
Step-1: gk1 = 25xD = 25*0.165 = 4.125 KN/m2
Step-2: gk = gk1+ gk2 = 4.125 + 3.61 = 7.735 KN/m2
l  g k   2 qk  4.8  7.735  0.9 
1/3 1/3

Step-3: d    0.1329m  132.9mm

s K 57  1.3
Step-4: D = d +d’ = 132.9 + 25 = 157.9mm ≈ 160mm

3rd iteration
Step-1: gk1 = 25xD = 25*0.16 = 4 KN/m2
Step-2: gk = gk1+ gk2 = 4 + 3.61 = 7.61 KN/m2
l  g k   2 qk  4.8  7.61  0.9 
1/3 1/3

Step-3: d    0.13225m  132.25mm

s K 57 1.3
Step-4: D = d +d’ = 132.25 + 25 = 157.25mm ≈ 160mm
Since the gross depth from the 2nd and the 3rd iteration are the same, we can stop the iteration.
Therefore, the gross depth of the slab is 160mm.

Unity University 28 Compiled by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering