CE F244

Highway Engineering

Dr. Nishant Bhargava

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Module 2
Geometric Design
Contents
• Control Factors of Geometric Design
• Cross-Sectional Elements
• Sight distance
• Horizontal Alignment
• Vertical Alignment

3
References

4
Horizontal Alignment
Why do we need horizontal curves in alignment ???
• Avoid restrictions due to
 Topography
 Obligatory points
 Land availability
• Fulfill requirements of good alignment
Short, Easy, Safe and Economical

5
Types of Horizontal Curves

Simple curves Compound curves

Curves having a single arc with a constant Curve having two or more arcs with
radius connecting the two tangents different radii

6
Types of Horizontal Curves

Reverse curves Broken-back curves

Curves having two arcs bending in Curves in the same direction
opposite directions separated by short tangents

7
Elements of ∆

Horizontal
Curve

8
Some Terminologies …
Apex of curve (Vertex, H.I.P.)
Horizontal intersection point, i.e., point of
intersection of 2 straights connected by curve.
Tangent Point (T.P. or P.T.)
Point of reversal of curvature. Point where
straight alignment ceases and curvature begins.
Total Deviation angle (∆)
External angle at the intersection between the
tangents at the end of the curve (central angle
of complete curve)

9
Some Terminologies …
Apex distance (Es)
The shortest distance from apex to the curve
Length of transition (Ls)
Full length of transition curve connecting
straight length of road with a curve
Tangent distance (Ts)
Length of straight between apex (P.I.) and the
tangent point of the curve (P.T. or T.P.)
Radius of curve (Rc)
Minimum radius of the center line of a curve
10
Some Terminologies …
Shift (S)
Displacement of a circular curve from the
straight to provide room to introduce transition
curve between it and straight
Deviation angle (∆c)
Central angle of circular part of curve with
transition at either end

Spiral angle (θs)

External angle between straight and tangent to
the curve at the end of its transition

11
Some Practical Considerations …
• AVOID sharp horizontal curves at or near apex of vertical curve
 Potential safety hazard
• Proper balance between degree of curvature and gradients
o AVOID
 Straight alignment on steep grades
 Excessive curvature on flat grades

12
Some Practical Considerations …
• DO coordinate alignment with longitudinal profile
 Avoid distortion in appearance

13
Some Practical Considerations …
• AVOID straight section exceeding 3 km length
 Alternate – Curvilinear alignment with long curve
o Safety
o Aesthetic
• DO NOT introduce sharp curves at the end of long tangents
 Potential safety hazard !!!
• AVOID short curves
 Sufficiently long (At least 150 m for 5° deflection angle)
 Suitable transition curves at either end

14
Some Practical Considerations …
• Reverse curves in difficult terrain
 Sufficient length between two curves
o Introduction of transition curve and superelevation
• AVOID broken-back curves
 If provided, tangent length = 10 sec travel time
• Compound curve
 Only when single circular curve is impossible
 Radius of flatter curve ≤ 1.5 × Radius of sharper curve

15
Dynamics of Vehicle Motion on Curve
Centrifugal force
• Effects
 Overturning effect
 Transverse friction

Refer Section 4.4.3 of the text book

“Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

16
Coefficient of Lateral Friction
Factors
• Vehicle speed
• Type and condition of road surface
• Type and condition of tyres
• Weather condition
IRC recommendation for design
Coefficient of lateral friction = 0.15

17
Components of Horizontal Alignment
• Superelevation
• Radius of Horizontal Curve
• Extra Widening on Curves
• Transition curve
• Setback Distance on Curves

18
Superelevation
• Functions of superelevation
• Rate of superelevation
• Analysis of superelevation
• Design of superelevation
• Attainment of superelevation

Refer Section 4.4.4 of the text book

“Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

19
Limits of Superelevation
Maximum Superelevation

Max. 𝒆
2/4/6/8 lane
Radius of curve < Desirable minimum radius 7%
highways Radius of curve ≥ Desirable minimum radius 5%

Nature of terrain Max. 𝒆

Plain and rolling terrain 7%
MDR / ODR / VR
Snow bound areas 7%
Hilly areas not bound by snow 10%

20
Limits of Superelevation
Minimum Superelevation
𝑽𝟐
Calculated superelevation ≤ Camber of the road surface 𝒆=
𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝑹

Design Speed Radius (m) for Camber of

(km/h) 4% 3% 2.5% 2.0% 1.7%
20 50 60 70 90 100
30 100 130 160 200 240
50 280 370 450 560 650
80 710 950 1140 1420 1670
100 1110 1480 1780 2220 2610

21
How to Attain the Superelevation ??
Stage 1 : Removal of adverse camber in outer half of pavement

Stage 2: Superelevation gradually built over full width of carriageway

22
Methods of Attaining Superelevation
A B C D
Rotation about center line Normal Transition Fully Super-elevated
• Lower inner edge and raise Camber Curve Circular Curve
outer edge Outer Edge of Pavement
• Least distortion: Level of
centre line practically Centre Line of Pavement

unchanged
Inner Edge of Pavement

Centre Line
Level
A B C D

23
Methods of Attaining Superelevation
Rotation about inner edge A B C D Fully Super-elevated
Normal Transition Circular Curve
• Raise center and outer edge Camber Curve
Outer Edge of Pavement
simultaneously
• Used when rotation about Centre Line of Pavement
center line cause a valley on
Inner Edge of Pavement
inner edge ⇒ Difficult to drain

Inner Edge Level

A B C D

24
Methods of Attaining Superelevation
Rotation about outer edge A B C D Fully Super-elevated
Normal Transition
Camber Curve Circular Curve
• Keep level of outer edge Outer Edge of Pavement
constant
• Outer edge (visible to Centre Line of Pavement

drivers) not distorted

Inner Edge of Pavement

Outer Edge Level

A B C D

25
Methods of Attaining Superelevation
Rate of change of super-elevation
• Longitudinal slope of edge compared to centreline
 Plain and rolling terrain: Min. 1 in 150
 Mountainous and steep terrain: Min. 1 in 60
• Rate used will determine distances AB, BC and CD

26
Radius of Horizontal Curve
Factors governing curve radii
• Design speed, allowable super-elevation and friction
• Minimum turning radii of design vehicle

Ruling minimum radius of curve

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥. , 𝑓 = 0.15
𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑒+𝑓 = ⇒ 𝑅=
𝑔𝑅 𝑒+𝑓 𝑔
Absolute minimum radius of curve
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥. , 𝑓 = 0.15

27
Radius of Horizontal Curve
Revisions by IRC as per IRC 73 (2023)

Radii of horizontal curves for EW/NH/SH

Desirable Absolute
Nature of Terrain
Min. Radius Min. Radius
Plain & Rolling (EW) 1000 m 650 m
Plain & Rolling (NH / SH ) 400 m 250 m
Mountainous & Steep (NH/SH) 150 m 75 m

28
Radius of Horizontal Curve
Revisions by IRC as per IRC 73 (2023)
Radii of horizontal curves for MDR/ODR/VR
Mountainous Terrain Steep Terrain
Plain Rolling
Terrain Terrain Not affected Affected by Not affected Affected by
by snow snow by snow snow
Road
Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.
Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.
Category

MDR 230 155 155 90 50 30 60 33 30 14 33 15

ODR / VR 90 60 90 60 30 13 33 15 30 13 33 15
29
Transition
Curve

30
Functions of Transition Curve
• Functions of transition curve
• Types of transition curve
• Length of transition curve
• Setting out transition curve

Refer Section 4.4.7 of the text book

“Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

31
Which Transition Curve is Preferred ??
Design purpose – Spiral is preferred

• Satisfies requirements of a transition

 Radius of curvature inversely proportional to length of travel
 Rate of change of acceleration is uniform throughout transition length
 Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration can be regulated to be within the
limits of comfort by choosing a suitable length of transition
• Easy to set-out in field

32
Length of Transition curve
Larger of the three values
1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
2. Rate of change of superelevation
3. Empirical formula (Not considered in IRC 73, 2023)

33
Extra Widening on Curves
• Why is extra widening required
• Analysis of extra widening
𝑛 𝑙2 𝑉
 Mechanical widening 𝑊𝑒 = +
2𝑅 9.5 𝑅
 Psychological widening
• Method to introduce extra widening

Refer Section 4.4.6 of the text book

“Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

34
Widening – Recommended Values
IRC 73 (2023)
Extra Width of pavement Radius of Curve Extra Width
at horizontal curves for 75-100 m 0.9 m
2/4/6/8 Lane highways 101-300 m 0.6 m

Extra Width of pavement at horizontal curves for MDR/ODR/VR

Radius of Curve (m) Up to 20 21-40 41-60 61-100 101-300
Two – lane pavement 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6
Single lane pavement 0.9 0.6 0.6 Nil Nil

35
Methods of Extra Widening

Widening equally distributed on both sides on central line

36
Methods of Extra Widening

Widening entirely on inside of central line

37
Setback Distance on Curves
Distance from the road center-line within which the obstructions should be cleared
to ensure the needed visibility

• Measurement of sight distance

 Multi-lane = Middle of the inner lane
 Single lane = Center line of carriageway
• Factors
 Required sight distance, 𝑺
 Radius of horizontal curve, 𝑹
 Length of horizontal curve, 𝑳𝒄
38
Setback Distance on Curves
Case 1 – 𝑳𝒄 > 𝑺
Length of curve more
than Sight Distance

𝑺
𝟐𝜽= radians
𝑹−𝒏
𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑺
𝜽= × degrees
𝟐𝝅 𝑹−𝒏

𝒎 = 𝑹 − 𝑹 − 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

39
Setback Distance on Curves
𝑺 𝑿 = 𝑺 − 𝑳𝒄 /𝟐
Case 2 – 𝑳𝒄 < 𝑺
𝑳𝒄
Length of curve less
than Sight Distance
𝜽
𝑳𝒄
𝟐𝜽= radians
𝑹−𝒏
𝜽
𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑳𝒄
𝜽= × degrees 2𝜃
𝟐𝝅 𝑹−𝒏

𝑺 − 𝑳𝒄
𝒎 = 𝑹 − 𝑹 − 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟐
40
Setback Distance on Curves
• Set-back distance corresponding to OSD or ISD
 Clearance required is usually too large
 Economically not feasible
• Hill slope on the inner side of the horizontal curve
 Average height of sight line for SSD = 0.7 m
 Cut slope = Lower than height of sight line

41
Vertical Alignment

(W Hare et al., 2014)

theconstructor.org

42
Deviation Angle and Gradients
Gradient
Rate of rise or fall along the longitudinal profile of the road

Vertical
Rise

Horizontal Length

43
Deviation Angle and Gradients
Deviation angle
Angle between the two intersecting grade lines
𝑵
Slope of grade line = 𝒏𝟏 %, 𝒏𝟐 %
𝑵 = 𝒏𝟏 − −𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 %

Slope of grade line = 1 in 𝒏𝟏 , 1 in 𝒏𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
𝑵= +
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

44
Gradients
Selection criteria
• Design speed
• Terrain conditions
• Nature of traffic expected

Affects
• Vehicle operation cost
• Speed of vehicle
• Capacity of highway

45
Types of Gradients
Ruling gradient Limiting Gradient Exceptional gradient

Design purpose Topography/cost restriction Exceptional topography

Performance issue – NO Performance issue – Maybe Performance issues – YES

Exception (2% gradient) – Length: As short as possible Short length < 100 m stretch
Isolated over-bridges in flat
Successive stretches:
country or large volume of
Separated by min. 100 m
slow moving traffic
length of gentler gradient

46
 Recommended Gradients (IRC 73, 2023)
2/4/6/8 Lane Highways MDR / ODR / VR
Ruling Limiting Ruling Limiting Exceptional
Terrain Terrain
gradient gradient gradient gradient gradient
Plain or rolling 3.3% 5% Plain or rolling 3.3% 5% 6%
Mountainous & steep
Mountainous 5% 7% 5% 7% 10%
(elevation > 3,000 m)
Steep
Steep 6% 8% 6% 8% 10%
(elevation ≤ 3,000 m)

Note – Rise in elevation over a length of 2 km shall not exceed

 100 m in mountainous terrain
 120 m in steep terrain
47
Minimum Gradient
Based on drainage conditions

Unkerbed pavements
• In embankment, near-level grades are not objectionable when the pavement has
sufficient camber to drain the storm water laterally

Cut sections or pavement with kerbs

• Desirable minimum gradient
 Lined side drains = 0.5%
 Unlined side drains = 1.0%

48
Grade Compensation
Ease of gradient at horizontal curves on hill roads
• Offset extra tractive effort involved at curves
30 + 𝑅
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, % = 𝑹 = Radius of curve, m
𝑅
75
Subject to a maximum of
𝑅
• Gradient < 4% – No grade compensation
• Application of grade compensation correction
 Gradients need not be eased beyond 4%

49
Some Practical Considerations …
• Smooth longitudinal profile
 Consistent with category of road and terrain
 Grade changes – Not frequent
o Avoid kinks and visual discontinuities
o No grade change within 150 m distance – Desirable

• AVOID short valley curve within a continuous profile

• AVOID broken-back grade lines

 Replace by single long curve

50
Some Practical Considerations …
• Decks of small cross-drainage structures
 Follow same profile as flanking road section

• Choice of grade
 Economic aspect of vehicle operation

• Plan and profile – Designed in unison

• Proper balance between gradients and degree of curvature
• Superimpose vertical curvature upon horizontal curvature
• AVOID sharp horizontal curves at or near the apex of vertical curves

51
Vertical Curve
A curve applied to make a smooth and safe transition between 2 grades on a roadway

Summit Curve
Convex shape
Based on Shape
of the Curve
Valley Curve
Concave shape

52
Summit Curves
Design
Square parabola
• Centrifugal force
 Opposite direction of gravity
 Relieves pressure on tyre
• Shock or jerks
 Small deviation angles
 Not substantial
Transition not required

53
Summit Curves
Design
Square parabola
• Circular arc ≡ Simple parabolic curve
 Small deviation angle
 Long length of curve
• Parabola = Easy to compute ordinates

54
Summit Curves E

Derivation 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒙𝟐 𝑳
𝒏𝟏
𝟐
𝐿 𝐿
𝐸𝐹 = 𝑛1 ; 𝐹𝐶 = 𝑛2
2 2 D 𝒏𝟏 𝑵
𝒏𝟐 F
𝐿 𝑁𝐿
𝐸𝐶 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = 𝑳
2 2 𝒏𝟐
𝒚 𝟐
B C
Length of the curve
𝑨𝑩𝑪 ≈ 𝑨𝑪 ≈ 𝑨𝑴 = 𝑳
A M
𝒙
𝑳

55
Summit Curves E

Derivation 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒙𝟐 𝑳
𝒏𝟏
𝟐
At point C,
𝑁𝐿 D 𝒏𝟏 𝑵
𝑥 = 𝐿 ; 𝑦 = 𝐸𝐶 = 𝒏𝟐 F
2
𝑳
𝒏𝟐
𝑁𝐿 2
𝑁 𝒚 𝟐
=𝑎𝐿 ⇒𝑎= B C
2 2𝐿
Curvature A M
𝒙
𝐝𝟐𝒚 𝑁 1 𝐿 𝑳
𝟐
= 𝟐𝒂 = = ⇒ 𝑅 =
𝐝𝒙 𝐿 𝑅 𝑁

56
Length of Summit Curve
L > OSD
OSD / ISD
L < OSD
Length of
Summit Curve
L > SSD
SSD
L < SSD

57
Length of Summit Curve E

Case 1 : L > OSD 𝑁𝐿 𝑳

𝐸𝐶 = 𝒏𝟏
𝐵𝐺 𝑃𝑄2 2 𝟐
=
𝐵𝐽 𝐴𝐶 2 D 𝒏𝟏 𝑵
𝒏𝟐 F
𝐵𝐺 = 𝐻 ; 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑆 ; 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐿 𝑳
E2 𝒏𝟐
B 𝟐
𝐷𝐽 𝐸𝐶/2 𝑁𝐿 E1 Q C
𝐵𝐽 = = = G
2 2 8 P
J
A M
𝐻 𝑆2 𝑁𝑆 2 𝑁𝑆 2 K
= ⇒𝐿= = 𝑳/𝟐 𝑳/𝟐
𝑁𝐿/8 𝐿2 8𝐻 9.6
E1P = E2Q = Height of object, H
E1E2 = PQ = Sight distance, S
58
Length of Summit Curve E
K

𝑁𝐿 𝑁𝑆
Case 2 : L < OSD 𝐸𝐶 = 𝐾𝑄 =
2 2
𝐷𝐽 𝐸𝐶/2 𝑁𝐿
𝐷𝐵 = = =
2 2 8
D 𝒏𝟏 𝑵 F
𝒏𝟐
𝑁𝐿
𝐵𝑍 = 𝐻 ; 𝐷𝑍 = 𝐷𝐵 + 𝐵𝑍 = +𝐻
8
E1 B E2
𝐾𝑄 𝑁 𝑆 Τ 2 𝑁 𝑆
𝐷𝑍 = = =
2 2 4 𝑯 A J
C 𝑯
𝑁𝐿 𝑁𝑆 9.6 𝑳 Z Q
+𝐻 = ⇒𝐿 =2𝑆−
8 4 𝑁 𝑺

E1P = E2Q = Height of object, H

59
E1E2 = PQ = Sight distance, S
Length of Summit Curve
For ISD or OSD For SSD
Case 1: Length of curve > Sight distance Case 1: Length of curve > Sight distance
𝑵 𝑺𝟐 𝑵 𝑺𝟐
𝑳= 𝑳=
𝟗. 𝟔 𝟒. 𝟒
Case 2: Length of curve < Sight distance Case 2: Length of curve < Sight distance
𝟗. 𝟔 𝟒. 𝟒
𝑳=𝟐𝑺− 𝑳=𝟐𝑺−
𝑵 𝑵

𝑵 = Deviation angle = 𝒏𝟏 − −𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐

𝑳 = Length of parabolic vertical curve, m
𝑺 = Sight distance, m
60
Valley Curves
Design
Square parabola
• Comfort condition
 Centrifugal force act downward
 Excess pressure on tyre
• Headlight sight distance
 Visibility during night

61
Length of Valley Curve
L > SSD
Headlight
Sight Distance
L < SSD
Length of
Valley Curve

Rider Comfort

62
Length of Valley Curve – HSD
Assumptions
• Height of headlight above road surface = 0.75 m
• Useful beam of headlight = 1° upwards from grade of road
• Height of object = Nil

63
Length of Valley Curve – HSD
L > SSD
Lowest point of valley curve
𝑆
𝑁 𝑆 2 𝑆 tan 𝛼
ℎ1 + 𝑆 tan 𝛼 = 𝑎 𝑆 2 = 𝛼
2𝐿
ℎ1 ℎ1
ℎ1 = 0.75 m ; 𝛼 = 1°

𝑵 𝑺𝟐
𝑳= 𝑳 = Total length of valley curve, m
𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝑺 𝑺 = Stopping sight distance, m
𝑵 = Deviation angle
𝒉𝟏 = Height of the head light, m
64
Length of Valley Curve – HSD
L < SSD
𝑆
𝐿
ℎ1 + 𝑆 tan 𝛼 = 𝑆 − 𝑁 𝛼
PT 𝑆 tan 𝛼
2 ℎ1

ℎ1 = 0.75 m ; 𝛼 = 1° TP 𝑁 ℎ1
𝐿/2 𝐿/2
𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝑺
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵
𝑳 = Total length of valley curve, m
𝑺 = Stopping sight distance, m
𝑵 = Deviation angle
𝒉𝟏 = Height of the head light, m
65
Length of Valley Curve – Comfort
Comfort condition
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, 𝑪
𝑣3 𝑳𝒔 𝑳𝒔 = Length of transition curve, m
𝐿𝑠 = 𝑵
𝐶𝑅 𝑳 = Total length of valley curve, m
𝑺 = Stopping sight distance, m
𝑵 = Deviation angle
𝑁 𝑣3
𝐿 = 2 𝐿𝑠 = 2 𝒉𝟏 = Height of the head light, m
𝐶

Assuming, 𝐶 = 0.6 m/sec3 & 𝒗 (m/sec) to 𝑽 (km/h)

𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 𝑵 𝑽𝟑
66
Length of Valley Curve – Comfort
Comfort condition – IRC 73 (2023) recommendation
Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, 𝑪 = 0.3 m/sec3

Length of vertical curve

• Comfort condition = 0.75 times HSD
• Design as per headlight sight distance only

67
Lowest Point of Valley Curve

𝒏𝟏
𝑿𝟎 = 𝑳
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 Located for
providing cross
drainage facility

68